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Cncpclopaetria Jkttanmca:
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
JllustcateD toitf) neatrlg sir tjunOreti (ffingfatiinp.
VOL. XI.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PEltlTI,
EDINBURGH :
Printed al the Encyclopaedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSO' DONA ft, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; A'T'^i'^0MAS W1LSON
AND SONS, YO
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Encyclopedia Britannica
H Y 1)
Hydrogra. TT Y DROGRAPHICAL Charts or Maps, more
pineal Jfi ufually called fea-charts, are proje&ions of fome
II part of the fea, or coaft, for the ufe of navigation. In
■ 5 r^irie thefe are laid down all the rhumbs or points of the
compafs, the meridians, parallels, &c. with the coafts,
capes, iflands, rocks, (hoals, {hallows, &c. in their pro¬
per places and proportions.
HYDROGRAPHY, the art of meafuring and
deferibing the fea, rivers^ canals, lakes, &c,—With
regard to the fea, it gives an account of its tides,
counter-tides, foundings, bays, gulfs, creeks, &c. j as
alfo of the rocks, {helves, fands, {hallows, promonto¬
ries, harbours ; the diftance and bearing of one port
from another ; with every thing that is remarkable,
whether out at fea or on the coaft.
HYDROLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HYDROMANCY, a method of divination by wa¬
ter, praftifed by the ancients. See Divination, N° 7.
HYDROMEL, honey diluted in nearly an equal
weight of water. When this liquor has not fermented,
it is called Jimple hydromel; and when it has under¬
gone the fpirituous fermentation, it is called the vinous
hydromel or mead.
Honey, like all faccharine fubftances, vegetable or
animal, is fufceptible of fermentation in general, and
particularly of the fpirituous fermentation. To in¬
duce this fermentation, nothing is neceffary but to di¬
lute it fufficiently in water, and to leave this liquor
expofed to a convenient degree of heat. To make
good vinous hydromel or mead, the whiteft, pureft,
and beft tailed honey mull be chofen j and this mull
be put into a kettle with more than its weight of wa¬
ter : a part of this liquor muft be evaporated by boil-
ing, and the liquor feummed, till its confiftence is
fuch that a frefti egg {hall be fupported upon its fur-
face without finking more than half its thicknefs into
the liquor j then the liquor is to be {trained and pour¬
ed through a funnel into a barrel: this barrel, which
ought to be. nearly full, muft be expofed to a heat as
equable as is poflible, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care that the
bung-hole be {lightly covered, but not clofed.
phenomena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear
in this liquor, and will fubfift during two or three
Vol. XI. Part I.
H Y D
months, according to the degree of heat; after which Hydromel
they will diminilh and ceafe. During this fermenta- II
tion, the barrel muft be filled up occafionally with ^11^,
more of the fame kind of liquor of honey, fome of
which ought to be kept apart on purpofe to replace
the liquor vdiich flows out of the barrel in froth.
When the fermentation ceafes, and the liquor has be¬
come very vinous, the barrel is then to be put in a
cellar and well clofed. A year afterwards the mead
will be fit to be put into bottles.
The vinous hydromel or mead is an agreeable kind
of wine : neverthelefs it retains long a tafte of honey,
which is unpleafing to fome perfons; but this tafte it is
faid to lofe entirely by being kept a very long time.
The fpirituous fermentation of honey, as alfo that
of fugar, and of the moft of vinous liquors, when it is
very faccharine, is generally effeffed with more difficul¬
ty, requires more heat, and continues longer, than that
of ordinary wines made from the juice of grapes ; and
thefe vinous liquors always preferve a faccharine tafte,
which {hows that a part only of them is become fpiri¬
tuous.
HYDROMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
gravity, denfity, &c. of water and other fluids. For
an account of different hydrometers, fee Hydrody¬
namics.
HYDROMPHALUS, in Medicine and Surgery,
a tumor in the navel, arifing from a colle&ion of wa¬
ter.
HYDROPHANES, or Oculus Mundi, a kind
Hydro-
phyllum
II
Hygrome
ter.
H Y G [2
plants belonging to tlie pentandria elafs, and intbe na¬
tural method ranking with thofe of which the older is
doubtful. See Botany Index.
HYDROPS, in Medicine, the fame with Dropsy.
HYDROSCOPE, an inftrument anciently ufed for
meafuring time.
The hydrofcope was a kind of water-clock, confid¬
ing of a cylindrical tube, conical at bottom : the cy¬
linder was graduated, or marked out with divifions, to
which the top of the water becoming fucceffively con¬
tiguous, as it trickled out at the vertex of the cone,
pointed out the hour.
HYDROSTATICS, is that branch of phyfics
which treats of the weight, preffure, and equilibrium of
fluids. See Hydrodynamics.
HYDROTHORAX, a colleaion of water in the
bread. See Medicine Index.
HYDRUNTUM, in Ancient Geography, a noble
and commodious port of Calabria, from which there
was a diorter paffage to Apollonia (Pliny). Famous
for its antiquity, and for the fidelity and bravery of its
inhabitants. Now Otranto, a city of Naples, at the
entrance of the gulf of Venice. E. Long. 19. 15. N.
Lat. 40. 12.
HYEM ANTES, in the primitive church, offen¬
ders who had been guilty of fuch enormities, that they
were not allowed to enter the porch of the churches
with the other penitents, but were obliged to dand
without, expofed to all the inclemency of the wea¬
ther.
HYGETA, in Mythology. See Health.
HYGIEINE, Mynm (formed of “ found,
healthy”), that branch of medicine which confiders
health, and difcovers proper means and remedies, with
their ufo, in the prefervation of that date.
The objrdts of this branch of medicine are, the non¬
naturals. See Diet, Exercise, &c.
HYGIEINE, more largely taken, is divided into three
parts •, prophylaflice, which forefees and prevents dii-
eafes; fynteritice, employed in preferving health-, and
analeptice, whofe office is to cure difeafes, and redore
health.
HYGROMETER, an indrument for meafuring
the degrees of drynefs or moidure of the atmofphere,
in like manner as the barometer and thermometer mea-
fure its different degrees of gravity or warmth. .
Though every fubdance which fwells in moid, and
111 rinks in dry weather, is capable of becoming an hy¬
grometer j yet this kind of indrument is far from be¬
ing as yet arrived at fuch a degree of perfeftion as the
barometers and thermometers. There are three gene-
rai g-uiciples on which hygrometers have been con-
Tlygrome- ^uclea. lengthening and diortening of drings
by dsynefs ^v^oidure, or their twiding and untwid-
mg by the fame. - The fwelling and dn inking of
fohd fubdances by mou r d p and, S. By
the mcreafe or decreafe of the • llt 0f pavticular bo¬
dies whofe nature is to abforb theY.m;dit 0£ tiie at.
mofphere.
I On the fird of thefe principles Mr Smeca^ con.
drafted an hygrometer greatly fuperior to any thavV,ad
appeared before and of which the following account
is given in the bad volume of the/Philofophical Tranf-
aftions.
“ Having fome years ago attempted to make an ac-
three kinds.
Smeaton's.
] H Y G
curate and fenfible hygrometer by means of a hempen Hygrome-
cord of a confiderable length, I quickly found, that, ter‘
though it was more than fufficiently fufceptible of eve¬
ry change in the humidity of the atmofphere, yet the
cord was upon the whole in a continual date of length¬
ening. Though this change wTas the greated at fird,
yet it did not appear probable that any given time
would bring it to a certainty ; and furthermore, it
feemed, that as the cord gre\f more determinate in
mean length, the alteration by certain differences of
moidure grew lefs. Now, as on confidering wood,
catgut, paper, &c. there did not appear to be a like¬
lihood of finding any fubdance fufficiently fenfible of
differences of moidure that would be unalterable under
the fame degrees thereofthis led me to confider of a
condrudlion which would readily admit of an adjud-
ment fo that, though the cord whereby the indru¬
ment is aftuated may be variable in itfelf, both as to
abfolute length, and difference of length under given
degrees of moidure, yet that, on fuppofition of a ma¬
terial departure from its original feale, it might be
readily redored thereto j and, in confequence, that any
number of hygrometers, fimilarly conftrufted, might,
like thermometers, be capable of fpeaking the fame
language.
“ The two points of heat the more readily deter¬
minable in a thermometer, are the points of freezing
and boiling water. In like manner, to eondruft hy¬
grometers which ihall be capable of agreement, it is ne-
ceffary to edablith two different degrees of a moidure
which diall be as fixed in themfelves, and to which we
can have recourfe as readily and as often as poffible.
“ One point is given by making the fubdance per-
feftly w-et, which feems fufficiently determinable j the
other is that of perfeft dry, which I do not apprehend
to be attainable with the fame prectfion. A readinefs-
to imbibe wet, fo that the fubdance may be foon and
fully faturated, and alfo a facility of parting with its
moidure on being expofed to the fire to dry, at the
fame time, that neither immerfion, nor a moderate
expofition to the warmth of the fire, (hall injure its
texture, are properties requifite to the fird mover ot
fuch an hygrometer, that in a manner exclude all fub¬
dances that I am acquainted with, befides hempen and^
flaxen threads and cords, or fubdances compounded of
them. 4
“ Upon thefe ideas, in the year 1758, I condrufted
two hygrometers as nearly alike as poffible, in order
that I might have the means of examining their agree¬
ment or difagreement on fimilar or didimilar treatment.
The interval or fcale between dry and wet I divided
into 100 equal parts, which I call the degrees of this
hygrometer. Ihe point of o denotes perfoft diy , and
the numbers increafe with the degrees of moidure to
100, which denotes perfeft wet.
“ On comparing them for fome time, when hung
up together in a paflage or daircafe, where they would
be very little affefted by fire, and where they would
be expofed to as free an air as poffible in the infide of
the houfe, I found that they were generally within one
degree, and very rarely differed two degrees; but as
thefe comparifons necefiarily took up feme time,
w*re frequently interrupted by long avocations from
home, ;t was fome years before I could form a tolerable
judgment of them. One thing I foon obferved, not
altogether
H Y G [3
Hygrome- altogetlier to my liking, which was, that the flaxen
ter* cords made ufe of feemed to make fo much refiftance
to the entry of fmall degrees of moifture (fuch as is
commonly experienced within doors in the fituation
above mentioned), that all the changes were comprifed
within the firft 30° of the fcale; but yet, on expofing
them to the warm fleam of a wafh-houfe, the index
quickly mounted to 100. I was therefore defirous of
impregnating the cords with fomething of a faline na¬
ture, which ftiould difpofe them more forcibly to at-
tra£l moifture j in order that the index might, with the
■ordinary changes of the moiflure in the atmofphere, tra¬
vel over a greater part of the fcale of 100. How to do
this in a regular and fixed quantity, was the fubjeft of
many experiments and feveral years interrupted inquiry.
At laft I tried the one hereafter defcribed, which feemed
to anfwer my intention in a great meafurej and though
upon the whole it does not appear probable that ever
this inftrument will be made capable of fuch an accu¬
rate agreement as the mercurial thermometers are, yet
if we can reduce all the difagreements of an hygrome¬
ter within ^o-th part of the whole fcale, it will pro¬
bably be of ufe in feme philofophical inquiries, in lieu
of inftruments which have not yet been reduced to
any common fcale at all.
Plates “ Fig- 1. and 2. ABC is an orthographic delinea-
cclxxvi. tion of the whole inftrument feen in front in its true
cclxxvii. proportion. DE is that of the profile, or inftru-
fig. 1. and 2. jjjent feen edge wife. FG in both reprefents a flaxen
cord about 35 inches long, fufpended by a turning peg
F, and attached to a loop of brafs wire at A, which
goes down into the box cover H, and defends the in¬
dex, &c. from injury j and by a glafs expofes the fcale
to view.
Jig. 3. “ Fig. 3. ftiows the inftrument to a larger fcale, the
upright part being (hortened, and the box-cover re¬
moved j in which the fame letters reprefent the fame
parts as in the preceding figures; GI are two loops
or long links of brafs wire, which lay hold of the in¬
dex KL, moveable upon a fmall ftud or centre K. The
cord FG is kept moderately ftrained by a weight
M of about half a pound avoirdupois.—It is obvious,
that, as the cord lengthens and ftiortens, the extreme
end of the index rifes and falls, and fucceflively paffes
over N 2 the fcale difpofed in the arch of a circle, and
containing 100 equal divifions. This fcale is attached
to the brafs Aiding ruler OP, which moves upon the
direfling piece RR, fixed by ferews to the board, which
makes the frame or bafe of the whole ; and the fcale
and ruler NQP is retained in any place nearer to or
further from the centre K, as may be required by the
ferew S.
Fig. 4. “ Fig. 4. reprefents in profile the Aiding piece and
ftud I (fig. 3.), which traverfes upon that part of the
index next the centre K 5 and which can, by the two
ferews of the ftud, be retained upon any part of the
index that is made parallel j and which is done for
three or four inches from the centre, for that purpofe.
Ihe ftud is filed to the edges, like the fulcrum of a
leale-beam } one being formed on the under fide, the
other on the upper, and as near as may be to one
another. A hook formed at the lower end of the
wire-loops Cl, retains the index, by the lowermoft
edge of the ftud; while the weight M hangs by a fmall
hook upon the upper edge: by thefe means the index
] H Y G
is kept fteady and the cords ftrained by the weight, Hygrome-.
with very little friflion or burthen upon the central ^
ftud K. v
“ Fig. 5. is a parallelogram of plate-brafs, to keep Fig. 5.
out duft, which is attached to the upper edge of the
box-cover H 5 and ferves to fhut the part of the box-
cover necefl'arily cut away, to give leave for the wire
GI to traverfe with the Hiding ftud nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index K; and where, in
fig. 5. « is a hole of about an inch diameter, for the
wire GI to pafs through in the rifing and falling of the
index freely without touching*, £ is a flit of a leffer
fize, fufficient to pafs the wire, and admit the cover to
come off without deranging the cord or index*, cc are
two fmall ferews applied to two flits, by which the
plate Hides lengthwife, in order to adapt the hole c
to the wire GI, at any place of the ftud I upon the
index KL.
“ I. In this conftruflion, the index KL being 12
inches long, 4 inches from the extreme end are filed fo
narrow in the direflion in which it is feen by the eye,
that any part of thefe four inches lying over the divi¬
fions of the fcale, becomes an index thereto. The fcale
itfelf Aides four inches, fo as to be brought under any
part of the four inches of the index attenuated as above
mentioned. f
“ 2. The pofition of the direfling piece RR is fo
determined as to be parallel to aright line drawn through
O upon the fcale, and the centre K of the index j con-
fequently, as the attenuated part of the index forms a
part of a radius or right line from the fame centre, it
follows, that whenever the index points to o upon the
fcale, though the fcale is moved nearer to or further
from the centre of the index, yet it produces no change
in the place to which the index points.
“ When the divided arch of the fcale is at 10 inches
from the centre (that is, at its mean diftance) ; then
the centre of the arch and the centre of the index are
coincident. At other diftances, the extremes of which
are eight or twelve inches, the centre of the diviftons,
and the centre of the index pointing thereto, not be¬
ing coincident, the index cannot move over the fpaces
geometrically proportionable to one another in all fi-
tuations of the fcale ; yet the whole fcale not exceed-
ing 30° of a circle, it will be found on computation,
that the error can never be lo great as x^oth part of the
fcale, or i° of the hygrometer j which in this inftru¬
ment being confidered as indivifthle, the mechanical
error will not be fenfibie.
“ The cord here made ufe of is flax, and between,
xoth and -/oth of an inch in diameter j which can be
readily afeertained by meafuring a number of turns
made round a pencil or fmall flick. It is a fort of cord
ufed in London for making nets, and is of that par¬
ticular kind called by net-makers Jlaxen three-threads
laid. A competent quantity of this cord was boiled
in one pound avoirdupois of water, in which was put
two pennyweights troy of common lalt; the whole
was reduced by boiling to fix ounces avoirdupois,
which was done in about hall an hour. As this ai'cer-
tains a given ftrength of the brine, on taking out the
cord, it may be luppofed that every fibre of the cord
is equally impregnated with fait. The cord R ing
dried, it will be proper to ftretch it; which may be
done fo as to prevent it from untwifting, by tying
A 2 three
H Y G [ 4 ] H Y G
Hygrome- three or four yards to two nails againft a wall, in an
.. t''1' horizontal portion, and hanging a vieight of a pound
or two to the middle, fo as to make it form an obtufe
angle. This done for a week or more in a room, will
lay the fibres of the cord clofe together, and prevent
its firetching fo faft after being applied to the inilru-
ment as it would otherwife be apt to do.
“ The hygrometer is to be adjufted in the following
manner. The box-cover being taken off to prevent its
being fpoiled by the fire, and choofing a day natu¬
rally dry, fet the inftrument nearly upright, about a
yard from a moderate fire 5 fo that the cord may be¬
come dry, and the inftrument warm, but not fo near
as would fpoil the fineft linen by too much heat, and
yet fully evaporate the moifture 5 there let the inftru¬
ment ftay till the index is got as low as it will go;
now and then ftroaking the cord betwixt the thumb
and finger downwards, in order to lay the fibres there¬
of clofe together 5 and thereby caufing it to lengthen
as much as poflible. When the index is thus become
flationary, which will generally happen in about an
hour, more or lefs as the air is naturally more or lefs
dry, by means of the peg at top raife or deprefs the
index, till it lies over the point 0. This done, remove
the inftrument from the fire •, and having ready fome
warm water in a tea-cup, take a middling camel’s hair
pencil, and dipping it in the water, gently anoint the
cord till it will drink up no more, and till the index
becomes ftationary and water will have no more effeft
upon it, which will alfo generally happen in about an
hour. If in this ftate the index lies over the degree
marked 100, all is right: if not, flack the fcrew S,
and Hide the fcale nearer to or further from the centre,
till the point ico comes under the index, and then the
inftrument is adjufted for ufe : but if the compafs of
the flide is not fufficient to effeft this, as may proba¬
bly happen on the firft adjuftment, flack the proper
fcrews, and move the Aiding ftud I nearer to or fur-
* ther from the centre of the index, according as the
angle formed by the index between the two points of
dry or wet happens to be too fmail or too large for
the fcale.”
Coventry’s. On this principle, a fimple hygrometer has been
made by Mr Coventry of Southwark, London. It is
not upon the mofl accurate conftruflion, yet will aft
Fig, 6. very fenfibly in the common changes of the air. Fig. 6.
reprefents the hygrometer as applied to a wall or board.
A is a firing of whip-cord, catgut, &c. of any length
at pleafure : it is fufpended on a bracket B, and kept
extended by a weight at the bottom C. DD is a flip
of wood, which with the bracket is fixed perpendicu¬
larly to a wall or fide of a room. It has a ftraight
Ime E drawn down in the middle of the board, fer-
ving to point out the divifions upon the edges of the
two thin circular cards F and G. At the centre of
the bottom of each of thefe cards is glued a piece of
cork, through which the firing A is drawn : Thefe
cork pieces ferve to preferve the horizontal pofition of
the cards. Xhe upper card F is divided into 10 equal
parts or divifions, and the under card G into 100 equal
parts ; the firing A being meafured into 10 equal
parts, from the point of fuipenfion H to the furface
of the lower card I. The card F is hung at the firft
part, from H, and the card G at the loth part from
the fame point; confequently, from the twilling and
3
untwifting of the firing A by the different changes of Hygrome-
the air, the lower card G, from the mechanical prin- ter-
ciples of motion, will defcribe 10 revolutions for one
of the upper card F ; or when the lower card G has
made one revolution, the upper card F will have de-
fcribed but the 10th part, or one of its divifions.
From whence it appears, that by the affiftance of the
upper card F, an index is thereby obtained of the num¬
ber of revolutions the lower card G performs, which
are reckoned by the line E on the flip of wood.
Example. It mull firft: be obferved what divifion of
the card F the line is againfl, fuppofe 3 ; and alfo
what divifion of the lower card G is cut by the fame
line, fuppofe 10 : it then appears, that the Hate of the
hygrometer is thus, 3 degrees and 10 hundredths of
another. If the whole 10 divifions of the card have
paired the line E, the lower card G will have revolved
10 times, or xo hundred parts, equal to 10005 the ac¬
curacy to which the principle of this firnple contrivance
anfwers. Before ufe, the hygrometer fhould be adjuft¬
ed , to do which, the cards F and G are firft fet to the
line E at the o of each, or commencement of the gradua¬
tions : whatever direction the cards afterwards take, it
muft evidently be from the change to greater moifture
or drynefs in the air $ and they will accordingly point
it out.
On this principle, but with a degree of ingenuity Saufllire’s.
and pains perhaps never before employed, an hygrome¬
ter has been conftru£led by M. de Sauflure, profeflor
of pbilofophy at Geneva. In his Ejfais fur PHygro-
metrie, in 410, 1783, is an important detail on the fub-
je£l of hi/grometry; from which the follow ing defcrip-
tion of his hygrometer is taken. The author found by
repeated experiments, that the difference between the
greatefl extenfion and contradlion of a hair, properly
prepared, and having a weight of about three grains fuf¬
pended to it, is nearly of its whole length 5 that is,
34, or 3t lines in a foot. This circumftance fuggefled
the idea of a new' hygrometer : and, in order to render
thofe fmail variations perceptible and ufeful, the fol¬
lowing apparatus was conftrufled.
Fig. 7. is a reprefentation of the whole inftrument,Fig. 7.
with the hair and other appendages complete. The
lower extremity of the hair a b is held by the chaps
of the fcrew pincers b. Thefe pincers are reprefented
afide at B : by a ferew at its end, it faftens into the nut
of the bottom plate C. This nut of the plate turns in¬
dependently of the piece that fupports it, and ferves to
raife or deprefs the pincers B at pleafure.
The upper extremity a of the hair is held by the
under chaps of the double pincers a, reprefented afide
at A. Thefe pincers faften the hair below, and above
fallen a very fine narrow flip of filver, carefully an¬
nealed, which rolls round the arbor or cylinder d, a fe»
parate figure of which is fhown at DF. This "arbor,
which carries the needle or index ee, or E in the fepa-
rate figure, is cut into the fhape of a fcrew ; and the
intervals of the threads of this fcrew have their bafes
flat, and are cut fquarely fo as to receive the flip of
filver that is faftened to the pincers a, and joined in this
manner with the hair. M. Sauflure obferves, that hair
alone fixed immediately to the arbor wmuld not do j for it
curled upon it, and acquired a fliflfnefs that the counter-
poife was not able to furmount. The arbor was cut in
a fcrew form, in order that the flip of filver in wind-
H Y G [
ITvgrome- jng upon it (hould not increafe the diameter of the
ter’ arbor, and never take a fituation too oblique and vari-
able. The flip is fixed to the arbor by a fmall pin F.
The other extremity of the arbor D is ftiaped like a
pulley, flat at the bottom fo as to receive a fine fupple
filken flring, to which is fufpended the counterpoife
in the large figure, and G in the fide one. This
counterpoife is applied to diftend the hair j and a£ts in
a contrary direftion to that of the hair, and the move-
able pincers to which the hair is fixed. If then the
hair fhould be loaded with the weight of four grains,
the counterpoife muft weigh four grains more than the
pincers. The arbor at one end paifes through the cen¬
tre of the dial, and turns therein, in a very fine hole,
on a pivot made very cylindrical and well polifhed : at
the other end is alfo a fimilar pivot, which turns in a
hole made in the end of the arm h of the cock h z,
HI. This cock is fixed behind the dial by means of
the fcrevv I.
The dial heel, divided into 360 degrees, is fupport-
ed by two arms / /; thefe are foldered to two tubes,
which inclofe the cylindrical columns m m m m. The
fetting fcrews n n move upon thefe tubes, and ferve
thereby to fix the dial and arbor to any height requi¬
red. The two columns which fupport the dial are
firmly faftened to the cafe of the hygrometer, which
reft upon the four fcrews 0000; by the aftiftance of
thefe fcrews, the inftrument is adjufted, and placed in
a vertical fituation.
The fquare column />/>, which refts upon the bafe of
the hygrometer, carries a box q, to which is fixed a
kind of port-crayon r, the aperture of which is equal
to the diameter of the counterpoife g. When the hy¬
grometer is to be moved from one place to another j to
prevent a derangement of the inftruments from the of-
cillations of the counterpoife, the box q and the port¬
crayon r muft be raifed up fo as the counterpoife may
fall into and be fixed in it, by tightening the fcrew s
and the box and counterpoife together by the fcrew t.
When the hygrometer is intended for ufe, the coun¬
terpoife muft be difengaged by lowering the box, as
may be conceived from the figure.
Laftly, at the top of the inftrument is a curved piece
of metal x, y, %, which is faftened to the three columns
juft defcribed and keeps them together. It has a
fquare hole at y, which ferves to hang up the hygrome¬
ter by when required.
The variations of which this hygrometer is capable,
are (all things befides equal) as much greater as the
arbor round which the flip of filver winds is than a
finaller diameter, and as the inftrument is capable of
receiving a longer hair. M. Sauflure has had hygro¬
meters made with hairs 14 inches long, but he finds
one foot fufficient. The arbor is three-fourths of a
line in diameter at the bafe between the threads of
the.fcrew or the part on which the flip winds. The
variations, when a hair properly prepared is applied to
.rnore ^an an entire circumference, the index,
defcribing about 400 degrees in moving from extreme
drynefs to extreme humidity. M. Sauflure mentions
an inconvenience attending this hygrometer, viz. its
not returning to the fame point when moved from one
place to another} becaufe the weight of three grains
that keeps the filver flip extended, cannot play f) e*-
aflly as to a£t always with the fame precifion again/! the
5 ] h Y G
arbor round which it winds. But this weight cannot Hygrome*
be fenfibly increafed without ilill greater inconvenien- . l^r'
ces : he therefore obferves, that this hygrometer is well
calculated for a fixed fituation in an obfervatory, and
for various hygrometrical experiments ; fince, inftead
of the hair, there may be fubftituted any other fub-
ftance of which a trial may be wanted ; and it may be
kept extended by a counterpoife more or lefs heavy as
they may require : but the inftrument will not admit
of being moved, nor ferve even for experiments which
may fubjedt it to agitation.
To obviate the obje£lion above mentioned, M. Sauf- Portable
fure has contrived another apparatus more portable
and convenient, and which, if not fo extenfive in its va‘SaUfl'ure.'
riations, is in fa£t very firm, and not in the leaft liable
to be deranged by carriage and agitation. Fig. 8. is a Fig. S.
reprefentation of this hygrometer, which he calls the
portable hygrometer, in diftinflion from the preceding,
which he calls the great hygrometer or the hygrometer
with the arbor. The material part of this inftrument
is its index ab ce; an horizontal view of which, and
the arm that carries it, is feen in the feparate figure
GBDEF. This index carries in its centre D a thin
tube hollow throughout, and proje&s out on each fide
of the needle. The axis which pafl'es through it, and
round which the index turns, is made thin in the
middle of its length and thick at the ends ; fo that
the cylindrical tube which it pafies through touches it
only at two points, and a61s upon it only at its extre¬
mities.
The part z/z1 DE of the index ferves to point out'
and mark on the dial the degrees of moifture and dry¬
nefs } the oppofite part fib DB ferves to fix both the
hair and counterpoife. This part which terminates in
a portion of a circle, and is about a line in thicknefs,
is cut on its edge in a double vertical groove, which
makes this part fimilar to the fegment of a pulley with
a double neck. Thefe two grooves, which are portions .
of a circle of two lines radius, and have the fame cen¬
tre wdth that of the index d, ferve in one of them to
contain the hair, and in the other the filk, to the end of
which the counterpoife is fufpended. The fame index
carries vertically above and below its centre two final!
fcrew-pincers, fituated oppofite to the two grooves : that
above at a, oppofite to the hindmoft groove, ferves to
fix to the filk to which the counterpoife is fufpended j
and that below at b, oppofite to the hithermoft groove,
ferves to hold one of the ends of the hair. Each of
thefe grooves has its partitions cut, as feen in the fec-
tion B, and its bottom made flat in order that the hair
and filk may have the greateft freedom poflible. The
axis of the needle DD goes through the arm ^/GF,
and it is fixed to this arm by the tightening fcrew^/’F.
All the parts of the index fliould be in perfeft equili¬
brium about its centre ; fo that when it is_on its pivot
without the counterpoife, it will re# indifferently in
any pofition it may be placed in-
It muft be underftood. that when the hair [is fixed
by one of its extremities in the pincers e, and by the
other end on the pincers y at the top of the inftrument,
it paffes hi one of. the necks of the double pulley
b, whiilt the counterpoife to which the filk is fixed in a
pa/Tes in the other neck of the fame pulley : the coun¬
terpoife ferves to keep the hair extended, and afts al¬
ways in the fame direction and with the fame force,
whatever.
H Y G [
Hygroma- wHatever the fituation of the index may be. When
, ter' therefore the drynefs contrads the hair, it overpowers
the gravity of the counterpoife, and the index defcends :
when, on the contrary, the humidity relaxes the hair,
it gives way to the counterpoife, and the index afcends.
The counterpoife ihould weigh but three grains j fo
that the index fliould be made very light and very eafy
in its motion, in order that the le-aft poflible force may
move it and bring it back again to its point when
drawn afide.
The dial h e h is a circular arch, the centre of which
is the fame with that of the index. This arch is di¬
vided into degrees of the fame circle, or into the hun¬
dredths of the interval which is found between the li¬
mits of extreme drynefs and extreme humidity. The
interior edge of the dial carries at the diftance hi i a
kind of proje&ing bridle or ftay zV, made of brafs wire,
curved to the arch, and fixed in the points ii. This
bridle retains and guards the index, at the fame time
leaving it to play with the requifite freedom. The
fcrew-pincers y, in which is faflened the upper extre¬
mity of the hair, is carried by a moveable arm, which
afcends and defcends at pleafure the length of the frame
KK. This frame is cylindrical everywhere elfe, ex¬
cept its being here flattened at the hinder part to
about half its thicknefs, in order that the piece with
the fcrew which carries the arm fhould not projedl out
underneath, and that the arm may not turn. The
arm may be flopped at any defired height by means of
the prefling fcrew x. But as it is of ufe fometimes to
be able to give the inftrument a very fmall and accurate
motion, fo as to bring the index exactly to the part that
may be wanted, the Aide piece /, which carries the
pincers y, to which the hair is fixed, is to be moved by
the adjufling fcrew m.
At the bale of the inftrument is a great lever n op q,
which ferves to fix the index and its counterpoife when
the hygrometer is to be moved. The lever turns an
axis /z, terminated by a fcrew which goes into the
frame 5 in tightening this fcrew, the lever is fixed in
the delired pofition. When the motion of the index
is to be flopped, the intended pofition is given to this
lever, as reprefented in the dotted lines of the figure.
The long neck p of the lever lays hold of the double
pulley h of the index, and the ftiort neck 0 of the coun¬
terpoife : the tightening fcrew q fattens the two necks
at once. In confining the index, it muft be fo placed,
that the hair be very flack ; fo that, if whilfl it is
moved the hair fhould get dry, it may have room to
contract itfelf. Afterwards, when the inftrument is
placed for ufe, the firft thing to be done is to relax
the fcrew and turn back the .double lever with great
catwlon, taking equal care at the fame time not to
ftram the hair. It is better to apply one hand to the
index near its centre, whilfl the other hand is difenga-
ging the pulley and tfie counterpoife from the lever
that holds them fteady. Tht hook r ferves to fufpend
a thermometer upon ; it fliouU be a mercurial one,
with a very fmall naked bulb or ban, fo as to fliow in the
moft fenlibie manner the changes of the air : it fhould
be mounted in metal, and guarded in fuch a mruiner ag
not to vibrate fo as to break the hair. Lafxly a notch
is made under the top of the frame .r, to mark the point
of fufpenfion, about which the inftrument is in equili¬
brium, and keeps a vertical fttuation.
6 ]
H Y G
All the inftrument fliould be made of brafs : though Hygrome .
the axis of the index and its tube work more pleafantly ter-
together if made of bell-metal.
The extent of this hygrometer’s variations is not
more than the fourth or fifth part of the hygrometer
with the arbor. It may be augmented by making the
fegment of the pulley to which the hair is fixed of a
fmaller diameter •, but then the hair, in moving about
it, would fret and contracl a ftifthefs, which would caufe
it to adhere to the bottom of the neck. M. Sauflure
is of opinion, that the radius of this pulley Ihould not
be lefs than two lines, at leaft that there Ihould be
adapted a plate of filver or fome other contrivance j
but then the hygrometer would be too difficult to con-
ftruft, and it would require too much attention and
care on the part of thofe who ufe it : his objeft was,
to make an inftrument generally ufeful, and eafy and
convenient in its ufe. The hygrometer with the arbor
may be ufed for obfervations which require an extreme
fenfibility.
The variations of this inftrument may be augment¬
ed by making it higher, becaufe in that cafe longer hairs
might be adapted : but it would be then lefs portable.
Befides, if the hair is too long, when obfervations are
made in the open air, the wind has too great an effedt
upon it, and thus communicates to the index in¬
convenient vibrations. It is not proper therefore to
make it more than a foot in height. When it is of
this dimenfion, an hair properly prepared can be ap¬
plied to it, and its variations from extreme drynefs to
extreme humidity are 80 or even 100 degrees j which
on a circle of 3 inches radius forms an extent fufficient
for obfervations of this kind. M. Sauffure has even
made fmaller inftruments that may be carried conve¬
niently in the pocket, and to make experiments with
under fmall receivers : they were but feven inches high
by two inches of breadth \ which, notwithftanding their
variations, were very fenfible.
Thus much for the conftruftion of the various parts
of the inftrument. The limits of this work will not
admit of our inferting the whole of M. Sauffure’s fub-
fequent account of the preparation of the hair, the man¬
ner of determining the limits of extreme humidity and
of extreme drynefs, the pyrometrical variations of the
hair, and the graduation of the hygrometer. The fol¬
lowing extraft muft therefore fuffice.
In the preparation of the hair, it was found ne-
ceflary to free it of a certain undluofity it always
has in its natural ftate, w'hich in a great meafure de¬
prives it of its hygrometrical fenfibility. A number
of hairs are boiled in a ley of vegetable alkali 5 and
among thefe are to be chofen for ufe fuch as are
moft tranfparent, bright, and foft; particular pre¬
cautions are neceffary for preventing the {training of
the hair, which renders it unfit for the intended pur-
pofe.
The two fixed points of the hygrometer are the ex¬
tremes both of moifture and drynefs. The former is
obtained by expofing the inftrument to air completely
faturated with water j and this is effected by placing
it in a glafs receiver l anding in water, the fides of
which are kept continually moiftened. The point on
the dial, at which the hand after a certain interval re-
ma'm3 ftationary, is marked 100. The point cf ex¬
treme drynefs, not abfolute drynefs, for that does not
exift,
H Y G [
jlygrome- cxirt, but the greateft degree of it that can be obtain-
ter’ ed, is produced by introducing repeatedly into the fame
receiver containing the inftrument, and ftanding now
upon quickfilver, certain quantities of deliquefcent al¬
kaline falls, which abforb the moifture of the air. The
highefl: point to which the hand can be brought by
this operation, not only when it will rile no higher,
but when it becomes retrograde from the dilatation
occafioned by heat, is called o j and the arch between
tbefe two points is divided into IOO equal parts, being
degrees of the hygrometer. The arch />/>, upon which
the fcale is marked in the inftrument (reprefented in
fig. 2.) being part of a circle of three inches diameter ;
hence every degree meafures about one-third of a line.
In the ftationary hygrometer, fig. I. the fcale upon the
complete circular dial is fo much larger, that every
degree meafures about five lines ; but this M. Saulfure
confiders fo far from being a peifeiftion, that it is ra¬
ther an inconvenience 5 fince the inftrument becomes
thereby fo very fufceptible of the leaft impreffion, that
there is even no approaching it without a fenfible
variation. The thermometer, adapted as before men¬
tioned, ferves to correct the changes of tempera¬
ture : towards the extreme of drynefs, i° of the thermo¬
meter produces on the hair an effect of half a degree of
the hygrometer, but towards the extreme of moift ure, the
fame difference of temperature caufes an effect no lefs
than 30 on the hygrometer. He conftrufted two
tables, that gave the intermediate hygrometrical varia¬
tions for fingle degrees of the thermometer at different
parts of the fcale.
The whole range of the atmofpherical variations
takes in about 750 of this fcale 5 a drynefs of more
than 250 being always the effedt of art. The fenfibi-
lity of this inftrument is lo very great, that being ex-
pofed to the dew, he mentions that it varies above 40°
in about 20 minutes of time. Being removed from a
very moift into a very dry air, it varied in one inftance
no lefs than 350 in three minutes. He fays that
its variations were always found uniform in different
inftruments fufpended in different parts of the fame at-
mofphere. This hygrometer is confidered by the au¬
thor as poffeffed of ail the properties requifite in fuch
an inftrument. Thefe are, 1. That the degrees in the
fcale be fufficientlv large, and to point out even the
leaft variation in the drynefs or moifture of the at-
tnofphere. 2. That it be quick in its indications.
3. Ihatitbe at all times confident with itfelf; viz.
that in the fame ftate of the hair it always points to
the fame degree. 4. That feveral of them agree with
one another. 3. That it be a defied only by the aque¬
ous vapours. 6. That its variations be ever propor¬
tionate to the changes in the air.
But after all it muft be obierved, that a connderable
degree of trouble and delicacy is requifite in the pre¬
paration of the hair, and it is very fragile •, circum-
llances which may prevent it from coming into general
ufe among common obfervers, although probably it may
be tne beft in principle of any yet made.
Inftead of hairs or cat-gut, of which hygrometers
of the firft kind are commonly made, Caffebois, a Be¬
nedictine monk at Mentz, propofed to make fuch hy¬
grometers of the gut of a filk-vorm. When that in-
lefl is ready to fpin, there are found in it two veffels
proceeding from the head to the ft ora a cb, to which
2
] H Y G
they adhere, and then bend towards the back, where Hygrome-
they form a great many folds. The part of thefe vef-, t'r'
fels next the ftomach is of a cylindric form, and about
a line in diameter. Thefe veffels contain a gummy fort
of matter from which the worm fpins its filk } and,
though they are exceedingly tender, means have been
devifed to extraff them from the infefl, and to prepare
them for the above purpofe. When the worm is
about to fpin, it is thrown into vinegar, and fuffered to
remain there twenty-four hours ; during which time
the vinegar is abforbed into the body of the infedl, and
coagulates its juices. The worm being then opened,
both the veffels,which have now acquired ftrength, are
extrafted ; and, on account of their pliability, are ca¬
pable of confiderable extenfton. That they may not,
however, become too weak, they are ftretched only lo
the length of about fifteen or twenty inches. It is
obvious that they muft be kept fuffieiently extended
till they are completely dry. Before they attain to
that ftate, they muft be freed, by means of the nail of
the finger, from a (limy iubftance which adheres to
them. Such a thread will fuftain a weight of fix pounds
without breaking, and may be ufed for an hygrometer
in the fame manner as eat-gut •, but we confeis that we
do not clearly perceive its Superiority.
II. On the fecond general principle, namely, that ofDe Luc’s*
the fwelling of folid bodies by moifture, and their con-
tra&ion by drynefs, M. de Luc’s inftrument is the beft.
He makes choice of ivory for the conftrudtion of bis
hygrometer, becaufe he finds that, being once wetted,
ivory regularly fwells by moifture, and returns exactly
to the fame dimenfions when the moifture is evapora¬
ted, which other bodies do not. This hygrometer is
reprefented in fig. 9. where a a i> is an ivory tube open Fig. c>r
at the end a 4, and clofe at b. It is made of a piece of
ivory taken at the diftance of fome inches from the top
of a pretty large elephant’s tooth, and likewife at the
fame diftance from its furface and from the canal
which reaches to that point. (This particular direc¬
tion is given, that the texture of the ivory in all dif¬
ferent hygrometers may be the fame, which is of great
importance). This piece is to be bored exactly in the
direftion of its fibres ; the hole muft be very ftraight,
its dimenfions 2^ lines in diameter, and 2 inches 8 lines
in depth from a a lo c. Its boffe is then to be exa&ly
filled with a brafs cylinder, which, however, muft pro¬
ject fomewhat beyond the ivory tube ; and thus it is to
be turned on a proper machine, till the thicknefs off
the ivory is exactly T<r of a line, except at the two
extremities. At the bottom b the tube ends in a point ^
and at the top a a it muft for about two lines be left a
little thicker, to enable it to bear the preffure of ano¬
ther piece put upon it. Thus the thin or hygrometri¬
cal part of the tube will be reduced to 2i French,
inches, including the concavity of the bottom. Before
this piece is ufed, it muft be put into water, fo that
the external part alone may be wetted by it ; and here
it is to remain till the water penetrates to the infide,
and appears in the form of dew, which will happen
in a few hours. The reafon of this is, that the ivory
tube remains fcmewhat larger ever after it is wetted
the firft time.
For this hygrometer, a glafs tube muft be provided
about 14 inches long, the lower end of which is fhown
in ddee. Its internal diameter is about of a line.
If
ter.
H Y G [8
Hygrome- Jf now the ivory tube is exactly filled with mercury,
and the glafs one affixed to it, as the capacity of the
former decreafes by being dried, the mercury will be
forced up into the glafs one.
The piece ffgg is intended to join the ivory with
the glafs tube. It is of brafs, ffiaped as in the figure.
A cyclindrical hole is bored through it, which holds
the glafs tube as tight as poffible without danger of
breaking it; and its lower part is to enter with fome
degree of difficulty into the ivory pipe. To hinder
that part of the tube which inclofes the brafs piece
from being affefted by the variations of the moifture,
it is covered with a brafs verrel reprefented in h h it.
The pieces mult be united together with gum-lac or
maftich.
The introduction of the mercury is the next opera¬
tion. For this purpofe, a flip of paper three inches
wide is firlt to be rolled over the glafs tube, and tied
fait to the extremity nearelt the ivory pipe. A horfe-
hair is then to be introduced into the tube, long enough
to enter the ivory pipe by an inch, and to reach three
or four inches beyond the extremity of the glafs one.
The paper which has been ffiaped round the tube mult
now be raifed, and ufed as a funnel to pour the mer¬
cury into the inltrument, which is held upright. The
purelt quickfilver is to be ufed for this purpofe, and it
will therefore be proper to ufe that revived from cinna¬
bar. It eafily runs into the tube 5 and the air efcapes
by means of the horfe-hair, affitted with fome gentle
ffiakes. Freffi mercury mult from time to time be
fupplied, to prevent the mercurial tube from being to¬
tally emptied ; in which cafe, the mercurial pellicle
which always forms by the contaCt of the air, would
run in along with it.
Some air-bubbles generally remain in the tube ;
they may be feen through the ivory pipe, which is thin
enough to have fome tranfparency. Thefe being col¬
lected together- by Ihaking, mult be brought to the
top of the tube, and expelled by means of the horfe-
hair. To facilitate this operation, fome part of the
mercury mult be taken out of the tube, in order that
the air may be lefs obltruCted in getting out, and the
horfe-hair have a free motion to affilt it. Air, how¬
ever, cannot be entirely driven out in this manner. It
is the weight of the mercury with which the tube is
for that reafon to be filled, which in time completes
its expulfion, by making it pafs through the pores of
the ivory. To haften this, the hygrometers are put
Into a proper box. This is fixed nearly in a vertical
direClion to the faddle of a horfe, which is fet a trot¬
ting for a few hours. The ffiakes fometimes divide
the column of mercury in the glafs tube, but it is eafily
re-united with the horfe-hair. When upon ffiaking the
hygrometer vertically, no fmall tremulous motion is
any longer perceived in the upper part of the column,
one may be fure that all the air is gone out.
The fcale of this hygrometer may be adjufied, as
foon as the air is gone out, in the following manner.
The inftrument is to be fufpended in a veffel of water
cooled with ice, freffi quantities of which are to be add¬
ed as the former melts. Here it is to remain till it
has funk as low as it will fink by the enlargement of
the capacity of the ivory tube, owing to the moifture
it has imbibed. This ufually happens in feven or eight
hours, and is to be carefully noted. In two or three
Hygrome¬
ter.
] H Y G
hours the mercury begins to afeend, becaufe the moi¬
fture pafles into the cavity, and forces it up. The
loweft ftation of the mercury is then to be marked o j
and for the more accurate marking the degrees on the
fcale, M. de Luc always chofe to have his hygrome-
trical tube made of one which had formerly belonged
to a thermometer. The reafon of this is, that in the
thermometer the expanfion of the mercury by heat had
been already determined. The diftance between the
thermometrical points of melting ice and boiling water
at 27 French inches of the barometer was found to be
1937 parts. The bulb of this preparatory thermome¬
ter wras broke in a bafon, in order to receive carefully
all the mercury that it contained. This being weighed
in nice feales amounted to 1428 grains. The hygro¬
meter contained 460 grains of the fame mercury. Now
it is plain, that the extent of the degrees on the hygro¬
meter, ought to be to that of the degrees on the pre¬
paratory thermometer as the different weights of the
mercury contained in each j confequently 1428 : 460 :
1937 : 624 nearly; and therefore the correfponding in¬
tervals ought to follow the fame proportion : and thus
the length of a fcale was obtained, which might be di¬
vided into as many parts as he pleafed.
Fig. 10. is a reprefentation of De Luc’s hygrome-Fig. 1
ter when fully conftrufted. In elegance it far exceeds
Smeaton’s or any other, and probably alfo in accuracy ;
for by means of a fmall thermometer fixed on the board
along with it, the expanfion of the mercury by heat
may be known with great accuracy, and of confequence
how much of the height of the mercury in the hygro¬
meter is owing to that caufe, and how much to the
mere moifture of the atmofphere.
M. de Luc having continued his inquiries further in¬
to the modifications of the atmofphere, mentions in his
Idee fur la Meteorologie another hygrometer, which he
finds to be the beft adapted to the meafure of local hu¬
midity. Of all the hygrofcopic fubftanoes which he
tried for this purpofe, that which anfwers the beft is a
flip of whalebone cut tranfverfely to the direftion of
the fibres, and made extremely thin ; for on this de¬
pends its fenfibility. A flip of 1 2 inches in length and
a line in breadth, he has made fo thin as to weigh only
half a grain j and it may be made ftill thinner, but is
then of too great fenfibility, being affefted even by the
approach of the obferver. This flip is kept extended
by a fmall fpring, and the variations in its length are
meafured by a vernier divifion, or by, which is perhaps
better, an index on a dial plate : the whole variation
from extreme drynefs to extreme moifture is about |- of
its length.
In thefe hygrometers, which are made by the inftru-
ment-makers in London, the flip of whalebone is mount¬
ed in a frame very fimilar to that belonging to M.
Sauffure’s hygrometer before deferibed (fee fig. 7.).
The only material difference is, that a fmall concentric
wire fpring is ufed, inftead of a counterpoife, to keep
the flip ©f whalebone extended. M. Sauffure had tried
fuch a fpring applied to his hairs ; but the weakeft
fpring he found too ftrong for the hair ; and he was
further apprehenfive, that the variations which the
cold, heat, and the weather infallibly make, would fuf-
fer from the force of the fprings.
M. de Luc, in the hygrometers he formerly made, as
before deferibed (made of ivory), had graduated them
from
H Y G [ 9 ] H Y G
Hygrome- from one fixed point only, that of extreme moijiure,
te^ which is obtained by foaking them in water. He has
now very ingenioufiy contrived to fix the other ex¬
treme, that of drynefs : but this being producible only
by means of ftrong fires, fuch as hygrometers cannot
fupport, he ufes an intermediate body, quicklime j
which after having been deprived, by force of fire,
of all its own humidity, has the property of flowly
imbibing humidity agmn from the bodies in its neigh¬
bourhood j and whofe capacity is fuch that all the
vapour that can be contained in a quantity of air equal
to its own bulk, can give it no fenfible humidity. Thefe
hygrometers, incloied with a large quantity of freth
burnt lime in lump-., acquire in three weeks the fame
degree of drynefs with the lime, which cannot differ
fenfibly from extreme drynefs.
M. de Sauffute makes choice of hairs, prepared by
maceration in alkalin*-lye. M. de Luc (hows that hairs,
and all other animal or vegetable fubfiances, taken
/engthwife, or in the diredlion of their fibres, undergo
contrary changes from different variations of humidity ;
that, when immerfed in water, they lengthen at firft,
and afterwards (horten ; tha* when they are near the
greateft degree of humidity, if the moifture is increafed,
they fhorten themfelves $ if it is diminiftied, they
lengthen themfelves firft before they contract again.
Thefe irregularities, which obvioufly render them in¬
capable of being true meafures of humidity, he flrows
to be the neceffary confequence of their organic reticu¬
lar ftrufture.
M. de Sauffure takes his point of extreme moifture
from the vapours of water under a glafs bell, keeping
the fides of the bell continually moiftened : and af¬
firms, that the humidity is there conftantly the fame
in all temperatures ; the vapours even of bniling water
having no more effect than thofe of cold. M. de
Luc ftiows, on the contrary, that the differences of
humidity under the bell are very great, though M.
Sauffure’s hygrometer was incapable of difcovering
them ; and that the real undecompofed vapour of boil¬
ing water has the diredftly oppofite effeft to that of
cold, the effeft of extreme drynefs : and on this point he
mentions an interefting fadt, communicated to him
by Mr Watt, viz. that wood cannot be employed in
the fteam engine for any of thofe parts where the va¬
pour of the boiling water is confined, becaufe it dries
fo as to crack, juft as if expofed to the fire. In M. de
Luc’s work above mentioned there are fttiking inftances
related, in which the imperfection of M. Sauffure’s
hygrometer led him into falfe conclufions refpedting
phenomena, and into erroneous theories to account
for them.
III. On the third principle, namely, the alteration of
the weight of certain fubftances by their attracting the
moifture of the air, few attempts have been made, nor
do they feem to have been attended with much fuccefs.
Sponges dipped in a folution of alkaline falts, and
leme kinds of paper, have been tried. Thefe are fuf-
pended to one end of a very accurate balance, and .
counterpoifed by weights at the other, and (how the
degrees of moifture or drynefs by the afcent or defeent
of one of the ends. But, befides that fuch kinds of
hygrometers are deftitute of any fixed point from
whence to begin their fcale, they have another incon¬
venience (from which indeed Smeaton’s is not free, and
Vol. XI. Part I.
which has been found to render it erroneous), namely, Hygroaie*
that all faline fubfiances are deftroyed by long conti- ter‘
nued expofure to the air in very fmall quantities, and
therefore can only imbibe the moifture for a certain
time. Sulphuric acid has therefore been recommended
in preference to the alkaline or neutral falts, and, in¬
deed, for fuch as do not choofe to be at the trouble of
conftruCting a hygrometer on the principles of Mr
Smeaton or De Luc, this will probably be found the
moft eafy and accurate. Fig. ti. reprefents an hvgro-Fig-
meter of this kind. A is a fmall glafs cup containing
a fmall quantity of oil of vitriol, B an index counter-
poifing it, and C the fcale j where it is plain, that as
the oil of vitriol attraCls the moifture of the air, the
fcale will defcend, which will raife the index, and vice
verfa. This liquor is exceedingly fenfible of the in-
creafe or decreafe of moifture. A fingle grain, after
its full increafe, has varied its equilibrium fo fenfibly,
that the tongue of a balance, only an inch and a half
long, has defcribed an arch one-third of an inch in
compafs (which arch would have been almoft three
inches if the tongue had been one foot), even with fo
fmall a quantity of liquor *, confequently, if more li¬
quor, expanded under a large furface, were ufed, a
pair of fcales might afford as nice an hygrometer as
any kind yet invented. A great inconvenience, how¬
ever, is, that as the air muft have full accefs to the
liquid, it is impoflible to keep out the dull, which, by
continually adding its weight, muft render the hygro¬
meter falfe ; add to this, that even oil of vitriol itfelf
is by time deftroyed, and changes its nature, if a fmall
quantity of it is continually expofed to the air.
The beft hygrometer upon this principle, and for
afcertaining the quantity as well as the degree of
raoifture in the variation of the hygrometer, is of the
contrivance of Mr Coventry, Southwark, London.
The account he has favoured us with is as follows.
“ Take two Iheets of fine t .ffue paper, fuch as is ufed by
hatters j dry them carefully at about two feet diftance
from a tolerably good fire, till after repeatedly weigh¬
ing them in a good pair of fcales no moifture remains.
When the (beets are in this perfecfly dry ftate, reduce
them to exa<5lly 50 grains 5 the hygrometer is then fit
for ufe. The {beets muft be kept free from dull, and
expofed a few minutes in the open air ; after which it
may be always known by weighing them the exa£l
quantity of moifture they have imbibed.
“ For many years the hygrometer has (fays Mr Co¬
ventry) engroffed a confiderable (hare of my attention j
and every advantage propofed by others, either as it
refpefted the fubftances of which the inftrument was
compofed, or the manner in which its operations were
to be difcerned, has been impartially examined. But
(adds he) I have never feen an hygrometer fo fimple
in itfelf, or that would aft with fuch certainty or fe
equally alike, as the one I have now' defcribed. The
materials of which it is compofed being thin, are
eafily deprived wholly of their moifture ; which is a
circumftance effentially neceffary in fixing a datum
from which to reckon, and which, I think, cannot be
faid of any fubfiance hitherto employed in the con-
ftruftion of hygrometers ; with equal facility they im¬
bibe or impart the humidity of* the atmofphere, and
fhovr with the greateft exaftnefs when the leaft alte¬
ration takes place.”
B
Whet!.
H Y G [ i
Hydrome¬
ter.
When the paper is prepared, as already defcribed, it
will ferve, without the trouble of drying, as a flandard
for any number of Iheets intended for the fame pur-
pofe. But then the flieets mull be kept together in
the open air for a few hours ; becaufe whatever alte¬
ration rnay taka place by this expofure, the paper al¬
ready weighed muft have undergone the fame ; being
confequently in the fame ftate, they muft be cut to
the fame weight.
For eafier weighing the paper, take a piece of round
tin or brafs the fize of a eroun piece, through the
centre of which drill a hole, and alfo three others round
it at equal diftances : then cut about one hundred
papers ; and after putting them under the tin or brafs,
drive through each hole a ftrong pin into a board, in
order to round them to the fnape of the plate : the
papers muft be then feparated and expofed to the air
a few hours with that already weighed, and lo many
of them taken as are equal to the weight already ipe-
cified. This done, threadle them together through
ihofe holes made by the pins, putting between every
paper on each thread a fmall bead, in order to prevent
the papers from touching each other, and alfo that
the air may be more readily admitted. The top of
the hygrometer is covered with a card cut to the fame
ftze ; and which, by reafon of its ftiffnefs, fupports all
the papers, and keeps them in proper drape. Before
the papers are threaded, the beads, filk, card, and a
thin piece of brafs about the fize of a fixpence, which
muft be placed at the bottom, and through which the
centre firing paffes, muft be weighed with the greateft
exadlnefs, in order to bring them to a certain weight,
fuppofe 50 grains ; nowr the paper in its dried: ftate
being of equal weight, they will weigh together zoo
grains, confequently w'hat they weigh more at any time
is moifture.
To obviate the trouble and difficulty of making ex¬
periments with weights and feales, Mr Coventry con¬
trived a machine or fcale by which to determine at
one view the humidity or drynefs of the atmofphere.
This, with its cafe, is reprefented by dg. 12. The
front and back of the cafe are glafs 5 the fides fine
gauze, which excludes the dull and admits the air j
the cafe is about ten inches high, 8 inches broad, and
4 inches deep. A, a brafs bracket in front, behind
which, at about 3^ inches diftance is another ; thefe
fupport the axis of the index E, alfo of the beam D,
and another which fupports the ftem B, to which the
ivory fcale of divifions C is fixed. G, a brafs fcale
fufpended in the ufual manner to the end of a beam
E, and weighing exaftly 100 grains. This fcale is an
exa<51 counterpoife to the papers I and the different
apparatus. The particular manner of fufpenfion in
th is balance is, from the conftruftion, as follows : The
axis of the beam g, which is made of brafs, inftead of
hanging on pivots, as in common feales, turns with
two fteel edges k k, fixed in the extremities of the brafs
axis : thefe edges are fhaped like the edge of a knife,
and a£t on two fteel concave edges l /, in order to ren¬
der the friftion as fmall as poffible. D, is a fine fcale
beam fixed at right angles with the axis^. E, the
fteel index fixed to the under fide of the fame axis.
F, a brafs Aiding weight : h is the axis that holds the
ftem B to wrhich the fcale of divifions C is fixed. AA,
the brafs brackets which fupport the whole by four
o ] H Y G
ferevs, two of which are feen at ft, that ferew- the Hygreme-
brackets to the top of the cafe.. The axis of the ter'
fcale of divifions is hung on pivots, one of which is
feen at ot, that, Ihould the cafe not ftand level, the ftem
B may always be in a perpendicular fituation.
The hygrometer, before ufe, ffiould be adjufted as
follows : To the end of the beam where the hygro¬
meter is fufpended, hang a weight of 100 grains, which
is equal to the w eight of the fcale ; then move the
Hiding weight F up or down the index E, till one
grain will caufe the index to traverfe neither more nor
lefs than the whole fcale of divifions *, then add half a
grain to the fcale, in order to bring the index to o j
and the inftrument, after taking off the zoo grain
weight and hanging on the papers, is fit for ufe 5 then
put grain weights in the fcale till the index is brought
within compafs of the fcale of divifions. Example :
H is 3 grains on the brafs fcale, and the index points
at to confequently there is 3 grains and zo hun¬
dredths of a grain of moifture in the papers. If four
grain weights are kept, viz. z, 2, 4, and 5, they will
make any number from 1 to 9, which are as many as
will be wanted. Sometimes the index will continue
traverfing within the fcale of divifions for many days
without fhifting the weights •, but if otherwife, they
muft be changed as occafion inay require.
“ One great advantage of this hygrometer above all
others that have attrafled my notice is (fays Mr Co¬
ventry), that it adls from a certain datum, namely, the
dry extreme ; from which all the variations towards
moift are calculated with certainty j and if conftrufled
with that precifion reprefented by the drawing, it will
afford pleafure to the curious in obferving the almoft
perpetual alteration of the atinofphere, even in the
moft fettled weather. In winter it will be conftantly
traverfing from about eight in the morning till four or
five in the afternoon, towards dry ; and in fummer,
from about four in the morning till fix or feven in the
evening, whea the weather is hot and gloomy, the
hygrometer difeovers a very great change towards
moifture ; and when clear and frofty, that it contains
a much greater quantity of moifture than is generally
imagined.”
An improvement has been propofed of this kind of
hygrometer, of which the following circumfiance, it is
faid, fuggefted the firft hint. While Mr Lowfitz was
at Dmitriev Ik in Aftracan, he found, on the banks of
the Wolga, a thin bluifti kind of flate which attradled
moifture remarkably foon, but again fuffered it as foon
to efcape. A plate of this fiate weighed, when
brought to a red heat, 175 grains, and, when faturated
with water, 247 : it had therefore imbibed, between
complete drynefs and the point of complete moifture,
72 grains of water. Lowitz fufpended a round thin
plate of this flate at the end of a very delicate ba¬
lance, faftened within a wooden frame, and fufpended
at the other arm a chain of filver wire, the end of
which was made fall to a Hiding nut that moved up
and down in a fmall groove on the edge of one fide of
the frame. He determined, by trial, the pofition of
the nut when the balance was in equilibrio and when it
had ten degrees of over-weight, and divided the fpace
between thefe two points into ten equal parts, adding
fuch a number more of thefe parts as might be recef-
fary. W hen the ftone was fufpended from the one arm
®f
HYGROME TE K.
I>ZAT£ CCZ.XXVZ.
Fi.j. IS.
Kntjf by TO- D^Lhors Edui!
HYGROMETER.
Fif, 7.
PLATE CCEXXril.
Fuf .8 .
JSngfi&y W:ScDJ£zrars Edin T
H Y L
Hygrome
ter
of the balance, and at the other a weight equal to 175
grains, or the weight of the ftone when perfectly dry,
Hyhs. tbe nut in the groove fhewed the excefs of weight in
—grains when it and the chain were fo adjufted that the
balance flood in equilibrio. A particular apparatus on
the fame principles as a vernier, applied to the nut,
fhewed the excefs of weight to ten parts of a grain.
Lowitz remarked that this hygrometer in continued
wet weather gave a moifture of more than 15 grains,
and in a continued heat of 113 degrees of Fahrenheit
only 14 degree of moifture.
The hygrometer thus invented by Lowitz was, how¬
ever, attended with this fault, that it never threw off
the moifture in the fame degree as the atmofphere be¬
came drier. It was alfo fometimes very deceitful, and
announced moifture when it ought to have indicated
that drynefs had again begun to take place in the at¬
mofphere. To avoid thefe inconveniences, M. Hoch-
heimer propofes the following method :
1. Take a fquare bar of fteel about two lines in
thicknefs, and from ten to twelve inches in length, and
form it into a kind of balance, one arm of which ends
m a ferew. On this ferew let there be ferewed a lead¬
en bullet of a proper weight, inftead of the common
weights that are fufpended. 2. Take a glafs plate
about ten inches long, and feven inches in breadth ; de-
flroy its polifti on both fides, free it from all moifture
by rubbing it over with warm allies, fufpend it at the
other end of the balance, and bring the balance into
•quilibrium by ferewing up or down the leaden bullet.
3. Mark now the place to which the leaden bullet is
brought by the ferew, as accurately as poftible, for the
point of the greateft drynefs. 4. Then take away the
glafs plate from the balance, dip it completely in water,
give it a (hake that the drops may run off from it, and
wipe them carefully from the edge. 5. Apply the
glafs plate thus moiftened again to tlm balance, and
bring the latter into equilibrium by ferewing the leaden
bullet. Mark then the place at which the bullet Hands
as the higheft degree of moifture. 6. This apparatus
is to be fufpended in a fmall box of well dried wood,
fuffieiently large to fuffer the glafs plate to move up
and down. An opening muff be made in the lid, ex-
a&ly of fuch a fize as to allow the tongue of the ba¬
lance to move freely. Parallel to the tongue apply a
graduated circle, divided into a number of degrees at
pleafare, from the higheft point of drynefs to the high¬
eft degree of moifture. The box muft be pierced with
ftnall holes on all the four fides, to give a free paflage
to the air j and to prevent moifture from penetrating
into the wood by rain, when it may be requifite to exl
pofe it at a window, it muft either be lackered or
painted. lo fave it at all times from rain, it may be
furnilhed with a fort of roof.
For a defeription of Mr Leflie’s Hygrometer, fig. 13.
and in a more portable form, fig. 14. fee Meteorolo¬
gy' Index.
H\ Gr’OSCOPE. The fame with Hygrometer.
HYLA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Myfia Mi¬
nor, famous for Hylas the favourite boy of Hercules
who was carried down the ftrearn and drowned. It is
find to run by Prufa ; whence it feems to be the fame
with the tf/iyaaforaj-, which runs north-weft into the Pro¬
pontis.
H .1 LAS, in fanulous hiftory, fon of Theodamus,
[ ti ] H Y M
was ravifhed by the nymphs of a fountain as he was ta¬
king out fome water for Hercules, by whom he was be¬
loved.
HYLOZOISTS, formed of vM, matter, and life,
the name of a fe£t of atheifts among the ancient Greek
philofophers, who held matter to be animated ; main¬
taining that matter had fome natural perception, with¬
out animal fenfation, or refleftion in itfelf confidered j
but that this imperfedl life occafioned that organiza*
tion whence fenfation and refleftion afterwards arofe.
Of thefe, fome held only one life, which they called a
plastic nature, prefiding regularly and invariably over
the whole corporeal univerfe, which they reprefented as
a kind of large plant or vegetable j thefe were called
the cofmoplaftic and ftoieal atheifts, becaufe the Stoics
held fuch a nature, though many of them fuppofed it
to be the inftrument of the Deity. Others’ thought
that every particle of matter was endued with life,
and made the mundane fyftem to depend upon a cer¬
tain mixture ox chance and plaftic or orderly nature
united together. Thefe were called the Stratonici, from
Strato Lampfacenus, a difciple of Theophraftus, called
alfo Phyficus (Cicero de Nat. Deor. lib. 1. cap. 13.),
who was firft a celebrated Peripatetic, and afterwards
formed this new fyftem of atheifm for himfelf. Befides
thefe two forms of atheilm, fome of the ancient philo¬
fophers were Plylopathians, or Anaximandrians, de¬
riving all things from dead and ftupid matter, in th®
way ot qualities and forms, generable and corruptible ,
and others again adopted the atomical or Democri-
tical fyftem, who aferibe the produ£tion of the univerfe
to atoms and figures. See on this fubjedl Cudwort/iPt
Intelleliual Syjiem, book i. chap. 3.
HYMEN, or HYMENiEUS, a fabulous divinity, the
fon of Bacchus and Venus Urania, was fuppoled by
the ancients to prefide over marriages ; and accord-
mgly wasv invoked in epithalamiums, and other ma¬
trimonial ceremonies, under the formula Hymen, or
Hy merics e !
The poets generally crown this deity with a chap¬
let of rofes ; and reprefent him, as it were, diflblved
and enervated with pleafures, drefled in a yellow
robe and (lioes of the fame colour, with a torch in his
hand.—Catullus, in 'one of his epigrams, addrefies him
Cinge tempora floribtts
Suaveolentis amaraci.
It was tor this reafon, that the new married couple bore
garlands of flowers on the wedding-day ; which cuftom
alfo obtained among the Hebrews, and even amoncr
Chiiftians, during the firft ages of the church, as ap¬
pears from Tertullian, De corona rnilitari, where he
fays, Coronant et nuptce fponfos.—S. Chryfoftom, like-
wife mentions thefe crowns of flowers ; and to this day
the Greeks call marriage in refpedt of this
crown or garland.
Hymen", Jpw, in Anatomy, a thin membrane or tkin.
fometimes circular, of diflerent breadths, more or lets
tmooth, and fometimes femilunar, formed by the union
ot the internal membrane of the great canal with that
on the infide of the alae, reternbling a piece of fine
parchment. This membrane is fuppofed to be ftretch-
ed in the neck of the womb of virgins, below the
nymphae, leaving in fome fubjects a very fmall opening,
B 2 in
Hylas
fi
Hymen.
H Y M [ i
Hymen, in otters a larger, and in all rendering the external ori-
“-““v—fice narrower than the reft of the cavity, and to be
broke when they are deflowered j an effufion of blood
following the breach.
The membranous circle may likewife fuffer fome
diforder by too great a flux of the menfes, by impru-
dence, levity, and other particular accidents.
The hymen is generally looked upon as the left of vir-^
ginity j and when broke, or withdrawn, Ihows that the
perfon is not in a ftate of innocence. This notion is
very ancient. Among the Hebrews, it wras the cuftom
for the parents to fave the blood ftied on this occaflon
as a token of the virginity of their daughter, and to
fend the flieets next day to the hufband’s relations.
And the like is faid to be ftill pra&ifed in Portugal,
and fome other countries.
And yet authors are not agreed as to the exiftence
of fuch a membrane. Nothing, Dr Drake obferves,
has employed the curiolity of anatomifts, in differing
the organs of generation in W'omen, more than this
part: they have differed not only as to its figure, fub-
ftance, place, and perforation, but even its reality j
fome pofitively affirming, and others flatly denying it.
De Graaf himfelf, the moft accurate inquirer into the
ftrufture of thefe organs, confeffes he always fought it
in vain, though in the moft unfufpedled fubje&s and
ages: all he could find was, a different degree of ftrait-
nefs or widenefs, and different corrugations, which were
greater or lefs according to the refpe£live ages •, the
aperture being ftill the lefs, and the rugofities the
greater, as the fubjeft was younger and more un¬
touched.
Dr Drake, on the other hand, declares, that in all the
fubje&s he had opportunity to examine, he does not re¬
member to have miffed the hymen fo much as once,
where he had reafon to depend on finding it. The
faireft view he ever had of it was in a maid who died
at thirty years of age ; in this he found it a membrane
of fome ftrength, furnifhed with fleffiy fibres, in figure
round, and perforated in the middle with a fmall hole,
capable of admitting the end of a woman’s little finger,
and fituated a little above the orifice of the urinary paf-
fage, at the entrance of the vagina of the womb.
In infants it is a fine thin membrane, not very confpi-
cuous, becaufeof the natural ftraitnefs of the paffage it-
felf, which does not admit of any great expanfion in fo
little room; which might lead De Graaf into a notion
of its being no more than a corrugation.
This membrane, like moft others, does probably
grow mere diftinft, as well as firm, by age. That it
not only exifts, but is fometimes very ftrong and im¬
pervious, may be collefted from the hiftory of a cafe
reported by Mr Cowper. In a married woman, twenty
years of age, whofe hymen was found altogether imper¬
vious, fo as to detain the menfes, and to be driven out
by the preffure thereof beyond the labia of the puden¬
dum, not unlike a prolapfus of the uterus j on divid¬
ing it, at leaft a gallon of grumous blood came forth.
It feems the hufband, being denied a paffage that way,
had found another through the meatus urinarius; which
.. as found very open, and its fides extended like the
anus of a cock.
Upon a rupture of the hymen, after the confumma-
tion of marriage, and efpecxally delivery, its parts,
I
2 ] H Y O
fhrinking up, are fuppofed to form thofe little fleffiy Hymen
knots, called CAR UNCULJE myrtifortnes. II
HYMEN ALA, the Bastard Locust Tree j a
genus of plants, belonging to the decandria clafs ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 33d order,
Lomentacece. See Botany Index.
HYMENALAL, fomething belonging to marriage j
fo called from Hymen.
HYMENOPTERA (derived from membrane,
and Trhgoy, wing'), in the Linnsean fyliem of natural
hiftory, is an order of infedls, having four membrana¬
ceous wings, and the tails of the females are furniffied
with flings, which in fome are ufed for inftilling poi-
fon, and in others for merely piercing the bark and
leaves of trees, and the bodies of other animals, in
which they depofit their eggs. See Entomology
Index.
HYMETTUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
of Attica near Athens, famous for its marble quarries,
and for its excellent honey. Hymettius the epithet.
Pliny fays that the orator Craffus was the firft who had
marble columns from this place.
HYMN, a fong or ode in honour of God $ or
a poem, proper to be fung, compofed in honour of fome
deity.—The word is Greek, i^yes, hymn, formed of the
verb celebro, “ I celebrate.”—Iliodore, on this
wrord, remarks, that hymn is properly a fong of joy, full
of the praifes of God j by which, according to him, it
is diftinguiffied from threna, which is a mourning fong,
full of lamentation.
St Hilary, biffiop of Poi&iers, is faid to have been
the firft that compofed hymns to be fung in churches,
and was followed by St Ambrofe. Moft of thofe
in the Roman Breviary were compofed by Prudentius.
They have been tranllated into French verfe by Mef-
fieurs de Port Royal.—In the Greek Liturgy there are
four kinds of hymns $ but the word is not taken in the
fenfe of a praife offered in verfe, but Amply of a laud
or praife. The angelic hymn, or Gloria in exceljis,
makes the firft kind j the trifagion the fecond $ the
Cherubic hymn, the third j and the hymn of viBory and
triumph, called wwxwj, the laft.
The hymns or odes of the ancients generally con-
fifted of three forts of ftanzas j one of w'hich, called
Jlrophe, w as fung by the band as they w alked from eaft
to weft, j another, called antiflrophe, w as performed as
they returned from weft to eaft 5 the third part, or epode,
was fung before the altar. The Jewiffi hymns were ac¬
companied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, toaffift
the voices of the Levites and people.
HYOBANCHE, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs. See Botany Index.
HYOIDES, in Anatomy, a bone placed at the root
of the tongue. See Anatomy, N° 28.
HYOSCYAMUS, Henbane j a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 28th order, Luridee. See
Botany and Materia Medica Index. *
HYOSERIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Indtx.
HYO-THYROIDES, in Anatomy, one of the
mufcles belonging to the os fryokles. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles,
HYPALLAGE,
HYP [ 13 1 HYP
Hypai’age HYPALLAGE, among grammarians, a fpeues of
1! hyperbaton, confitfing in a mutual permutation of one
t Hypatia. c^pe for another. Thus Virgil fays, Dare clajjibus auf-
' tros, for dare c/ajfes aujlris ; and again, Nec dum illis
labra admovi, for nec dum ilia labris admovi.
HYPANTE, or Hyperpante, a name given by
the Greeks to the featl of the prefentation of Jefus in
the temple.—This word, which hgnifies lowly or humble
meeting, was given to this feaft from the meeting of old
Simeon and Anna the prophetefs in the temple when
Jefus was brought thither.
HYPATIA, a learned and beautiful lady of anti¬
quity, the daughter of Theon a celebrated philofopher
and mathematician, and prefident of the famous Alex¬
andrian fchool, was born at Alexandria about the end
of the fourth century. Her father, encouraged by her
extraordinary genius, had her not only educated in all
the ordinary qualifications of her fex, but inftrudled in
the moll abilrufe fcienees. She made fuch great pro-
grefs in philofophy, geometry, aftronomy, and the ma¬
thematics, that Ihe paffed for the moft learned perfon
of her time. At length Ihe was thought worthy to
fucceed her father in that diftinguithed and important
employment, the government of the fchool of Alexan¬
dria j and to teach out of that chair where Ammonius,
Hi erodes, and many other great men, had taught be¬
fore j and this at a time too when men of great learn¬
ing abounded both at Alexandria and in many other
parts of the Roman empire. Her fame was fo exten-
live, and her worth fo univerfally acknowledged, that
we cannot wonder if fire had a crowded auditory.
“ She explained to her hearers (fays Socrates) the le-
veral fciences that go under the general name of phi¬
lofophy ; for which reafon there was a confluence to
her from all parts of thofe who made philolophy their
delight and ftudy.” One cannot reprefent to himfelf,
without pleafure, the flower of all the youth of Europe,
Alia, and Africa, fitting at the feet of a very beauti¬
ful lady (for fuch we are aflured Hypatia was), all
greedily fwallowing inftru&ion from her mouth, and
many of them, doubtlefs, love from her eyes •, though
we are not fure that fhe ever liftened to any felicita¬
tions, fince Suidas, who talks of her marriage with
Ifiodorus, yet relates at the fame time that fhe died
a maid.
Her fcholars were as eminent as they were nume¬
rous j one of whom was the celebrated Synefius, who
was afterwards bifhop of Ptolemais. This ancient
Ghriftian Platonift everywhere bears the ilrongeft, as
well as the moft grateful teftimony of the virtue of
his tutorefs; and never mentions her without the moft
profound refpeft, and fometimes in terms of affeftlon
coming little Ihort of adoration. But it was not Sy¬
nefius only, and the difciplesof the Alexandrian fchool,
who admired Hypatia for her virtue and learning :
never tvas woman more carefled by the public, and
yet never woman had a more unfpotted chara&er. She
was held as an oracle for her wifdom, which made her
confulted by the magiftrates in all important cafes j
and this frequently drew her amongft the greateft con-
courfe of men, without the leaft cenfure of her manners.
In a word, when Nicephorus intended to pafs the
higheft compliment on the princefs Eudocia, he thought
he could not do it better than by calling her another
Hypatia*
While Hypatia thus reigned the brighteft orna- Hypatia
merit of Alexandria, Oreftes was governor of the fame H
place for the emperor Theodofius, and Cyril was bi- a*
ftiop or patriarch. Oreftes having had a liberal edu- -- <
cation, could not but admire Hypatia •, and as a wife
governor frequently confulted her. This, together
with an averfion w'hich Cyril had againft Oreftes,
proved fatal to the lady. About 500 monks affem-
bling, attacked the governor one day, and would have
killed him, had he not been refcued by the townfmenj
and the refpeft which Oreftes had for Hypatia cauf-
ing her to be traduced among the Chriftian multitude,
they dragged her from her chair, tore her in pieces,
and burned her limbs. Cyril is not clear from a fuf-
picion of fomenting this tragedy. Cave indeed en¬
deavours to remove the imputation of fuch an horrid
a&ion from the patriarch j and lays it upon the Alex¬
andrian mob in general, w hom he calls levijjimum ho-
tninum genus; “ a very trifling inconftant people.”
But though Cyril (hould be allowed neither to have
been the perpetrator, nor even the contriver of it,
yet it is much to be fufpedted that he did not difcoun-
tenance it in the manner he ought to have done ^
W'hich fufpicion muft needs be greatly confirmed by
reflefting, that he was fo far from blaming the out¬
rage committed by the monks upon Oreftes, that he
afterwards received the dead body of Ammonius, one
of the moft forward in that outrage, who had grie-
voufty w'ounded the governor, and who was juftly pu-
nifiied with death. Upon this riotous ruffian Cyril
made a panegyric in the church where he was laid,
in wffiich he extolled his courage and conftancy, as
one that had contended for the truth 5 and changing
his name to Thaumajius, or “ the Admirable,” order¬
ed him to be confidered as a martyr. “ However,
(continues Socrates), the wifeft part of Chriftians did
not approve the zeal which Cyril ffiowed on this man’s
behalf, being convinced that Ammonius had juftly
fuffered for his defperate attempt.”
HYPECOUM, Wild Cumin, a genus of plants
belonging to the tetrandria clafs \ and in the natural
method ranking under the 24th order, Corydaies. See
Botany Index.
HYPER, a Greek prepofition frequently ufed in
compofition, where it denotes excefs j its literal figni-
fication being above or beyond.
HYPERBATON, in Grammar, a figurative con-
ftruftion inverting the natural and' proper order of
words and fentences. The feveral fpecies of the hyper¬
baton are, the anaftrophe, the hyfteron-proteron, the
hypallage, fynchyfis, tmefis, parenthefis, and the hyper¬
baton ftriffly fo called. See Anastrophe, &c.
Hyperbaton, ftri&ly fo called, is along retention
of the verb which completes the fentence, as in the
following example from Virgil:
Interea Reges : ingenti mole Lalinus
d^uadrijugo vehitur curru, cui tempora circum
Aurati bis Jex radii fulgentia cingunt,
Solis avifpecimen: bigis it Turnus in a Ibis,
Bina monu lato crifpans hajlilia ferro :
Hinc Rater dEneas, Romance Jlirpis origo,
Sidereo Jiagrans clypeo et calejlibus armis ;
Et juxta Afcanius, magna- fpcs altera Romce :
Procedunt cajlris.
\
HYPERBOLA*,
HYP [
Hyperbola, HYPERBOLA, a curve formed by cutting a
. ^er 0 L’ cone in a direction parallel to its axis. See Conic
Sections.
HYPERBOLA Deficient, is a curve having only one
afymptote, though two hyperbolic legs running out
infinitely by the fide of the afymptote, but contrary
ways.
HYPERBOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure, whereby the
truth and reality of things are exceffively either enlar¬
ged or diminifhed. See Oratory, N° 58.
An object uncommon with refpe£t to fize, either
very great of its kind or very little, ftrikes us with
furprife $ and this emotion forces upon the mind a mo¬
mentary conviction that the objedt is greater or lefs
than it is in reality : the fame effeCt precifely attends
figurative grandeur or littlenefs j and hence the hy¬
perbole, which exprefles this momentary conviction,
A writer, taking advantage of this natural delufion,
enriches his defeription greatly by the hyperbole : and
the reader, even in his cooleft moments, relifhes this
figure, being fenfible that it is the operation of nature
upon a warm fancy.
It cannot have efcaped obfervation that a writer is
generally more fuccefsful in magnifying by a hyperbole
than in diminifhing. The reafon is, that a minute ob-
jeCt contracts the mind, and fetters its powers of ima¬
gination ; but that the mind, dilated and inflamed
with a grand objeCt, moulds objeCts for its gratification
with great facility. Longinus, with refpeCt to a di¬
minifhing hyperbole, cites the following ludicrous
thought from a comic poet : “ He was owner of a bit
of ground not larger than a Lacedaemonian letter.”
But, for thereafbn now given, the hyperbole has by far
the greater force in magnifying objeCts 5 of which
take the following example :
_ Lor all the land which thou feefl:, to thee will I
give it, and to thy feed for ever. And I will make
thy feed as the dull of the earth : fo that if a man
can number the dull of the earth, then fhall thy feed
alfo be numbered. Gen. xiii. 15, 16.
Ula vel intacics fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina, nec teneras curfu Iceffet arifas.
JEneid, vii. 808.
‘Atque imo harathn ter gurgite vafos
Sorbet in abruptum fiidius, rurfjfque fub auras
Erigit alternos, et Jidsra verberat unda.
JEneid, iii. 421.
 Homfcis juxta tonat JEtna minis,
Interdumque atram prorumpit ad aether a nubem.
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla :
Attollitque globos fammarum, et fdera lambit.
JEneid, iii. yyix.
Speaking of Polyphemus,
— Ipfe arduus, altaque pulfat
Sidera. JEneid, iii. 619.
  When he fpeaks,
The air, a charter’d libertine, is ftill.
Henry V. aCl i. fc. 1.
Now fliield with fhield, with helmet helmet clos’d,
To armour armour, lance to lance oppos’d,
4
4 ] HYP
Kofi again!! hofl with fhadowy fquajlrons drew
The founding darts in iron tempefls flew,
ViClors and vanquifh’d join promifeuous cries,
And fhrilling fhouts and dying groans arife ;
With flreaming blood the flipp’ry fields are dy’d.
And flaughter’d heroes fwell the dreadful tide, ’
Iliad, iv. 508.
Quintilian is fenfible that this figure is natural :
“ For. OP he), not contented with truth, we natu¬
rally incline to augment or diminifh beyond it; and
for that reafon the hyperbole is familiar even among
the vulgar and illiterate j” and he adds, very juflly,
“ That the hyperbole is then proper, when the objeCl
of itfelf exceeds the common meafure.” From thefe
premifes, one would not expeft the following infe¬
rence, the only reafon he can find for juftifying this
figure of fpeech, Conceditur enim amplius dicere, quia
diet quantum ef, non potef: mehufque ultra quam citra
fat oralio” (We are indulged to fay more than
enough, becaufe we cannot fay enough j and it is bet¬
ter to be above than under). In the name of wonder,
why this flight and childifh reafoning, when immediate¬
ly before he had obferved, that the hyperbole is found¬
ed on human nature ? We could not refill this perfonal
ftroke of criticifm ; intended not again!! our author,
for no human creature is exempt from error j but a-
gainf! the blind veneration that is paid to the ancient
claflic writers, without diftinguifhing their blemiflies
from their beauties.
Having examined the nature of this figure, and the
principle on which it is ereCled, let us proceed to the
rules by which it ought to be governed. And, in the
firfl place, it is a capital fault to introduce an hy¬
perbole in the defeription of an ordinary objeCl or
event ; for in fuch a cafe, it is altogether unnatural,
being deflitute of furprife, its only foundation. Take
the ^following inflance, where the fubjeCl is extremely
familiar, viz. fwimming to gain the fliore after a fhip-
wreck.
I faw him beat the furges under him,
And ride upon their backs : he trode the water j
Whofe enmity he flung alide, and breailed
The furge moll fwoln that met him : his bold head
’Bove the contentious xvaves he kept, and oar’d
Himfelf with his good arms, in lufty ftrokes
To ‘(k? f)ore, that o’er his wave-born balls bow’d,
As Hooping to relieve him. Tempeft, aCl ii. fc. 1.
In the next place, it may be gathered from what is
faid, that an hyperbole can never fuit the tone of any
difpiriting paflion: forrow in particular will never
prompt fuch a figure ; and for that reafon the follow¬
ing hyperboles mull be condemned as unnatural:
K. Rich. Aumerle, thou weep’fl, my tender¬
hearted coufin !
We’ll make foul weather with defpifed tears;
Our fighs, and they, fhall lodge the fummer-corn,
And make a dearth in this revolving land.
Richard II. aCl iii. fc. 6.
Draw them to Tyber’s bank, and weep your tears
Into the channel, till the lovrefl flream
Do kifs the moll exalted fhore of all.
Julius Cctfar, aCl i. fc. 1.
Thirdly,
HYP [ i
Hyperbole. Thirdly, A writer, if he \vi(h to fueceed, ought al-
-W’-’-y—ways to have the reader in his eye : he ought, in par¬
ticular, never to venture a bold thought or expreffion,
till the reader be warmed and prepared. For this rea-
fon, an hyperbole in the beginning of a work can never
be in its place. Example :
Jam pauca aratro jugera regies
Moles relinquent, ' Horat. Cann. lib. ii. ode I j".
In the fourth place. The niceft point of all is, to
afeertain the natural limits of an hyperbole, beyond
which being overftrained, it has a bad effeft. Longi¬
nus (chap, iii.), with great propriety of thought, en¬
ters a caveat againft an hyperbole of this kind: he
compares it to a bow-ftring, which relaxes by over-
ftraining, and produceth an effefl dire&ly oppofite to
what is intended. To afeertain any precife boundary,
would be difficult, if not imprafticable. We (hall
therefore only give a fpecimen of what may be rec¬
koned overftrained hyperboles. No fault is more
common among writers of inferior rank $ and inftan-
ces are found even among thofe of the fineft tafte ;
witnefs the following hyperbole, too bold even for an
Hotfpur.
Hotfpur talking of Mortimer :
In ftngle oppofition hand to hand,
He did confound the belt part of an hour
In changing hardiment with great Glendower.
Three times they breath’d, and three times did they
drink,
Upon agreement, of fwift Severn’s flood ;
Who then affrighted with their bloody looks,
Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds,
And hid his crifp’d head in the hollow bank,
Blood-ftained with thefe valiant combatants.
Firjl Fart Henry IV. aft i. fc. 4.
Speaking of Henry V.
England ne’er had a King until this time.
Virtue he had, deferving to command :
His brandifti’d fword did blind men with its beams :
His arms fpread wider than a dragon’s wings :
His fparkling eyes, replete with awful fire,
IVIore dazzled, and drove back his enemies,
J han mid-day fun fierce bent againft their faces.
What Ihould I fay ? his deeds exceed all fpeech.
He never lilted up his hand, but conquer’d.
Firfi Part Flenry Vf, a£t i. fc. 1.
Laftly, an hyperbole, after it is introduced with all
advantages, ought to be comprehended within the few-
ett words poftible : as it cannot be relifhed but in the
hurry aiffi fuelling of the mind, a leifurely view dif-
folves the charm, and difeovers the defeription to be
ex ravagant at leaft, and perhaps alfo ridiculous. This
fault is palpable in a fonnet which paffeth for one of
the moft complete in the French language : Phillis, in
a long and florid defection, is made as far to outffiine
the tun as he outfhmes the liars :
Le.Jt/ence regnoitfur la terre etfur I'onde
L air devenoit ferrain et FOlitnp vermeil ’
^ ■ynonreux Zephir off an, hi du fomeiL
Fejfufcitoit lesfeurs d'une haleine feconde.
5 ] HYP
L'Aurore deployoit For defa trejfe blonde^
Et femoit de rubis le chemin du foleil;
Enfin ce Dieu venoit au plus grand appareil
Vfdil foil jamais venu pour eclairer le monde :
b^jjand la jeune Phillis au vifage riant)
Sortant de fon palais plus clair que Porient,
Fit voir une lumiere et plus vive et plus belle ,
Sucre Flambeau du jour, den foie% point jaloux%
Vous parities alors aujji peu devant elle,
djae lesfettx de la nuit avoient fait devant vous.
Malleville.
There is in Chaucer a thought exprelfed in a Angle
line, which fets a young beauty in a more advanta¬
geous light than the whole of this much laboured
poem :
Hyperbcle-
II
Hypercri¬
tic.
Up rofe the fun, and up rofe Emelie,
HYPERBOREAN, in the Ancient Geography.
The ancients denominated thofe people and places
Hyperborean which were to the northward of the Scy-
dhians. 1 hey had but very little acquaintance with
thefe Hyperborean regions and all they tell us of
them is very precarious, much of it falfe. Diodorus
Siculus fays, the Hyperboreans were thus called by
reafon they dwelt beyond the wind Boreas j t^, fig-\
nifying, “ above or beyond,” and Boreas, the
“ north wind.” I his etymology is very natural and
plaufible j notwithftanding all that Rudbeek has faid
againft it, who would have the word to be Gothic,
and to fignify nobility. Herodotus doubts whether
or not there were any fuch nations as the Hyper¬
borean. Strabo, who profeffes that he believes there
are, does not take hyperborean to fignify beyond Boreas
or the north, as Herodotus underftood it : the prepo-
fition vjreg, in this cafe, he fuppofes only to help to
form a fuperlative; fo that hyperborean, on his prin¬
ciples, means no more than mof northern; by which
it appears the ancients fcarce.knew themfelves what the
name meant.—Moft of our modern geographers, as
Hoffman, Cellarius, See. have placed the Hyperboreans
in the northern parts of the European continent, among
the Siberians and Samoieds : according to them, the
Hyperboreans of the ancients were thofe in general
\ who lived fartheft to the north. The Hyperboreans
of our days are thofe Ruffians who inhabit between
the Volga and the White fea. According to Cluvier,
the name Celtes was fynonymous with that of Hyper¬
boreans.
. HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and La¬
tin poetry, is applied to a verfe that has one or two
fylfables too much, or beyond the regular and juft mea-
fure •) as,
Mufeforores funt Minervce :.
Alfo,.
Mufe forores Palladis lugent.
HYPERCRITIC, an over-rigid cenfor or critic :
one who will let nothing pafs, but animadverts fel
verely on the flighteft fault. See Criticism. The
word is compounded of fuper, “ over, above, be¬
yond and of xfoK, judex, of judwo,
” I judge,”
HYPERDULIA
* *
HYP [if
Hyperdulia HYPERDULIA, in the Romifh theology, is the
H worth ip rendered to the holy virgin. Ihe word is
K) pobole £[.reej^ compofed of V7re(>, above, and ^vAswe,
vjorfbip, Jervice. The worfhip offered to faints is call¬
ed dulia; and that to the mother of God, hyperdulia,
as being fuperior to the former.
HYPER! A, in Ancient Geography, the feat of the
Phseacians near the Cyclops, (Homer) : fome commen¬
tators take it to be Camarina in Sicily \ but, according
to others, it is fuppofed to be an adjoining ifland, which
they take to be Melita, lying in light of Sicily. And
this feems to be confirmed by Apollonius Rhodius.
Whence the Phteacians afterwards removed to Corcyra,
called Scheria, Pheeacia, and Maoris ; having been ex¬
pelled by the Phoenicians, who fettled in Melita for
commerce, and for commodious harbours, before the
war of Troy, (Diodorus Siculus).
HYPERICUM, St John’s Wort, a genus of
plants oelonging to the polyadelphia clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 20th order, Rotaccce.
See Botany I"dex.
HYPERIDES, an orator of Greece, was the dif-
ciple of Plato and Ifocrates, and governed the republic
of Athens. He defended with great zeal and courage
the liberties of Greece •, but was put to death by An¬
tipater’s order, 322 B. C. He compofed many ora¬
tions, of which only one now remains. He was one of
the ten celebrated Greek orators.
HYPERMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, one of
the fifty daughters of Danaus king of Argos. She
alone refufed to obey the cruel order Danaus had given
to all his daughters, to murder their hufbands the firfl
night of their marriage and herefore laved the life
of Lynceus, after fire had made him promife not to
violate her virginity. Danaus, enraged at her difobe-
dience, confined her clofely in prifon, whence Lynceus
delivered her fome time after.
HYPERSARCOSIS, in Medicine and Surgery, an
excefs of flelli, or rather a flethy excrefcence, fuch as
thofe generally rifing upon the lips of wounds, &c.
HYPHEN, an accent or charafter in grammar,
implying that two words are to be joined, or connefted
into one compound word, and marked thus - j as pre-
ejlabiifhed, jive-leaved, &e. Hyphens alfo ferve to
connect the fyllables of fuch words as are divided by
the end of the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the Materia Medico, fuch medi¬
cines as any way produce fleep, whether called narco¬
tics, hi/pnotic , opiates, ox foporijics.
HYPNOTIC US serpens, the Sleep-fnahe, in Zoo-
logy, the name of an Eail 'ndian fpecies of ferpent,
called by the Ceylonefe nintipolong, a word importing
the fame fenfe. It is of a ds-ep blackifh brown, varie¬
gated with fpots of white, and is a very fatal kind in
its poifon : its bite it is faid brings on a fleep which
ends in death j hence this trivial name.
HYPNUM, Feather-moss, a genus of plants of
the naiural order of mufci, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs. See Botany Index.
HYPO, a Greek particle, retained in the compofi-
tion of divers words borrowed from that language •, li¬
terally denoting under, beneath—In which fenfe it
Rands opposed to iersg, fuprc., “ above.”
HYPOBOLE, or Subjection, (from vjt#, and
fcxhhu, 1 cajl), in Rhetoric, a figure, fo called, when
] HYP
feveral things are mentioned, that feem to make for Hypofeole
the contrary fide, and each of them refuted in order. ^ .
This figure, when complete, confifts of three parts j a frium. "
propofition, an enumeration of particulars with their ——y—<
anfwer, and a conclufion. Thus Cicero, upon his re¬
turn from banifhment, vindicates his conduid in with¬
drawing fo quietly, and not oppofing the faffion that
ejefted him. See ORATORY, N° 81,
HYPOCATH ARSIS (compounded of V7r«, under,
and 1 purge), in Medicine, a too faint or feeble
purgation.
HYPOCAUSTUM, among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, a fubterraneous place, W'here was a furnace to
heat the baths. The word is Greek, formed of the
prepofition 1™, under; and the verb to burn.—
Another fort of hypocauftum was a kind of kiln to
heat their winter parlours. The remains of a Roman
hypocaultum, or fweating-room, were difcovered un¬
der ground at Lincoln in 1739. We have an account
of thefe remains in the Philotophical 1 rani act ions,
N°46i § 29.— Among the moderns, the hypocauilum
is that place where the fire is kept which warms a
ftove or hot-houfe.
HYPOCHiERIS, Hawk’s-EYE, a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 49th order, Cotnpojitce. See
Botany Index.
HYPOCHONDRIA, in Anatomy, a fpaceoneach
fide the epigaftric region, or upper part of the abdo¬
men. See Anatomy, N° 88.
HYPOCHONDRIAC passion, a difeafe in men,
fimilar to the hyfteric affe&ion in women. See Medi¬
cine Index.
HYPOCISTIS, in the Materia Medico, an infpif-
fated juice obtained from the feflile afaium, much re-
fembling the true Egyptian acacia. They gather the
fruit w'hile unripe, and exprefs the juice, which they
evaporate over a very gentle fire, to the confiftence
of an extraft, and then form into cakes, and ex-
poie them to the fun to dry. It is an aftringent
of confiderable power ; is good again!! diarrhoeas
and ha;morrhagies of all kindsand may be uled in
repellent gargarifms in the manner of the true aca¬
cia *, but it is very rarely met with genuine in our
{hops, the German acacia being ufually fold under its
name.
HYPOCRISY, vvoxgaris, in Ethics, denotes diflimu-
lation with regard to the moral or religious charabler.
In other words, it iignifies one who feigns to be what
he is not; and is generally applied to thofe who afiume
the appearances of virtue or religion, without having
any thing in reality of either.
HYPOGj^EUM, vTToyxm, formed of tro, under, and
earth, in the ancient architecture, is a name com¬
mon to all the parts of a building that are under
ground 5 as the cellar, butteries, and the like places.
The term hypogeeum was ufed by the Greeks and Ro¬
mans for fubterraneous tombs in which they buried their
dead.
HYPOGiEUM, vTrtyotiM, in AJlrology, is a name given
to the celeitial houfes which are below the horizon :
and efpecially the imum cceli, or bottom of heaven. •
HYPOGASTRIC, an appellation given to the in¬
ternal branch of the iliac artery.
HYPOGASTRIUM, in Anatomy, the middle part
of
'HYP [ i
Hypogaf- of the lower region of the belly. See Anatomy,
trium 88.
II HYPOGLOSSI EXTERN!, or majores, in Ana-
. y . T .. ' tomy, the ninth pair of nerves, called alfo linguales and
gujiatorii. See Anatomy.
HYPOGLOTTIS, or Hypoglossis, (compofedof
under, and yXuTlx., tongue'), in Anatomy, is a name
given to two glands of the tongue. There are four
large glands of the tongue j two of them called hypo-
glottides, fituated under it, near the venae ranulares: one
on each fide of the tongue. They ferve to fecrete a
kind of ferous matter of the nature of faliva, which
is difcharged into the mouth by little du6ts near the
gum?.
HYPOGLOTTIS, or Hypoglojjis, in Medicine, denotes
an inflammation or ulceration under the tongue 5 called
alfo ranula.
HYPOPYON, in Medicine, a colleflion of purulent
matter under the corner of the eye.
HYPOSCENIUM, in antiquity, a partition under
the pulpit or logeum of the Greek theatre, appointed
for the mufic.
HYPOSTASIS, a Greek term, literally fignifying
fubftance, or fubjijience ; ufed in theology for perfon.—
The word is Greek, ; compounded of \nrt>,fub,
“ under p’ and irrifu, Jlo, exijlo ; “ I Hand, I exili p’
q. d. fub JiJIentia. Thus we hold, that there is but
one nature or elfence in God, but three hypofiafes or
perfon?.
The term hipojlajis is of a very ancient Handing in
the church. St Cyril repeats it feveral times, as alfo
the phrafe union according to hypojlafts. The fir ft time
it occurs is in a letter from that father to Neftorius,
where he ufes it inftead of Tr^oraTrov, the word we com¬
monly render perfon, which did not feem expreffive
enough. “ The philofophers (fays St Cyril) have
allowed three hypqftafes : They have extended the Di¬
vinity to three hypojlafes : They have even fometimes
uled the word trinity : And nothing was wanting but
to have admitted the confubftantiality of the three /iy-
pofafes, to (how the unity of the divine nature, exclu-
five of all triplicity in refpeft of diftindlion of nature,
and not to hold it neceflary to conceive any refpedlive
inferiority of hypojiafesy
This term occafioned great diflenfions in the ancient
church; firft among the Greeks, and afterwards alfo
among the Latins. In the council of Nice, hypojiajis
was defined to denote the fame with effence or fubjiance ;
fo that it was herefy to fay that Jefus Chrift was of a
different hypojiajis from the Father; but cuftom altered
Its meaning. In the necefiity they were under of ex-
prefling themfelves ftrongly againlt the Sabellians, the
Greeks made choice of the word hypojiajis, and the
.Latins of perfona; which change proved the occafion
of endlefs difagreement, 1 he phrafe rgof ItTrorctirus, ufed
by the Greeks, fcandalized the Latins, whofe ufual
way of rendering lirorcto-is in their language was by
fuhjlantia. I he barrennefs of the Latin tongue in
theological phrafes, allowed them but one word for
the two Greek ones, and ; and thus dif-
abled them from diftinguifhing effence from hypojlcfs.
1'or which reafon they chofe rather to ufe the term
tres perfume, and tres hypojlafes.—An end was put to
logomachias, in a fynod held at Alexandria about the
VOL. XL Part I.
7 ] HYP
year 362, at which St Athanafius affifted; from which HypoftafiS
time the Latins made no great fcruple of faying tres H
hypojlafes, nor the Greeks of three perfons. ypot e 15.
HYPOTHEC A, in the Civil Law, an obligation,
whereby the effedls of a debtor are made over to his
creditor, to fecure his debt. The word comes from
the Greek vitedw-v, a thing fubjeB to fame obligation ; of
the verb bTsfldnpcu, fuppono, “ I am reje£fedof otto,
under, and nfaui, pono, “ I put.”
As the hypotheca is an engagement procured on pur-
pofe for the fecurity of the creditor, various means have
been made ufe of to fecure to him the benefit of the
convention. The ufe of the pawn or pledge is the
moft ancient, which is almoft the fame thing with the
hypotheca; all the difference confifting in this, that the
pledge is put into the creditor’s hands ; whereas, in a
fimple hypotheca, the thing remained in the poffeflion
of the debtor. It was found more eafy and commo¬
dious to engage an eftate by a civil covenant than by
an adtual delivery : accordingly the expedient wa- nrfi:
pradtifed among the Romans; and from them the Ro¬
mans borrowed both the name and the thing: only the
Greeks, the better to prevent frauds, ufed to fix fome
vilibie mark on the thing, that the public might know
it was hypothecate or mortgaged by the proprietor ;
but the Romans, looking on fuch advertifements as in¬
jurious to the debtor, forbade the ufe of them.
The Roman lawyers diftinguilhed four kinds of hy-
pothecas : the conventional, which wras with the will
and confent of both parties; the legal, which was ap¬
pointed by law, and for that reafon called tacit; the
praetor’s pledge, when by the flight or non-appearing
of the debtor, the creditor was put in pofieffion ef his
effedls; and the judiciary, when the creditor was put in
poffeflion by virtue of a fentence of the court.
The conventional hypotheca is fubdivided* into gene¬
ral and fpecial. The hypotheca is general, when all
the debtor’s effedfts, both prefent and future, are en¬
gaged to the creditor. It is fpecial, when limited to
one or more particular things.
For the tacit hypotheca, the civilians reckon no lefs
than twenty-fix different fpecies thereof.
HYPOTHENUSE, in Geometry, the longeft fide
of a right-angled triangle, or that which fubtends the
right angle.
HYPOTHESIS, (formed of Ive, “ under,” and
poftio, of n6tifu, pono, “ I put”), is a propofition
or principle which we fuppofe, or take for granted, in
order to draw' conclufions for the proof of a point in.
queftion.
In deputation, they frequently make falfe hypothe-
fes, in order to draw their antagonifts into abfurdities;
and even in geometry truths are often deducible from
fuch falfe hypothefts.
Every conditional or hypothetical propofition may¬
be diftinguilhed into hypothefis and thefis : the firft
rehearfes the conditions under which any thing is af¬
firmed or denied ; and the latter is the thing itfelf af¬
firmed or denied. Thus, in the propofition, a triangle is
half of a parallelogram, if the bafes and altitudes of the
two be equal; the latter part is the hypothefis, “ if
the bafes,” otc. and the former a thefis, “ a triangle
is half a parallelogram.”
In ftridl logic, we are never to pafs from the hypo-
C thefis
HYP [ i
Hypothefxs thells to the thefis ; that is, the principle fuppofed
H muft be proved to be true, before we require the con-
chehoru" fe(]uence t0 I36 allowed.
i—-y—— Hypothesis, in Phyfics, &c. denotes a kind of
fyftem laid down from our own imagination, whereby
to account for fome phenomenon or appearance of
nature. Thus we have hypothefes to account for
the tides, for gravity, for magnetifm, for the de¬
luge, &c.
The real and fcientific caufes of natural things ge¬
nerally lie very deep : obfervation and experiment, the
proper means of arriving at them, are in moft cafes ex¬
tremely flow, and the human mind is very impatient:
hence we are frequently driven to feign or invent fome-
thiiig that may feem like the caufe, and which is cal¬
culated to anfwer the feveral phenomena, fo that it may
poflibly be the true caufe.
Philofophers are divided as to the ufe of fuch fiflsons
or hypothefes, which are much lefs current now than
they were formerly. The lateft and beft writers are
for excluding hypothefes, and ftanding wholly on ob¬
fervation and experiment. Whatever is not deduced
from phenomena, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is an hypo-
thelis} and hypothefes, whether metaphyfical, or phy-
fical, or mechanical, or of occult qualities, have no
place in experimental philofophy.
The Cartefians take upon them to fuppofe what af-
feftions in the primary particles of matter they pleafe 5
juft what figures, what magnitudes, vdiat motions, and
what fituations, they find for their purpofe. '1 hey
alfo feign certain unfeen, unknown fluids, and endue
them with the moft arbitrary properties j give them a
fubtility which enables them to pervade the pores of
all bodies, and make them agitated with the moft un¬
accountable motions. But is not this to fet afide the
real conftitution of things, and to fubftitute dreams in
their place ? Truth is fcarce attainable even by the
fureft obfervations j and will fanciful conjeftures ever
come at it ? They who found their fpeculations on hy¬
pothefes, even though they argue from them regularly,
according to the ftrifteft laws of mechanics, may be
faid to compofe an elegant and artful fable } but it is
ftill only a fable.
Hypothesis is more particularly applied in aftro-
nomy to the feveral fyftems of the heavens ; or the
different ways in which different aftronomers have
fuppofed the heavenly bodies to be ranged, mov¬
ed, &c.
The principal hypothefes are the Ptolemaic, Coper-
nican, and Tychonic. The Copernican is now become
fo current, and is fo well warranted by obfervation,
that the retainers thereto hold it injurious to call it an
hypothejis. See Astronomy.
HYPOTIPOSIS. See Oratory, N° 91.
HYPOTR ACHELION, in Architetfure, is ufed for
a little frieze in theTufcan and Doric capital, between
the aftragal and annulets j called alfo the co/ena and
8 ] H Y S
gorgerin. The w-ord is applied by fome authors in a
more general fenfe, to the neck of any column, or that
part of its capital below the aftragal.
HYPOXiS, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 10th order, Coronaruv. See Botany Index.
HYPSISTARH, (formed from v^iro;, “ higheft),”
a fe£t of heretics in the fourth century 5 thus called
from the profeflion they made of worihipping the moft
high God.
The doftrine of the Hypfiftarians w^as an affemblage
of Paganifm, Judaifm, and Chriftianity. They adored
the moft high God with the Chriftians ; but they alfo
revered fire and lamps with the heathens; andobferved
the fabbath, and the diftinflion of clean and unclean
Hypotra-
chelion
II
Hyftrix.
 r—.
things with the Jews.
The Hypfiftarii bore a n.-ar refemblance to the Eu-
chites, or Maffalians.
HYRCAN1A, in Ancient Geography, a country of
the farther Afia, lying to the fouth-eaft of the Mare
Hyrcanum, or Cafpium; with Media on the weft, Par-
thia on the fouth, and Margiana on the eaft. Famous
for its tygers (Virgil); for its vines, figs, and olives,
(Strabo).
Hyrcania, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lydia,
in the campus Hyrcanus, near Thyatiraj fo called from
colonifts brought from Hyrcania, a country lying to
the fouth of the Cafpian fea. The people called Hyr-
cam Macedones, becaufe a mixed people (Pliny).—An¬
other Hyrcania, the metropolis of the country called
Hyrcania. Thought to be the Tape of Strabo, the
Syrinx of Polybius, the Zeudracarta of Arrian, and
the Afaac of Ifidorus Characenus.—A third, a ftrong
place of Judea, built by Hyrcanus.
HYSSOP. See Hyssopus.
Hedge-HTSSOP. See Grati ola.
HYSSOPUS, Hyssop, a genus of plants belonging
to the didynamia clafs. See Botany and Materia
Medica Index.
HYSTERIC AFFECTION, or Pajfion, (formed of
vn^ct, “ u'omb”) y a difeafe in women, called alfoyi^-
catwn of the womb, and vulgarly fts of the mother. It
is a fpafmodico-convulfive affeftion of the nervous fyi-
tem, proceeding from the womb} for the lymptoms and
cure of which, fee Medicine.
HYSTERON proteron, in Grammar and Rhe¬
toric, a fpecies of the hyperbaton, wherein the proper
order of conftruftion is fo inverted, that the part of
any fentence which ftiould naturally come firft is placed
laft : as in this of Terence, Valet et vivit, for vivit et
valet; and in the following of Virgil, Monamur, et
in media arma ruamus, for In media arma ruamus, et
monamur.
HYSTRIX, or Porcupine, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of glires. See Mammalia
Index.
I.
JAB
t J9 ]
J A C
I
I T or /, the ninth letter and third vowel of the al¬
ii * 5 phabet, is pronounced by throwing the breath
Jabcih. fuddenly againft the palate, as it comes out of the la¬
rynx with a fmall hollowing of the tongue, and
nearly the fame opening of the lips as in pronoun¬
cing a or e. Its found varies : in fome words it is
long, as high) mind) &c. •, in others fhort, as bid) hid)
Jin, &c. ; in others, again, it is pronounced like y, as
in collier, onion, &c. ; and in a few, it founds like ee,
as in machine, magazine, &c. No Englith word ends
in e being either added to it, or elfe the i turned intoy.
But belides the vowel there is the jod confonant;
which becaufe of its different pronunciation, has like-
wife a different form, thus J, j. In Englifh, it has
the foft found of^; nor is it ufed, but when g foft is
required before vowels, where g is ufually hard : thus
we fay, jack, jet, join, &c. inftead of gack, get, gain,
&c. which would be contrary to the genius of the En¬
glifh language.
I, ufed as a numeral, fignifies one, and Hands for
fo many units as it is repeated times , thus I, one ;
II, two •, III, three, &e. 5 and when put before a
higher numeral, it fubtrafls itfel£ as IV, four, IX,
nine, 8tc. But, when let after it, fo many are added
to the higher numeral as there are I’s added : thus
VI is 5-f-ij or fix j VII, 5+2, or feven $ VIII, 5-I-3,
or eight. The ancient Romans likewife ufed 13 for
500, CID for 1000, 103 for 5000, CCI33 for
10,003. Farther than this, as Pliny obferves, they
did not go in their notation ; but when neceffary re¬
peated the laff number, as CCCI333 CCCI333 for
200,000; CCCI333, CCCI333, CCCI333, for
300,000 ; and fo on.
The ancients fometimes changed i into u ; decumus
for decimus; maxumus for maximus, &c.
According to Plato, the vowel i is proper to exprefs
delicate but humble things, as in this verfe in Virgil
which abounds in Ps, and is generally admired :
Slccipiunt inimicum imbrem, rimifque fatifcunt.
/, ufed as an abbreviature, is often fubftituted for
the whole word Jesus, of which it is the firft letter.
JABBOK, a brook on the other fide of the Jordan,
the fpring whereof is in the mountains of Gilead. It
falls into Jordan pretty near the fea of Tiberias, to the
fouth of this fea. Near this brook the patriarch Ja¬
cob wreftled with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 2 2.). The
Jabbok feparated the land of the Ammonites from the
Gaulanites, and the territories of Og king of Balkan.
JABESH, or JABESH-Gilead, was the name of a
city in the half tribe of Manaffeh, beyond Jordan.
The fcripture calls it generally Jabelh-Gilead, becaufe
it lay in Gilead, at the foot of the mountains which go
by this name._ Eufebius places it fix miles from Pella,
towards Geraia ; and confequently it mull be eaftward
of the fea of Tiberias.
JABIRU. See Mycteria, Ornithology Index.
JABLONSKI, Daniel Ernest, a learned Polilh
Proteftant divine, born at Dantzick in 1660. He
became fuccefiively minifter of Magdeburg, Liffa, Ko-
ninglberg, and Berlin ; and was at length ecclefialtical
counfellor, and prefident of the academy of feiehces at jablonda
the latter. He took great pains to effeft an union
between the Lutherans and Calvinifts ; and wrote fome Jack Daw.
works which are in good efteem, particularly Medita- v
tions on the origin of the Scriptures, &c. He died in
I74I* '
Jablonski, Theodore, counfellor of the court of Pruf*
fia, and fecretary of the royal academy of fciences in
Berlin, was alfo a man of diftinguithed merit. He lov¬
ed the fciences, and did them honour, without that
ambition which is generally feen in men of learning ;
it was owing to this modefty that the greateft part of
his works wmre publilhed without his name. He pub-
lilhed, in 1711, a French and German Dictionary;
a Courfe of Morality, in 1713 ; a Dictionary of Arts
and Sciences, 1721 ; and tranflated Tacitus de morihus
GfrwcflO/v/tfz into High Dutch, in 1724.
JABNE, in Ancieiit Geography, a town of Paleftine,
near Joppa ; called J amnia or Jamnial, by the Greeks
and Romans. In Joftiua xv. it feems to be called Jab~
neel; but in 2 Chron. xxvi. Jabne. It was taken from
the Philiftines by Uzziah, who demolilhed its fortifica¬
tions. Its port, called Jamnitarum portus, lay between
Joppa and Azotus.
JACAMAR. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
JACCA, an ancient town of Spain, in the .kingdom
of Arragon, with a bilhop’s fee, and a fort; feated on
a river of the fame name among the mountains of Jac-
ca, which are part of the Pyrenees. W. Long. o. 19.
N. Lat. 42. 36.
JACK, in Mechanics, a well-known inftrument of
common ufe for raifing great weights of any‘kind.
The common kitchen-jack is a compound engine,
where the weight is the power applied to overcome the
friCtion of the parts and the weight with which the fpit
is charged ; and a fteady and uniform motion is obtain¬
ed by means of the fly.
Jack/ in the fea language, a fort of flag or colours,
dlfplayed from a malt ereCted on the outer end of a
fliip’s bowfprit. In the Britilh navy the jack is no¬
thing more than a fmall union flag, compofed of the
interfeCtion of the red and white croffes ; but in mer-
chant-flfips this union is bordered with a red field. See
the article Union.
Jack is ufed alfo for a horfe or wooden frame to faw
timber upon ; for an inftrument to pull off a pair of
boots ; for a great leathern pitcher to carry drink in ;
for a fmall bowl that ferves as a mark at the exercife of
bowding ; and for a young pike.
Jack-Flag, in a fliip, that which is hoifted up at the
fpritfail top-maft head.
JACK-Daw, the Englilh name of a fpecies of corvus.
See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
This bird is very mifchievous to the farmer and
gardener ; and is of fuch a thievifh difpofition, that
he will carry away much more than he can make ufe
of. There is a method of deftroying them by a kind
of fpringes much ufed in England ; and is fo ufeful,
that it ought to be made univerfal.—A flake of about
five feet long is to be driven firmly into the ground,
and made fo fall that it cannot move, and fo ftiarp in
C 2 the
J A C [ 20 ] JAG
.Tack-Daw i\c point that the bird cannot fettle upon it. Within
ii. a foot of the top there muft be a hole bored through
Jacobites, it, of three quarters of an inch diameter ; through
this hole is to be put a hick of about eight inches
long then a horfe-hair fpringe or noofe is to be made
faft to a thin hazel-wand, and this brought up to the
place where the fhort flick is placed, and carried with
it through the hole, the remainder being left open un¬
der that flick The other end of the hazel rod is to
be put through a hole in the flake near the ground,
and faftened there. The flake is to be planted among
the jack-daw’s food, and he will naturally be led to
fettle on it j but finding the point too fharp, he will
defcend to the little crofs flick. This will fink with
his weight, and the fpringe will receive his leg, and
hold him faft.
JACK ALL, in Zoology. See Canis, Mammalia
Index.
JACOB, the fon of Ifaac and Rebekah, was born
in the year of the world 2168, before Jefus Chrift
1836. The hiftory of this patriarch is given at large
in the book of Genefis. He died in Egypt in the
147th year of his age. Jofeph directed that the body
fhould be embalmed, after the manner of the Egyp¬
tians •, and there was a general mourning for him
throughout Egypt for feventy days. After this, Jo¬
feph and his brethren, accompanied with the principal
men of Egypt, carried him, with the king of Egypt’s
permifiion, to the burying-plaee of his fathers near He¬
bron, where his wife Leah had been interred. When
they were come into the land of Canaan, they mourned
for him again feven days j upon which occafion the
place where they ftaid was called Abelmifraim, or the
mourning of the Egyptians.
Jacob, Ben Hajim, a rabbi famous for the collec¬
tion of the Maforah in 1525 ; together with the text
of the bible, the Chaldaic paraphrafe, and Rabbini¬
cal commentaries.
Jacob Ben Naphta/i, a famous rabbi of the 5th
century : he was one of the principal maflbrets, and
bred at the fchool of Tiberias in Paleftine with Ben
Afer, another principal mafforet. The invention of
points in Hebrew to ferve for vowels, and of accents
to facilitate the reading of the language, are afcribed
to thefe two rabbies ; and faid to be done in an affembly
of the Jews held at Tiberias, A. D. 476.
JACOBINE monks, the fame with Dominicans.
Jacobines, the name affumed by a party or club at
the beginning of the French revolution, compofed of
members of the national affembly. This club held its
meetings in the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars,
from which it derived its name. For an account of the
views and influence of the Jacobin club in the French
revolution, fee France.
JACOBITES, a term of reproach beftowed on the
perfons who vindicating the doftrines of paflive obe¬
dience and non-refiftanee with refpeft to the arbitrary
proceedings of princes, difavow the revolution in 1688,
and affert the fuppofed rights, and adhere to the inter-
effs, of the late abdicated King James and his family.
Jacobites, in church hiftory, a fe£t of Chriftians
in Syria and Mefopotamia 5 fo called, either from Ja¬
cob a Syrian who lived in the reign of the emperor
Mauritius, or from one Jacob a monk who flourifked in
ihe year 550.
Z
The Jacobites are of two fe£ls, fome following the Jacobite
rites of the Latin church, and others continuing fe- ll
parated from the church of Rome. There is alio a
diviflon among the latter, who have two rival patri-
archs. As to their belief, they hold but one nature
in Jefus Chriit j with refpedt to purgatory and prayers
for the dead, they are of the fame opinion with the
Greeks and other eaftern Chriftians : they comecrate
unleavened bread at the eucharitt, and are againit con-
feffion, believing that it is not of divine inftitution,
J ACOBUS, a gold coin, worth 25 ftiiljings ; fo
called from King James I. of England, in whofe reign
it was ftruck. See Coin.
We ufually dittinguilh two kinds of Jacobus, the old
and the new ; the former valued at 25 (hillings, weigh¬
ing fix penny-weights ten grains ; the latter, called alfo
Carolus, valued at 23 (hillings, in weight five penny¬
weights twenty grains.
JACQUINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
JACULATOR, or Shooting-fish. See Cha:-
todon, Ichthyology Index.
JADDESSES is the name of an inferior order of
priefts in Ceylon, who have the care of the chapels
appropriated to the genii, who form a third order of
gods among thefe idolaters. Thefe priefts are applied
to by the people in a time of difeafe or calamity, who-
offer a cock on their behalf to appeafe the anger of the
dsemons.
JADE-stone, or Lapis Nephriticus, a fpecies
of Mineral. See Mineralogy Index.
JAFFA, an ancient town of Afia in Paleftine, for¬
merly called Jo-lfa. Its former grandeur is now great¬
ly diminiftied. It is fttuated 50 miles north-weft of
Jerufalem, while others make it only 27, and 100
from the town of Acre. It was taken by the French
under Bonaparte, in February 1799, but afterwards re¬
taken and fortified. E. Long. 35. o. N. Lat. 32. 16.
JAFFATEEN islands, the name of four iflands
in the Red fea, vifited by Mr Bruce in his travels.
They are joined together by fhoals or funk rocks j
are crooked or bent like half a bow ; and are dan¬
gerous for (hips in the night-time, becaufe there fee ms
to be a paffage between them, to which, while the pi¬
lots are paying attention, they neglect two fmail lunk
rocks which lie almoft in the middle of the entrance in
deep water.
JAFNAPATAN, a fea-port town, feated at the
north-eaft end of the ifland of Ceylon in the Eatt In¬
dies. The Dutch took it from the Portuguefe in
16 c8, and have continued in the poffeffion of it fince
that time. They export from thence great quantities
of tobacco, and fome elephants, which are accounted
the moft docile of any in the whole world. E. Long..
80. 25. N. Lat. 9. 30.
J AGENDORF, a town and caftle of Silefia, capi¬
tal of a province of the fame name, feated on the river
Oppa. E. Long. 17. 47. N. Lat. 50. 4.
JAGGERNAUT, a black pyramidal done wor-
fhipped by the Gentoos, who pretend that it fell from
heaven, or was miraeuloufly prefented on the place
where their temple (lands. There are many other
idols of this figure in India j which, however, are all
but
JAG [ 2
Jaggernaut but accounted copies from the Jaggernaut. According
li to the beft information Mr Grole could obtain, this
^agQ- , ftone is meant to reprefent the power prefiding over
univerfal generation, which they attribute to the ge¬
nial heat and influence of the fun a&ing in fubordina-
tion to it. Domeftic idols of the form of the Jag¬
gernaut, and diflinguiflied by the fame name, are made
by the Gentoos. Thefe are niched up in a kiirn of
triumphal car, decorated with gilding and tinfel ;
which for fome days they keep in the beft apartment
jn their houfe. During this time their devotion con-
fifts in exhibiting the moft obfeene poftures, and act¬
ing all manner of lafeivioufnefs, in fight as it were of
the idol, and as the moft acceptable mode of worfhip
to that deity it reprefents after which they carry it
in its gilded car in proceflion to the Ganges, and throw
in all together as an acknowledgment to that river of
its congenial fertilization with that of the fun. For¬
merly this machine was decorated with jewels and other
expenfive ornaments ; but the Indians are now become
lefs extravagant, as they found that the Moors and
Chriftians, watching the places where they threw in
their idols, dived for them for the lake of the jewels
with which they were adorned.
Our author conjectures, that this pyramidal form of
the Gentoo idol was originally taken from that of
flame, which always inclines to point upwards, brom
this Indian deity he fuppofes the fliape of tfle Paphian
Venus to have been derived, for which i acitus could
not account. This image had nothing of the human
form in it, but rofe orbicularly from a broad balls, and
in the nature of a race goal tapering tq a narrow con¬
vex a-top ; which is exactly the figure of the idol in In¬
dia, confecrated to fuch an office as that heathen deity
was fuppofed to prefide over, and to which, on the bor¬
ders of the Ganges efpecially, the Gentoo virgins are
brought to undergo a kind of fuperficial defloration be¬
fore they are prefented to their hufbands.
JAGHIR.E, an affignment made in Bengal by an
imperial grant upon the revenue of any difirict, to de¬
fray civil or military charges, penfions, gratuities, &c.
JAGHIREDER, the holder of a jaghire.
JAGO, Richard, an ingenious poet, was vicar of
Snitterfield in Warwicklhire, and reftor of Kimcote in
Leiceflerfhire. He was the intimate friend and corre-
fpondent of Mr Shenftone, contemporary with him at
Oxford, and, it is believed, his fchool-fellow 5 was of
Univerfity college •, took the. degree of M. A. July 9.
1739 j was author of feveral poems in the 4th and 5th
volumes of Dodfley’s Poems *, publilhed a fermon, in
1755, on the Caufes of Impenitence confidered, preach¬
ed May 4. 1755, at Harbury in Warwicklhire, where
he was vicar, on occafion of a converfation faid to have
palled between one of the inhabitants and an appari¬
tion in the church-yard there •, wrote “ Edge-hill,” a
poem, for which he obtained a large fubfeription in
1767 ; and was alfo author of “ Labour and Genius,”
3768, 4to ; of “ The Blackbirds,” a beautiful elegy
in the Adventurer; .and of many other ingenious per¬
formances. He died May 28. 1781.
St JAGO, a large river of South America, which rifes
in the audience of Quito in Peru. It is navigable ;
and falls into the South fea, after having watered a fer¬
tile country abounding in cotton-trees, and inhabited
by wild Americans.
1 3 JAG
St JAGO, the largeft, moft populous, and fertile ofi
the Cape Verd illands, on the coaft of Africa, and the
refidence of the Portuguefe viceroy. It lies about 13
miles eaftward from the illand of Mayo, and abounds
with high barren mountains j but the air, in the rainy
feafon, is very unwholefome to ftrangers. Its produce
is fugar, cotton, wine, and fome excellent fruits. The
animals are black cattle, horfes, afies, deer, goats, hogs,
civet-catSj and fome very pretty green monkeys with
black faces.
Sir George Staunton, in the account which he gives
of this ifland obferves, that it is liable to long and ex-
ceffive droughts, for which it is perhaps impoffible to af-
fign any philofophical caufe. It was in a ftate of abfolute
famine at the end of 1792., when vifited by theembafl’y
to China, and the waters of the rivers were almoft dried
up. The furfaee of the earth was devoid of herbage,,
the cattle had nearly all periftied, as much from tbs-
want of food as from drought.
“ What were the uncommon circumftances (fays Sir
George) that took place in the atmofphere of that part-
of Africa to which the Cape de Verd illands lie conti¬
guous, or in the vaft expanfe of continent extending to
the eaft behind it, and from which this direful effect
muft have proceeded (as they happened where no man
of feience exifted to obferve or to record them), will
remain unknow n, nor is theory bold enough to fupply
the place of obfervation. Whatever was the caufe
which thus arrefted the bountiful hand of nature, by
drawdng away the fcurcesof fertility, it was obfervabie,.
that fome few trees and plants preferved their luxuri¬
ance, indicating that they ftill could extradt from the
arid earth whatever portion of humidity it was neceffary
to derive from thence for the purpofe of vegetable life,
though it was denied to others.”
Betide palm trees, frequently found verdant amidft
burning fands, nothing could be more rich in flavour,
or abound more with milky though corrotive juice,
than the afclcpiax gigantea, grow ing plentifully without
culture, but undifturbed. The phytic nut tree appear¬
ed as if its perpetuity was not to be affedled by any
drought. Some fpecies of mimofa, or fenfitive plant,
were moft common, and did not appear to languith.
But the annual produce of agriculture had almoft
wholly difappeared, and the fugar canes had little re-
femblance to any thing like vegetation. Yet vegeta¬
tion quickly revived whenever any moifture could be
conveyed through the foil.
The refidence of the viceroy is reprefented by Sir
George as a hamlet, confifting of 100 fmall dwellings,
only one ftory high, fcattered nearly a mile in length,
and one-third as much in breadth. Not being com¬
manded by any eminence, it was a fituation which ad¬
mitted of defence, yet the fort "was nearly in ruins, and
the few guns mounted on it were moftly honey-combed„
Amidft the ruins of St Jago, was found a Portuguefe,
to whom one of the party was recommended, by whom
they were hofpitably received, and treated with every
fpecies of tropical fruits from his garden.
St JAGO, a handfome and confiderable town of South
America, the capital of Chili, wdth a good harbour, a
bifliop’s fee, and a royal audience. It is feated in a
large and beautiful plain, abounding wfllh all the ne-
ceflaries of life, at the foot of the Cordilleras, on the
river Mapocho, which runs- acrofs it from call to weft.
Here
J A L
Jago Here are feveral canals and a dyke, by means of which
. , ^ they water the gardens and cool the ftreets.—It is very
a e“lUS* much fubjeft to earthquakes. W. Long. 69. 35. S.
Lat. 33. 40.
St JacO de Cuba, a town in North America, fituated
©n the fouthern coaft of the ifland of Cuba, in the bot¬
tom of a bay, with a good harbour, and on a river of
the fame name. W. Long. 76. 44. N. Lat. 20. o.
Jago de los Caval/eros, a town of America, and one
of the principal of the ifland of Hifpaniola. It is feat-
ed on the river Yague, in a fertile foil, but bad air.
W. Long. 70. 5. N. Lat. 19. 40.
St JAGO del Entero, a town of South America, one
of the moil confiderable of Tucuman, and the ufual
refidence of the inquifitor of the province. It is
feated on a large river, in a flat country, where there
is game, tygers, guanacos, commonly called camel-
Jheep, &c.
JAGO de la Vega, otherwife called Spanifh-toxvn, is
the capital of the ifland of Jamaica, in the Weft Indies j
and ftands in 1 8° 1' north latitude, and 76° 45' weft
longitude. It is about a mile in length, and little more
than a quarter of a mile in breadth, and contains be¬
tween 500 and 600 houfes, with about 4000 inhabi¬
tants of all colours and denominations. This town is
fttuated in a delightful plain on the banks of the Rio
Cobre, 13 miles from Kingfton, and 10 from Port
Royal. It is the refidence of the commander in chief:
and here the fupreme court of judicature is held, four
times in the year, viz. on the laft Tuefdays of February,
May, Auguft, and November, and fits three weeks.—
St Jago de la Vega is the county-town of Middlefex,
and belongs to the parifh of St Catharine ; in which
parifh there are 11 fugar-plantations, 108 pens, and
other fettlements, and about 10,000 flaves.
JAGUAR, or Jaquar, a name given to the Brafi-
lian ounce, a fpecies of Felis. See Felis, Mamma-
• LI A Index.
JAGUEER, in Eaft India afrairs, any penfion from
the Grand Mogul, or king of Delhi j generally fuch
as are affigned for military fervices.
JAGUEERDAR, the holder or pofleflbr of a ja-
gueer. It comes from three Perfian words, Ja, “ a
place guerifiun, “ to take }” and dajbtun, “ to
hold j” quaji, “ a place-holder or penfioner.” In the
times of the Mogul empire, all thp great officers of the
court, called omrahs, were allowed jagueers, either in
lands of which they colledled the revenues, or aflign-
ments upon the revenues for fpecified firms, payable by
the lord-lieutenant of a province : which fums were for
their maintenance, and the fupport of fuch troops as
they were neceffitated to bring into the field when de¬
manded by the emperor, as the condition of their ja¬
gueers, which were always revokable at pleafure.
JAIL-FEVER, a very dangerous diftemper of the con¬
tagious kind, arifing from the putrefcent difpofition of
the blood and juices. See Medicine Index..
JALAP, the root of a fpecies of convolvulus or
bind-weed. See Convolvulus, Botany and Mate¬
ria MeDICA Index.
JALEMUS, in antiquity, a kind of mournful fong,
ufed upon occalion of death, or any other affedting ac¬
cident. Hence the Greek proverbs had their original,
£ti'K%p'& (HKgsngof, or ‘ihvfcgarsgej, i. e. more fad or colder
J. A M
than a jalemus, us raj lecXipus tyl^xTcncs, worthj to le Jalenma
ranked among jalemufes. jj
JALOFFS, or Yaloffs, are a warlike people, in- ■*arna!'ca-
habiting moft of that part of Africa, lying between Se- ' v
negal and the Mandingo ftates on the Gambia. Their
lips, according to Mr Park, are not fo protuberant as
thofe of the generality of Africans 5 and though their
fkin is of the deepeft black, they are efteemed by the
white traders as the moft fightly of the negroes in that
part of the continent. They are divided into feveral
independent ftates, and more refemble the Mandingoes
than any other nation in their manners and government,
but much exceed them in the manufadlure of cotton
cloth, fpinning the wool to a finer thread, weaving it
in a broader loom, and dyeing it of a better colour.
They make excellent foap, by boiling ground nuts in
water, and then adding a ley of wood allies. They
likewife manufa&ure very good iron, which they carry
to Bandore to exchange for fait. Their language, it
is faid, is copious and fignificant, and is frequently
learned by Europeans trading to Senegal.
A generous difpofition, according to the teftimony of
Mr Park, is faid to dittinguifh them above the genera¬
lity of favages 5 they know how to return an adl of
kindnefs fhewn them by others in diftrefs, and their
conduft towards their enemies, in many inftances, is
faid to be worthy of imitation.
JAMADAR, an officer of horfe or foot, in Hindo-
ftan. Alfo the head or fuperintendant of the Peons in
the Sewaury or train of any great man.
JAMAICA, an ifland of the Weft Indies, the largeft
of the Antilles, lying between 170 and 190 N. Lat.
and between 76° and 790 W. Long, j in length near
120 miles, and about 50 in breadth. It approaches in
its figure to an oval. The windw'ard paffage right be¬
fore it hath the iftand ox Cuba on the weft, and Hifpa¬
niola on the eaft, and is about 20 leagues in breadth.
This ifland was difcovered by Admiral Chriftopher
Columbus in his fecund voyage, who landed upon it
May 5. 1494 j and w as fo much charmed with it, as
always to prefer it to the reft of the iflands : in confe-
quence of which, his fun chofe it for his dukedom. It
was fettled by Juan d’Efquivel, A. D. 1509, who built
the town, which, from the place of his birth, he called
Seville, and 11 leagues farther to the eaft flood Melilla.
Orifton was on the fouth fide of the ifland, feated on
what is now called Blue Fields River. All thefe are
gone to decay 5 but St Jago, now Spanifh-town, is ftill
the-capital. The Spaniards held this country i6oyears,
and in their time the principal commodity was cacao j
they had an immenfe flock of horfes, affes, and mules,
and prodigious quantities of cattle. The Englifh land¬
ed here under Penn and Venables, May 11. 1654, and
quickly reduced the ifland. Cacao w as alfo their prin¬
cipal commodity till the old trees decayed, and the new
ones did not thrive j and then the planters from Barba-
does introduced fugar-canes, which hath been the great
ftaple ever fince.
The profpeft of this ifland from the fea, by reafon of
its conftant verdure, and many fair and fafe bays, is
wonderfully pleafant. The coaft, and for fome miles
wdthin, the land is low ; but removing farther, it rifes
and becomes hilly. The whole ifle is divided by a
ridge of mountains running eaft and weft, fome rifing
to
I 22 1
JAM [2
Jamaica to a great height 5 and thefe are compofed of rock and
 v   a very hard clay; through which, however, the rains
that fall inceffantly upon them have worn long and
deep cavities, which they call gullies. Thefe moun¬
tains, however, are far from being unpleafant, as they
are crowned even to their fummits with a variety of fine
trees. There are alfo about a hundred rivers that iffue
from them on both fides : and, though none of them
are navigable for any thing but canoes, are both plea-
fing and profitable in many other refpefts. The cli¬
mate, like that of all countries between the tropics, is
very warm towards the fea, and in marfliy places un¬
healthy \ but in more elevated lituations cooler 5 and,
where people live temperately, to the full as wholefome
as in any part of the Weft Indies. The rains fall hea¬
vy for about a fortnight in the months of May and Oc¬
tober ; and, as they are the caufe of fertility, areftyled
feafons. Thunder is pretty frequent, and fometimes
ftiowers of hail: but ice and fnow are neverifeen, al¬
though on the tops of the mountains, and at no very
great height, the air is exceedingly cold.
The moft eaftern parts of this ridge are known under
the name of the Blue Mountains, fome of which exceed
5000 feet in height. This great chain of rugged rocks
defends the fouth fide of the ifiand from thofe boifter-
ous north-weft winds, which might be fatal to their pro¬
duce. The ftreams, though fmall, fupply the inhabi¬
tants with good water, which is a great blefling, as their
svells are generally brackifh. The Spaniards were per-
fuaded that thefe hills abounded with metals : but we
do not find that they wrought any mines j or if they
did, it was only copper, of which they faid the bells in
the church of St Jago were made. They have feveral
hot fprings, which have done great cures. The cli¬
mate was certainly more temperate before the great
earthquake ; and the ifland was fuppofed to be out of
the reach of hurricanes, which fince that time it hath
feverely felt. The heat, however, is very much tem¬
pered by land and fea breezes ; and it is afferted, that
the hotteft time of the day is about eight in the morn¬
ing. In the night, the wind blows from the land on
all fides, fo that no Ihips can then enter their ports.
In an illand fo large as this, which contains above
five millions of acres, it may be very reafonably con¬
ceived that there are great variety of foils. Some of
thefe are deep, black, and rich, and mixed with a kind
of potters earth $ others lhallow and fandy j and fome
of a middle nature. There are many favannahs, or
wide plains, without ftones, in which the native In¬
dians had luxuriant crops of maize, which the Spaniards
turned into meadows, and kept in them prodigious
herds of cattle. Some of thefe favannahs are to be met
with even amongft the mountains. All thefe different
foils may be juftly pronounced fertile, as they would
certainly be found, if tolerably cultivated,, and applied
to proper purpofes. A fufficienf proof of this will arife
from a very curfory review of the natural and artificial
produce of this fpacious country.
It abounds in maize, pulfe, vegetables of all kinds,
meadows of fine grafs, a variety of beautiful flowers,
and as great a variety of oranges, lemons, citrons, and
other rich fruits. Ufeful animals there are of all forts,
horfes, affes, mules, black cattle of a large fize, and
fheep, the tlefh of which is well tailed, though their
3 1 Jam
wool is hairy and bad. Here are alfo goats and hogs
in great plenty j fea and river fifti 5 wild, tame, and
water fowl. Amongft other commodities of great va¬
lue, they have the fugar cane, cacao, indigo, pimento,
cotton, ginger, and coffee j trees for timber and other
ufes, fuch as mahogany, manchineel, white wood which
no worm will touch, cedar, olives, and many more.
Befides thefe, they have fuftick, red wood, and various
other materials for dyeing. To thefe we may add a.
multitude of valuable drugs, fuch as guaiacum, china,
farfaparilla,caflia, tamarinds, vanellas, and the prickle-
pear or opuntia, which produces the cochineal j with
no inconfiderable number of odoriferous gums. Near
the coaft they have falt-ponds, from which at one time
they fupplied their own confumption, and might cer¬
tainly make any quantity they pleafed.
As this ifland abounds with rich commodities, it is
happy likewife in having a number of fine and fafe
ports. Point Morant, the eaftern extremity of the
ifland, hath a fair and commodious bay. Pafling on
to the fouth, there is Port Royal : on a neck of land
which forms one fide of it, there flood once the faireit
town in the ifland -, and the harbour is as fine a one as
can be wifhed, capable of holding a thoufand large
velfels, and ftill the ftation of our fquadroq. Old
Harbour is alfo a convenient port, fo is Maccary bay ;
and there are at leaft twelve more between this and
the weftern extremity, which is Point Negrillo, where
our (hips of war lie when there is a war with Spain. .
On the north fide there is Orange bay, Cold harbour, .
Rio Novo, Montego bay, Port Antonio, one of the
fineft in the ifland, and feveral others. The north-
weft winds, which fometimes blow furioufly on this
ceaft, render the country on that fide lefs fit for canes,
but pimento thrives wonderfully j and certainly many
other ftaples might be raifed in fmall plantations, which
are frequent in Barbadoes, and might be very advan¬
tageous here in many refpefts.
The town of Port Royal flood on a point of land
running far out into the fea, narrow, fandy, and inca¬
pable of producing any thing. Yet the excellence of
the port, the convenience of having fhips of feven hun¬
dred tons coming clofe up to their wharfs, and other
advantages, gradually attra&ed inhabitants iq fuch a
manner, that though many of their habitations were
built on piles, there were near two thoufand houfes in
the town in its moft flourilhing ftate, and which let at
high rents. The earthquake by which it was over¬
thrown happened on the 7th of June 1692, and num¬
bers of people periftied in it. This earthquake was
followed by an epidemic difeafe, of which upwards of
three thoufand died : yet the place was rebuilt j but the
greateft part was reduced to allies by a fire that hap¬
pened on the 9th of January 1703, and then the inha¬
bitants removed muftly to Kingfton. It was, however,
rebuilt for the third time ; and was riling towards its
former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the fea,
Ayguft 28. 1722. There is, notwithftanding, a fmall
town there at this day. Hurricanes fince that time
have often happened, and occafioned terrible devafta-
tions.
The ifland is divided into three counties, Middlefex, ,
Surry, and Cornwall •, containing 20 parilhes, over
each of which prefides a magiftrate ftyled a cujlos.
The
3
JAM [
The whole contain 36 towns and villages, and
churches and chapels. The population in 1787 was
eftimated at 250,000 negroes, 30,000 whites, 10,000
people of colour, and 1400 maroons j in all 291,400
inhabitants.
The adminifhation of public affairs is by a governor
and council of royal appointment, and the reprefenta-
tives of the people in the lower houfe of affembly.
They meet at Spanilh-town, and things are conduced
with great order and dignity. The lieutenant-gover¬
nor and commander in chief has -5000I. currency, or
357il. 8s. 6^d. fterling, befides which, he has a houfe
in Spanifh-town, a pen or a farm adjoining, and a po-
link or mountain for provilions ; a fecretary, an under-
fecretary, and a domeltic chaplain.
The honourable the council confifts of a prefident
and 10 members4 with a clerk, at 270I. a chaplain
look ulher of the black rod and meffenger 250I.
The honourable the affembly confifts of 43 members,
one of whom is chofen fpeaker. To this afl'embly be¬
long a clerk, with 1000I. falary ; a chaplain, 150I. j
meffenger, yool.y deputy, 140I. j and printer, 200I.
The number of members returned by each pariflr and
county are, for Middlefex, 17, viz. St Catharine 3, St
Dorothy 2, St John 2, St Thomas in the Vale 2, Cla¬
rendon 2, Vere 2, St Mary 2, St Ann 2: For Surry
16, viz. Kingfton 3, Port Royal 3, St Andrew 2, St
David 2, St Thomas in the Eaft 2, Portland 2, St
George 2 : For Cornwall 10. viz. St Elizabeth 2, Weft-
rnoreland 2, Hanover 2, St James 2, Trelawney 2.
The high court of chancery confifts of the chancel¬
lor (governor for the time being), 25 matters in ordi¬
nary, and 20 mafters extraordinary ; a regifter, and
clerk of the patents ; ferjeant at arms, and mace-bear¬
er. The court of vice admiralty has a foie judge, judge
furrogate, and commiffary, king’s advocate, principal
regifter, marftial, and a deputy-marlhal. The court of
ordinary, confifts of the ordinary (governor for the time
being), and a clerk. The fuprtme court of judicature
has a chief juftice, 120I. and 16 afliftant judges j at¬
torney-general, 400I.; clerk of the court, loci.} clerk
of the crown, 350I.; folicitor for the crown : 33 com-
miftioners for taking affidavits1, a provoft-marftial-ge-
neral, and eight deputies j 18 barrifters, befides the
attorney-general and advocate-general j and upward of
1 20 praftifing attorneys at law.
The commerce of Jamaica is very confiderable, not
only with all parts of Great Britain and Ireland, but
24. ] JAM
18 with Africa, North and South America, the Weft In- Jamaica,
dia iflands, and the Spanilh main. The thips annually '-—"v—
employed are upwards of 500 fail.
The following account of the exports of this liland
in 1770, as given by Abbe Raynal, but which in feve-
ral particulars appears to be under-rated, will contri¬
bute more than all that hath been faid, toftiow the im¬
portance of Jamaica. They confifted in 2249 bales of
cotton, which at 10 pounds per bale, the price in the
ifland, amounts to 22,490!. j 187-? hundred weight of
coffee, at three pounds five (hillings per hundred, 6088I. j
2753 bags of ginger, at two pounds five (hillings per
bag, 6194I. j 2211 hides, at feven (hillings per hide,
773I. ; 16,475 puncheons of rum, at 10I. per puncheon,
164,750!. Mahogany, 15,282 pieces and 8500 feet,
50,000!. Of pimento, 2,089,734 pounds weight,
52,243!. Sugar, 57,675 hogflieads, 6425 tierces, 52
barrels, at feventeen pounds ten (hillings per hogfhead,
twelve pounds per tierce, and four pounds per barrel,
amounting in the whole to 1,086,620!. Sarfaparilla,
205 bags, at ten pounds per bag, 2250I. Exports to
Great Britain and Ireland, 1,391,210!. To North
America, 146,324!. To the other iftands, 595I. Total
of the exports, 1,538,730!. In 1787, the eftimate of
exports exceeded two millions j and the imports are
(fated at 14 million.
The following is a general view of the property and
chief produce of the whole illand in 1786, as prefixed
by Mr Beckford to his defcriptive account of Jamaica.
Counties.
Middlefex
Surry
Cornwall
Total
Sugar
E (fates.
323
350
388
ic6x
Other
Settle¬
ments.
91?
54°
56*
20x8
Slaves.
87100
75600
90000
25i70c
Produce
Hhds. of
Sugar.
34900
39000
105400
Cattle.
75000
80000
69500
224500
It (hould be here obferved, that where two hogfheads
of fugar are made, there is at lead one puncheon of
rum •, but the proportion has been of late years more
confiderable : the quantity of the latter will therefore
be 52,700 puncheons.
A comparative view between the years 1768 and 1786.
Sugar Eftates
Sugar Hhds.
Negroes
Cattle
Middlefex
in
1768
239
24050
66744
59510
786
323
3M°o|
87100
75000
Surry
in
1768 ! 1786
146
1501°
39542
35°
34900
75600
21465! 80000
Cornwall
in
x 768
266
..9100
60614
54775
1786
388
390001
93000
69500
Total in
1768
651
68160
166900
'3575°
1786
1061
1 o 5400;
255700;
224500-
Amount
of
Increafe.
410
37240
88800
88750
From
J A M [ 25 ] J A M
Jamaica From the above fcheme it appears, how confider-
ll. able has been the increafe of fugar-eftates, and confe-
Tamblicus. quent|y 0£ produce of negroes and cattle in eighteen
v years: and in the fame portion of time (it is faid),
if proper encouragement were given, they might be
augmented in a threefold proportion.
The common valuation of an eftate in Jamaica is as
follows:
Cane land (the canes upon it valued
feparately) at - *
Plants -
Cane land, In ratoons and young plants.
Failure land - - -
Wood land -
Provifions - - -
Negroes
Mules - -
Steers -
Breeding cattle, &c.
Sterling.
L. 22 per acre.
22 ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto.
Works, water, carts, &tc.
15
8
4
57
22
10
5
from 7 to 10,000.
If a planter would wifh to leafe his eflate for a num¬
ber of years, his income would be large if he could
get only rod. fterling a day for his negroes (the lofs
made good), without requiring any thing for his land
or works.
JAMBI, or Jambis, a fea-port town and fmall
kingdom of Alia, on the ealtern coaft of the illand of
Sumatra. It is a trading place. The Dutch have a
- fort here; and export pepper from thence, with the
bed fort of canes. E. Long. 105. 55. S. Lat. o. 30.
JAMB IA vicus. See Yambo.
IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a fort of verfe, fo cal¬
led from its confiding either wholly, or in great part,
©f iambus’s. See Iambus.
Ruddiman makes two kinds of iambic, viz. dimeter
and trimeter j the former containing four feet, and the
latter fix. And as to the variety of their feet, they
©onfift wholly of iambus’s, as in the two following ver-
fes of Horace:
12 34 5 6
Dim. Inar\Jit a:\Jlu6Jius\
Trim. Suis\i3’ t\pfa Ro\ma vi\ribus\ruit.
Or, a dadlylus, fpondeus, anapeltus, and fomatimes
tribrachys, obtain in the odd places *, and the tri-
brachys alfo in the even places, excepting the lad.—
Examples of all which may be feen in Horace } as,
Dimeter.
123-4 5 6
Camai\a tra\Bavit\dapes\
Vide\re prope\rantes domum\
Trimeter.
Quo quo fcele\Jli rui\tis\aut\cur dex\leris.
Prius\que cce\!umJi\det in\ferius\mari.
Al:ti\bus nt\que cani\bus homi\cid‘l Hc\Borem.
Pavidum^que lepc^P out ad\venam laqueo\gruem.
JAMBLICUS, the name of two celebrated Plato¬
nic philofophers, one of whom was of Colchis, and the
inther of Apamea in Syria. The fird, whom Julian
equals to Plato, was the difciple of Anatolius and
Porphyry, and died under the reign of the emperor
Vol. XI. Part I.
Condantine.—-The fecond alfo enjoyed great reputa- Jamblicus
tion. Julian wrote feveral letters to him, and it is jarJ|£S
faid he was poifoned under the reign of Valens.—It is ,
not known to which of the two we ought to attribute
the works we have in Greek under the name of Jam-
blicus, viz. 1. The hidory of the life of Pythagoras,
and the feft of the Pythagoreans. 2. An exhortation
to the dudy of philofophy. 3. A piece againd Por¬
phyry’s letter on the myderies of the Egyptians.
JAMBOLIFERA, a genus of plants, belonging
to the oftandria clafs *, and in the natural method rank¬
ing with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
IAMBUS, in the Greek and Latin profody, a poe¬
tical foot, confiding of a diort fyllable followed by a
long one $ as in
©ei# Asy&i, Dei, meets.
Syllaba longa brew fubjeEla vocatur iambus, as Horace
expreffes it $ who alfo calls the iambus a fwift, rapid
foot, pes citus.
The word, according to fome, took its rife from
Iambus, the fon of Pan and Echo, who invented this
foot j or, perhaps, who only ufed fharp biting expref-
fions to Ceres, when afdidled for the death of Profer-
pine. Others rather derive it from the Greek <«?, ve-
nenum, “ poifon j” or from maledico, “ I rail,
or revile becaufe the verfes compofed of iambus’s
were at fird only ufed in fatire.
JAMES, St, called the Greater, the fon of Zebe-
dee, and the brother of John the Evangelid, was born
at Bethfaida, in Galilee. He was called to be an
apodle, together with St John, as they w-ere mending
their nets with their father Zebedee, who was a filher-
man j when Chrid gave them the name of Boanerges,
or Sons of Thunder. They then followed Chrid, were
witnelfes with St Peter of the transfiguration on Mount
Tabor, and accompanied our Lord in the garden of
olives. It is believed that St James fird preached the
gofpel to the difperfed Jews j and afterwards returned
to Judea, where he preached at Jerufalem, when the
Jews raifed up Herod Agrippa againd him, who put
him to a cruel death about the year 44. Thus St
James was the fird of the apodles who fudered martyr¬
dom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his ac-
culer was fo druck with his condancy, that he became
converted and fudered with him. There is a magnifi¬
cent church at Jerufalem which bears the name of St
James, and belongs to the Armenians. The Spa¬
niards pretend, that they had St James for their apof-
tle, and boad of podefling his body •, but Baronius,
in his Annals, refutes their pretenfions.
James, St, called the Lefs, an apodle, the brother
of Jude, and the fon of Cleophas and Mary the fider
of the mother of our Lord, is called in Scripture the
Jujl, and the brother of Jefus, who appeared to him
in particular after his refurreftion. He was the fird
bifhop of Jerufalem, when Annanias II. high pried of
the Jews, caufed him to be condemned and delivered
him into the hands of the people and the Pharifees,
who threw him down from the deps of the temple,
when a fuller dallied out his brains with a club, about
the year 62. His life was fo holy, that Jofephus con-
D fiders
J A M
[ 25
James, fiders tlie ruin of Jerufaletn as a punHhment inflifted
on that city for his death. He was the author of the
epiftle which bears his name.
St James of the Sword, (San Jago del Efpada'),
a military order in Spain, intlituted in I17°» under
the reign of Ferdinand II. king of Leon and Gallicia.
Its end was to put a flop to the incurlions of the
Moors; three knights obliging themfelves by a vow to
fecure the roads. An union was propofed and agreed
to in 1170 between thefe and the canons of St Eloy j
and the order was confirmed by the pope in H75*
The higheft dignity in that order is that of grand
mailer, which has been united to the crown of Spain.
The knights are obliged to make proof of their defcent
from families that have been noble for four generations
on both fides; they mull alfo make it appear that their
faid anceftors have neither been Jews, Saracens, nor he¬
retics ; nor even to have been called in queftion by the
the inquifition. The novices are obliged to ferve fix
months in the galleys, and to live a month in a mona-
fiery. Heretofore they were truly religious, and took
a vow of celibacy , but Alexander III. gave them a per-
miflion to marry. They now make no vows but of po¬
verty, obedience, and conjugal fidelity j to which, fince
the year 1652, they have added that of defending the
immaculate conception of the holy Virgin. Their ha¬
bit is a white cloak, with a red crofs on the breail.
This is efteemed the mod confiderable of all the mili¬
tary orders in Spain : the king carefully preferves the
office of grand mailer in his own family, on account of
the rich revenues and offices, whereof it gives him the
difpofal. The number of knights is much greater
now than formerly, all the grandees choofing rather to
be received into this than into the order of the Golden
Fleece ; inafmuch as this puts them in a fair way of
attaining to commands, and gives them many confider¬
able privileges in all the provinces of Spain, but efpe-
cially in Catalonia. >
James, the name of feveral kings of Scotland and
of Great Britain. See (Hijlones of) SCOTLAND and
Britain.
James I. king of Scotland in 1423, the firft of the
houfe of Stuart, was not only the mod learned king,
but the mod learned man, of the age in which he
flourifhed. This ingenious and amiable prince fell in¬
to the hands of the enemies of his country in his ten¬
der youth, when he w^as dying from the fnares of his
unnatural ambitious uncle, wbo governed his domi¬
nions, and was fufpe&ed of defigns againd his life.
Having fecretly embarked for France, the (hip wras
taken by an Engliffi privateer off Flamborough-head ;
and the prince and his attendants (among whom was
the earl of Orkney), were confined in a neighbouring
cadle until they were fent to London, See {Hjfiory
of) Scotland.
The king of England knew the value of the prize
he had obtained, and kept it with the mod anxious
care. The prince was conduced to the Tower of
Imndon immediately after he was feized, April 12.
A. D. 1405, in the 13th year of his age , and there
kept a clofe prifoner till June 10. A. D. 14°7» "’hen
he was removed to the cadle of Nottingham, from
whence he was brought back to the Tower, March I.
A. D. 1414? and there confined till Augud 3. in the
fame year, when he was conv«yed to the cadle of
] J A M
Windfor, where he was detained till the fummer of James.
A. D. 1417? when Henry V. for political reafons,, —' V"
carried him with him into France in his fecond expe¬
dition. In all thefe fortreffes his confinement, from
his own account of it, was fo fevere and drift, that he
was not fo much as permitted to take the air. In this
melancholy fituation, fo unfuitable to his age and
rank, books were his chief companions, and dudy his
greated pleafure. He rofe early in the morning, im¬
mediately applied to reading, to divert him from pain¬
ful redeftions on his misfortunes, and continued his
dudies, with little interruption, till late at night.
James being naturally fenfible, ingenious, and fond of
knowledge, and having received a good education in
his early youth, under the direftion of Walter Ward-
law, biffiop oV St Andrew’s, by this clofe application
to dudy, became an univerfal fcholar, an excellent
poet, and exquifite mufician. That he wrote as well
as read much we have his own tedimony, and that of
all our hidorians who lived near his time. Bow-
maker, the continuator of Fordun, who was his con¬
temporary, and perfonally acquainted with him, fpends
ten chapters in his praifes, and in lamentations on his
death ; and, amongd other things, fays, that his know¬
ledge of the fieriptures, of law, and philofophy, was in¬
credible. Heftor Boece tells us, that Henry IV. and
V. furniffied their royal prifoner with the bed teach¬
ers in all the arts and fciences •, and that, by their af-
fidance, he made great proficiency in every part of
learning and the fine arts j that he became a perfeft
mader in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, mufm, and all
the fecrets of natural philofophy, and was inferior to
none in divinity and law. He obferves further, that
the poems he compofed in his native tongue were
fo beautiful, that you might eafily perceive he was
born a poet j but that his Latin poems were not fo
faultlefs j for though they abounded in the mod fub-
lime fentiments, their language was not fo pure,_ ow¬
ing to the rudenefs of the times in which he lived.
This prince’s (kill in mufic was remarkable. Wal¬
ter Bower, abbot of Inchcolm, who was intimately
acquainted with that prince, affures us, that he ex¬
celled all mankind in that art, both vocal and in-
drumental j and that he played on eight different
indruments (which he names), and efpecially on the
harp, with fuch exquifite (kill, that he feemed to be
infpired *. King James was not only an excellent
performer, but alfo a capital compofer both of facred nicon, lib.
and fecular mufic •, and his fame on that account was*vi. c. 18.
extenfive, and of long duration. Above a century af¬
ter his death, he was celebrated in Italy as the inven¬
tor of a new and pleafing kind of melody, which had
been admired and imitated in that country. This
appears from the following tedimony of Aleffandro
Taffoni, a writer who was well informed, and of un¬
doubted credit. “ We may reckon among us mo¬
derns, James king of Scotland, who not only compo¬
fed many facred pieces of vocal mufic, but alfo of him-
felf invented a new kind of mufic, plaintive and melan¬
choly, different from all other j in which he hath \ Ale fund.
imitated by Carlo Gefualdo, prince of Venofa, \v\io,T(iJJ'. Penfs-
in our age, hath improved mufic with new and admi-er? Divcrf
rable inventions f.” As the prince of Venofa imitated
King James, the other muficians of Italy imitated thekins>voj ^
prince of Venofa. “ The mod noble Carlo Gefual-p. 5s 6,
do.
V
JAM
[
James. cJc*, the prince of muficians of our age, introduced fuch
<u.r.a ^yje 0f modulation, that other mulicians yielded the
preference to him •, and all fingers and players on
Itringed inftruments, laying afide that of others, every-
* Id. vol.iU. where embraced his*. All the lovers, therefore, of
j». 2i». Italian or Scotch mufic, are much indebted to the
admirable genius of King James I. who, in the gloom
and folitude of a prifon, invented a new kind of mufic,
plaintive indeed, and fuited to his fituation, but at the
fame time fo fweet and foothing, that it hath given
pleafure to millions in every fucceeding age.
As James I. of Scotland was one of the moft ac-
complilhed princes that ever filled a throne, he was
alfo one of the moft unfortunate. After fpending al-
moft 20 years in captivity, and encountering many
difficulties on his return into his native kingdom, he
was murdered by barbarous affaffins in the prime of
life. In the monuments of his genius, he hath been
almoft equally unfortunate. No veftiges are now re¬
maining of his Ikill in architecture, gardening, and
painting *, though we are affured by one who was well
■^SrofiViro-acqua nted with him, that he excelled in all thefe artsf.
niccn, lib Many of the productions of his pen have alfo periffi-
^v^a^30'ed ; for he tells us himfelf that he wrote much and
Quair. know of only three of his poems that are now ex-
canto i. tant, viz. Chrift’s Kirk on the Green—Peebles at the
ftan. 13. Play—and the King’s Quair, which was lately difco-
vered by Mr Warton, and hath been publifhed by ano-
§See ther gentleman But (lender as thefe remains are,
ealRemaim ^ afford fufficient evidence, that the genius of this
Etiin. poet was not interior to that of any-of his con-
and War temporaries j and that it ivas equally fitted for the
ton's Hift- gayeft or the graved drains.
James II. king of Scotland, T437, fucceeded his
father, being then not feven years of age j and was
billed at the firge of Roxburgh in 1460, aged 29.
James III. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father,
in 1460, in the 7th year of his age. The moft ftriking
feature in the character of this prince, unjuftly repre-
fented as tyrannical by feveral hiftorians, was his fond-
nefs for the fine arts, and for thofe who excelled in
them, on whom he beftowed more of his company,
confidence, and favour, than became a king in his
-eircumftances. This excited in his fierce and haugh¬
ty nobles dillike and contempt of their fovereign, and
indignation againft the objeCts of his favour; which
produced the moft pernicious confequences, and ended
in a rebellion that proved fatal to James, who w as (lain
in 1488, aged 36.
James IV. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father
in 1488. He was a pious and valiant prince-, fub-
dued his rebellious fubjeCh* 5 and afterwards, taking
part with Louis XII. againft Henry VIII. of Eng¬
land, he was (lain in the battle of Flowden-field in
IJ13> aged 41-—This king is acknowledged to have
had great accompliftiments both of mind and bgdy.
His Latin epiftles are claffical, compared with the bar-
barous ftyle of the foreign princes with whom he cor-
refponded. Like his father, he had a tafte for the fine
arts, particularly that of Iculpture. The attention
he paid to the civilization of his people, and his diftri-
bution of juftice, merit the higheft praife. After all,
the virtues of James appear to have been more (hining
than folid : and his character was that of a fine gentle¬
man and a brave knight, rather than a wife cr a great
Foet. vol. ii.
C- *25
27 ] J A M
monarch. At the time of his death, he was only in
his forty-firft year. Like ail the princes of his family
(to his great grandfon James VL)-his perlon was hand-
fome, vigorous, and aCtive. From their coins, it doe*
not appear that either he, or any of his predeceffors
of the Stuart race, wore their beards, as did all his
(ucceiTors, to the reign of Charles II.
James V. king of Scotland, in 1513, was but iS
months old when his father loft his life. When of age,
he affifted Francis I. king of France againft the em¬
peror Charles V. 5 for which fervice Francis gave
him his eldeft daughter in marriage, jn 1535. This
princefs died in two years -, and James married Mary of
Lorraine, daughter of Claud duke of Guife, and wi¬
dow of Louis d’Orleans, by whom he had only one
child, the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, born on¬
ly eight days before his death, which happened De¬
cember 13. 1542, in the 35th year of his age. This
was the firft prince of his family who died a natural
death fince its elevation to the throne. He died,
however, of a broken heart, occafioned by differences
with his barons. He was formed by nature to be the
ornament of a throne and a bleffing to his people j but
his excellent endowments were rendered in a great
meafure ineffectual by an improper education. Like
moft of his predeceffors, he w as born with a vigorous,
graceful perfon, which, in the early part of his re’gn,
was improved by all the manly exercifes then in ure.
This prince was the author of a humorous compofition
in poetry, which goes by the name of the Gaberlun'zie
Man,
James VI. king of Scotland in 1567, and of Eng¬
land in 1603, was (on of Mary queen of Scots; whom he
fucceeded in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in England.
Strongly attached to the Proteftant religion, he figna-
lized himfelf in its fupport ; which gave rife to the
horrid confpiracy of the Papifts to deftroy him and
all the Engliffi nobility by the Gunpowder Plot, dif-
covered November 5. 1605. The following year, a
political ted of loyalty was required, which fecured
the king’s perfon, by clearing the kingdom of thofe
difaffeded Roman Catholic fubjeCls who would not
fubmit to it. The chief glory of this king’s reign con¬
fided in the eftabliffiment of new colonies, and the
introduction of fome manufactures. The nation enjoy¬
ed peace, and commerce flourilhed during his reign.
Yet his adminiftration was defpifed both at home and
abroad : for, being the head of the Proteftant caufe in
Europe, he did not fupport it in that great crifis, the
war of Bohemia ; abandoning his fon-in-lawr the eleCtor
Palatine ; negociating when he Ihould have fought;
deceived at the fame time by the courts of Vienna and
Madrid ; continually fending illuftrious ambaffadors to
foreign powers, but never making a (ingle ally. He
valued himfelf much upon his polemical writings; and
fo fond was he of theological deputations, that to
keep them alive, he founded, for this exprefs purpofe,
Chelfea-college ; which was converted to a much bet¬
ter ufe by Charles II. His Eajilicon Doron, Com¬
mentary on the Revelation, writings againft Bellar-
mine, and his Damonologia, or doftrine of witchcraft,
are fufficiently known. There is a colleClion of his
writings and fpeeches in one folio volume. Several
other pieces of his are extant ; fome of them in the
Cabala, ethers in manufeript in the Britilh Mufeum,
D 2 and
James.
JAM [ 28 ] JAM
James, and others in Howard’s collection. He died in 1625,
in the 59th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.
James II. king of England, Scotland, &c. 1685,
grandfon of James I. fucceeded his brother Charles II.
It is remarkable, that this prince wanted neither cou¬
rage nor political abilities whilft he was duke of Y ork j
on the contrary, he was eminent for both : but when
he afcended the throne, he was no longer the lame
man. A bigot from his infancy to the Romilh reli¬
gion and to its hierarchy, he facrificed every thing to
eftablifli them, in direCl contradiction to the experi¬
ence he had acquired, during the long reign of his
brother, of the genius and character of the people he
was to govern. Guided by the Jefuit Peters his con-
feffor, and the infamous chancellor Jeffries, he violated
every lawr enaCted for the fecurity of the Protehant re¬
ligion $ and then, unable to face the refentment of his
injured fubjeCts, he fled like a coward, inftead of dif¬
arming their rage by a difraiHion of his Popifh mini-
Iters and priefts. He rather chofe to live and die a bi¬
got, or, as he believed, a faint, than to fupport the
dignity of his anceftors, or perifh beneath the ruins, of
his throne. The confequence was the revolution of
1689. James II, died in France in 1710, aged 68.
He wrote Memoirs of his own life and campaigns ta
the refloration 5 the original of which is prelerved in
the Scotch college at Paris. This piece is printed at
the end of Ramfay’s life of Marfhal Turenne. 2. Me¬
moirs of the Englifh affairs, chiefly naval, from the
year 1660 to 1673. 3* royal fufferer, King
James II. confiding of meditations, foliloquies, vows,
&c. faid to be compofed by his majefty at St Ger¬
mains. 4. Three letters j which were publifhed by
William Fuller, gent, in 1702, with other papers re¬
lating to the court of St Germains, and are faid in the
title page to be printed by command.
James, Thomas^ a learned Englifh critic and di¬
vine, born about the year 1571. He recommended
himfelf to the office of keeper of the public library at
Oxford, by the arduous undertaking of publifhing a
catalogue of the MSS. in each college library at both
univerflties. He was eleCted to this office in 1602,
and held it 18 years, when he refigned it to profecute
his ftudies with more freedom. In the convocation
held with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, of which
he was a member, he moved to have proper commif-
fioners appointed to collate the MSS. of the fathers in
all the libraries in England, with the Popifh editions,
in order to detefl the forgeries in the latter; but this
propofal not meeting with the defired encouragenaent,
he engaged in the laborious tafk himfelf, which he con¬
tinued until his death in 1629. He left behind him a
great number of learned works.
James, Richard, nephew' of the former, entered in¬
to orders in 1615: but, being a man of humour, of
three fermons preached before the univerfity, one con¬
cerning the obfervation of Lent was without a text,
according to the moft ancient manner $ another againft
the text 5 and the third befide it. About the year
1619, he travelled through Wales, Scotland, Shet¬
land, into Greenland and Ruffia, of which he wrote
obfervations. He affifted Selden in compofing his
Marmora Arundeliana; and was very ferviceable to
Sir Robert Cotton, and his fon Sir Thomas, in dif-
pofing and fettling their noble library. He died in
4
1638 j and has an extraordinary chara£ler given him James,
by Wood for learning and abilities. Jamefone.
James, Dr Robert, an Englifh phyfician of great 1 v' 1 -
eminence, and particularly diftinguifhed by the prepa¬
ration of a mod excellent fever powder, was born at
Kinverflon in Stafford (hire, A. D. 1703 : his father a
major in the army, his mother a filter of Sir Robert
Clarke. He w'as of St John’s-college in Oxford,
where he took the degree of A. B. and afterwards
praftifed phyfic at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birming¬
ham fucceffively. Then he removed to London, and
became a licentiate in the college of phyficians ; but in
what years is not known. At London he applied
himfelf to v'riting as well as praftiling phyfic 5 and in
1743, publifhed a Medical Dictionary, in 3 vols folio.
Soon after he publifhed an Englifn tranflation, with a
Supplement by himfelf, of Rama%czim de morbis artiji*
cum; to which he alfo prefixed a piece of Frederic
Hoffman upon Endemical Diftempers, 8vo. In 1746,
The Praflice of Phyfic, 2 vols 8vo j in 1760, On Ca¬
nine Madnefs, 8vo 5 in 1764, A Difpenfatory, 8vo.
June 25. 1755, when the king was at Cambridge,
James was admitted by mandamus to the doCtorfhip
of phyfic. In 1788, were publifhed, A Differtation
upon Fevers, and A Vindication of the Fever-powder,
8vo j with A Short Treatife on the Diforders of Chil¬
dren, and a very good print of Dr James. This was
the 8th edition of the Differtation, of which the fiift
was printed in 1751 J and the purpofe of it was, ts>
fet forth the fuccefs of this powder, as well as to de-
feribe more particularly the manner of adminiftering it.
The Vindication was pofthumous and unfinifhed : for
he died March 23. 1776, while he was employed up¬
on it.—Dr James was married, and left feveral ions and
daughters.
James's Powder, a medicine prepared by Robert
James, which is known alfo by the name of James's
fever powder. See Materia Medica Index.
James's Town, a borough and market town of Ire¬
land, in the county of Leitrim, and province of Con¬
naught j fituated five miles north-weft of Garrick on
Shannon, and 73 north-weft of Dublin, in N. Lat. 53.
44. W. Long. 8. 15. It has a barrack for a company
of foot, and returns two members to parliament j pa¬
tronage in the family of King.—It has three fairs.
St James's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
obferved on the 25th of July, in honour of St James
the greater, fon of Zebedee.
Epijiie of St James, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being the firft of the catholic or general
epiftles 5 which are fo called, as not being written to
one but to feveral Chriftian churches.
This general epiftle is addreffed partly to the belie¬
ving and partly to the infidel Jews j and is defigned to
corredl the errors, foften the ungoverned zeal, and re¬
form the indecent behaviour of the latter *, and to com¬
fort the former under the great hardlhips they then
did, or Ihortly were to fuffer, for the fake of Chrif-
tianity.
JAMESONE, George, an excellent painter, juft-
ly termed the Vandyck of Scotland, w as the fon of An¬
drew Jamefune, an architedt j and was born at Aber¬
deen, in 1 $86. He ftudied under Rubens, at Ant¬
werp $ and, after his return, applied with indefatiga¬
ble induftry to portraits in oil, though he fometimes
pradUfed
JAN [ 29 ] JAN
and alfo in hiftory and land- declared lierfelf willing to run all hazards with them in Jane
‘ ' fo juft a caufe ; pointed out the refources that ftill re- janJ!arje.
mained in the alliance of England •, earneftly befeech- ani 1
Jamefone pra&ifed in miniature, and alio in hiftory and iand-
U fcapes. His largeft portraits were fomewhat lels than
Jane. jjjs earlieft works are chiefly on board, after-
U““-v wards on a fine linen cloth fmoothly primed with a
proper tone to help the harmony of his lhadows. His
excellence is faid to confift in delicacy and foftnefs,
with a clear and beautiful colouring ; his (hades not
charged, but helped by varnifh, with little appearance
cf the pencil. When King Charles I. vifited Scotland
in 1633, the magiftrates of Edinburgh, knowing his
majefty’s tafte, employed this artift t:o make drawings
of the Scottiih monarchs •, with which the king was
fo pleafed, that, enquiring for the painter, he fat to
him, and rewarded him with a diamond ring from his
own finger. It is obfervable, that Jamefone always
drew himfelf with his hat on, either in imitation of
his mafter Rubens, or on having been indulged in that
liberty by the king when he fat to him. Many ot
Jamefone’s works are in both the colleges of Aber¬
deen } and the Sibyls there he is faid to have drawn
from living beauties in that city. His belt "works are
from the year 1630 to his death, which happened at
Edinburgh in 1644.
JAMYN, Amadis, a celebrated French poet in
the 16th century. He is efteemed the rival of Ron-
fard, who was his cotemporary and friend. He was
fecretary and chamber-reader in ordinary to Charles IX.
and died about 1585. He wrote, 1. Poetical works,
two vols. 2. Philofophical difcourfes to Paficharis and
Rodanthe, with feven academical difcourfes. 3. A
tranflation of the Iliad of Homer, begun by Hugh
Sabel, and finiftied by Jamyn ; with a tranflation into
French verfe of the firft three books of the Odyffey.
JANE 0/Flanders, a remarkable lady, who feems
to have pofieffed in her own perfon all the excellent qua¬
lities of both fexes, was the wife of John de Mountfort,
a competitor for the dukedom of Brittany upon the
death of John III. This duke, dying without iffue,
left his dominions to his niece Jane, married to Charles
de Blois nephew to the king of France 5 but John de
Mountfort, brother to the late duke though by a fecond
marriage, claimed the duchy, and was received as fuc-
celfor by the people of Nantes. The greateft part of
the nobility fwore fealty to Charles de Blois, thinking
him beft fupported. This difpute occafioned a civil
war ; in the courfe of which John was taken prifoner,
and fent to Paris. This misfortune would have entire¬
ly ruined his party, had not his intereft been fupport¬
ed by the extraordinary abilities of his wife, Jane of
Flanders. Bold, daring, and intrepid, Are fought like
a warrior in the field ; (hrewd, fenfible, and fagacious,
(he fpoke like a politician in the council ; and endow¬
ed with the. moft amiable manners and winning addrefs,
(he was able to move the minds of her fubjefts by the
force of her eloquence, and mould them exadlly accord¬
ing to her pleafure. She happened to be at Rennes
when (he received the news of her hufband’s captivity j
but that difafter, inftead of deprefling her fpirits, ferved
only to roufe her native courage and fortitude. She
forthwith aflembled the citizens ; and, holding in her
arms her infant fon, recommended him to their care
and proteftion in the moft pathetic terms, as the male
heir of their ancient dukes, who had always governed
them with lenity and indulgence, and to whom they
had ever profeffed the moft zealous attachment. She
ing them to make one vigorous effort againft an ufur-
per, who being forced upon them by the intrigues of
France, would, as a mark of his gratitude, facrifice the
liberties of Brittany to his proteftor. The people
moved by the affefting appearance, and animated by
the noble conduct of the princefs, vowed to live and die
with her in defending the rights of her family j and
their example was followed by almoft all the Bretons,
The countefs went from place to place, encouraging
the garrifons of the feveral fortreffes* and providing
them with every thing neceffary for their fubfiftence :
after which (he (hut herfelf up with her fon in Henne-
bon, where (lie refolved to wait for the fuccours which
the king of England (Edward III.) had promifed to
fend to hex afliftance. Charles de Blois, accompanied
by the dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon, and many
other noblemen, took the field with a numerous army,
and having reduced Rennes, laid fiege to Hennebon,
which was defended by the countefs in perfon. ihis
heroine repulfed the affailants in all their attacks with
the moft undaunted courage j and obferving one day
that their whole army had left the camp to join in a
general ftorm, (lie rulhed forth at a poftern-gate, with
three hundred horfe, fet fire to their tenths and baggage,
killed their fullers and fervants, and raifed fuch a ter¬
ror and confternation through all their quarters, that the
enemy gave over their affault, and getting betwixt her
and the walls, endeavoured to cut off her retreat to
the city. Thus intercepted, (he put the fpurs to her
horfe, and without halting, galloped diredtly to Breft,
which lay at the diftance of two-and-twenty miles from
the fcene of aftion. There being fupplied with a bo¬
dy of five hundred horfe, (he immediately returned,
and fighting her way through one part of the French
camp, was received into Hennebon, amidft the accla¬
mations of the people. Soon after this the Englifh
fuccours appeared, and obliged the enemy to raife the
(iege.
JANEIRO, or Rio-Janeiro, a river and province
of Brafil in South America, feated between the tropic
of Capricorn and 22° of S. Lat. See Rio-Janeiro.
JANICULUM, or Janicularis, a hill of ancient
Rome, added by Aneus Martins ; the burial place of
Numa, and of Statius Ccecilius the poet: to the eaft and
fouth, having the Tiber •, to the weft, the fields •, to the
north, a part of the Vatican. So called, either from
an ancient city, (Virgil) j or becaule it was
or gate, from which to iffue out and make incurfions
on the Tufcans, (Verrius Flaccus). Now called Mom
Aureus, corruptly Mon tonus, from its fparkling lands.
From this hill, on account of its height, is the moft
extenfive profpedt of Rome : but it is lefs inhabited,
becaufe of its grofs air \ neither is it reckoned among
the feven hills. Hither the people retired, and were
hence afterwards recalled by (X Hortenfius the dicta¬
tor, (Pliny).
JANIZARIES, an order of infantry in the Turkifti
armies j reputed the grand feignior’s foot-guards.
Voflius derives the* word from genrzers, which in the
Turkifti language flgnifies novi honunes or rmlites.
JYHerbelot tells us, that jemtchen fignifies a new* band,
or troop i and that the name was firft given by Amu-
rath
3 A. N [ 30 1 JAM
Junmries,rath I. called the Conqueror, who chcmling out one-fifth
?a,ifen' , part of the Chriftian prifoners whom he had taken
from the Greeks, and inftrufting them in the difcipline
of war and the do&rines of their religion, fent them to
Hagi Bektafche (a perfon vvhofe pretended piety render¬
ed him extremely revered among the Turks), to the
end that he might confer his blefling on them, and at
the fame time give them fome mark todiftinguiih them
from the re it of the troops.—-Bektafche, after bl effing ,
them in his manner, cut off one of the ileeves of the
fur-gown which he had on, and put it on the head of
the leader of this new militia j from which time, viz.
the year of Chriif 1361, they have ftill retained the
Tt&mt jenitcheri, and the fur-cap.
As, in the Turkiih army, the European troops are
diftinguiihed from thofe of Afia ; the Janizaries are al-
fo diftinguiihed into janizaries of Conjlantinople, and of
Damafcus. Their pay is from two afpers to twelve
per diem ; for when they have a child, or do any fig-
nal piece of fervice, their pay is augmented.—Their
drefs confifts of a dolyman, or long gown, with ihort
fleeves, which is given them annually by the grand
feignior on the firlt day of Ramazan. They wear no
turbeau ; but, in lieu of that, a kind of cap, which
they call zarcola, and a long hood of the fame fluff
hanging on their (houlders. On folemn^days they are
adorned with feathers, which are ftuck m a little cafe
on the fore part of the bonnet.—Their arms, in Europe,
in time of war, are a fabre, a carabine or mufket,
and a cartouch-box hanging on the left fide. At Con-
ffantinople, in time of peace, they wear only a long
Raff in their hand. In Afia, where powder and -fire¬
arms are inore uncommon, they wear a bovr and ar¬
rows, with a poignard, which they call haniare.—-
Though the janizaries are not prohibited marriage,
yet they rarely marry, nor then but with the confent
of their officers-, as imagining a married man to make
a worfe foldier than a bachelor.—It was Ofman, or
Ottoman, or, as others will have it, Amurath, who
firft inftituted the order of janizaries. They were at
firft called jaja, that is, feotmen, to diftinguiffi them
from the other Turks, the troops whereof confifted
moftly of cavalry. The number of janizaries is gene¬
rally above 40,000 ; divided into 162 companies or
chambers called odas, in which they live together at
Conllantinople as in a convent. They are of a fupe-
rior rank to all other foldiers, and are alfo more arro¬
gant and factious, and it is by them that the public
tranquillity is moftly difturbed. The government may
therefore be faid to be in the hands of the janizaries.
They have, however, fome good qualities : they are
employed to efcort travellers, and efpecially ambaffa-
dors and perfons of high rank, on the road ; in which
cafe they behave with the utmoft zeal and fidelity.
Janizaries, at Rome, are officers or penfioners of
the pope, called alfo participantes, on account of certain
rites or duties which they enjoy in the annates, bulls,
or expeditions, and the Roman chancery.—Moft au¬
thors are miftaken in the nature of their office : the
truth is, they are officers of the third bench or college
of the Roman chancery. The firft bench confifts of
writers, the fecond of abbreviators, and the third of
janizaries ; who are a kind of correftors and revifors of
she pope’s bulls.
JANSEN, Cornelius, bifhop of Ypres, one of the
moft learned divines of the 17th century, and princi- Janfoi.
pal of the fed! called from his name Janfemfts. He ^anieni^s*
was born in Holland of Catholic parents, and ftudied v——*
at Louvain. Being fent into Spain to tranfaft fome
bufinefs of confequence relating to the univerfity, the
Catholic king, viewing w ith a jealous eye the intriguing
policy of France, engaged him to write a book to ex-
pofe the French to the pope as no good Catholics,
fince they made no fcruple of forming alliances with
Proteftant ftates. Janfen performed this talk in his
Mars Gallicus ; and was rewarded with a mitre, being
promoted to the fee of Ypres in 1635. He had,
among other writings, before this, maintained a con-
troverfy againft the Proteftants upon the points of
grace and predeftination ; but his Avgujiinus was the
principal labour of his life, on which he fpent above 20
years. See the next article.
JANSENISTS, in Church Hiftory, a fe£t of the
Roman Catholics in France, who followed the opinions
of Janfenius, bilhop of Ypres, and doctor of divinity
of the univerfities of Louvain and Douay, in relation
-to grace and predeftination.
In the year 1640, the tw-o univerfities juft mention¬
ed, and particularly Father Molina and Father Leonard
Celfus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Je-
fuits on grace and free-will. This having fet the con-
troverfy on foot, Janfenius oppofed to the doftrine of
the Jefuits the fentiments of St Auguftine and wrote
a treatife on grace, which he entitled jlugufinus.
This treatife was attacked by the Jefuits, who accufed
Janfenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opi¬
nions ; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Ur-t
ban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatife written
by Janfenius : ■when the partizans of Janfenius gave
out that this bull was fpurious, and compofed by a per¬
fon entirely devoted to the Jefuits. After the death
of Urban VIII. the affair of Janfenifm began to be
more warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infi¬
nite number of polemical writings concerning grace.
And what occafioned fome mirth, was the titles which
each party gave to their writings j one writer publifti-
ed The torch of St Augujhne, another found Snuffers
for St Augufline's torch, and Father Veron formed A Gag
for the Janfenijls, &c. In the year i€50, 68 bilhops
of France fubferibed a letter to Pope Innocent X. to
obtain an inquiry into and condemnation of the five
following propofitions, extrafted from Janfenius’s Au-
guftinus-. 1. Some of God’s commandments are im-
poffible to be obferved by the righteous, even though
they endeavour with all their pow-er to accomplifti
them. 2. In the ftate of corrupted nature, we are in¬
capable of refilling inward grace. 3. Merit and de¬
merit, in a ftate of corrupted nature, do not depend
on a liberty which excludes necelfity, but on a liberty
which excludes conftraint. 4. The Semipelagians ad¬
mitted the necelfity of an inward preventing grace for
the performance of each particular aft, even for the
beginning of faith : but they were heretics in main¬
taining that this grace was of fuch a nature, that the
will of man was able either to refift or obey it. It is-
Semipelagianifm to fay, that Jefus Chrift died, or died
his blood, for all mankind in general.
In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congrega- •
tion for examining into the difpute in relation to grace.
In this congregation Janfenius was condemned 3 and
the
JAN t 3i 1 JAN
Janfcnifts, the bull of condemnation, publilhed in May 1653, fill-
Janffer.s. e(j the pU]pits in Paris with violent outcries and
» alarms againfl: the herefy of the Janfenifts. In the year
1656, Pope Alexander VII. iffued out another bull,
in which he condemned the five propofitions of Janfe-
nlus. However, the Janfenifts affirm, that thefe pro¬
pofitions are not to be found in this book ; but that
fome of his enemies having caufed them to be printed
on a ffieet, inferted them in the book, ^nd thereby de¬
ceived the pope. At laft Clement XI. put an end to
the difpute by his conftitution of July 17. 17055 in
which, after having recited the conftitutions of his pre-
deceffors in relation to this affair, he declares, “ That
in order to pay a proper obedience to the papal confti¬
tutions concerning the prefent queftion, it is neceffary
to receive them with a refpedlful filence.” The clergy
of Paris, the fame year, approved and accepted this
bull, and none dared to oppofe it.
This is the famous bull Unigenitus, fo called from
its beginning with the words Unigenitas Dei Films,
&c. which has occafioned fo much confufion in
Trance.
JANSSENS, Abraham, hiftory-paiater, was born
at Antwerp'in 1569. He was cotemporary with Ru¬
bens, and allb his competitor, and in many of the fineft
parts of the art was accounted not inferior to that cele¬
brated mafter. It is reported, that having wafted his
time and his fubftance by a life of diffipation and
pleafure, and falling into neceflitous circumftances,
which he imputed more to ill fortune than to his own
negleft of his bufinefs, he grew envious at the grandeur
in which Rubens appeared, and impatient at his merit
and fuccefs ; and with peevifti infolence challenged him
to paint a picture with him only for fame, which he was
willing to fubmit to impartial judges. But Rubens
rejefted the propofal, anfwering with modefty, that he
freely fubmitted to him, and the world would certain¬
ly do juftice to them both.
Sandrart, who had feen feveral of his works, affures
us, that he not only gave a fine roundnefs and relief
to his figures, but alfo fuch a warmth and clearnefs to
the carnations, that they had all the look of real fleffi 5
and his colouring was as durable as it was beautiful,
retaining its original luftre for a number of years. His
moft capital performance is faid to be the refurreftion
of Lazarus, which is in tlie cabinet of the eledfor Pa¬
latine, and is an objedf of admiration to all who behold
it.
Janssens, Viclor HowonW, hiftory-painter, was born
at Bruffels in 1664, and was a difciple of one Volders,
under, whofe diredlion he continued for feven years 5
m which time he gave many proofs of a genius far fu-
perior to thofe who were inftru&ed in the fame fchool.
He afterwards went to Rome, where he attended par¬
ticularly the works of Raphael ; he defigned after the
antiques, and iketched the beautiful fcenes around that
city 5 and in a ftiort time his paintings rofe in efteem,
and the principal nobility of Rome were defirous to
employ him. He affociated with Tempefta, the cele¬
brated land.fcape-painter, for feveral years, and painted
the figures in the works of that great mafter as long as
they refided together.
Janffens compofed hiftorical fubjefls, both in a fmall
md a large fize j but he found the demand for his
unall pictures fo confiderable, that hs was induced to
paint raoft frequently in that fize. During 11 years Janffens,
he continued at Rome, which barely fufticed for his -fenuarms
finiffiing thofe pictures fer which he was engaged 5 nor v "
could he have even then been at his liberty, had he not
limited himfelf to a number, and determined not to un¬
dertake more.—Returning to Bruffels, his performances
were as much admired there as they had before been
in Italy 5 but having married, and gradually become
the father of 11 children, he was compelled to change
his manner of painting in fmall, and to undertake only
thofe of the large kind, as being more lucrative, more
expeditious, and alfo more agreeable to his genius and
inclination. He adorned moft of the churches and pa¬
laces of his own country with his compofitions.—The
invention of this artift was fruitful 5 he defigned cor-
reftly, his colouring is natural and pleafing, his pencil
free, and the airs of hk heads have beauty and ele¬
gance. As to the difference between his large and fmall
paintings, it is obferved, that in correffnefs and tafte
they had an equal degree of merit 5 but the colouring
of the former appears more raw and cold than the co¬
louring of the latter 5 and it is agreed, that for fmall
hiftorical pi&ures, he was preferable to all the painters
of his time.
J anssen, Cornelius, called JoTmfon, an eminent pain¬
ter of portraits, was born at Amfterdam (though in
the Chronological tables, and in Sandrart, it is impro¬
perly afferted that he was born in London), and he
refided in England for feveral years 5 where he w as en¬
gaged in the fervice of King James I. and painted fe¬
veral excellent portraits of that monarch, as alfo of his
children and of the principal nobility of his court. He
had not the freedom of hand, nor the grace of Van-
dyck ; but in other refpefts he was accounted his equal,
and in the finifhing his pictures fuperior. His paint¬
ings are eafily diftinguilhed by their fmooth, clear,
and delicate tints, and by that chara&er of truth and
nature with which they are ftrongly marked. He ge¬
nerally painted on board ; and, for the moft part, his
draperies are black 5 probably becaufe the oppofition
of that tint made his flefti colours appear more beauti¬
fully bright, efpecially in his female figures. It is faid
that he ufed a quantity of ultramarine in the bl^ck
colours, as well as in his carnations 5 which may be
one great caufe of their preferving their original luftre
even to this day. Frequently he painted in a fmall fize
in oil, and often copied his own works in that manner.
His fame began to be fomewhat obfeured, on the arri¬
val of Vandyck in England 5 and the civil war break¬
ing out fome time after, induced him to return to his
own country, where his paintings w'ere in the higheft
efteem. He died in 1685.
St JANUARIUS, the patron faint of Naples,
where his head is occafionally carried in proceflion, in
order to ftay the eruption of Vefuvius. The lique-.
fa&ion of his blood is a famous miracle at Naples.
The faint fuffered martyrdom about the end of the
third century. When he was beheaded, a pious lady
of Naples caught about an ounce of his blood, which
has been carefully preferved in a bottle ever finee,
without having loft a fingle grain of its weight. This
of itfelf, were it equally demonftrable, might be con-
fidered as a greater miracle than the circumftance on
which the Neapolitans lay the whole ftrei’s, viz. that
the blood which has congealed, and acquired a folid
form
JAN [ 32 ] JAN
'Jamiarius, form by age, Is no fooner brought near the head of the
January. faint? than, as a mark of veneration, it immediately li-
v quefies. This experiment is made three different times
every year, and is confidered by the Neapolitans as a
miracle of the firft magnitude.
The fubftance in the bottle, which is exhibited for
the blood of the faint, has been fuppofed to be fome-
thing naturally folid, but which melts with a fmall
degree of heat. When it is firft brought out of the
•.cold chapel, it is in its natural folid ftate 5 but when
brought before the faint by the prieft, and rubbed be¬
tween his warm hands and breathed upon for fome
time, it melts 5 and this is the whole myftery. But
Dr Moore, though he confeffes himfelf unable to ex¬
plain on what principle the liquefa&ion depends, is
convinced that it muft be fomething different from
this : “ For he had it (he informs us) from the moft
fatisfadlory authority, from thofe who had opportuni¬
ties of knowing, and who believe no more in the mi¬
racle than the ftauncheft Proteftant, that, this con¬
gealed mafs has fometimes been found in a liquid ftate
in cold weather, before it was touched by the prieft,
or brought near the head of the faint j and that, on
other occafions, it has remained folid when brought
before him, notwithftanding all the efforts of the .prieft
to melt it. When this happens, the fuperftitious,
which, at a very moderate calculation, comprehends
99 in 100 of the inhabitants of this city, are thrown
into the utmoft confternation, and are fometimes
wrought up by their fears into a ftate of mind which
is highly dangerous both to their civil and ecclefiaftical
governors. It is true, that this happens but feldom :
for, in general, the fubftance in the phial, whatever it
fiiay be, is in a folid form in the chapel, and becomes
liquid when brought before the faint: but as this is not
always the cafe, it affords reafon to believe, that what¬
ever may have been the cafe when this miracle or
trick, call it which you pleafe, was firft exhibited, the
principle on which it depends has fomehow or other
been loft, and is not now underftood fully even by the
priefts themfelves 5 or elfe they are not now fo expert
as formerly, in preparing the fubftance which reprefents
the faint’s blood, fo as to make it remain folid when it
ought, and liquefy the inftant it is required.’.’
The head and blood of the faint are kept in a kind
of prefs, with folding doors of filver, in the chapel^ of
St Januarius belonging to the cathedral church. The
real head is probably not fo frefti and well preferved
as the blood. On that account, it is not expofed to
the eyes of the public ; but is inclofed in a large filver
buft, gilt and enriched with jewels of high value. This
being what appears to the people, their idea of the
faint’s features and complexion are taken entirely from
the buft.—The blood is kept in a fmall repofitory by
itfelf.
JANUARY, the name of the firft month of the
year, according to the computation now ufed in the
weft. The word is derived from the Latin Januarius^
-a name given it by the Romans from Janus, one of
their divinities, to whom they attributed two faces,
becaufe on the one fide the firft day of January looked
towards the new year, and on the other towards the
old one. The word Januarius may alfo be derived
from janua, “ gate in regard this month being the
firft, is, as it were, the gate of the year.
January and February were introduced into the year January,
by Numa Pompilius ; Romulus’s year beginning in the Jatms-
month of March.—The kalends, or firft day of this "¥   
month, was under the prote£lion of Juno, and in a pe¬
culiar manner confecrated to Janus by an offering of a
cake made of new meal and new fait, with new frank-
incenfe and new wine. On the firft day of January a
beginning was made of every intended work, the con-
fuls eleft took poffeffion of their office, who, with the
flamens, offered facrifices and prayers for the profperi-
ty of the empire. On this day all animofities were fuf-
pended, and friends gave and received new year’s gifts,
called Strence. On this day too the Romans above all
things took care to be merry and divert themfelves, and
oftentimes fuch a fcene of drunkennefs was exhibited,
that they might with propriety enough have diftin-
guilhed it with the name of All-fools day.
The Chriftians heretofore fafted on the firft day of
January, by way of oppofition to the fuperftitions and
debaucheries of the heathens.
JANUS, in the heathen worfliip, the firft king of
Italy, who, it is faid, received Saturn into his domi¬
nions, after his being driven from Arcadia by Jupiter.
He tempered the manners of his fubjefts, and taught
them civility; and from him they learned to improve
the vine, to fow corn, and to make bread. After his
death, he was adored as a god.
This deity was thought to prefide over all new un¬
dertakings. Hence, in all facrifices, the firft libation,
of wine and wheat were offered to Janus, all prayers
prefaced with a ftiort addrefs to him j and the firft
month of the year was dedicated to and named from
him. See January.
Janus was reprefented with two faces, either to de¬
note his prudence, or that he views at once the pail
and approaching years j he had a fceptre in his right
hand, and a key in his left, to fignify his extenfive au¬
thority, and his invention of locks.
Though this is properly a Roman deity, the abbe la
Pluche reprefents it as derived from the Egyptians,
who made known the rifing of the dog-ftar, which
opened their folar year, with an image with a key in its
hand, and two faces, one old and the other young, to
typify the old and new year.
Temple of JANUS, in ancient hiftory, a fquare build¬
ing at Rome (as fome fay) of entire brafs, ere&ed by*
Romulus, and fo large as to contain a ftatue of Janus
five feet high, with brazen gates on each fide,, which
were always kept open in time of war, and fliut in time
of peace. But the Romans were fo much engaged in
war, that this temple was (hut only twice from the
foundation of Rome till the reign of Auguftus, and fix
times afterwards. It was firft fluit during the long reign
of Numa, who inftituted this ceremony. 2. In the
year of the city 519, after the end of the firft Punic
war. 3. By Auguftus after the battle of Actium, in
the year of Rome 725. 4. On Auguftus’s return from
the war which.he had againft the Cantabrians in Spain,
in the year of Rome 729. 5. Under the fame emperor, in
744, about five years before the birth of Chrift, when
there was a general peace throughout the whole Ro¬
man empire, which lafted 12 years. 6. Under Nero,
811. 7. Under Vefpafian, 824. 8. Under Conftan-
tius, when, upon Magnentius’s death, he was leit
foie poffeffor of the empire, 1105. Some difpute the
authority
JAP r 33 ] JAP
Janus, authority on which it is faid to have been (hut by Con- which are commonly followed by hard frofls.
Japan, ftantius, and fay that the laft time of its being (hut
under Gordian, about the year of Rome
was under uoraian, aoout tne year ot Home 994.
Virgil gives us a noble defcription of this cuftom,
JEn. lib. iii. ver. 607. The origin of this cuftom
is not certainly known.
Janus was alfo the name of a ftreet in Rome, inha¬
bited for the moft part by bankers and ufurers. It was
fo called from two ftatues of Janus which were erefted
there, one at the top, the other at the bottom, of the
ftreet. The top of the ftreet was therefore called Ja¬
nus Summus, the bottom Janus Imus, and the middle
Janus Medius. Hence Horace, lib. i. epift. 1.
Hcec Janus fummus ab imo perdocet.
And Sat. 3. Lib. 2.
 -Poftquam
omnis res mea Janum
Ad medium fraBa eft.———
JAPAN, a general name for a great number of
illands lying between the eaftern coaft of Alia and the
weftern coaft of America, and which all together form
a large and powerful empire. They extend from the
30th to the 41ft degree of north latitude, and from the
130th to the 147th of eaft longitude.
Were South and North Britain divided by an arm of
the fea, Japan might be moft aptly compared to Eng¬
land, Scotland, and Ireland, with their refpe&ive fmaller
i(lands, peninfulas, bays, channels, &c. all under the
fame monarch.
The Europeans call the empire Japan ; but the in¬
habitants Niplwn, from the greateft iftand belonging
to it; and the Chinefe Ciphon, probably on account of
its eaftern fituation; thefe names fignifying, in both
languages, the Bafis or Foundation of the Sun. It was
full dilcovered by the Portuguefe about the year of
Chrift 1542.
Moft of the iflands which compofe it are furrounded
with fuch high craggy mountains, and fuch (hallow
and boifterous feas, that failing about them is extreme¬
ly dangerous j and the creeks and bays are choked
up with fuch rocks, (helves, and fands, that it looks
as if Providence had defigned it to be a kind of little
world by itfelf. Thefe feas have likewife many dan¬
gerous whirlpools, which are very difficult to pafs at
low water, and will fuck in and fwallow up the largeft
veflels, and all that comes within the reach of their
vortex, dafliing them againft the rocks at the bottom •,
infomuch that fome of them are never feen again, and
others thrown upon the furface at fome miles diftance.
Some of thefe whirlpools alfo make a noife terrible to
hear.
The Chinefe pretend that the Japan iflands were
firft peopled by themfelves: but it is more probable
that the original inhabitants were a mixture of different
nations, driven thither by thofe tempeftuous feas, at
different times.
As thefe iflands lie in the fifth and fixth climates,
they would be much hotter in fummer than England,
Were not the heats refreflied by the winds which conti¬
nually blow from the fea around them, and to which
they are much expofed by the height of their fitua-
tion. this circumftance, however, not only renders
t eir winters exceftively cold, but the feafons more in-
conftant. They have great falls of fnow in winter,
Vol. XL Part I. ’
The
rains in fummer are very violent, efpecially in the
months of June and July, which on that account are
called fat-fuki, or water-months. The country is al¬
fo much fubjedl to dreadful thunders and lightnings,
as well as ftorms and hurricanes, which frequently do
a great deal of damage.
The foil, though naturally barren and mountainous,
by the induftry of the inhabitants, not only fupplies
them with every neceffary of life, but alfo furnifties
other countries with them •, producing, befides corn,
the fineft and whited rice and other grains, with a
great variety of fruits, and vaft numbers of cattle of
all forts. Befides rice, and a fort of wheat and bar¬
ley, with twm forts of beans, they have Indian wheat,
millet, and feveral other kinds in great abundance.
Their feas, lakes, and rivers, abound with fi(h j and
their mountains, woods, and forefts, are well (locked
with horfes, elephants, deer, oxen, buffaloes, (heep,
hogs, and other ufeful animals. Some of their moun¬
tains alfo are enriched with mines of gold, filver, and
copper, exquifitely fine, befides tin, lead, iron, and
various other minerals and foflils \ whilft others abound
with feveral forts of marble and precious (tones. Of
thefe mountains, fome may be juftly ranked among
the natural rarities of the country } one, in particu¬
lar, in the great ifland of Niphon, is of fuch prodi¬
gious height as to be eafily feen forty leagues off at
fea, though its diftance from the fliore is about eigh¬
teen. Some authors think it exceeds the famous Peak
of Teneriffe 5 but it may rather be called a clufter or
group of mountains, among which are no lefs than
eight dreadful volcanoes, burning with incredible fury,
and often laying wafte the country round about them :
but, to make fome amends, they afford great variety
of medicinal waters, of different degrees of heat j one
of thefe, mentioned by Varenius, is faid to be as hot as
burning oil, and to fcorch and confume every thing
thrown into it.
The many brooks and rivers that have their fources
among the mountains, form a great number of delight¬
ful cafcades, as wrell as fome dreadful catarafts. A*
mong the great variety of trees in the forefts here,
the cedars exceed all of that kind through India, for
ftraightnefs, height, and beauty. They abound in mofl:
of the iflands, efpecially the largeft.
Their feas, befides fiffi, furnilh them with great quan¬
tities of red and white coral, and fome pearls of great
value, befides a variety of fea plants and (hells ; which
laft are not inferior to thofe that are brought from Am-
boyna, the Molucca and other eafterly iflands.
The vaft quantity of fulphur with which moft of
the Japan iflands abounds, makes them fubjefl to fre¬
quent and dreadful earthquakes. The inhabitants are
fo accuftomed to them, that they are fcarcely alarmed
at any, unlefs they chance to be very terrible indeed,
and lay whole towns in ruins, which very often proves
the cafe. On thefe occafions, they have recourfe to
extraordinary facrifices, and a&s of worftiip, to their
deities or demons, according to the different notions
of each feift, and fometimes even proceed to offer hu¬
man vidlims; but in this cafe they only take fome of
the vileft and mod abandoned fellows they can meet
with, becaufe they are only facrificed to the malevo¬
lent deities.
E The
Japan.
 /—
JAP [ 34 J JAP
The religion throughout Japan, it is well known, is in hiftory, whereby the religion they preached, and ail Japan.
Pagan, fplit into feveral feds, who live together in the thofe that profeffed it, were in a few years time entirely u-—-v~-
greateft harmony. Every fed has its own temples and exterminated.”—The fathers had made a progrefs fo
priefts. The fpiritual emperor, the Dairi, is the chief great, that the princes of Bungu, Arima, and Omura,
of their religion. They acknowledge and honour a who had been baptized, “ fent, in the year 1582, feme
Supreme Being. The author of this relation (Dr of their neareft relations, with letters and prefents to
Thunberg) faw two temples of the God of gods of a pay homage to the then pope, Gregory XIII. and
majeftic height. The idol that reprefented this god to affure his holinefs of their filial fubmiffion to the
was of gilded wood, and of fo prodigious a fize, that church ; an account of which molt celebrated embalTy
upon his hands fix perfons might fir in the Japanefe hath been given in the works of that incomparable
falhion ; his ihoulders were five toifes broad. In the hiftorian Thuanus, and by many other Roman Catholic
other temple, the infinite power of this god was repre- writers.”
fented by little gods to the number of 33,333, all Hand- But notwithftanding this pleafing profpeft, the em-
ing round the great idol that reprtfented God. The peror, anno 1586, iffued proclamations for the fuppref-
prielts, who are numerous in every temple, have nothing fion of the religion, and the perfecution began. This,
to do but to clean the pavement, light the lamps, and however, at firlt had not that effedt which the govern-
drefs the idol with flowers. The temples are open to ment expefted 5 for though, according to the letters of
every body, even to the Hollanders j and in cafe they the Jefuits, 20,570 perfons fuffered death for the faith
are in want of a lodging in the fuburbs, when they go of Chrift in the year 1590 only, yet in 1591 and 1592,
to the court of Jeddo, they are entertained with hofpi- when all the churches were aftually (hut up, they made
tality in thefe temples. 12,000 new converts. The bufinefs was finally con-
The Roman Catholic religion had once made a eluded by the maffacre at Simabara, about the year
confiderable progrefs in this country, in confequence 1640. The reafons of the emperor’s proclamations,
of a miflion conduced by the Portuguefe and Spa- making it death to embrace the religion, were as
Jiifh Jefuits*, among whom the famous Saint Fran- follow': 1. The new religion oceafioned confiderable
cis Xavier was employed, but foon relinquilhed the fer- alterations in the Japanefe church, and was prejudi-
vice. There were alfo fume Francifcan friars of Spain cial in the higheft degree to the heathen clergy. 2. It
engaged at laft. The Jefuits and friars were fupplied was feared the innovation in religion might be attended
from Goa, Macao, and the Manilhas. At firft the un- with fatal confequences even in regard to the ftate j but
dertaking proceeded with the moft rapid fuccefs, but what more immediately gave rife to them was, as the
ended at laft in the moft tragical manner, all owdng to Japanefe of credit confeffed to Dr Kempfer, pride and
the pride and haughtinefs, the piifconduft, rapacity, covetoufnefs j pride among the great ones, and cove-
and fenfelefs extravagant confpiracy of the fathers againft toufnefs in people of lefs note j the fpiritual fathers
the ftate. This folly and madnefs produced a perfecu- aiming not only at the falvation of their fouls, but ha-
tion of 40 years duration, terminated by a moft hor- ving an eye alfo to their money and lands, and the mer-
rible and bloody maffacre, not to be paralleled in hif- chants difpofing of their goods in the moft ufurious and
tory. After this the Portuguefe, as likewife the Chri- unreafonable manner. To confine ourfelves to the cler-
ftian religion, were totally expelled the country, and gy here : they “ thought k beneath their dignity to walk
the moft effectual means taken for preventing their re- on foot any longer •, nothing would ferve them but they
turn. The natives are for this purpefe prohibited from muft be carried about in ftately chairs, mimicking the
going out of the country •, and all foreigners are exelu- pomp of the pope and his cardinals at Rome. They not
ded from an open and free trade j for as to the Dutch, only put themfelveson an equal footing with the greateft
and Chinef^, under which laft name fome other eaftern men of the empire, but, fw'elled with ecclefiaftica! pride,
nations go thither, they are Ihut up whilft they remain fancied that even a fuperior rank was nothing but their
there, and a moft Ariel watch is fet upon them, infomuch due. It one day happened, that a Portuguefe biftiop
that they are no better than prifoners ; and the Dutch, met upon the road one of the counfellors of ftate on his
it is faid, to obtain a privilege even fo far, declared way to court. The haughty prelate would not order
themfelves to. be no Chri/lians, but Dutchmen. This ca- his chaife to be flopped, in order to alight and to pay
lumny, however, Dr Kempfer has endeavoured to wipe his rel’pedls to the great man, as is ufual in that coun-
off, but not altogether to fatisfa&ion. try •, but without taking any notice of him, nay, indeed
It was about the year of Chrift J549, or fix years af- w ithout fliowing him fo much as common marks of ci-
ter the firft difeovery, that the fathers of the fociety ar- vility, he very contemptuoufly bid his men carry him
rived there, being induced by the favourable reprefen- by. The great man, exafperated at fo fignal an affront,
tations of a young Japanefe who had fled to Goa. thenceforward bore a mortal hatred to the Portuguefe,
Till the year 1625, or near 1630, the Chriftian reli- and, in the height of his juft refentment, made his com-r
gion fpread through moft of the provinces of the em- plaint to the emperor himfelf, with fuch an odious pic-
pire, many of the princes and lords openly embracing it j ture of the infolence, pride, and vanity of this nation,
and “ there was very good reafon to hope, that within as he expefled could not but raife the emperor’s utmoft
a fiiort compafs of time the w’hole empire wmuld have indignation.” This happened in 1566. The next year
been converted to the faitli of our Saviour, had not the the perfecution began anew, and 26 perfons, of the num-
ambitious views, and the impatient endeavours of the feer whereof were two foreign Jefuits, and feveral ether
fathers to reap the temporal as well as the fpiritual fathers of the Francifcan order, were executed on the
fruits of their care and labour, fo provoked the fupreme crofs. The emperor Jiojas had ufurped the crown on
majefty of the empire as to raife againft themfelves and his pupil Tidajori, w'ho, as likewife the greater part of
their converts a perfecution whic)^ hath not its parallel his court and party* had been either Chriftians them-
felves3
JAP [ 35 1 JAP
Japan, felves, or at ieaft very favourably inclined to that re-
ligion $ fo that reafons of ftate mightily co-operated to
forward the perfecution.
Some Francifcan friars, whom the governor of the
Manilhas had lent as his ambalTadors to the emperor of
Japan, were guilty at this time of a moft imprudent
ftep : they, during the whole time of their abode in the
country, preached openly in the flreet of Meaco where
they refided j and of their own accord built a church,
contrary to the imperial commands, and contrary to the
advice and earneft felicitations of the Jefuits.
Some time after, a difeovery of a dangerous confpi-
racy, which the fathers, and the yet remaining adhe¬
rents of their religion, entered into againft the perfon
of the emperor as a heathen prince, put a finifhing
ftroke to the affair, and haftened the fentence w hich
was pronounced foon after, t/iat the Portuguefe Jhou/dfor
ever be banifhed the emperor's dominions ; for till then
the ftate feemed defirous to fpare the merchants and fe-
cular perfons, for the purpofe of continuing trade and
commerce with them, which was looked upon as an af¬
fair independent of religion. The affair of the confpi-
racy was as follows: the Dutch had had an eye to the
trade of Japan before 1600, and in 1611 had liberty of
a free commerce granted them by the imperial letters
patent, and had adlually a fadlory at Firando. The
Dutch were then at war with Spain, which was then
fovereign of the Portuguefe dominions $ fo that it was
natural for them to be trying to fupplant them. The
Portuguefe, on their parts, made ufe of all malicious in¬
ventions to blacken their charafters, calling them re¬
bels and pirates, whence it was natural for the Dutch
to endeavour to clear, and even to revenge themfelves.
Now they “ took an homeward-bound Portuguefe (hip
-near the Cape of Good Hope, on board of which they
found ibme traitorous letters to the king of Portugal,
written by one Captain More, who was chief of the
-Portuguefe in Japan, himfelf a Japanefe by birth, and
a great zealot for the Chriftian religion. The Dutch
took fpecial care to deliver the faid letters to their pro-
tedfor the prince of Firando, who communicated them
without lofs of time to the governor of Nagafaki, a
great friend to the Portuguefe. Captain Moro having
been taken up, boldly, and with great affurance, denied
the fadt, and fo did all the Portuguefe then at Nagafa-
k.i. However, neither the governor’s favour, nor their
conftant denial, were able t© clear them, and to keep off
the cloud which was ready to break over their heads.
Hand and feal convinced them ; the letter w as fent up
to court, and Captain Moro fentenced to be burnt alive
on a pale, which was executed accordingly. This let¬
ter laid open the whole plot which the Japanefe Chri-
ftians, in conjumftion with the Portuguefe, had laid
againft the emperor’s life and throne } the wrant they
flood in of (hips and foldiers, which werepromifed them
from Portugal j the names of the Japanefe princes con¬
cerned in the confpiracy j and laftly, to crown all, the
expedlation of the papal blefling. This difeovery made
by the Dutch was afterwards confirmed by another let¬
ter written by the faid Captain Moro to the Portuguefe
government at Macao, which was intercepted and
brought to Japan by a Japanefe fhip.”
Confidering this, and the fufpicxons which the court
had then already conceived agaiuft the Portuguefe, it
was no difficult matter thoroughly to ruin the little cre¬
dit and favour they had as yet been able to prefeive j Japan,
and the rather, fince the ftridh imperial orders notwith-—v—
(landing, they did not leave off privately to bring over
more ecclefiaftics. Accordingly, in the year 1637, an
imperial proclamation wras fent to the governors of Na¬
gafaki, with orders to fee it put in execution. It was
then that the empire of Japan was ftiut for ever both to
foreigners and natives.
Now, although the governors of Nagafaki, on receipt
of thefe commands, took care they ftiould be obeyed,
yet the directors of the Portuguefe trade maintained
themfelves in Japan two years longer, hoping to obtain
leave to flay in the ifland of Defima, and there to con¬
tinue their trade. But they found themfelves at laft
wholly difappointed ; for the emperor was refolved to
get rid of them j and on affurance given him by the
Dutch Fall India company that they would fupply for
the future what commodities had been imported by the
Portuguefe, he declared the Portuguefe and the Cafti-
lians, and whoever belonged to them, enemies of the
empire, forbidding the importation of even the goods
of their country, Spanifh wines only excepted, for the
ufe of the court. And thus the Portuguefe loft their
profitable trade, and commerce with Japan, and were
totally expelled the country before the latter end of the
year 1639 or 1640 : and thus ended the fruitlefs popilh
million in this empire, for the Portuguefe have never
been able to reftore thcmfelves 5 and the Dutch have
it not in their power to do any one thing in Favour of
religion, were they fo inclined ; but, as it appears, they
are very indifferent as to that, and are in but little cre¬
dit with the Japanefe.
According to Dr Thunberg’s refearches, the Japa¬
nefe have never been fubdued by any foreign power,
not even in the moft remote periods 5 their chronicles
contain fuch accounts of their valour, as one would ra¬
ther incline to confider as fabulous inventions than ac¬
tual occurrences, if later ages had notfurnifhed equally
ftriking proofs of it. When the Tartars, for the firlt
time in 79°> hacl overrun part of Japan, and when,
after a confiderable time had elapfed, their fleet was
deftroyed by a violent ftorm in the courfe of a Angle
night, the Japanefe general attacked, and fo totally de¬
feated his numerous and brave enemies, that not a Angle
perfon furvived to return and carry the tidings of fuch
an unparalleled defaat. In like manner, when the Japa¬
nefe were again, in 1281, invaded by the w arlike Tar¬
tars, to the number of 240,000 fighting men, they gain¬
ed a vidtory equally complete. The extirpation of the
Portuguefe, and with them of the Chriftian religion,
towards the beginning of the 17th century, as already
mentioned, was fo complete, that fcarce a veftige can
now be difeerned of its ever having exifted there.
With relpedl to the government of thefe iflands, it
is and has been for a long time monarchical; though
formerly it feems to have been fplit into a great num¬
ber of petty kingdoms, which were at length all fwal-
lowed by one. The imperial dignity had been en¬
joyed for a confiderable time before the year 1500,
by a regular fucceffion of princes, under the title of
dairos, a name fuppofed to have been derived from
Dairo the head of that family. . Soon afte-r that
epoch, inch a dreadlul civil war broke out, and lafted
fo many years, that the empire was quite ruined. Du¬
ring thefe diftradlions and confufions, a common fol-
E 2 dit r,
JAP [ i
Japan, dier, by name Tayckoy, a perfon of obfcure birth,
but of an enterprifing genius, found means to raife
himfelf to the imperial dignity ; having, in little more
than three years time, by an uncommon ftiare of good
fortune, fubdued all his competitors and opponents,
and reduced all their cities and caftles. The dairo
not being in a condition to obftruct or put a flop to
his progrefs, was forced to fubmit to his terms j and
might perhaps have been condemned to much harder,
had not Tayckoy been apprehenfive left his foldiers,
who ftill revered their ancient natural monarch, fhould
have revolted in his favour. To prevent this, he grant¬
ed him the fupreme power in all religious matters, with
great privileges, honours, and revenues annexed to it j
whilft himfelf remained invefted with the whole civil
and military power, and was acknowledged and pro¬
claimed king of Japan. This great revolution hap¬
pened in 1517, and Tayckoy reigned feveral years
with great wifdom and tranquillity ; during which he
made many wholefome laws and regulations, which ftill
fubfift, and are much admired to this day. At his
death, he left the crown to his fon Tayckoffama, then
a minor j but the treacherous prince under w-hofe guar-
dianfhip he was left deprived him of his life before he
came of age. By this murder, the crown pafled to the
family of Jejaffama, in which it ftill continues. Tayc¬
koy and his fucceiTors have contented themfelves with
the title of cubo, which, under the dairos, was that of
prime minifter, whofe office is now fuppreffed \ fo that
the cubo, in all fecular concerns, is quite as abfolute
and defpotic, and has as extenfive a pow'er over the
lives and fortunes of all his fubje&s, from the petty
kings down to the loweft perfons, as ever the dairos had.
The dairo refides conftantly at Meaco, and the cubo
at Jeddo.
The inhabitants of Japan are w^ell-grown, agile, and
aftive, and at the fame time ftout-limbed, though they
do not equal in ftrength the northern inhabitants of
Europe. The colour of the face is commonly yellow j
which fometimes varies to brown, and fometimes to
white. The inferior fort, who during their work in
fummer have often the upper parts of the body naked,
are fun-burnt and browner j women of diftindKon, who
never go uncovered into the open air, are perfedlly white.
The national character confifts in intelligence and
prudence, franknefs, obedience, and politenefs, good¬
nature and civility, curiofity, induftry, and dexterity,
economy and fobriety, hardinefs, cleanlinefs, juftice
and uprightnefs, honefty and fidelity •, in being alfo
miftruftful, fuperftitious, haughty, refentful, brave and
invincible.
In all its tranfaclions, the nation ffiowrs great intel¬
ligence, and can by no means be numbered among the
favage and uncivilized, but rather is to be placed
among the polilhed. The prefent mode of govern¬
ment, admirable Ikill in agriculture, fparing mode of
life, V’ay of trading with foreigners, manufaftures, &c.
afford convincing proofs of their cunning, firmnefs,
and intrepid courage. Here there are no appearances
of that vanity fo common among the Afiatics and A-
fricans, of adorning themfelves with ffiells, glafs-beads,
and poliffied metal plates: neither are they fond of
the ufelefs European ornaments of gold and filver lace,
jewels, &c. but are careful to provide themfelves, from
6 ] JAP
the productions of their own country, with neat clothes,
well-tafted food, and good weapons.
Their curiofity is exceffive ; nothing imported by the
Europeans efcapes it. They alk for information con¬
cerning every article, and their queftions continue till
they become wearifome. It is the phyfician, among
the traders, that is alone regarded as learned, and par¬
ticularly during the journey to court and the refidence
at Jeddo, the capital of the empire, that he is regarded
as the oracle, which they truft can give refponfes in all
things, whether in mathematics, geography, phyfics,
chemiftry, pharmacy, zoology, botany, medicine, &c.
Economy has its peculiar abode in Japan. It is a
virtue admired as well in the emperor’s palace as in the
meaneft cottage. It makes thofe of fmall poffeffions
content with their little, and it prevents the abundance
of the rich from overflowing in excefs and voluptuouf-
nefs. Hence it happens, that what in other countries
is called fcarcity and famine, is unknown here ; and
that, in fo very populous a ftate, fcarce a perfon in ne-
ceffity, or a beggar, fhould be found.
The names of families, and of Angle perfons, are
under very different regulations from ours. The family
name is never changed, but is never ufed in ordinary
converfation, and only when they fign feme writing ;
to which they alfo for the moft part affix their feal.
There is alfo this peculiarity, that the furname is al¬
ways placed firft ; juft as in botanical books the generic
name is always placed before the fpecific name. The
praenomen is always ufed in addreffing a perfon \ and it
is changed feveral times in the courie of life. A child
receives at birth from its parents a name, which is re¬
tained till it has itfelf a fon arrived at maturity. A
perfon again changes his name when he is invefted with
any office ; as alfo when he is advanced to a higher
truft : fome, as emperors and princes, acquire a new
name after death. The names of women are lefs vari¬
able ’y they are in general borrowed from the moft beau¬
tiful flowers.
After marriage, the wife is confined to her own
apartment, from whence {he hardly ever ftirs, except
once a-year to the funeral-rites of her family 5 nor is
{lie permitted to fee any man, except perhaps lome
very near relation, and that as feldorn as can be. The
wives, as well as in China and other parts of the eaft,
bring no portion with them, but are rather bought by
the huflband of their parents and relations. The bride¬
groom moft commonly fees bis bride for the firft time
upon her being brought to his houfe from the place of
the nuptial ceremony : for in the temple where it is
performed {he is covered over W’ith a veil, which reach¬
es from the head to the feet. A hulhand can put his
wives to a more or lefs fevere death, if they give him
the leaft caufe of jealoufy, by being feen barely to con-
verfe with another man, or fuffering one to come into
their apartment.
The drefs of the Japanefe deferves, more than that
of any other people, the name of national; fince they
are not only different from that of all other men, but
are alfo of the fame form in all ranks, from the mo¬
narch to his meaneft fubjeeft, as well as in both fexes $
and what exceeds all credibility, they have not been
altered for at leaft 2444 years. They univerfally con-
fift of night-gowns, made long and wide, of which fe¬
veral
Japan,
JAP [ 37 J JAP
japan, veral are worn at once by all ranks and all ages. The
—v—more diftiivguilhed and the rich have them of the fineft
filk 5 the poorer fort of cotton. Thofe of the women
reach down to the ground, and fometimes have a train v
in the men, they reach down to the heels : travellers,
foldiers, and labourers, either tuck them up, or wear
them only down to the knees. The habit of the men
is generally of one colour : the women have theirs va¬
riegated, and frequently with flowers of gold interwo¬
ven. In fummer, they are either without lining, or
have but a thin one j in winter they are fluffed to a
great thicknefs with cotton or filk. The men feldom
wear a great number •, but the women thirty, fifty, or
more, all fo thin, that they fcarce together amount to
five pounds. The undermoft ferves for a fliirt, and is
therefore either white or blue, and for the moft part
thin and tranfparent. All thefe gowns are fattened
round the waitt with a belt, which in the men are about
a hand’s-breadth, in the women about a foot $ of fuch
a length that they go twice round the waift, and after¬
wards are tied in a knot with many ends and bows.
The knot, particularly among the fair fex, is very con-
fpicuous, and immediately informs the fpe&ator whe¬
ther they are'•married or not. The unmarried have it
behind, on their back j the married before. In this
belt the men fix their fabres, fans, pipe, tobacco, and
medicine boxes. In the neck the gowns are always cut
round, without a collar j they therefore leave the neck
bare •, nor is it covered with cravat, cloth, or any thing
elfe. The fleeves are always ill made, and out of all
proportion wide : at the opening before, they are half
fevved up, fo that they form a fack, in which the hands
can be put in cold weather $ they alfo ferve for a pock¬
et. Girls in particular have their fleeves fo long that
they reach down to the ground. Such is the fimplicity
of their habit, that they are foon dreffed j and to un-
drefs, they need only open their girdle and draw in
their arms.
As the gowns, from their length, keep the thighs
and l£gs warm, there is no occafion for ftockings j
nor do they ufe them in all the empire. Among
poorer perfons on a journey, and among foldiers, who
have not fuch long gowns, one fees bufkins of cotton.
Shoes, or, more properly fpeaking, flippers, are of all
that is worn by the Japanefe, the fimpleft, the meaneft,
and the moft miferable, though in general ufe among
high and low, rich and poor. They are made of in-
■« terwoven rice-ftraw ; and fometimes, for perfons of dif-
tin&ion, of reeds fplit very thin. They confift only of
a foie, without upper leathers or quarters. ' Before,
there paffes over, tranfverfely, a bow of linen, of a
finger’s breadth : from the point of the flioe to this bow
goes a thin round band, which running within the great
toe, ferves to keep the flioe fixed to the foot. The
fhoe being without quarters, Aides, during walking,
like a flipper. Travellers have three bands of twifted
ftraw, by which they fatten the ftioe to the foot and
leg, to prevent its falling off. The Japanefe never en¬
ter their houfes with fhoes, but put them off in the en¬
trance. This precaution is taken for the fake of their
neat carpets. During the time the Dutch refide in Ja¬
pan, as they have fometimes occafion to pay the natives
vifits in their houfes, and as they have their own apart¬
ment at the faflory covered with the fame fort of car¬
pets, they do not wear European ftioes, but have in
3 o
their ftead red, green, or black flippers, which can ea- Japaa.
fily be put off at entering in. They, however, wear ‘ ■ \
ftockings, with ftioes of cotton, fattened by buckles.
Thefe fhoes are made in Japan, and may be vafhed
whenever they become dirty.
The way of drefling the hair is not lefs peculiar to
this people, and lefs univerfally prevalent among them,
than the ufe of their long gowns. The men (have the
head from the forehead to the neck j and the hair re*
maining on the temples, and in the nape, is well be-
fmeared with oil, turned upwards, and then tied with
a white paper thread, which is wrapped round feverai
times. The ends of the hair beyond the head, are cut
crofs-ways, about a finger’s length being left. This
part, after being patted together with oil, is bent in
fuch a manner that the point is brought to the crown of
the head $ in which fituation it is fixed by pafling the
fame thread round it once. Women, except fuch as
happen to be feparated from their hufbands, (have no
part of their head.
The head is never covered with hat or bonnet in.
winter or in fummer, except when they are on a jour¬
ney j and then they ufe a conical hat, made of a fort
of grafs, and fixed with a ribband. Some travelling
women, who are met with on the roads, have a bonnet
like a {having bafon inverted on the head, which is
made of cloth, in which gold is interwoven. On other
occafions, their naked heads are preferved, both from
rain and the fun, by umbrellas. Travellers, moreover,
have a fort of riding-coat, made of thick paper oiled.
They are worn by the upper fervants of princes, and
the fuite of other travellers. Dr Thunberg and his
fellow-travellers, during their journey to court, were
obliged to provide fuch for their attendants when they
paffed through the place where they are made.
A Japanefe always has his arms painted on one or
more of his garments, efpecially on the long and fhort
gowns, on the fleeves, or between the fhoulders •, fo
that nobody can fleal them j which otherwife might
eafily happen in a country where the clothes are fo
much alike in fluff, fliape, and fize.
The weapons of the Japanefe confift of a bow and ar¬
rows, fabre, halbert, and mufket. The bows are very
large, and the arrows long, as in China. When the
bows are to be bent and difcharged, the troop always
refts on one knee, which hinders them making a fpeedy
difcharge. In the fpring the troops affemble to praftife
fhooting at a mark. Mulkets are not general; Dr
Thunberg only faw them in the hands of perfons of di-
ftinftion, in a feparated and elevated part of the audi¬
ence room. The barrel is of the common length j but
the flock is very {hort, and there is a match in the
lock. The fabre is their principal and beft -weapon,
which is univerfally worn, except by the peafants.
They are commonly a yard long, a little crooked, and
thick in the back. The blades are of an incomparable
goodnefs, and the old ones are in very high efteem, .
They are far fuperior to the Spanilh blades fo celebrat¬
ed in Europe. A tolerably thick nail is eafily cut in
two without any damage to the edge j and a man, ac¬
cording to the account of the Japanefe, may be cleft
afunder. A feparate fafti is never ufed, but the fword
is ftuck in the belt, on the left fide, with the edge up¬
wards, which to a European appears ridiculous. All i
perfons in office wear two fuch fabres, one of their own, .
and 1
>
JAP [ 38 ] JAP
fopan. and the other the /word of office, as it is called *, the
latter is always the longer. Both are worn in the belt
on the fame fide, and fo difpofed as to crofseach other.
When they are fitting, they have their fword of office
laid on one fide or before them.
The fciences are very far from having arrived at the
fame height in Japan as in Europe. The hiftory of the
country is, notwithftanding, more authentic, perhaps,
than that of any other country 5 and it is ftudied, with¬
out diftindtion, by all. Agriculture, which is confider-
ed as the art mofl neceffary, and moll conducive to the
fupport and profperity of the kingdom, is nowhere in
the world brought to fuch perfedtion as here j where
neither civil nor foreign war, nor emigration, diminifhes
population 5 and where a thought is never entertain¬
ed, either of getting poffeflion of other countries, or to
import the ufelefs and often hurtful produdlions of fo¬
reign lands} but where the utmoft care is taken that
no turf lies uncultivated, and no produce of the earth
unemployed. Aftronomy is purfuedand refpedled j but
<the natives are unable, without the aid of Chinefe, and
fometimes of Dutch almanacks, to form a true kalen-
•dar, or calculate an eclipfe of the fun or moon within
minutes and feconds. Medicine has neither arrived,
nor is it likely to arrive, at any degree of perfedtion.
Anatomy is totally unknown 5 the knowledge of dif-
eafes imperfedt, intricate, and often fabulous. Botany,
•and the knowdedge of medicines, conftitute the whole
of their Ikill. They ufe only fimples $ and thefe gene¬
rally in diuretic and diaphoretic decodtions. They are
unacquainted with compound medicines. Their pbyfi-
cians always indeed feel the pulfe j but they are very
tedious, not quitting it for a quarter of an hour; be¬
sides, they examine firfi one, and then the other arm,
as if the blood was not driven by the fame heart to
1 both pulfes. Befides thofe difeafes which they have in
common with other countries, or peculiar to themfelves,
, the venereal difeafe is very frequent, which they only
underftoed how to alleviate by decodlions, thought to
purify the blood. Salivation, which their phyficians
have heard mentioned by the Dutch furgeons, appears
to them extremely formidable, both to condudl and to
undergo \ but they have lately learned the art of em¬
ploying the fublimate with much fuccefs.—Jurifpru-
dence is not an extenfive iludy in Japan. No country
has thinner law-books, or fewer judges. Explanations
of the law, and advocates, are things altogether un¬
known j but nowhere, perhaps, are the laws more cer¬
tainly put in force, without refpedt to perfons, without
partiality or violence. They are very ftridl, and lawr-
iuits vvery (hort. The Japanefe knowr little more of
phyfic or chemiftry than what they have learned of
late years of the Europeans.
Their computation of time takes its rife from Min-o,
or 660 years before Chrift. The year is divided ac¬
cording to the changes of the .moon ; fo that fome
years confift of twelve, and others of thirteen, months j
and the beginning of the year falls out in Eebruary or
March. They have no weeks confiding of feven days,
or of fix working days, and a holiday $ but the firftand
■ fifteenth days of the month ferve for holidays. Qn
ihefe days no work is done. On new-year’s-day they
go round to wifh one another a good mew-year, with their
whole families, clad in white and blue chequered, their
Jholiday-drefs $ and they reft almoft the whole of the
I
firft month. The day is divided only into twelve hours ; Japa
and in this divifion they are directed the whole year by v—-*v
the rifing and fetting of the fun. They reckon fix
o’clock at the rifing, and fix likewife at the fetting of
the fun. Mid-day and mid-night are always at nine.
Time is not meafured by clocks or hour-glafles, but
with burning matches, which are twifted together like
ropes, and divided by knots. When the match is burnt
to a knot, which indicates a certain portion of time
elapfed, notice is given during the day, by ftriking the
bells of the temples j and in the night, by the watch¬
men ftriking two boards againft one another. A child
is alw ays reckoned a year old at the end of the year of
his birth, whether this happen at the beginning or the
clofe. A few days after the beginning of the year, is
performed the horrid ceremony of trampling on images
reprefenting the crofs and the Virgin Mary with her
child. The images are of melted copper, and are faid
to Be fcarce a foot in height. This ceremony is intend¬
ed to imprefs every individual with hatred of the Chrif-
tian do&rine, and the Portuguefe, who attempted to in¬
troduce it there •, and alfo to difcover whether thsre is
any remnant of it left among the Japanefe. It is per¬
formed in the places where theChriftians chiefly refided.
In Nagafaki it lafts four days j then the images are
conveyed to the circumjacent places, and afterwards are
laid afide againft the next year. Every perfon, except
the Japanefe governor and his attendants, even the final-
left child, muft be prefent j but it is not true, as fome
have pretended, that the Dutch are alfo obliged to
trample on the image. Overfeers are appoiftted in every
place, who affemble the people in companies in cer¬
tain houfes, call over the name of every one in his turn,
and take care that everything goes on properly. The
children, not yet able to walk, have their feet placed
upen it *, older perfons pafs over it from one fide of the
room to the other.
The Japanefe are much addi&ed to poetry, mufic,
and painting : the firft is faid to be grand as to the
ftyle and imagery, loftinefs, and cadence; but, like
that of the Chinefe, is not eafily underftood or reliihed
by the Europeans. The fame may be faid of their mu¬
fic, both vocal and inftrumental j the beft of which, of
either kind, would hardly be tolerable to a nice Euro¬
pean ear.
They pretend, like the Chinefe, to have been the in¬
ventors of printing from time immemorial, and their
method is the fame with theirs on wooden blocks j but
they excel them in the neatnefs of cutting them, as well
as in the goodnefs of their ink and paper. Ihey like-
wife lay claim to the invention of gunpowder j and are
vaftly fuperior to the Chinefe in the ufe of all forts of
fire-arms, efpecially of artillery, as well as the curiouf-
.nefs of their fire-works.
Their manner of writing is much the fame as that of
•the Chinefe, viz. in columns from top to bottom, and
the columns beginning at the right and ending at the
left hand. Their charafters were alfo originally the
fame, but now differ confiderably.
Their language hath fome affinity with the Chinefe,
though it appears from its various dialefts to have been
a kind of compound of that and other languages, deri¬
ved from the various nations that firft peopled thofe
i{lands. It is not only very regular, polite, elegant,
and copious, but abounds with a great variety of fy-
uonyma,
\
JAP
t 39 3
JAP
Japan, nonyiua, adapted to the nature of ti>e iubjeCt they aie
"v l'1 upon, whether fublime, familiar, or low j and to the
quality, and fex, both of the fpeaker and perfon
fpoken to.
The Japanefe are commonly very ingenious in moft
handicraft trades; and excel even the Chinefe in fe-
veral manufactures, particularly in the beauty, good-
nefs, and Variety of their Iriks, cottons, and other
fluffs, and in their Japan and porcelain wares. No
eaftern nation comes up to them in the tempering and
fabricating of fcimitars, fwords, mufkets, and other
fuch weapons.
The Japanefe architecture is much in the fame tafte
and ftyle as that of the Chinefe, efpecially as to their
temples, palaces, and other public buildings j but in
private ones they affeCt more plainnefs and neatnefs
than (how. Thefe laft are of wood and. cement, con-
fifting of two ftories: they dwell only in the lower •,
the upper chamber ferving for wardrobes. Xhe roofs
are covered with rufh-mats three or four inches thick.
In every houfe there is a fmall court, ornamented with
trees, fhrubs, and flower-pots; as likewife with a place
for bathing. Chimneys are unknown in this country,
although fire is needed from the cold month of Octo¬
ber till the end of March. They heat their rooms with
charcoal contained in a copper ftove, which they, fit
round. Their cities are generally fpacious, having
each a prince or governor refiding in them. 1 he capi¬
tal of Jeddo is 2i French leagues in circumference. Its
flreets are straight and large. There are gates at little
diftances, with an extremely high ladder, which they
afcend to difcover fires. Villages differ from cities in
having but one ftreet; which often extends feveral
leagues. Some of them are fituated fo near each other,
that they are only feparated by a river or a. bridge.
The principal furniture of the Japanefe confifts in ftraw-
ftiats, which ferve them for feats and beds j a fmall ta¬
ble for every one who choofes to eat is the only move-
able. The Japanefe fit always upon their hams. Be¬
fore dinner begins, they make a profound bow and
drink to the health of the guefts. The women eat by
themfelves. During the courfes, they drink a glafs of
fakki, which is a kind of beer made of rice kept con-
ftantly warm j and they drink at each new morfel. Tea
and fakki are the moft favourite drink of this people j
w ine and fpirits are never ufed, nor even accepted when
offered by the Dutch. Sakki, or rice beer, is clear as
wine, and of an agreeable tafte : taken in quantity, it
intoxicates for a few moments, and caufes headach.
Both men and women are fond of tobacco, which is in
univerfal vogue and fmoked continually. The gardens
about their houfes are adorned writh a variety of flow'ers,
trees, verdure, baths, terraces, and other embellilh-
ments. The furniture and decorations of the houfes of
perfons of diftinftion confift in japan-work of various
colours, curious paintings, beds, couches, Ikreens, cabi¬
nets, tables, a variety of porcelain jars, vafes, tea-equi¬
page, and other veffels and figures, together with fwords,
guns, fcimitars, and other arms. Their retinues are
more or lefs numerous and fplendid according to their
rank ; but there are few of the lords who have lefs than
50 or 60 men richly clad and armed, fome on foot,
but moft: on horfeback. As for their petty kings and
princes, they are feldom feen without 300 or 200 at
lead, when they either wait on the emperor, which is
one-half of the year, or attend him abroad.
When a prince or great man dies, there are com¬
monly about 10, 20, or more youths of his houfehold,
and fuch as were his greateft favourites, who put them¬
felves to a voluntary death, at the place where the bo¬
dy is buried or burned : as foon as the funeral pilej
confiding of odoriferous woods, gums, fpices, oik',
and other ingredients, is fet on fire, the relations and
friends of the deceafed throw their prefents into it,
fuch as clothes, arms, victuals, money, fweet herbs,
flowers, and other things which they imagine will be of
ufe to him in the other world. I hofe of the middle
or lower rank commonly bury their dead, without any
other burning than that of forae odoriferous woodsy
gums, &c. The fepulchres in which the bones and
allies of perfons of rank are depofited, are generally
very magnificent, and fituated at lome diftance from ths
towns.
The Dutch and Chinefe are the only nations allowed
to traffic in Japan. The Dutch at prefent fend but two
Ihips annually, which are fitted out at Batavia, and fail
in June, and return at the end of the year. The chief
merchandife is Japanefe copper and raw camphor. The
wares which the Dutch company import are, coarfe fu-
gar, ivory, a great quantity of tin and lead, a little call
iron, various kinds of fine chintzes,. Dutch cloth of dif¬
ferent colours and finenefs, ferge wood for dyeing, tor-
toife-ffiell, and cofius Arabicus. The little merchandife
brought by the officers on their own account, confifts of
faffron, theriaca, fealing-wax, glafs-beads, watches, See.
&c. About the time when the Dutch fliips are expeft-
ed, feveral outpofts are ftationed on the higheft hills by
the government 5 they are provided with telefcopes,
and long before their arrival give the governor of Na-
gafaki notice. As foon as they anchor in the harbour,
the upper and under officers of the Japanefe immediately
betake themfelves on board, together with interpreters^
to whom is delivered a cheft, in which all the failors
books, the mufter-roll of the whole crew, fix fmall bar¬
rels of powder, fix barrels of balls, fix muikets, fix
bayonets, fix piftols, and fix fwords are depofited j this
is fuppofed to be the whole remaining ammunition after
the imperial garrifon has been faluted. d hefe things
are conveyed on ffiore, and preferved in a feparate ware-
houfe, nor are they returned before the day the ffiip
quits the harbour.
Duties are quite unknown as well in the inland part
as on the coaft, nor are there any cuftoms required ei¬
ther for exported or imported goods j an advantage en¬
joyed by few nations. But, to prevent the importation
of any forbidden wares, the utmoft vigilance is obfer-
ved ; then the men and things are examined with the
eyes of Argus. When any European goes on ffiore, he
is examined before he leaves the Ihip, and afterwards
on his landing. This double feareh is exceedingly
ftriiSl; fo that not only the pockets and clothes are
ftroaked with the hands,, but the pudenda of the mean¬
er fort are preffed, and the hair of the flaves. All the
Japanefe who come on board are fearched in like man¬
ner, except only their fuperior officers : fo alfo are the
wares either exported or imported, firft on board, and
then at the faftory, except the great ohefts, which are
opened at the factory, and fo carefully examined that
they
Japao.
JAP [ 40 ] JAP
Japan, they ftrike the very fides left they fliould be hollow.
Japanning, bed-clothes are often opened, and the feathers
examined : rods of iron are run into the pots of butter
and confections : a fquare hole is made in the cheefe,
and a long pointed iron is thruft into it in all direc¬
tions. Their fufpicion is carried fo far, that they take
out and break one or two of the eggs brought from Ba¬
tavia.
The interpreters are all natives j they fpeak Dutch
in different degrees of purity. The government per¬
mits no foreigner to learn their language, left they
fhould by means of this acquire the knowledge of the
manufactures of the country j but 40 or 50 interpreters
are provided to ferve the Dutch in their trade, or on
any other occafion.
The interpreters are very inquifitive after European
books, and generally provide themfelves with fome
from the Dutch merchants. They perufe them with
care, and remember what they learn. They belides
endeavour to get inftruCtion from the Europeans ; for
which purpofe they alk numberlefs queftions, particu¬
larly refpeCUng medicine, phyfics, and natural hiftory.
Moft of them apply to medicine, and are the only
phyficians of their nation who praftife in the European
manner, and with European medicines, which they
procure from the Dutch phyficians. Hence they are
able to acquire money, and to make themfelves re-
fpeCted.
Among the vegetable produftions peculiar to Japan,
we may take notice of the aletris japonica, camellia ja-
ponica, and the volkameria japonica. The trumpet-
flower, or bignoma catalpa of Linnaeus, is very com-
mon, bearing a refemblance to the epidendrum vanilla,
the berries of which are faid to conftitute an article of
commerce. Here alfo we find the mimofa arborea, and
tallow tree, together with the plantain, cocoa-nut tree,
the chamcerops cxcelfa, and the eyas circinalis, adorning
the woods near the fea fhore.
It is a lingular circumftance, that in the whole em¬
pire of Japan, neither Iheep nor goats are to be met
wi^h, the goats being deemed pernicious to cultivation;
and the vaft quantities of filk and cotton with which it
abounds, are confidered as an excellent fubftitute for
wool. There are few quadrupeds of any kind, either
fwine, horfes, or cattle, as the Japanefe live upon fifii,
poultry, and vegetables. Some wolves are feen in the
northern provinces; and foxes are confidered as demons
incarnate.
Gold and filver abound in Japan, and copper richly
impregnated with gold, which conftitutes the chief
wealth of many provinces. Iron is faid to be fcarcer
than any other metal, which of confequence they are
not fond of exporting. Amber, fulphur, pit-coal, red
agate, afbeftos, porcelain clay, pumice and white
marble, are alfo found in confiderable quantities ; but,
according to Kempfer, neither antimony nor mercury.
As Europeans have feldom vifited the interior parts of
the country, the natural curiofities of Japan are but very
little known,
Japan Earth. See Mimosa and Terra Japonica,
Materia Medica Index.
JAPANNING, the art of varnilhing and drawing
figures on wood, in the fame manner as is done by the
natives of Japan in the Eaft Indies.
The fubftances which admit of being japanned are
almoft every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too Japanning,
flexible; as wood, metals, leather, and paper pre-y —-v
pared.
Wood and metals do not require any other prepara¬
tion, but to have their furface perfeftly even and clean;
but leather ftiould be fecurely ftrained either on frames
or on boards; as its bending or forming folds would
otherwife crack and force off the coats of varnilh : and
paper Ihould be treated in the fame manner, and have
a previous ftrong coat of fome kind of fize ; but it is
rarely made the fubjedt of japanning till it is converted
into papier mache, or wrought by other means into fuch
form, that its original ftate, particularly with refpect
to flexibility, is loft.
One principal variation from the method formerly
ufed in japanning is, the ufing or omitting any priming
or undercoat on the work to be japanned. In the older
practice, fuch priming was always ufed; and is at pre-
fent retained in the French manner of japanning coaches
and fnaff-boxes of the papier mache ; but in the Bir¬
mingham manufacture here, it has been always reject¬
ed. The advantage of ufing fuch priming or undercoat
is, that it makes a faving in the quantity of varnith
ufed; becaufe the matter of which the priming is com-
pofed fills up the inequalities of the body to be varniih-
ed; and makes it eafy, by means of rubbing and water-
poliftiing, to gain an even furface for the varnifh : and
this was therefore fuch a convenience in the cafe of
wood, as the giving a hardnefs and firmnefs to the
ground was alfo in the cafe of leather, that it became
an eftablithed method ; and is therefore retained even
in the inftance of the papier mache by the French, w ho
applied the received method of japanning to that kind
of work on its introduclion. There is neverthelefs this
inconvenience always attending the ufe of an undercoat
of fize, that the japan coats of varnith and colour will
be conftantly liable to be cracked and peeled off by any
violence, and will not endure near fo long as the bodies
japanned in the fame manner, but without any fuch
priming ; as may be eafily obferved in comparing the
wear of the Paris and Birmingham fnuff-boxes; which
latter, when good of their kind, never peel or crack,
or fuffer any damage, unlefs by great violence, and fuch
a continued rubbing as w aftes awray the fubflance of the
varnith ; while the japan coats of the Parifians crack
and fly off in flakes, whenever any knock or fall, par¬
ticularly near the edges, expofes them to be injured.
But the Birmingham manufadturers, who originally
pradlifed the japanning only on metals, to which the
reafon above given for the ufe of priming did not ex¬
tend, and who took up this art of themfelves as an in¬
vention, of courfe omitted at firft the ufe of any fuch
undercoat; and not finding it more neceffary in the
inftance of papier mache than on metals, continue ftill
to rejedt it. On which account, the boxes of their ma-
nufadlure are, with regard to wear, greatly better than
the French.
The laying on the colour in gum-water, inftead of
varnifh, is alfo another variation from the method of
japanning formerly pradtifed : but the much greater
ftrength of the wrork, where they are laid on in varnifh
or oil, has occafioned this way to be exploded with
the greateft reafon in all regular manufadtures : how’-
ever, they who may pradtice japanning on cabinets, or
other fuch pieces as are not expofed to much wear and
violence,
JAP [ 41 ] JAP
Japanning, violence, for their amufement only, and confequently
no|. worth their while to encumber them-
felves with the preparations neceffary for the other
methods, may paint with water-colours on an under¬
coat laid on the wood or other fubftance of which the
piece to be japanned is formed $ and then finiflied with
the proper coats of varnifla, according to the methods
below taught: and if the colours are tempered with
the ftrongeft ifinglafs fize and honey, inftead of gam-
water, and laid on very flat and even, the work will
not be much inferior in appearance to that done by
the other method, and will lad as long as the old
japan.
Of JAPAN Grounds.—The proper grounds are either
fuch as are formed by the varnifh and colour, where
the whole is to remain of one fimple colour; or by the
varnifh either coloured or without colour, on which
fome painting or other decoration is afterwards to be
laid. It is neceffary, however, before we proceed to
fpeak of the particular grounds, to fhowr the manner of
laying on the priming or undercoat, where any fuch is
ufed.
This priming is of the fame nature with that called
clear-coating, or vulgarly clear-coaling, pra&ifed erro-
neoully by the houfe-painters j and corilids only in
laying on and drying in the mod even manner a com-
pofition of fize and whiting, or fometimes lime in¬
dead of the latter. The common fize has been gene¬
rally ufed for this purpofe : but where the work is of a
nicer kind, it is better to employ the glovers or the
parchment fize ; and if a third of ifinglafs be added, it
will be dill better, and if not laid on too thick, much
lefs liable to peel and crack. The work Ihould be pre¬
pared for this priming, by being well fmoothed with
the filh-lkin or glafs-lhaver •, and being made tho¬
roughly clean, fhould be brulhed over once or twice
Handmaid hot fize, diluted with two-thirds of water, if it
to the ArtsM the common dreAgth. The priming Ihould
then be laid on with a brufh as even as poffible ; and
ihould be formed of a fize whofe confidence is be¬
twixt the common kind and glue, mixed with as much
whiting as will give it a fufficient body of colour to
hide the furface of whatever it is laid upon, but not
If the furface be very clean on which the priming
is ufed, two coats of it laid on in this manner will be
lufficient; but if, on trial with a fine wet rag, it will
not receive a proper water-polifh on account of any
inequalities not fufficiently filled up and covered, two
»r more coats mud be given it: and whether a greater
or lefs number be ufed, the work Ihould be fmoothed
after the lad coat but one is dry, by rubbing it with
the Dutch rufhes. When the lad coat is dry, the
water polilh (hould be given, by paffing over every
part of it with a fine rag gently moidened, till the
whole appear perfedly plain and even. The priming
will then be completed, and the wrork ready to receive
the painting or coloured varniih j the red of the pro¬
ceedings being the fame in this cafe as where no prim¬
ing is ufed.
When, wood or leather is to be japanned, and no
priming is ufed, the bed preparation is to lay two or
inree coats of coarfe varnith compofed in the following
manner. 0
T. ake of re&ified fpirit of wine one pint, and of
; Vol. XI. Part I.
coarfe feed-lac and refin each two ounces. Diffolve lip
the feed-lac and refin in the fpirit j and then drain off ~-"
the varnifh.”
This varnifh, as w-ell as.all others formed of fpirit of
wine, mud be laid on in a warm place ; and if it can
be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be var-
nifhed fhould be made warm likewife : and for the
fame reafon all dampnefs fhould be avoided j for either
cold or moidure chills this kind of varnifh, and pre¬
vents it taking proper hold of the fubdance on which
it is laid.
When the wrork is fo prepared, or by the priming
with the compofition of fize and whiting above de-
fcribed, the proper japan ground mud be laid on,
which is much the bed formed of fhell-lac varnifh,
and the colour defired, if white be not in quedion,
which demands a peculiar treatment, or great bright-
nels be not required, when alfo other means mud be
purfued.
The colours ufed with the fhell-lac varnifh may be
any pigments whatever which give the teint of the
ground defired; and they may be mixed together to
form browns or any compound colours.
As metals never require to be undercoated with
whiting, they may be treated in the fame manner as
wood or leather, when the undercoat is omitted, except
in the indances particularly fpoken of below.
White JAPAN Grounds.—JJae forming a ground per¬
fectly white, and of the fird degree of hardnefs, re¬
mains hitherto a defideratum, or matter fought for, in
the art of japanning, as there are no fubdances which
form a very hard varnifh but what have too much co¬
lour not to deprave the whitenefs, when laid on of a due
thicknefs over the work.
The neared approach, however, to a perfeCt white
varnifh, already known, is made by the following com¬
pofition.
“ Take flake-white, or white lead, waflied over and
ground up with a fixth of its weight of darch, and
then dried j and temper it properly for fpreading with
the maflich varniih prepared as under the article
Varnish.
“ Lay thefe on the body to be japanned, prepared
either wdth or without the undercoat of whiting, in
the manner as above ordered ; and then varniih it
over with five or fix coats of the following varnifh :
_ “ Provide any quantity of the bed feed-lac 5 and
pick out of it all the cleared and whited grains, re-
ferving the more coloured and fouler parts for the
coarfe varnifhes, fuch as that ufed for priming or pre¬
paring wood or leather. Take of this picked feed-lac
two ounces, and of gum-animi three ounces ; and dif¬
folve them, being previoufly reduced to a grofs pow¬
der in about a quart of fpirit of wine j and drain off
the clear varnifh.”
The feed-lac will yet give a flight tinge to this
compofition j but cannot be omitted where the varnilk
is wanted to be hard j though, when a fofter will an-
fwer the end, the proportion may be diminifhed, and a
little crude turpentine added to the gum animi to take
off the brittlenefs.
A very good varnifh, free entirely from all brittle¬
nefs, may be formed by diffolving as much gum-animi as
the oil wdll take, in old nut or poppy oil, which mud be
made to boil gently w'hen the oil is put into it. The
F ground
JAP [ 42 ] JAP
Japanning, ground of white colour itfelf may be laid on in this
v-"" varnifh, and then a coat or two of it may be put over
the. ground : but it muft bo well diluted with oil of
turpentine when it is ufed. This, though free fronj
brittlenefs, is neverthelefs liable to fuffer by being
indented or bruifed by any flight ftrokes j and it will
not well bear any polilh, but may be brought to a very
fmooth furface without, if it be judicioufly managed in
the laying it on. It is likewile fomewhat tedious in
drying, and will require fome time where feVeral coats
are laid on ; as the laft: ought not to contain much oil
of turpentine.
Blue JAVAN Grounds.—Blue japan grounds may be
formed of bright Pruflian blue, or of verditer glazed
over by Pruflian blue, or of fmalt. The colour may
be belt mixed with fliell lac varnifh, and brought to a
polifliing flate by five or fix coats of varnifh of feed-
lac: but the varnifh, neverthelefs, will fomewhat in¬
jure the colour by giving to a true blue a cart of green,
and fouling in fome degree a warm blue by the yellow
it contains : where therefore a bright blue is required,
and a lefs degree of hardnefs can be difpenfed with, the
method before direfted in the cafe of white grounds
muft be purfued.
Red JAPAN Grounds.—Yox a fcarlet japan ground,
vermilion may be ufed: but the vermilion has a glar¬
ing effeft, that renders it much lefs beautiful than the
crimfon produced by glazing it over with carmine or
fine lake j or even with rofe pink, which has a very
good effect ufed for this purpofe. For a very bright
crimfon, neverthelefs, inftead of glazing with carmine,
the Indian lake fliould be ufed, diffolved in the fpirit
of which the varnifh is compounded, which it readily
admits of when good: and in this cafe, inftead of glaz¬
ing with the fhell-lac varnifh, the upper or polifhing
coats need only be ufed 5 as they will equally receive
and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which may be
actually diflblved by fpirit of wine : and this will be
found a much cheaper method than the ufing carmine.
If, neverthelefs, the higheft degree of brightnefs be re¬
quired, the white varnifhes muft be ufed.
Yellow JAVAN Grounds.—For bright yellow grounds,
the king’s yellow, or the turpeth mineral, fliould be
employed, either alone or mixed with fine Dutch pink:
and the effedt may be ftill more heightened by diffolv-
ing powdered turmeric root in the fpirit of wine of
-which the upper or polifhing coat is made} which fpi¬
rit of wine muft be ftrained from off the dregs before
the feed-lac be added to it to form the varnifh.
The feed lac varnifh is not equally injurious here,
and with greens, as in the cafe of other colours} be-
caufe being only tinged with a reddifh yellow, it is
little more than an addition to the force of the co¬
lours.
Yellow grounds may be likewife formed of the Dutch
pink only } which, when good, will not be wanting in
brightnefs, though extremely cheap.
Green JAP ANGrounds.—Green grounds may be pro¬
duced by mixing the king’s yellow and bright Pruflian
blue, or rather the turpeth mineral and Pruflian blue}
and a cheap but fouler kind, by verdegris with a little
of the above-mentioned yellows, or Dutch pink. But
where a very bright green is wanted, the cryftals of
verdegris, called dijlilledverdegris, fhould be employed}
and to heighten the effedt, they fhould be laid on a
ground of leaf-gold, which renders the colour extreme- Jap&nnfftg,
ly brilliant and pleating. ' —y—
They may any of them be ufed fuccefsfully with
good feed-lac varnifh, for the reafon before given } but
will be ftill brighter with white varnifh.
Orange-coloured JAPAN Grounds.—Orange-coloured
japan grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or
red-lead with king’s yellow, or Dutch pink } or the
orange-lac, which will make a brighter orange ground
than can be produced by any mixture.
Purple JAPAN Grounds.—Purple japan grounds may
be produced by the mixture of lake and Pruflian
blue} or a fouler kind, by vermilion and Pruflian
blue. They may be treated as the reft with refpedt
to the varnifh.
Black JAPAN Grounds to be produced with Heat.—
Black grounds may be formed by either ivory-black or
lamp-black: but the former is preferable where it is
perfectly good.
Thefe may be always laid on with fhell-lac varnifh )
and have their upper or polifhing coats of common
feed-lac varnifh, as the tinge or fulnefs of the varnifh
can be here no injury.
Common Black JAPAN Grounds on Iron or Copper, pro¬
duced by means of Heat.—For forming the common
black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece of
work to be japanned muft be painted over w ith dry¬
ing oil} and, when it is of a moderate drynefs, muft be
put into a ftove of fuch degree of heat as will change
the oil to black, without burning it fo as to deftroy or
weaken its tenacity. The ftoye fhould not be too hot
when the work is put into it, nor the heat increafed
too faft } either of which errors would make it blifter :
but the flower the heat is augmented, and the longer
it is continued, provided it be reftrained within the
due degree, the harder w ill be the coat of japan.—-
This kind of varnifh requires no polifli, having re¬
ceived, when properly managed, a fuflicient one from-
the heat.
The fne Tortoife-fhell JAPAN Ground produced by
means of Heat.—The beft kind of tortoife-fhell ground
produced by heat is not lefs valuable for its great hard¬
nefs, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling wa-.
ter without damage, than for its beautiful appearance.
It is to be made by means of a varnifh prepared in the
follow ing manner :
“ Take of good linfeed oil one gallon, and of umbre
half a pound : boil them together till the oil become
very brown and thick : ftrain it then through a coarfe
cloth, and fet it again to boil; in which ftate it muft
be continued till it acquire a pitchy confidence } when
it will be fit for ufe.”
Having prepared thus the varnifh, clean well the
iron or copper plate or other piece which is to be ja¬
panned } and then lay vermilion tempered with fhelfi.
lac varnifh, or with drying oil diluted with oil of tur¬
pentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate
the more tranfparent parts of the tortoife-fhell. "When
the vermilion is dry, brufh over the whole with the
black varnifh, tempered to a due confiftence with oil
of turpentine} and when it is fet and firm, put the
work into a ftove, where it may undergo a very
ftrong heat, and muft be continued a confiderable
time } if even three weeks or a month, it_ will be . the
better*.
This
JAP [43
Japanning. This was given amongft other receipts by Kunckel *,
•j.. -y appears to have been negled^ed till it was revived
with great fuccefs in the Birmingham manufa&ures,
where it was not only the ground of fnuff-boxes, drefs-
ing-boxes, and other fuch leiTer pieces, but of thofe
beautiful tea-waiters which have been fo juftly efteemed
and admired in feveral parts of Europe where they
have been fent. This ground may be decorated with
painting and gilding, in the Fame manner as any other
varnilhed furface, which had heft be done after the
ground has been duly hardened by the hot Hove j but
it is well to give a fecond annealing with a more gentle
heat after it is finilhed,
Method of Painting JAP AN Work.—Japan work ought
properly to be painted with colours in varnilh, though,
in order for the greater difpatch, and, in fome very
nice works in fmall, for the freer ufe of the pencil, the
colours are fometimes tempered in oil $ which (hould
previoufly have a fourth part of its weight of gum ani-
mi diffolved in it j or, in default of that, of the gums
fandarac or maftich. When the oil is thus ufed, it
Humid be well diluted with fpirit of turpentine, that
the colours may be laid more evenly and thin j by
which means, ft*wer of the polidling or upper coats of
varnifh become necelTary.
In fome inftances, water-colours are laid on grounds
of gold, in the manner of other paintings ; and are
beft, when fo ufed, in their proper appearance, without
any varnilh over them j and they are alfo fometimes fo
managed as to have the effeft of emboffed work. The
colours employed in this way, for painting, are both
prepared by means of ilinglafs lize corredted with ho¬
ney or fugarcandy. The body of which the emboffed
work is raifed, need not, however, be tinged with the
exterior colour •, but may be bell formed of very ftrong
gum-water, thickened to a proper confiftence by bole-
armenian and whiting in equal parts *, which being laid
on the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be
then painted with the proper colours tempered in the
ilinglafs fize, or in the general manner with Ihell-lac
varnilh.
Manner ofVarniJhing JAPAN Work.—The lall and
finilliing part of japanning lies in the laying on and
polilhing the outer coats of varniih 5 which are necef-
fary, as well in the pieces that have only one Ample
ground of colour, as with thofe that are painted. This
is in general bell done with common feed-lac varnilh,
except in the inllances and on thofe occafions where
we have already Ihown other methods to be more ex¬
pedient : and the lame reafons which decide as to the
fitnefs or impropriety of the varnilhes, with refpedl to
the colours of the ground, hold equally with regard to
thofe of the painting : for where brightnefs is the
moll material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure
it, feed-lac mull give way to the whiter gums j but
where hardnefs, and a greater tenacity, are moil effen-
tial, it mull be adhered to 5 and where both are fo ne-
ceffary, that it is proper one Ihould give way to the
other in a certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnilh
mull be adopted.
This mixed varnifh, as we have already obferved,
fliould be made of the picked feed-lac. The com¬
mon feed-lac varnilh, which is the moft ufeful pre¬
paration of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus
made:
] J A P
. “ Take of feed-lac three ounces, and put it into Japanning,
water to free it from the Hicks and filth that are fre-
quently intermixed with it •, and which mull be done
by flirring it about, and then pouring off the water,
and adding frelh quantities in order to repeat the ope¬
ration, till it be freed from all impurities, as it very
effeflually may be by this means. Dry it then, and
powder it grofsly, and put it, with a pint of reftified
fpirit of wine, into a bottle, of which it wall not fill
above two-thirds. Shake the mixture well together $
and place the bottle in a gentle heat, till the feed ap¬
pear to be diffolved j the lhaking being in the mean
time repeated as often as may be convenient: and then
pour off all that can be obtained clear by this method,
and llrain the remainder through a coarfe cloth. The
varnilh thus prepared muff be kept for ufe in a bottle
well flopt.”
When the fpirit of wine is very Hrong, it will dif-
folve a greater proportion of the feed-lac : but this will
faturate the common, which is feldom of a flrength fuf-
ficient for making varnilhes in perfe<5lion. As the
chilling, which is the moil inconvenient accident at¬
tending thofe of this kind, is prevented, or produced
more frequently, according to the Hrength of the Ipi-
rit •, wre lhall therefore take this opportunity of fliow-
ing a method by which weaker redlified fpirits may
with great eftfe, at any time, be freed from the phlegm,
and rendered of the firlt degree of ffr^ngth.
“ Take a pint of the common reftified fpirit of
wine, and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above three parts. Add to it hall an ounce of pearl-
allies, fait of tartar, or any other alkaline fait, heated
red hot, and powdered, as well as it can be without
much lofs of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently
for the fpace of half an hour j before which time, a
great part of the phlegm will be feparated from the
fpirit, and will appear, together with the undiffolved
part of the falts, in the bottom of the bottle. Let the
fpirit then be poured off, or freed from the phlegm
and falts, by means of a tritorium or feparating funnel;
and let half an ounce of the pearl-afhcs, heated and
powdered as before, be added to it, atad the fame
treatment repeated. This may be done a third time,
if the quantity of phlegm feparated by the addition of
the pearl-affies appear confiderable. An ounce of
alum reduced to powder and made hot, but not burnt,
mull then be put into the fpirit, and fuffered to remain
fome hours *, the bottle being frequently ffiaken : after
which, the fpirit, being poured off from it, will be fit
for ufe.”
The addition of the alum is neceffary, to neutralize
the remains of the alkaline fait or pearl-afhes j which
would otherwife greatly deprave the fpirit with refpeft
to varniflies and laquer, where vegetable colours are
concerned j and mull confequently render another dU
{filiation neceffary.
The mapner of ufing the feed-lac or white var¬
niflies is the fame, except with regard to the fubflance
ufed in policing •, which, where a pure white or great
clearnefs of other colours is in queltion, fliould be it-
felf white : whereas the browner forts of polifiiing duft,
as being cheaper, and doing their bufinefs with greater
difpatch,. may be ufed in other cafes. The pieces of
work to be varnifhed ftiould be placed near a fire, or
in a room where there is a ftove, and made perfectly
F 2 dry j
JAP [ 44 ] JAR
Japanning, cjry ; and then the varnith may be rubbed over them
J.ipheth. by tbe pr0per bruflies made for that purpofe, begin¬
ning in the middle, and paiTing the brulh to one end j
and then with another ftroke from the middle, pafling
it to the other. But no part Ihould be croffed or
twice palTed over, in forming one coat, where it can
poffibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another
muft be laid over it ; and this muft be continued at
lead: five or fix times, or more, if on trial there be not
iufficient thicknefs of varnifh to bear the polifh, with¬
out laying bare the paintim or the ground colour un¬
derneath.
When a fufRcient number of coats is thus laid on,
the work is fit to be polifhed : which muft be done, in
common cafes, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in
Tripoli or pumice-ftone, commonly called rottenJlone,
finely powdered : but towards the end of the rubbing,
a little oil of any kind fhould be ufed along with the
powder ; and when the work appears fufticiently bright
and glofl'y, it fhould be well rubbed with the oil alone,
to clean it from the potvder, and give it a ftill brighter
luftre.
In the cafe of white grounds, inftead of the Tripoli
or pumice-ftone, fine putty or whiting muft be ufed $
both which fhould be wafhed over to prevent the dan¬
ger of damaging the work from any fand or other
gritty matter that may happen to be commixed with
them.
It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan
work, to harden the varnifli by means of heat j which,
in every degree that it can be applied, fhort of what
would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a
more firm and ftrong texture. Where metals form
the body, therefore, a very hot ftove may be ufed,
and the pieces of work may be continued in it a
eonfiderable time j efpecially if the heat be gradually
increafed ; but where wood is in queftion, heat muft
be fparingly ufed, as it would otherwife warp or fhrink
the body, fo as to injure the general figure.
JAPHETH, the fon of Noah. His defcendants
poffeffed all Europe and the ifles in the Mediterranean,
as well thofe which belong to Europe, as others which
depend on Afia. They had all Afia Minor, and the
northern parts of Afia above the fources of the Tigris
and Euphrates. Noah, when he bleffed Japheth, faid
to him,.“ God fhall enlarge .Tapheth, and he fhall
dwell in the tents of Shem j and Canaan fhall be
his fervant.” This blefling of Noah was accom-
plifhed, when the Greeks, a»d after them the Ro¬
mans, carried their conquefts into Afia and Africa,
where were the dwellings and dominions of Shem and
Canaan.
The fons of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, Madai,
Javan, Tubal, Mefhech, and Tiras. The fcripture
fays, “ that they peopled the Hies of the Gentiles, and
fettled in different countries, each according to his lan¬
guage, family, and people.” It is fuppofed, that Go-
' "-^raer was the father of the Cimbri, or Cimmerians j
Magog of the Scythians •, Madai of the Macedonians
or Medes •, Javan of the lonians and Greeks j Tubal of
the Tibarenians $ Mefhech of the Mufcovites or Ruf¬
fians ; and Tiras of the Thracians. By the ifles of
the Gentiles, the Hebrews underftand the ifles of the
Mediterranean, and all the countries feparated by the
fea from the continent of Paleftine ; whither alfo the
Hebrew's could go by fea only, as Spain, Gaul, Italy,
Greece, Afia Minor.
Japheth was known by profane authors under the
name of Japetus. The poets make him the father of
heaven and earth. The Greeks believe that he was the
father of their race, and acknowledged nothing more
ancient than him. Befides the feven fons of Japheth
above mentioned, the Septuagint, Eufebius, the Alex¬
andrian Chronicle, and St Auftin, give him an eighth
called EH%a, w'ho is not mentioned either in the Pie-
brew or Chaldee, and the eaftern people affirm that
Japheth had eleven children.
JAPYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a weftern di-
ftridt of Illyricum, anciently threefold \ the firft Japydia
extending from the fprings of the Timavus to Iftria j
the fecond, from the river Arfia to the river Teda-
nius j and the third, called Ina/pina, fituated in Mount
Albius and the other Alps, which run out above If¬
tria. Japodes, or Japydes, the people. Now confti-
tuting the fouth part of Carniola, and the weft of Auf-
trian Croatia.
JAPYGIA, Calabria anciently fo called by the
Greeks. Japyges, the people.
JAPYGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Calabria •, called alfo Salentinum. Now Capo di
S. Maria di Leuca.
JAQUELOT, Isaac, a celebrated French Pro-
teftant divine, born in 1647, at Vaffy in Champagne,
where his father was minifter. The revocation of the
edidl of Nantz obliging him to quit France, he took
refuge firft at Heidelberg, and then at the Hague,
where he procured an appointment in the Walloon
church. Here he continued till that capital was taken
by the king of Pruffia, w ho, hearing him preach, made^
him his French minifter in ordinary at Berlin j to
which city he removed in 1702. While he lived at
Berlin, he entered into a warm controverfy with M.
Bayle on the dodtrine advanced in his dictionary fa¬
vouring manichaeifm, which continued until death im-
pofed filence on both parties: and it was in this dif-
pute that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the
Remonftrants. He wrote, among other works, 1.
Dijfertations fur Cexiftence de Dieu. 2. DiJJertations
fur le Mefjie. 3. Lettres a Meffieurs les Pre/ats de
CEglife Gallicane. He w’as employed in finilhing an
important work upon the divine authority of the
holy fcriptures, when he died fuddenly in 1708, aged
61.
JAR, or Jarr, an earthen pot or pitcher, with a big
belly and two handles.—The word comes from the Spa-
mih jarr a or jarro, which fignifies the fame.
Jar is ufed for a fort of meafure or fixed quantity
of divers things.—The jar of oil is from 18 to 26
gallons the jar of green ginger is about 100 pounds
weight.
JARCHI, Solomon, otherwife Rafchi and Ifaaki
Solomon, a famous rabbi, born at Troyes in Cham¬
pagne, who flouriflied in the 12th century. He was
a perfeft mafter of the talmud and gemara j and he
filled the poftils of the bible with fo many talmudical
reveries, as totally extinguiffied both the literal and
moral fenfe of it. A great part of his commentaries
are printed in Hebrew', and fome have been tranflated
Japheth
II
Jarchi.
v 
JAR f 4=: 1 JAY
Jarchi into Latin by the Chriftians. They are greatly ef-
i! teemed by the Jews, who have beftowed on the author
Jar.iac. tjQe 0f prinCe of commentators.
v _ JARDYN, or Jardin, Karel du, painter of con-
verfations, landfcapes, &c. was born at Amfterdam in
1640, and became a difciple of Nicholas Berchem. He
travelled to Italy whilft he was yet a young man $ and
arriving at Rome, he gave himfelf alternately up to
ftudy and diilxpation. Yet, amidft this irregularity of
conduft, his proficiency in the art was furprifing $ and
his paintings rofe into fuch high repute, that they were
exceedingly coveted in Rome, and bought up at great
prices. With an intention to vifit his native city he at
laft left Rome j but pafiing through Lyons, and meet¬
ing fome agreeable companions, they prevailed on him
to ftay there for fome time, and he found as much em¬
ployment in that city as he could poffibly undertake or
execute. But the profits which arofe from his paintings
were not proportionable to his profufion •, and in order
to extricate himfelf from the encumbrances in which
his extravagance had involved him, he was induced to
marry his hoftefs, who was old and difagreeable, but
very rich. Mortified and afhamed at that adventure,
he returned as expeditioufly as poffible to Amfterdam,
accompanied by his wife, and there for fome time fol¬
lowed his profeflion with full as much fuccefs as he had
met with in Italy or Lyons. He returned to Rome the
fecond time j and after a year or two fpent there in his
ufual extravagant manner, he fettled at Venice. In
that city his merit was Avell known before his arrival,
which procured him a very honourable reception. He
lived there highly careffed, and continually employed j
but died at the age of 38. He was fumptuoufly inter¬
red, out of refpedt to his talents ; and, although a Pro-
teftant, permitted to be laid in confecrated ground.
This painter, in his colouring and touch, refembled his
mafter Berchem \ but he added to that manner a force
which diftinguifties the great mafters of Italy 5 and it
is obferved, that moft of his pictures feem to exprefs
the warmth of the fun, and the light of mid-day. His
piftures are not much encumbered *, a few figures, fome
animals, and a little landfcape for the back-grounds,
generally comprife the whole of his compofition. How¬
ever, fome of his fubjedls are often more extenfive, con¬
taining more objedls, and a larger defign. His works
are as much fought after, as they are difficult to be met
with.
JARGON, or Zircon, a kind of precious ftone
found in Ceylon. This mineral contains a peculiar
earth, called jargonia, or %irconia; for an account of
the properties of which, fee Chemistry, page 611 j
fee alfo Mineralogy Index.
JARGONIA, or ZlRCONIA, in Chemijlry, a pecu¬
liar earth obtained from the preceding mineral. See
Chemistry, p. 611.
JARIMUTH, Jarmuth, or Jenmoth, Jofh. xv. a
town reckoned to the tribe of Judah, four miles from
Eleutheropolis, weftward, (Jerome). Thought to be
the fame with Ramoth and Remeth, Joftma xix. and
Nehem x. 2. (Reland).
JARNAC, a town of France, in Orleanois, and
in Angumois, remarkable for a vidlory gained by
Henry III. over the Huguenots in 1569. It is feated
on the river Charente, in W. Long. o. 13. N. Lat.
45- 40<
&
JAROSLOW, a handfome town of Poland, in the Jaroflow
palatinate of Ruffia, with a ftrong citadel. It is re- ^
markable for its great fair, its handfome buildings, and ,
a battle gained by the Swedes in 1656, after which
they took the town. It is feated on the river Saine, in
E. Long. 22. 23. N. Lat. 49. 58.
J ASHER, The Book of. This is a book which
Jofhua mentions, and refers to in the following paf-
fage : “ And the fun flood ftill, and the moon ftayed,
until the people had avenged themfelves upon their
enemies : is not this written in the book of Jaffier ?”
It is difficult to determine what this book of Jajher^
or “ the upright,” is. St Jerome and the Jews be¬
lieved it to be Genefis, or fome other book of the
Pentateuch, wherein God foretold he would do won¬
derful things in favour of his people. Huetius fup-
pofes it was a book of morality, in which it wfas faid
that God would fubvert the courfe of nature in favour
of thofe who put their truft in him. Others pretend,
it was public annals, or records, which were ftyledy^
t/ce or upright, becaufe they contained a faithful ac¬
count of the hiltory of the Ifraelites. Grotius believes,
that this book was nothing elfe but a fong, made to
celebrate this miracle and this viftory. This feems
the more probable opinion, becaufe the words cited by
Joihua as taken from this work, “ Sun, ftand thou ftill
upon Gibeon, and thou moon in the valley of Ajalon,”
are fuch poetical expreffions as do not fuit with hifto-
rical memoirs j befides that in the 2d book of Samuel
(i. 18.) mention is made of a book under the fame ti¬
tle, on account of a fong made on the death of Saul and
Jonathan.
JASIONE, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs $ and in the natural method ranking
under the 29th order, Campanacece. See Botany
Index.
JASMINE. See Jasminum.
Arabian JASMINE. See Nyctanthes, Botany
Index.
JASMINUM, Jasmine, or Jejfamine Tree, a genus
of plants belonging to the diandria clafs; and in the
natural method ranking under the 44th order, Sepiaricc.
See Botany Index.
JASON, the Greek hero who undertook the Ar-
gonautic expedition, the hiftory of which is obfcured
by fabulous traditions, flouriffied about 937 B. C. See
Argonauts.
J ASP ACHATES. See Jade-stone, Mineralo¬
gy Index.
JASPER, a fpecies of mineral belonging to the fili-
ceous genus of ftones, and of which there are many va¬
rieties, fome of which being extremely beautiful, are
much fought after, and employed as trinkets and orna¬
ments. See Mineralogy Index.
JASPONYX, an old term in mineralogy, import¬
ing, as appears from the name, a compound of jafper
and onyx.
JATROPHA, the Cassada Plant, a genus of
plants belonging to the monoecia clafs; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoccce..
See Botany Index.
JAVA, a large ifland of the Eaft Indies, lying be¬
tween 105° and 1160 E. Long, and from 6° to 8° S.
Lat. extending in length 700 miles, and in breadth
about 100. It ie lituated to the fouth of Borneo, and;
fputh-eaft;
J A V { 45 ] J A V
t fouth-e&ft frotu the peninfula of Malacca, having Su»
w.-r-y-tnw' lying before it, from which it is feparated by a
narrow paifage, now fo famous in the world by the
name of the Straits of Sunda. The country is moun¬
tainous and woody in the middle ; but a dat coaft, full
of bogs and marfties, renders the air unhealthfuh It
produces pepper, indigo, fugar, tobacco, rice, coffee,
cocoa-nuts, plantains, cardamoms, and other tropical
fruits, Gold alfo, but in no great quantities, hath
been found in it. It is diverfified by many mountains,
woods, and rivers $ in all which nature has very boun¬
tifully bellowed her treafure. Many of the moun¬
tains «re fo high as to be feen at the dillance of
a number of leagues. That which is called the Blue
Mountain is by far the higheft of them all, and feen
the farthell off at fea, They have frequent and very
terrible earthquakes in this ifland, which {hake the city
of Batavia and places adjacent, to fuch a degree, that
the fall of the houfes is expelled every moment. The
waters in the road are exceflively agitated, infomuch
that their motion refembles that of a boiling pot $
pnd in fome places the ea^th opens, which affords a
ftrange and terrible fpe&acle. The inhabitants are of
opinion, that thefe earthquakes proceed from the moun¬
tain Parang, which is full of fulphur, faltpetre, and
bitumen, The fruits and plants of this illand are in
their feveral kinds excellent, and almoft out of num¬
ber, There are abundance of forefts fcattered over it,
In which are all kinds of wild beads, fuch as buffaloes,
tygf?3i rhinooerofes, and wild horfes, with an infinite
- variety of ferpents, fome of them of an enormous fixe.
Crocodiles are prodigioufly large in Java, an,d are found
chiefly about the mouths of rivers j for, being amphi¬
bious animals, they delight modly in marfties and fa-
vannahs, This creature, like the tortoife, lays its eggs
in the hot fanth, without taking any further care of
them 5 the fun hatches them at the proper feafon, when
the young run inftantjy into the water, There is, in
fhort, no kind of animal waiting here ; fowls they
have of all forts, and exquifitely good, efpedally pea¬
cocks, partridges, pheafants, wood-pigeons: and, for
curiofity, they have the Indian bat, which differs little
In form from ours \ huff its wings, when extended,
meafure a full yard, and the body of it is of the fize of
« rat, J'fioy have fi(h in great plenty, and very good j
in that for the value of three-pence there may be
enough bought to dine fix or feven men. They have
iikovtlfo a multitude of tortoiies, the flefti of which is
very little inferior to veal, and there are many who
fhink it better,
It is fa id, that there are In the ifland upwards of
43 great towns, which, from the number of their in¬
habitant^ would, in any other part of the world, me¬
rit the name of cities / and more than 4500 villages,
h@fid@s hamlets, and draggling houfes, lying very near
each other upon the fea coaft, and in the neighbour¬
hood of great towns 5 hence, upon a fair and moderate
computation, there are within the bounds of the whole
jfland, taking in perfons of both foxes, and of all ranks
HPd ages, more than thirty millions of fouls j fo that it
B thrice as populous as Trance, which, though twice as
■big, is not computed to have more than twenty millions
of inhabitants.
There are a great many princes in the ifland, of
whk h the moft confiderable are, the emperor of Ma-
3
teran who refides at Katafura, and the kings of Ban- Java,
tam and Japara, Upon the firft of thefe many of the ' w*”
petty princes are dependant ; but the Dutch are ab-
folute mafters of the greateft part of the ifland, par¬
ticularly of the north coaft, though there are fome of
the princes beyond the mountains, on the fouth coaft,
who ftill maintain their independency. The natives
of the country, who are eftabliftied in the neighbour¬
hood of Batavia, and for a tra<ff of about 40 leagues
along the mountains of the country of Bantam, are
immediately fubje6t to the governor-general. The
company fend droffards, or commiffaries, among them,
who adminifter juftice and take care of the public re¬
venues.
The city of Batavia is the capital not only of this
illand but of all the Dutch ’dominions in India. It
is an exceeding fine city, fituated in the latitude of
6° fouth, at the mouth of the river Jucatra, and in
the bofom of a large commodious bay, which may be
confidered not only as one of the fafeft harbours in
India, but in the world. Ihe city is furrounded by
a rampart 2 I feet thick, covered on the outfide with
ftone and fortified with 22 bailions. This rampart is
environed by a ditch 45 yards over, and full of water,
efpecially when the tides are high, in the fpring. The
avenues to the town are defended by feveral forts,
each of which is well furniflied with excellent brafs
cannon : no perfcn is fuffered to go beyond thefe forts
without a paiiport. The river Jucatra paffes through
the midft of the town, and forms 15 canals of run¬
ning water, all faced with free-ftone, and adorned
with trees that are ever green : over thefe canals are
56 bridges, befides thofe which lie without the town.
'Ihe ftrcets are all perfectly ftraight, and each, ge¬
nerally fpeaking, thirty feet broad. The houfes are
built of ftone, after the manner of thofe in Holland.
‘ihe city is about a league and a half in circumference,
and has five gates; but there are ten times the num¬
ber of houfes without that there are within it. There
is a very fine town-houfe, four Calvinift churches, be¬
fides other places of worfhip for all forts of religions,
a fpin-huys or houfe of correftion, an orphan-houfe,
a magazine of fea {lores, feveral for fpieds, with wharfs
and cord manufactories, and many other public build¬
ings. ihe garrifon confifts commonly of between
2COO and 3000 men. Befides the forts mentioned
above, there is the citadel of Batavia, a very fine
regular fortification, fituated at the mouth of the
river, and flanked with four baftions 5 two of which
command the fea, and the other two the town. It
is in the citadel that the governor-general of the In¬
dies has his palace ; over againft which is that of the
director-general, who is the next perfon to the gover¬
nor. The couniellors, and other principal officers of
the company, have alfo their apartments there j as
have likewife the phyfician, the furgeon, and the a-
pothecary. There are in it, befides, arfenals and ma¬
gazines furniflied with ammunition for many years.
The city of Batavia is not only inhabited by Dutch,
French, Portuguefe, and other Europeans, eftabliffied
here on account of trade 5 but alfo by a vaft number
of Indians of different nations, Javanefe, Chinefe,
Malayans, Negroes, Amboynefe, Armenians, natives
of the ifle of Bali, Mardykers or Topaffes, Macaffers,
Timers, Bougis> &c. Of the Chinefe, there are, it is
fa id,
Java
II
Jay.
JAY
faid, about 100,000 in the ifiand
30,000 refided in the city till the year 1740, when
the Dutch, pretending that they were in a plot againft
them, fent a body of troops into their quarter, and
demanded their arms, which the Chinefe readily de¬
livered upj and the next day the governor fent another
body, with orders to murder and maffacre every one of
the Chinefe, men, women, and children. Some relate
there were 20,000, others 30,000, that were put to
death, without any manner of trial: and yet the bar¬
barous governor, who was the inftrument of this cruel
proceeding, had the affurance to embark for Europe,
imagining he had amaffed wealth enough to fecure
him againft any profecution in Holland : but the
Dutch, finding themfelves detefted and abhorred by
all mankind for this piece of tyranny, endeavoured to
throw the odium of it upon the governor, though he
had the hands of all the council of Batavia, except one,
to the order for the maffacre. The ftates, therefore,
difpatched a packet to the Cape of Good Hope, con¬
taining orders to apprehend the governor, and fend
him back to Batavia to be tried. He was accordingly
apprehended at the Cape; but was never heard of af¬
terwards. It is fuppofed he was thrown over-board in
his paffage to Batavia, that there might be no farther
inquiries into the matter 5 and it is faid, all the wealth
this merciful gentleman had amaffed, and fent over
before him in four (hips, was caff away in the paf-
lage.
Befides the garrifon here, the Dutch had former¬
ly about 15,000 men in the ifland, either Dutch,
or formed out of the feveral nations they had en-
flaved ; and they had a fleet of between 20 and 30
men of war, with which they gave law to every power
on the coal! of Afia and Africa, and to all the Euro¬
pean powers that vifit the Indian ocean, unlefs we
ihould except the Britifh. Java was taken by the Bri-
ti(h in 1811, which nearly terminated the Dutch power
in the Eaft. *
JAVELIN, in antiquity, a fort of fpear five feet
and a half long ; the fhaft of which was of wood,
with a fteel point.—Every foldier in the Roman ar¬
mies had feven of thefe, which were very light and
{lender.
JAWER, a city of Silefia, capital of a province of
the fame name, with a citadel, and a large fquare,
furrounded with piazzas. It is 12 miles fouth-eaft of
J-dgnitz, 30 fouth-weft of Breflau, and 87 eaft of
Prague. E. Long. 16. 29. N. Lat. 50. 56.
JAUNDICE (derived from the French jaun'ijje,
“ yellownefs,” of jaune, “ yellow”); a difeafe confift-
ing in a fuffufion of the bile, and a rejeftion thereof
to the furface of the body, whereby the whole exte¬
rior habit is difcoloured. Dr Maclurg is of opinion,
that the bile returns into the circulation in this difor-
der by the courfe of the lymphatics. See Medicine
Index.
JAWS. See Maxilla.
Locked JAW, is a fpafmodic contra&ion of the lower
jaw, commonly produced by forne external injury
affefting the tendons or ligaments. See Medicine
Index.
JAY, fee Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Jay, Guy Michael /<?, a French gentleman, who
[ 47 1 * 58 Y
of which near (BftinguUhed himfelf by caufing a polyglot bible to be
printed at his own ex pence in 10 vols folio : but he
ruined himfelf by that impreflion, firft becaufe he v
would not fuffer it to appear under the name of Cardi¬
nal Richelieu, who, after the example of Cardinal Xi-
menes, was ambitious of eternizing his name by this
means •, and next, becaufe he made it too dear for the
Englilh market*, on which Dr Walton undertook his
polyglot bible, which, being more commodious, redu¬
ced the price of M. le Jay’s. After the death of his
wife, M. le Jay took orders, was made dean of Veze-
lay in the Nivernois, and Louis XIV. gave him the
poft of counfellor of ftate.
JAZER, of Jaser, in Ancient Geography, a Levi--
tical city in the territory of the Amorrhites beyond
Jordan, 10 miles to the weft, or rather fouth-weft, of
Philadelphia, and 15 miles from Efebon, and therefore
fituated between Philadelphia and Heflibon, on the
eaft border of the tribe of Gad, fuppofed to be the
Ja%oretn of Jofephus. In Jeremiah xlviii. mention is
made of the fea of Jazer, that is, a lake ; taken either
for an effufion or overflowing of the Arnon, a lake
through which it paffes, or from which it takes its rife.
IBERIA, Spain fo called by the ancients, from
the river Iberus. Iberes the people, from the nomL
native Iber. See Hispania.
Iberia was alfo the name of an inland country of
Afia, having Colchis to the weft, with a part of Pon-
tusj to the north Mount Caucafus 5 on the eaft Alba¬
nia ; and on the fouth Armenia Magna : Now the
veftorn part of Georgia (See Georgia). Iberia, ac¬
cording to Jofepbus, w*as firft peopled by Tubal, the
brother of Corner and Magog. His opinion is corn-
firmed by the Sepluagintj for Mefhech and Tubal are
by thefe interpreters rendered Mofchi and Iberians.
We know little of the hiftory of the country till the
reign of Mithridates, when their king, named Artocis,,
fiding with that prince againft Lucullus, and after¬
wards againft Pompey, was defeated by the latter with
great (laughter j but afterwards obtained a peace, upr
on delivering up his fons as hoftages. Little notice is
taken of the fucceeding kings by the ancient hiftori-
ans. They were probably tributary to the Romans .
till that empire was overturned, when this, with the
other countries in Afia bordering on it, fell fucceflive-
ly under the power of the Saracens and Turks.
IBERIS, Sciatica Cresses, or Candy-tuft, a genus
of plants belonging to the tetradynamia clafs, and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, SilU
quofee. See Botany Index.
IBEX, a fpecies of goat. See Capra, Mammalia >
Index.
IBIS., See Tantalus, Ornithology Index.
IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, of whofe 'works
there are only a few fragments remaining, flouriftred
550 B. C. It is faid, that he was affafiinated by
robbers j and that, when dying, he called upon fome
cranes he faw flying to bear witnefs. Some time after,
one of the murderers feeing fome cranes, faid tQ his
companions, “ There are the witneffes of Ibycus’s
death j” which being reported to the magiftrates, the
affaflins were put to the torture, and having confeffed
the faff, were hanged. Thence arofe the proverb
Ibyci Grues,
IC%,
II
Ibycus.
ICE C 43 1 ICE
ICE, in PhyJiologyy a folid, tranfparent, and brittle
body, formed of feme fluid, particularly water, by
means of cold.
The younger Lemery obferves, that ice is only a re-
eftablifhment of the parts of water in their natural
ftate j that the mere abfence of fire is fufficient to ac¬
count for this're-eftabliflrment ; and that the fluidity
of water is a real fuflon, like that of metals expofed to
the fire ; differing only in this, that a greater quanti¬
ty of fire is neceffary to the one than the other. Gal-
lileo was the firfl: that obferved ice to be lighter than
the water which compofed it: and hence it happens,
that ice floats upon water, its fpecific gravity being to
that of water as eight to nine. This rarefaftion of ice
feems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in wa¬
ter by freezing 5 and which, being confiderably large
in proportion to the water frozen, render the body fo
much fpecifically lighter : thefe air-bubbles, during
their produftion, acquire a great expanfive power, fo as
to burfl: the containing veffels, though ever fo flrong.
M. Mairan, in a diflertation on ice, attributes the
increafe of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement
of the parts of the water from which it is formed j the
icy fkin on the water being compofed of filaments,
which, according to him, are found to be conflantly
and regularly joined at an angle of 6o° $ and which,
by this angular difpofition, occupy a greater volume
than if they were parallel. He found the augmenta¬
tion of the volume of water by freezing, in different
trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th j and when the water
was previoufly purged of air, only a 22d part : that
ice, even after its formation, continues to expand by
cold } for, after water had been frozen to fome thick-
nefs, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bot¬
tom of the veffel, a continuance of the cold made the
ice convex *, and a piece of ice, which was at firft only
a 14th part fpecifically lighter than water, on being
expofed fome days to the froft, became a 12th part
lighter. To this caufe he attributes the burfting of ice
on ponds.
Wax, refins, and animal fats, made fluid by fire, in-
ftead of expanding like watery liquors, fhrink in their
return to folidity : for folid pieces of the fame bodies
fink to the bottom of their refpeftive fluids *, a proof
that thefe bodies are more denfe in their folid than in
their fluid fiate. The oils which congeal by cold, as
olive oil, and the effential oil of anifeeds, appear alfo to
fhrink in their congelation. Hence, the different dff-
pofitions of different kinds of trees to be burfl: by, or
to refirt, ftrong frofts, are by fome attributed to the
juices with which the tree abounds ; being in the one
cafe watery, and in the other refinous or oily.
Though it has been generally fuppofed that the na¬
tural cryftals of ice are ftars of fix rays, forming angles
of 6o° with each other, yet this cryftallization of wa¬
ter, as it may properly be called, feems to be as much
affeSed by circumftances as that of falts. Hence we
find a confiderable difference in the accounts of thofe
who have undertaken to defcribe thefe cryftals. M.
Mairan informs us, that they are ftars with fix radii j
and his opinion is confirmed by obferving the figure of
froft on glafs. M. Rome de L’lfle determines the form
of the folid cryftal to be an equilateral o&aedron. M.
Haffenfratz found it to be a prifmatic hexaedron 5 but
M. d’Antic found a method of reconciling thefe feem-
ingly oppofite opinions. In a violent hail-ftorm, where
the hail (tones were very large, he found they had fharp
wedge-like angles of more than half an inch; and in
thefe he fuppofed it impoflible to fee two pyramidal
tetraedra joined laterally, and not to conclude that
each grain was compofed of osftaedrons converging to a
centre. Some had a cavity in the middle j and he faw'
the oppofite extremities of two oppofite pyramids, which
conftitute the oftaedron 5 he likewife faw the o£taedron
entire united in the middle j all of them were there¬
fore fimilar to the cryftals formed upon a thread im-
merfed in a faline folution. On thefe principles M.
d’Antic conftrufled an artificial cxftaedron refembling
one of the largeft hailftones *, and found that the angle
at the fummit of the pyramid was 450, but that of the
junftion of the two pyramids 1450. It is not, however,
eafy to procure regular cryftals in hailftones where the
operation is conduced with fueh rapidity : in fnow and
hoar-froft, udiere the cryftallization goes on more (low¬
ly, our author is of opinion that he fees the rudiments
of o&aedra.
Ice forms generally on the furface of the w ater : but
this too, like the cryftallization, may be Varied by aa
alteration in the circumftances. In Germany, particu¬
larly the northern parts of that country, it has been ob¬
ferved that there are three kinds of ice. 1. That which
forms on the furface. 2. Another kind formed in the
middle of the water, refembling nuclei or fmall hail.
3. The ground ice which is produced at the bottom,
efpecially where there is any fibrous fubftance to which
it may adhere. This is full of cells like a wafp’s neft,
but lefs regular j and performs many ftrange effe&s in
bringing up very heavy bodies from the bottom, by
means of its inferiority in fpecific gravity to the w-ater
in which it is formed. The ice which forms in the mid¬
dle of the water rifes to the top, and there unites into
large maffes \ but the formation both of this and the
ground ice takes place only in violent and hidden colds,
where the water is {hallow, and the furface difturbed
in fueh a manner that the congelation cannot take
place. The ground ice is very deftruftive to dykes
and other aquatic works. In the more temperate Eu¬
ropean climates thefe kinds of ice are not met with.
In many countries the warmth of the climate ren¬
ders ice not only a defirable, but even a neceffary
article j fo that it becomes an objeft of fome confe-
quence to fall upon a ready and cheap method of pro¬
curing it. We (hall here take notice of fome attempts
made by Mr Cavallo to difcover a method of produ¬
cing a fufficient degree of cold for this purpofe by the
evaporation of volatile liquors. He found, however,
in the courfe of thefe experiments, that ether was in¬
comparably fuperior to any other fluid in the degree
of cold it produced. The price of the liquor natu¬
rally induced him to fall upon a method of ufing it
w'ith as little wafte as poffible. The thermometer he
made ufe of had the ball quite detached from the ivory
piece on which the fcale was engraved. The various
fluids were then thrown upon the ball through the ca¬
pillary aperture of a fmall glafs veffel fhaped like a
funnel j and care was taken to throw them upon it fo
flowly, that a drop might now and then fall from the
under part, excepting when thofe fluids were ufed,
which
ICE [ 49 ] ICE
Ice. which evaporate very flowly; in which cafe it was
fufficient barely to keep the ball moift, without any
drop falling from it. During the experiment, the
thermometer was kept very gently turning round its
axis, that the fluid made ufe of might fall upon every
part of its ball. He found this method preferable to
that of dipping the ball of the thermometer into the
fluid and taking it out again immediately, or even of
anointing it conftantly with a feather. . The evapora¬
tion, and confequently the cold, produced by it, may
be increafed by blowing on the thermometer with a
pair of bellows ; though this was not ufed in the ex¬
periments now to be related, on account of the diffi¬
culty of its being performed by one perfon, and like-
wife becaufe it occafions much uncertainty in the re-
fults.
The room in vrhich the experiments were made was
heated to 64° of Fahrenheit j and with water it was
reduced to 56°, viz. 8° below that of the room or of
the water employed. The effedl took place in about
two minutes j but though the operation w'as continued
for a longer time, it did not fink lower. With fpirit
of wine it funk to 48°. The cold was greater with
highly redtifled fpirit than with the weaker fort j but
the difference is lefs than would be expedled by one
who had never feen the experiment made. The pure
fpirit produces its effedt much more quickly. On
tiling various other fluids which were either compound¬
ed of water and fpirituous liquors, or pure effences, he
found that the/cold produced by their evaporation was
generally fome intermediate degree between that pro¬
duced by water and the fpirit of wine. Oil of turpen¬
tine funk the mercury three degrees ; but olive oil and
others, which evaporate very llowly, or not at all, did
not fenfibly affedl the thermometer.
To obferve how much the evaporation of fpirit of
wine, and confequently the cold produced by it, would
be increafed by ele&ricity, he put the tube containing
it into an infulating handle, and connected it with the
condudlor of an eleftrical machine, which wras kept in
affion during the time of making the experiment j by
uffiich means one degree of cold feemed to be gained,
as the mercury now funk to 470 inftead of 48°, at
which it had flood formerly. On trying the three
mineral acids, he found that they heated the thermo¬
meter inflead of cooling it; which effedl he attri¬
butes to the heat they themfelves acquired by uniting
with the moifture of the atmofphere. The vitriolic
acid, which was very ftrong and tranfparent, raifed
the mercury to 102°, the fracking nitrous acid to 72°,
and the marine to 66°.
Hate The apparatus for ufing the leaf! poffible quantity
SfC%Xr.ni" ether for freezing water conflfts in a glafs tube
(fig. 1.) terminating in a capillary aperture, which is
to be fixed upon the bottle containing the ether.
Round the lower* part of the neck at A fome thread
is wound, in order to let it fit the neck of the bottle.
When the experiment is to be made, the Hopper of the
bottle containing the ether is to be removed, and the
tube juft mentioned put in its room. The thread
round the tube ought alfo to be previoufty moiftened
with water or fpittle before it is put into the neck of
the bottle, in order the more effe&ually to prevent the
efcape of the ether betwixt the neck of the phial and
tube. Hold then the bottle by its bottom FG ffi^. 2.j
VOL. XI. Part I. ' V 6 9
and keeping it inclined as in the figure, the fmall I
ftream of ether iffuing out of the aperture D of the
tube DE, is directed upon the ball of the thermome¬
ter, or upon a tube containing water or other liquor
that is required to be congealed. As ether is very vo¬
latile, and has the remarkable property of increafing
the bulk of air, there is no aperture requifile to al¬
low the air to enter the bottle while the liquid flows
out. The heat of the hand is more than fufficient to
force out the ether in a continued ftream at the aper¬
ture D.
In this manner, throwing the ftrearr. of ether upon
the ball of a thermometer in fuch a quantity that a
drop might now and then, every ten feconds for in-
ftance, fall from the bulb of the thermometer, Mr Ca~
vallo brought the mercury down to 30, or 290 below
the freezing point, when the atmofphere was fomewhat
hotter than temperate. When the ether is very good,
i. e. capable of diflolving elaftie gum, and has a fmali
bulb, not above 20 drops of it are required to pro¬
duce this effect, and about two minutes of time j but
the common fort muft be ufed in greater quantity, and
for a longer time ; though at laft the thermometer is
brought down by this very nearly as low as by the
beft fort.
To freeze water by the evaporation of etherj Mr
Cavallo takes a thin glafs tube about four inches long^
and one-fifth of an inch diameter, hermetically fealed
at one end, with a little water in it, fo as to take up
about half an inch of the cavity, as is ffiewn at CB in
fig. 3. Into this tube a flender wire H is alfo intro-Fif. 3
duced, the lower extremity of which is twifted into a
fpiral, and ferves to draw up the bit of ice when form¬
ed. He then holds the glafs tube by its upper part
A with the fingers of the left hand, and keeps it conti¬
nually and gently turning round its axis, firft one way
and then the other : whilft with the right hand he
holds the phial containing the ether in fuch a man¬
ner as to direft the ftream on the outfide of the tube,
and a little above the furface of the water contained in
it. The capillary aperture D ftiould be kept almoft:
in contadl with the furface of the tube containing the
water j and by continuing the operation for two or
three minutes, the water will be frozen as it were in
an inftant; and the opacity will afcend to C in lefs
than half a fecond of time, which makes a beautiful ap¬
pearance. This congelation, however, is only fuper-
ficial : and in order to congeal the whole quantity of
water, the operation muft be continued a minute or
two longer *, after which the wire H will be found
kept very tight by the ice. The hand muft then be
applied to the outfide of the tube, in order to foften
the furfaee of the ice $ which wrould otherwife adhere
very firmly to the glafs j but when this is done, the
wire H eafily brings it out.
Sometimes our author was accuftomed to put into
the tube a fmall thermometer inftead of the wire H 5
and thus he had an opportunity of obferving a very
curious phenomenon unnoticed by others, viz. that in
the wdnter time water requires a fmaller degree of cold
to congeal it than in the fummer. In the winter, far
inftance, the water in the tube AB will freeze when
the thermometer Hands about 300 j but in the fummer,
or even when the thermometer Hands at 6o°, the quiek-
ftlver muft be brought down 10, 15, or even more de-
G grees
ICE [ So ] ICE
grces below the freezing point before any congelation
^ earn take place. In the fummer time, therefore, a
greater quantity of ether, and more time, will be re¬
quired to congeal any given quantity of water than in
winter. When the temperature of the atmolphere has
been about 40°, our author has been able to congeal a
quantity of water with an equal quantity of good ether }
but in fummer, two or three times the quantity are re¬
quired to perform the eft’eft. “ There feems (fays he)
to be fomething in the air, which, befides heat, inter¬
feres with the freezing of water, and perhaps of all
fluids 5 though I cannot fay from my own experience
whether the above-mentioned difference between the
freezing in winter and fummer takes place with other
fluids, as milk, oils, wines,” &c.
The proportion of ether requifite to congeal ■water
feems to vary with the quantity of the latter j that
is, a large quantity of water feems to require a pro-
portionably lefs quantity of ether to freeze it than a
fmaller one. “ In the beginning of the fpring (fays
Mr Cavallo), I froze a quarter of an ounce of water
with about half an ounce of ether : the apparatus be¬
ing larger, though fimilar to that deferibed above.
Now as the price of ether, fuflieiently good for the
purpofe, is generally about i8d. or 2s. per ounce, it is
plain, that with an expence under two Ihillings, a
quarter of an ounce of ice, or ice-cream, may be made
„ in every climate, and at any time, which may afford
great fatisfadlion to thofe perfons, who, living in thole
places where no natural ice is to be had, never faw or
tafted any fuch delicious refrefhment. When a fmall
piece of ice, for inftance, of about ten grains weight,
is required, the neceffary apparatus is very fmall, and
the expence not worth mentioning. I have a fmall
box four inches and a half long, two inches broad, and
one and a half deep, containing all the apparatus ne¬
ceffary for this purpofe j viz. a bottle capable of con¬
taining about one ounce of ether •, two pointed tubes,
in cafe one ibould break •, a tube in which the water
is to be frozen, and a wire. With the quantity of
ether-contained in this fmall and very portable appa¬
ratus, the experiment may be repeated about ten times.
A perfon who withes to perform fuch experiments in
hot climates, and in places where ice is not eaflly pro¬
cured, requires only a larger bottle of ether befides
the whole apparatus deferibed above.” Eleftricity in-
creafes the cold produced by means of evaporating
ether but very little, though the effeft is perceptible.
Having thrown the electrified and alfo the unelectri¬
fied ttream of ether upon the bulb of a thermometer,
the mercury was brought down two degrees lower in
the former than in the latter cafe.
Our author obferves, for the fake of thofe who may
be inclined to repeat this experiment, that a cork
confined this volatile fluid much better than a glafs
itopple, which it is aitnoft impoffible to grind with fuch
exaftnefs as to prevent entirely the evaporation of the
ether. When a ftopple, made very nicely out of an
uniform and clofe piece of cork, which goes rather
tight, is put upon a bottle of ether, the fmell of that
fluid cannot be perceived through it; but he never faw
a glafs ftopple which could produce that effedt. In
this manner, ether, fpirit of wine, or any other vola¬
tile fluid, may be preferved, which does not corrode
cork by its fumes. When the Hopple, however, is very
often taken out, it becomes loofe, as it will alfo be by
long keeping : in either of which cafes it muft be ^
changed.
Blink of the ICE, is a name given by the pilots
to a bright appearance near the horizon, occafion-
ed by the ice, and obferved before the ice itfelf is
feen.
JcE-Boals, boats fo conftrudted as to fail upon ice,
and which are very common in Holland, particular¬
ly upon the river Maefe and the lake Y. See Plate
CCLXXVIil. They go Avith incredible fwiftnefs,
fometimes fo quick as to affedt the breath, and are
found very ufeful in conveying goods and paffengers
over lakes and great rivers in that country. Boats of
different fizes are placed in a tranfverfe form upon a
or 3 inch deal board 5 at the extremity of each end
are fixed irons, which turn up in the form of Ikaits j.
upon this plank the boat refts, and the two ends ferve
as out-riggers to prevent overfetting j whence ropes
are faftened that lead to the head of the mail in the
nature of fhrouds, and others paffed through a block,
acrofs the bowfprit : the rudder is made fomewhat like
a hatchet with the head placed downwards, which being
prefled down, cuts the ice, and ferves all the purpofea
of a rudder in the water, by enabling the heimfman to.
fleer, tack, &c.
Method of making ICE-CREAM. Take a fufficient
quantity of cream, and, when it is to be mixed Avith
rafpberry, or currant, or pine, a quarter part as much
of the juice or jam, as of the cream : after beating and
ftraining the mixture through a cloth, put it with a
little juice of lemon into the mould, which is a pewter
veffel, and varying in lize and lhape at pleafure j cover
the mould, and place it in a pail about two-thirds full of
ice, into Avhich two handfuls of fait have been thrown 5
turn the mould by the hand-hold with a quick motion
to and fro, in the manner ufed for milling chocolate, for
eight or ten minutes; then let it reft as long, and turn
it again for the fame time ; and having left it to ftand
half an hour, it is fit to be turned out of the mould and
to be fent to table. Lemon juice and fugar, and
the juices of various kinds of fruits, are frozen with¬
out cream j and when cream is ufed, it ftiould be well
mixed.
Ice-Hills, a fort of ftrufture or contrivance common,
upon the river Neva at Peterfburg, and which afford
a perpetual fund of amufement to the populace. They
are conflrufted in the following manner. A fcaffolding
is raifed upon the river about 30 feet in height, with a
landing place on the top, the afeent to Avhich is by a
ladder. From this fummit a floping plane of boards,
about four yards broad and 30 long, defeends to
the fuperficies of the river; it is fupported by ftrong
poles gradually decreafing in height, and its fides are
defended by a parapet of planks. Upon thefe boards are
laid fquare maffes of ice about four inches thick, which,
being firft fmoothed with the axe and laid clofe to each
other, are then fprinkled with water : by thefe means
they coalefce, and, adhering to the boards, immediate¬
ly form an inclined plaine of pure ice. From the bot¬
tom of this plane the fnow is cleared away for the length
of 200 yards, and the breadth of four, upon the level
bed of the river; and the fides of this courfe, as Aveli
as the fides and top of the fcaffolding, are ornamented
with firs and pines,. Each perfon, being provided with
3..
Ice.
ICE [
a fledge, mounts the ladder 5 and having attained the
fummit’, he feats himfelf upon his fledge at the upper
extremity of the inclined plane, down which he fullers
it to glide with confiderable rapidity, poifing it as he
goes down j when the velocity acquired by the de-
fcent carries it above 100 yards upon the level ice of
the river. At the end of this courfe, there is ufually
a flmilar ice-hill, nearly parallel to the former, which
begins where the other ends j fo that the perfon imme¬
diately mounts again, and in the fame manner glides
down the other inclined plane of ice. This diverfion
he repeats as often as he pleafes. The boys alio are
continually employed in Ikaiting down thefe hills:
they glide chiefly upon one Ikait, as they are able
to poife themfelves better upon one leg than upon
two. Thefe ioe-hills exhibit a pleaflng appearance up¬
on the river, as well from the trees with which they
are ornamented, as from the moving objedls which at
particular times of the day are defcending without in-
termiflion.
ICE-Heufe, a repofltory for ice during the fummer
months. The afpedt of ice-houfes fliould be towards the
eart or fouth-eaft, for the advantage of the morning fun
to expel the damp air, as that is more pernicious than
warmth : for which reafon trees in the vicinity of an
Ice houfe tend to its difadvantage.
The belt foil for an ice-houfe to be made in is chalk,
as it conveys away the wafte water without any artifi¬
cial drain *, next to that, loofe ftony earth or gravelly
foil. Its fituation flrould be on the flde of a hill, for
the advantage of entering the cell upon a level, as in
the drawing, Plate CCLXXVIII.
To conftrudl an ice-houfe, firft choofe a proper place
at a convenient diftance from the dwelling-houfe, or
houfes it is to ferve : dig a cavity (if for one family, of
the dimenfions fpecified in the defign) of the figure of
an inverted cone, finking the bottom concave, to form
a refervoir for the wafte water till it can drain off"; if
the foil requires it, cut a drain to a confiderable di¬
ftance, or fo far as will come out at the fide of the hill,
or into a well, to make it communicate with the
fprings, and in that drain form a ftink or air-trap, mark¬
ed /, by finking the drain fo much low'er in that place
as it is high, and bring a partition from the top an inch
or more into the water, which will confequently be in
the trap ; and will keep the well air-tight. Work up
a fufficient .number of brick piers to receive a cart¬
wheel, to be laid with its convex fide upwards to re¬
ceive the ice ’y lay hurdles and ftraw upon the wheel,
which will let the melted ice drain through, and ferve
as a floor: The fides and dome of the cone are to be
nine inches thick—the fides to be done in fteened
brickwork, 1. e. without mortar, and wrought at right
angles to the face of the work : the filling in behind
mould be with gravel, loofe Hones, or brick bats, that
tne water which drains through the fides may the more
-eafily efcape into the well. The doors of the ice-
houfe fliould be made as clofe as poilible, and bundles
01 ftraw placed always before the inner door to keep
out the air.
Defcription of the parts,referred to by the letters.—
(i i he line firft dug out. b The brick circumference
sjf the cell, c I he diminution of the cell downwards.
d i he lefier diameter of the cell, e The cart wheel
51 ] ICE
or joifts and hurdles. ./The piers to receive the wheel Ice.
or floor, The principal receptacle for ftraw. h The "
* inner paftage, i the firft entrance, k the outer door,
pafTages having a feparate door each. I An air trap.
m The well, n The profile of the piers. 0 The ice
filled in. /> The height of the cone, q The dome
worked in two half brick arches, r The arched paf,
fage. s The door-ways inferted in the walls, t Thfe
floor of the pafiage. u An aperture through which he
ice may be put into the cell; this muft be covered next
the crown of the dome, and then filled in with earth.
x The Hoping door, again ft which the ftraw fhould be
laid.
The ice when to be put in fhould be collefted dm
ring the froft, broken into fmall pieces, and rammed
down hard in ftralta of not more than a foot, in order
to make it one complete body j the care in putting it
in, and well ramming it, tends much to its preferva*
tion. In a feafon when ice is not to be had in iufficient
quantities, Jhovv may be fubftituted.
Ice may be preferved in a dry place under ground, by
covering it well with chaff, ftraw, or reeds.
.Great ufe is made of chaff in feme places of Italy to
preferve ice : the ice-Loufe for this purpofe need only
be a deep hole dug in the ground on the flde of a hill,
from the bottom of which they can eafily carry out a
drain, to let out the water which is feparated at any
time from the ice, that it may not melt and fpoil the
reft. If the ground is tolerably dry, they do not line
the fides with any thing, but leave them naked, and on¬
ly make a covering of thatch over the top of the hole :
this pit they fill either with pure fnow, orelfe with ice
taken from the pureft and cleareft water j becaufethey
do not ufe it as we do in England, to fet the bottles
in, but really mix it with the wine. They firft cover
the bottom of the hole with chaff, and then lay in the
ice, not letting it anywhere touch the tides, but ram¬
ming in a large bed of chaff all the way between: they
thus carry on the filling to the top, and then cover
the furface with chaff ; and in this manner it will keep
as long as they pleafe. When they take any of it
out for ufe, they wrap the lump up in chaff, and it
may then be carried to any diftant place without wafle
or melting.
It appears from the inveftigation of Profeffor Beck¬
man, in his Hiftory of Inventions, that the ancients
from the earlieft ages were acquainted with the method
of preferving fnow for the purpofe of cooling liquors in
fummer. “ This practice, (he obferves), is mentioned
by., Solomon '* ; and proofs of it are fo numerous va.* Proverls^
the works of the Greeks and the Romans, that it isXKV, 1S>
unneceflary for me to quote them, efpecially as they
have been colledted by others. How the repofitories
for keeping it were conftructed, we are not exprefsly
told •,, but it is probable that the fnow was preferved in
pits or trenches.
“ When Alexander the Great befieged the city of
Petra, he caufed 30 trenches to be dug, and filled with
fnow, which was covered with oak branches, and ’■ nieh
kept in that manner for a long time. Plutarch iaysf
that a covering of chaff* and’coarfe clcth is fufficient j
and at prefent a like method is purfued in Portugal.
Where the fnow has been colledled in a deep gulf,
fome grafs or greei) fads, covered with dung from the
G 2 iheep
ICE r 52 ] ICE
Ibeep pens, is thrown over it ; and under thefe k is fo
well preferved, that the whole fumnier through it is
lent the diftance of 60 Spamth (nearly 180 Englifh)
miles to Lifbon.
ii When the ancients, therefore, wifhed to have cool¬
ing liquors, they either drank the melted fnow, or put
fome of it in their wine ; or they placed jars filled with
■wine in the fnow, and fuffered it to cool there as long
as they thought proper. That ice was alfo preferved for
the like purpofe, is probable from the teilimony of va¬
rious authors 5 but it appears not to have been ufed fo
much in warm countries as in the northern. Even at
prefent fnow is employed in Italy, Spain, and Portugal 5
but in Perfia ice. I have never any where found an
account of Grecian or Roman ice-houfes. By the writ¬
ers on agriculture they are not mentioned.”
ICE-IJland, a name given by failors to a great quan¬
tity of ice colle&ed into one huge folid mafs, and float¬
ing about upon the feas near or within the Polar circles.
—Many of thefe fludfuating iflands are met with on
the coafls of Spitzbergen, .to the great danger of the
{hipping employed in the Greenland fifliery. In the
naidftofthofe tremendous maffes navigators have been ar¬
retted and frozen to death. In this manner the brave
Sir Hugh Willoughby periflied with all his crew in
I553 ? an<^ th® yearI773* Lord Mulgrave, after e-
very effort which the moft tiniftied feaman could make to
accomplifli the end of his voyage, was caught in the ice,
and was near experiencing the fame unhappy fate. See
the account at large in Phipps's Voyage to the Northi
Pole. As there delcribed, the fcene, diverted of the
horror from the eventful expectation of change, was
the moft beautiful and pidturefque :—Two large fhips
becalmed in a vaft bafon, fur rounded on all fides by
irtands of various forms: the weather clear : the fun
gilding the circumambient ice, which was low, fmooth,
and even j covered with fnow, excepting where the
pools of Avater on part of the furface appeared cryftal-
line with the young ice : the fmall fpace of fea they
■were confined in perfectly fmooth. After fruitlefs at¬
tempts to force a way through the fields of ice, their
limits were perpetually contracted by its clofing j till at
length itbefet each vefleltill they became immoveably
fixed. The fmooth extent of furface Avas foon loft j
the prerture of the pieces of ice, by the violence of the
fwell, caufed them to pack : fragment rofe upon frag¬
ment till they were in many places higher than the
main-yard. The movements of the Ihipswere tremen¬
dous and inAmluntary, in conjunction with the fur-
rcunding ice, aCtuated by the currents. The Avater
feoaled to 14 fathoms. The grounding of the ice or
cf the ftiips would have been equally fatal : The force
of the ice might have cruftied them to atoms, or have
lifted them out of the water and overfet them, or have
left them fufpended on the fummits of the pieces of ice
at a tremendous height, expofed to the fury of the
winds, or to the rifk of being dallied to pieces by
the failure of their frozen dock. An attempt was made
to cut a partake through the ice j after a perfeverance
worthy of Britons, it proved fruitlefs. The comman¬
der, at all times matter of himfelf, directed the boats
to be made ready to be hauled over the ice, till they
arrived at navigable water (a talk alone of feven days),
and in them to make their voyage to England. The
heats were drawn progreflively three whole days. At
4
length a wind fprung up, the ice feparatru fufticiently lee,
to yield to the prerture of the full-lailed Ihips, Avhich, Icebergs,
after labouring againft the refifting fields of ice, arrived —v'—”"
on the 10th of Auguft in the harbour of Smeeringberg,
at the weft end of Spitzbergen, between it and Haek-
luyt’s Headland.
The* forms affumed by the ice in this chilling cli¬
mate are extremely pleating to even the moft incu¬
rious eye. The furface ol that which is congealed
from the fea Avater (for we mutt allow it two origins)
is flat and even, hard, opake, reiembling white iugar,
and incapable of being flid on, like the Britifh ice. The
greater pieces, or fields, are many leagues in length ;
the lefl'er are the meadows of the icals, on which thefe
animals at times frolic by hundreds. The motion of
the leffer pieces is as rapid as the currents : the greater,
which are femetimes 200 leagues long, and 60 or 80
broad, move Hoav and majeftically } oftfcn fix for a time,
immoveable by the power of the ocean, and then pro¬
duce near the horizon that bright white appearance cal¬
led the blink. The approximation of two great fields
produces a moft Angular phenomenon ; it forces the
leffer (if the term can be applied to pieces of feveral
acres iquare) out of the water, and adds them to their
furface ; a fecond and often a third lucceeds j fo that
the whole forms an aggregate of a tremendous height.
Thefe float in the fea like fo many rugged mountains,
and are fometimes 500 or 600 yards thick ; but the
far greater part is concealed beneath the Avater. Thefe
are continually increafed in height by the freezing of
the fpray of the fea, or of the melting of the fnow,
which falls on them. 1 hofe which remain in this fro¬
zen climate receive continual groAvth ; others are gra¬
dually wafted by the northern Avinds into fouthern la¬
titudes, and melt by degrees, by the heat of the fun, till
they wafte away, or difappear in the boundlefs element.
The coliifion of the great fields of ice, in high lati¬
tudes, is often attended Avith a noife that for a time
takes aAvay the fenfe of hearing any thing elfe j and the
leffer with a grinding of unfpeakable horror. The wa¬
ter which dafhes againft the mountainous ice freezes in¬
to an infinite variety of forms j and gives the voyager
ideal towns, ftreets, churches, tteeples, and evyy ftiapa
which imagination can frame.
IcE-Plant. See Mesemeryanthemum, Botany
Index.
ICEBERGS, are large bodies of ice filling the val¬
leys betAveen the high mountains in northern latitudes.
Among the moft remarkable are thofe of the eaft coaft
of Spitzbergen (fee Greenland, N° 10.). They are
feven in number, but at confiderable diftances from
each other $ each fills the valleys for trafls unknown
in a region totally inaeceflible in the internal parts.
The glaciers * of Switzerland feem contemptible to* See
thefe } but prefent often afimilar front into fome lower
valley. Thelaft exhibits over the fea a front 300 feet
high, emulating the emerald in colour •, cataracts of
melted fnow precipitate down various parts, and black
fpiring mountains, ftreaked with Avhite, bound the
fides, and rife crag above crag, as far as eye can reach
in the back ground. See Plate CCLXXV1II. At times
immenfe fragments break off, and tumble into the Avater,-
with a moft alarming daftiing. A piece of this vivid
green fubftance has fallen, and grounded in 24 fathomst/^'f J
water, and fpired above the furface 50 feet f. Simi-ptj0> ’
lar
I C E
[ S3' J
ICE
General ac
count of !
the coun¬
try.
Icebergs, Jar icebergs are frequent in all the Arctic regions; and
Iceland. t0 lapfes is owing the folid mountainous ice which
■ ^ “ infefts thofe Teas.—Froft fports wonderfully with thefe
icebergs, and gives them majeftic as well as other moft
lingular forms. Maffes have been feen affuming the
fliape of a Gothic church, with arched windows and
doors, and all the rich drapery of that ftyle, compofed
of what an Arabian tale would fcarcely dare to relate,
of cryftal of the richeft fapphirine blue tables with
one or more feet; and often immenfe flat-roofed tem¬
ples, like thofe of Luxor on the Nile, fupported by
round tranfparent columns of cerulean hue, float by the
aftoniihed fpe&ator. Thefe icebergs are the creation
of ages, and receive annually additional height by the
falling of fnows and of rain, which often inftantly
freezes, and more than repairs the lofs occafloned by
the influence of the melting fun.
ICELAND, a large ifland lying in the northern
part of the Atlantic ocean, between 63 aad 68 degrees
of north latitude, and between 10 and 26 degrees of
Aveft longitude *, its greateft length being about 700
miles, and its breadth 300.
This country lying partly within the frigid zone, and
being liable to be furrouuded with vaft quantities of ice
which come from the polar feas, is, on account of the
coldnefs of its climate, very inhofpitable j but much
more fo for other reafons. It is exceedingly fubjefl to
earthquakes ; and fo full of volcanoes, that the little
part of it which appears fit for the habitation of man
leems almoft totally laid wafte by them. The bell ac¬
count that hath yet appeared of the ifland of Iceland
is in a late publication, intitled “ Letters on Iceland,
&c. written by Uno Von Troil, D. D. firfl: chaplain
to his Swedifli maje^ly.,, This gentleman failed from
London on the 12th of July 1772, in company with
Mr Banks, Dr'Solander, and Dr James Lind of Edin¬
burgh, in a Ihip for which 100I. fterling was paid eve¬
ry month. After vifiting the Weftern iflands of Scot¬
land, they arrived on the 28th of Auguft at Iceland,
where they call anchor at Befleftedr or Beflaftadr, ly¬
ing in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the weftern part of the
ifland. The country had to them the moft difmal ap¬
pearance that can be conceived. “ Imagine to your-
felf (fays Dr Troil) a country, which from one end
to the other prefents to your view only barren moun¬
tains, whofe fummits are covered with eternal fnow,
and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whofe
high and Iharp points feem to vie with each other to
deprive you of the fight of a little grafs which fcantily
fprings up among them. Thefe fame dreary rocks
likewife conceal the few fcattered habitations of the
natives, and no where a fingle tree appears which might
afford {belter to friendthip and innocence. The prof-
pe<5l before us, though not pleafing, was uncommon and
furprifing. Whatever prefented itfelf to our view bore
the marks of devaftation j and our eyes, accuftomed to
behold the pleafing coafts of England, now faw nothing
but the veftiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven knows
how ancient.”
The climate of Iceland, however, is not unwhole-
fome, or naturally fubjetSk to exceffive colds, notwhh-
ftanding its northerly fituation. There have been
initances indeed of Fahrenheit’s thermometer finking
to 240 below the freezing point in winter, and rifing to
a
Account
of the cli¬
mate.
104° in fummer. Since the year I749> obfervations
have been made on the weather 5 and the refult of thefe
obfervations hath been unfavourable, as the coldnefs of
the climate is thought to be on the increafe, and of
confequence the country is in danger of becoming un¬
fit for the habitation of the human race. Wood, which
formerly grew in great quantities all over the ifland,
cannot now be railed. Even the hardy firs of Norway
cannot be reared in this ifland. They feemed indeed
to thrive till they were about two feet high j but then
their tops withered, and they ceafed to grow. This
is owing chiefly to the ftorms and hurricanes which
frequently happen in the months of May and June, and
which are very unfavourable to vegetation of every
kind. In 1772, Governor Thodal {owed a little bar¬
ley, which grew very brilkly 5 but a fliort time before
it was to be reaped, a violent ftorm fo effedlually de-
ftroyed it, that only a few grains were found fcattered
about. Befides thefe violent winds, this ifland lies un¬
der another difadvantage, 'owing to the floating ice al¬
ready mentioned, with which the coafts are often befet.
This ice comes on by degrees, always with an eafterly
wind, and frequently in fuch quantities as to fill up all
the gulfs on the north-weft fide of the ifland, and
even covers the fea as far as the eye can reach j it alio
fometimes drives to other {bores. It generally comes ia
January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only
reaches the land in April j and, remaining there for a
long time, does an incredible deal of mifchief. Itcon-
fifts partly of mountains of ice, faid to be fometimes 60
fathoms in height ^ and partly of field ice, which is
neither fo thick nor fo much dreaded. Sometimes
thefe enormous maffes are grounded in ftioal-water j and
in thefe cafes they remain for many months, nay years,
undiffolved, chilling the atmofphere for a great way
round. When many fuch bulky and lofty ice-maffes
are floating together, the wood which is often found
drifting between them, is fo much chafed, and preffed
with fuch violence together, that it fometimes takes
fire : which circumftance has occafioned fabulous ac¬
counts of the ice being in flames.
In 1753 and 1754, this ice occafioned fuch a vio¬
lent cold, that horfes and flieep dropped down dead by.
reafon of it, as well as for want of food ; horfes were
obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the ftieep ate cff
eaeh other’s wool. In 17^5, towards the end of the
month of May, the waters were frozen over in one
night to the thicknefs of an inch and five lines. In
1756, on the 26th of June, fnow fell to the depth of
a yard, and continued falling through the months of
July and Auguft. In the year following it froze very
hard towards the end of May and beginning of June,
in the fouth part of the ifland, which occafioned a
great fcarcity of grafs. Thefe frofts are generally fol-
lowed by a famine, many examples of which are to be
found in the Icelandic chronicles. Befides thefe cala¬
mities, a number of bears annually arrive with the ice,
which commit great ravages among the fheep. The-
Icelanders attempt to deftroy thefe intruders as foon as
they get fight of them. Sometimes they affemble toge¬
ther, and drive them back to the ice, with which they
often float off again. For want of fire-arms, they are
obliged to ufe fpears on thefe occafions. The govern¬
ment alfo encourages the deftru£tion of thefe animals,
Iceland.
ICE l t
, Ice!anJ° by paying a premium ef 10 dollars for every bear that
is killed, and pur dialing the Ikin of him v,ho killed
it.
Notwithftanding this difmal pidure, however, taken
from "V on Trdl’s letters, fome trads of ground, in kigh
cultivation, are mentioned as being covered by the
great eruption of lava in 1783. It is poflible, there¬
fore, that the above may have been fomewhat exagge¬
rated.
Thunder and lightning are feldom heard in Iceland,
except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora
Borealis is very frequent and ftrong. It moll: com¬
monly appears in dry weather j though there are not
wanting inftances of its being feen before or after rain,
or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which
prognofticates bad weather, is likewife very frequent
here j as are alfo parhelions, which appear from one
t© nine in number at a time. Thefe parhelions are ob-
fcryed chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice,
which an intenfe degree of frofl: has produced, and the
frozen vapours fill the air. Fire-balls, fometimes round
and fometimes oval, are obferved, and a kind of ignis
fatuus which attaches itfelf to men and beads; and co¬
mets are alfo frequently mentioned in their chronicles.
1 his laft circumitance deferves the attention of aftrono-
mers.
Iceland, belides all the inconveniences already men¬
tioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the na¬
tives fkrida and fniofiodi: the name of the firfl: imports
iarge pieces of a mountain tumbling down and deftroy-
ing the lands and houfes which lie at the foot of it :
this happened in I554> wben a whole farm was ruined,
and thirteen people buried alive. The other word fig-
nifies the effefts of a prodigious quantity of fnow, which
covers the top of the mountains, rolling down in im-
menfe maffes, and doing a great deal of damage : of
this there was an inftance in 1699, during the night,
w'hen two farms were buried, with all their inhabitants
and cattle, Xhis laft accident Iceland has in common
with all very mountainous countries, particularly Swit-
, zerland.
Account of “ Iceland abounds with hot and boiling fprings, fome
the hot of which fpout up into the air to a furpriling height.
Iceland0^ ^le ^,eau which have been contrived with fo
from Von Inuc^1 art> an<^ at fucb an enormous expence, cannot by
Trail's Let- any means be compared with thefe wonders of nature
ten. in Iceland. the water-works at Herenhaufen throw
up a Angle column of water of half a quarter of a yard
in circumference to a height of about 70 feet; thofe at
the Winterkeften at Caflel throw it up, but in a much
'thinner column, 130 feet; and the jet d’eau at St
Cloud, which is thought the greateft of all the French
water-works, calls up a thin column 80 feet into the
air ; but fome fprings in Iceland pour forth columns of
water feveral feet in thieknefs to the height of many
fathoms ; and many affirm of feveral hundred feet.
“ 1 hefe fprings are unequal in their degrees of heat;
but we have obferved none under 188 degrees of Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer; in fome it is 192, 193, 212,
and in one {mall vein of water 213 degrees. From
fome the water flows gently, and she fpring is then
called long, “ a bath from other; it fpouts with a
great noife, and is then talk-: HurtR, i-r hitt-'l It is
very common for fome of theie fpouiing fprings 10 ciofe
2
4 ] ICE
up, and others t<3 appear in their ftead. All thefe hot Iceland,
waters have an incrufting quality, fo that we very com-
monly find the exterior furface from whence it burfts
forth covered with a kind of rind, which almoft refem-
bles chafed work, and which we at firft took for lime,
but which was afterwards found by Mr Bergman to be
of a filiceous or flinty nature. In fome places the wa¬
ter taftes of fulphur, in others not; but when drank as
foon as it is cold, taftes like common boiled water. The
inhabitants ufc it at particular times for dyeing ; and
were they to adopt proper regulations, it might be of
ftill greater ufe. Viftuals may alfo be boiled in it, and
milk held over its fteam becomes fweet ; owing, molt
probably, to the exceflive heat of the water, as the
fame effedt is produced by boiling it a long time over
the fire. They have begun to make fait by boiling fea
water over it, which when it is refined, is very pure
and good. The cows which diink this hot water yield
a great deal of milk. Egbert Olafsen relates, that the
water does not become turbid when alkali is thrown
into it, nor does it change the colour of fyrup of violets,
rlorrebow afferts, that if you fill a bottle at one of the
fpouting fprings, the water will boil over two or three
times while the fpring throws forth its water; and if
corked too foon, the bottle will burft. 4
“ Among the many hot fprings to be met with in A- partial-
Iceland, feveral bear the name of geyfer: the following ^delcnp-
is a defcription of the moft remarkable of that name, ^ °ne
and in the whole ifland. It is about two days journey Geyfer.
from Hecla, near a farm called Haukadul. Here a
poet would have an opportunity of painting whatever
nature has of beautiful and terrible, united in one pic¬
ture, by delineating this furprifing phenomenon. Re-
prefent to yourfelf a large field, where you fee on one
lide, at a great diftance, high mountains covered with
ice, whofe fummits are generally wrapped in clouds, fo
that their ftiarp and unequal points become invifible.
This lofs, however, is compenfated by a certain wind,
which caufes the clouds to fink, and cover the mountain
itfelf, when its fummit appears as it were to reft on the
clouds. On the other fide Hecla is feen, with its three
points covered with ice, rifing above the clouds, and,
with the fmoke which afcends from it, forming other
clouds at fome diftance from the real ones : and on an¬
other fide is a ridge of high rocks, at the foot of which
boiling water from time to time iffues forth ; and fur¬
ther on extends a marfti of about three Englilh miles
in circumference, where are 40 or 50 boiling fprings,
from which a vapour afcends to a prodigious height.——
In the midft of thefe is the greateft fpring geyfer, which
deferves a more exaft and particular account. In tra¬
velling to the place, about an Englifti mile and a half
from the liver, from which the ridge of rocks ftill divi¬
ded us, we heard a loud roaring noife, like the rufhing
of a torrent precipitating itfelf from ftupendous recks.
We afked our guide what it meant; he anfwered, it
was geyfer roaring ; and we foon faw with our naked
eyes what before feemed almoft incredible.
“ T he depth of the opening or pipe from which
the water gufhes cannot well be determined; for fome-
times the ater funk down feveral fathoms, and fome
feconds } a fled before a ftone which was thrown into
the aperu cached the furface of the water. The
opening rtfeif was perfectly round, and 19 feet in dia¬
meter,
ICE _ [ 55 ]
Iceland, meter, and terminated in a bafon feet in diameter, ourfelves before
V"—-' Both the pipe and the bafon were covered with^ a
rough ftala&itic rind, which had been formed by the
force of the water: the outermoft border of the bafon
is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itfelf.
The water here fpouted feveral times a-day, but always
by ftarts, and after certain intervals. The people who
lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they rofe
higher in cold and bad weather than at other times ;
and Egbert Olafsen and feveral others affirm, that it has
fpouted to the height of 60 fathoms. Mott probably
they gueffed only by the eye, and on that account their
calculation may be a little extravagant 5 and indeed it
is to be doubted whether the water was ever thrown up
fo high, though probably it fometimes mounts higher
than when we obferved it. The method w-e took to
obferve the height was as follows. Every one in com¬
pany wrote down, at each time that the water fpouted,
how high it appeared to him to be thrown, and we af¬
terwards chofe the medium. The firfl: column marks
the fpoutings of the water, in the order in which they
followed one another ; the fecond, the time when thefe
eifufions happened ; the third, the height to which the
water rofe *, and
water continued.
the laid, how long each fpouting of
Nc
Time.
At VI 42 m.
1
2
3-
4  
5  
6—VIII
8-
 51
-VII16
 31
5i
17
29
36
Height.
30 feet.
6
6
12
60
s 24
18
12
Duration.
o 20 feconds.
20
10
15
6
3°
40
40
The pipe was now for the firll time full of water, which
ran flowly into the bafon.
48
24
10
00
“ At 35 minutes after twelve we heard, as it were,
three difeharges of a gun under ground, which made
it ffiake : the water flowed over immediately, but in-
llantly funk again. At eight minutes after two, the
water flowed over the border of the bafon. At 15 mi¬
nutes after three, we again heard feveral fubterranean
noifes, though not fo ft rung as before. At 4 3 mi¬
nutes after four, the water flowed over very ftrengly
during the fpace of a minute. In fix minutes after,
we heard many loud fubterraneous difeharges, not on¬
ly near the fpring, but alfo from the neighbouring
ridge of rocks, where the water fpouted. At mi¬
nutes after fix, the fountain fpouted up to the height
of 92 feet, and continued to do fo for four minutes.
After this great effort, it funk down very low into the
pipe, and was entirely quiet during feveral minutes;
but foon began to bubble again : it was not, how¬
ever, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of the
pipe.
“ The force of the vapours which throw up thefe
waters is exceffive : it not only prevents the ftones
Avhieh are thrown into the opening from finking, but
even throws them up to a very great height, together
with the water. When the bafon was full, we placed
I C E
the fun in fuch a manner that we Iceland,
could fee cur fhadows in the water ; when every one‘'"“’"V"'’"'
obferved round the fliadmv of his own head (though
not round that of the heads of others), a circle of al-
moft the fame colours which compofe the rainbow, and
round this another bright circle. This moft pro¬
bably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the
water.
u Not far from this place, another fpring at the
foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks fpouted water
to the height of one or two yards each time. The
opening through which this water iffued was not fo
wide as the other : we imagined it poffible to flop up
the hole entirely by throwing large ftones into it, and
even flattered ourfelves that our attempts had fuc-
ceeded : but, to our aftoniftament, the water guftied
forth in a very violent manner. We haftened to the
pipe, and found all the ftones thrown afide, and the
water playing freely through its former channel. In
thefe large fprings the waters were hot in the higheft
degree, and tafted a little of fulphur j but in other
refpefts it was pure and clear. In the fmaller
fprings of the neighbourhood the water was tainted :
in feme, it was as muddy as that of a clay-pit : in
others, as white as milk j and in fome few, as red as
blood. r
“ Iceland abounds with pillars of bafaltes, which Account of
the lower fort of people imagine have been piled upon the bafaltic
each other by the giants, who made ufe of fuptrna-P1^215* ^cc*
tural force to effeft it. They have generally from
three to feven fides j and are from four to fix feet in
thicknefs, and from 12 to 16 yards in length, without
any horizontal divifions. But fometimes they are only
from fix inches to one foot in height, and they are
then very regular, infomuch that they are fometimes
made ufe of for windows and door-pofts. In fome
places they only peep out here and there among the
lava, or more frequently among the tufa ; in other
places they are quite overthrown, and pieces of broken
pillars only make their appearance. Sometimes they
extend without interruption for two or three miles in
length. In one mountain they have a Angular appear¬
ance : on the top the pillars lie horizontally, in the
middle they are Hoping ; the loweft are perfectly per¬
pendicular j and in fome parts they are bent into a
femicircular figure. The matter of the Iceland bafaltes
feems to be the fame with that of Staffa •, though in
fome it is more porous, and inclines to a gray. Some
we obferved which were of a blackilh gray, and com-
pofed of feveral joints. Another time we obferved a
kind of porous glaffy Hone, confequently a lava, which
was fo indiftinftly divided, that we were for fome time
at a lofs to determine whether it was bafaltes or not,
though at laft we all agreed that it was.
Iron ore is found in fome parts of the ifland, and
that beautiful copper ore called malachites. Horrebow
fpeaks of native filver. A ftratum of fulphur is found
near Myvatu from nine inches to two feet in thicknefs ;
partly of a brown colour, and partly of a deep orange.
Immediately over the fulphur is a blue earth \ above
that a vitriolic and aluminous one } and beneath the
fulphur a reddifli bole. ^
At what time the iiland of Iceland was firfl: peopled Hiftory ef
is uncertain. An Englifti colony indeed is faid to the ifland.
have been fettled there in the beginning of the fifth
century j
ICE f 56 ] ICE
Iceland, century ; but of this there are not fufficlent proofs.
  There is, however, reafon to fuppofe that the Er.glHh
&nd Irifh were acquainted with this country under
another name, long before the arrival of the Norwe¬
gians 5 for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accurate
defcription of the iflancf. But of the original inhabi¬
tants we cannot pretend to fay any thing, as the Ice¬
land chronicles go no farther back than the arrival of
the Norwegians. What they relate is to the following
purpofe.
Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coaft
of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snio-land,
“ Snow-land,” on account of the great quantities of
fnow with which he perceived the mountains covered.
He did not remain there long : but on his return ex¬
tolled the country to fuch a degree, that one Garder
Suafarfon, an enterpriling Swede, was encouraged by
his account to go in fearch of it in 864. He failed
quite round the ifland, and gave it the name of Gar-
daljholmur, or Carder’s illand. Having remained in
Iceland during the winter, he returned in the fpring to
Norway, where he defcribed the new-difcovered ifland
as a pleafant well-wooded country. This excited a
defire in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greateft
navigator of kis time, to undertake a voyage thither.
As the compafs was then unknown, he took three
ravens on board to employ them on the difcovery. By
the way he vifited his friends at Ferro ; and having
failed farther to the northward, he let fly one of his
ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he
difmified the fecond, which returned to the fhip again,
as he could find no land. The lafi: trial proved more
iuccefsfulq the third raven took his flight to Iceland,
' where the fhip arrived a few days after. Floke ftaid
here the whole winter with his company 5 and, be-
Caufe he found a great deal of floating ice on the north
fide, he gave the country the name of Iceland, which it
has ever fince retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following
fpring, Floke, and thofe that had been with him, made
a very different defcription of the country. Floke de¬
fcribed it as a wretched place*, while one of his com¬
panions named'77/0e////r, praifed it fo highly, that he
affirmed butter dropped fromevery plant; which ex¬
travagant commendation procured him the name of
Thoralfr-fmior, or Butter-Thorulfr.
From this time there are no accounts of any voyages
to Iceland, till Ingolfr and his friend Leifr undertook
one in 874. They fpent the winter on the ifland, and
determined to fettle there for the future. Ingolfr
returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be
neceffary for the comfortable eftablithment of a colony,
and Leifr in the mean time went to affirt in the war
in England. After an interval of four years, they
again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him a
confiderable number of people, with the neceffary tools
and inftruments for making the country habitable ; and
the other imported his acquired treafures. After this
period many people went there to fettle ; and, in the
fpace of 60 years, the whole ifland was inhabited.
The tyranny of Harold king of Norway contributed
not a little to the population of Iceland ; and fo great
was the emigration of his iubjefts, that he was at laft
obliged to iffue an order, that no one fhould fail from
Norway to Iceland without paying four ounces of fine IcelanJ.
filver to the king. w—
Befides the Norwegians, new colonies arrived from
different nations, between whom wars foon commen¬
ced j and the Icelandic hiftories are full of the accounts
of their battles. To prevent thefe confli£ts for the future,
a kind of chief was chofen in 928, upon whom great
powers were conferred. This man was the fpeaker in
all their public deliberations j pronounced fentence in
difficult and intricate cafes 5 decided all difputes $ and
published new laws, after they had been received and
approved of by the people at large : but he had no
power to make laws without the approbation and con-
lent of the reff. He therefore affembled the chiefs
whenever the circunafiances feemed to require it ; and
after they had deliberated among themfelves, he repre-
fented the opinion of the majority to the people, whofe
affent was neceffary before it could be confidered as a
law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders,
however, was inconfiderable, as he was chofen by them
and retained his place no longer than while he prefer-
ved their confidence.
This inftitution did not prove fufficient to reftrain
the turbulent fpirit of the Icelanders. They openly
waged war with each other j and, by their inteftine
conflicts, fo weakened all parties, that the whole be¬
came at laft a prey to a few arbitrary and enterprifing
men ; who, as is too generally the cafe, wantonly
abufed their power to the opprelfion of their country¬
men, and the difgrace of humanity. Notwithflanding
thefe troubles, however, the Icelanders remained free
from a foreign yoke till 1261 ; when the greateft part
of them put themfelves under the protection of Hakans
king of Norway, promifing to pay him tribute upon
certain conditions agreed on between them ; and the
reft followed their example in 1264. Afterwards,
Iceland, together with Norway, became fubjeft to
Denmark. For a long time the care of the ifland
was committed to a governor, who commonly went
there once a-year j though, according to his inftruc-
tions, he ought to have refided in Iceland. As the coun¬
try fuffered incredibly through the abfence of its go¬
vernors, it was refolved a few years ago that they
ftiould refide there, and have their feat at Beffefftedr,
one of the old royal domains. He has under him a
bailiff, two laymen, a fheriff, and 21 fyjfelmen, or ma-
giftrates who fuperintend fmall diftritls 5 and almoft
^very thing is decided according to the laws of Den¬
mark. y
At the firft fettlement of the Norwegians in Iceland, Manners,
they lived in the fame manner as they had done in their &c. of the
own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their ft-Icelanders,
tuation with regard to the kings of Norway, however,
foon obliged them to apply to other ftates, in order to
learn as much of the knowledge of government and
politics as was neceffary to preferve their colony from
fubjugation to a foreign yoke. For this purpofe they
often failed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England,
and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were
obliged to give an account to their chiefs of the flat©
of thofe kingdoms through which they palled. For
this reafon, hiftory, and what related to fcience, was
held in high repute as long as the republican form of
government lafted ^ and the great number of hiftories
to
ICE
Iceland, to be met with in the country, fliow at leaft the deiire
of the Icelanders to be inftruffed. To fecure them-
felves, therefore, againft their powerful neighbours,
they were obliged to enlarge their hiftorical knowledge.
They likewife took great pains in ftudying perfectly
their own laws, for the maintenance and protection of
their internal fecurity. Thus Iceland, at a time
when ignorance and obfcurity overwhelmed the reft of
Europe, was enabled to produce a confiderable number
of poets and hiftorians. When the Chriftian religion
was introduced, about the end of the 10th century,
more were found converfant in the law than could have
been expefted, conudering the extent of the country,
and the number of its inhabitants. Fiihing was fol¬
lowed among them ; but they devoted their attention
confiderably more to agriculture, which has fince en¬
tirely ceafed.
Two things have principally contributed towards
producing a great change both in their charafter and
way of life, viz. the progrefs of the Chriftian religion,
and their fubjedftion firft to Norway, and afterwards to
Denmark. For if religion, on one fide, commanded
them to defift from their ravages and warlike expedi¬
tions ; the fecular power, on the other, deprived them
of the neceflary forces for the execution of them :
and, fince this time, we find no farther traces of their
heroic deeds, except thofe which are preferved in their
hiftories.
The modern Icelanders apply themfelves to fiihing
and breeding of cattle. They are middle-fized and
well made, though net very ftrong ; and the women
are in general ill-featured. Vices are much lefs com¬
mon among them, than in other pails where luxury
and riches have corrupted the morals of the people.
Though their poverty difables them from imitating
the hofpitality of their anceftors in all refpects, yet
they continue to {how their inclination to it : they
cheerfully give away the little they have to fpare, and
exprefs the utmoft joy and fatisfa&ion if you are plea-
fed with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging
and faithful, and extremely attached to government.
They are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander
never pafles a river or any other dangerous place, with-
out. previoufly taking off his hat, and imploring the
divine protection •, and he is always thankful for the
protection of the Deity when he has paffed the dan¬
ger m.fafety. They have an inexpreflible attachment
to their native country, and are nowhere fo happy.
An Icelander therefore rarely fettles in Copenhagen,
though ever fuch advantageous terms fttould be offered
him. On the other hand, we cannot afcribe any great
induftry or ingenuity to thefe people. They work on
m tne way to which they have all along been accuf-
tomed, without thinking of improvements. They are
not cheerful in converfation, but fimple and credulous ;
and have no averfion againfl: a bottle, if they can find
an. opportunity. When they meet together, their
chief paftime confifts in reading their hiftory. The
maft.er of the houfe makes the beginning, and the reft
continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of
them, know theie {lories by heart •, others have them
in print, and others in writing. Befides this, they are
great players at chefs and cards, but only for their
amuiement, fince they never play for money 5 which,
however, feems to have been formerly in wfe ainone
^ ot. XL Part I,
I C E
them j fince by one of their old laws, a fine is im- Iceland,
pofed upon thofe who play for money.   *
The modern Icelanders have made very little alte- Their drefs
ration in their drefs from what was formerly in ufe.
The men all wear a linen ftiirt next to the {kin, with
a fhort jacket, and a pair of wide breeches over it.
When they travel, another ftiort coat is put over all.
The whole is made of coarfe black cloth, called wad-
tnal; but feme wear clothes of a white colour. Oa
their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and on
the feet Iceland Ihoes and worfted {lockings. Some
of them indeed have {hoes from Copenhagen j but,‘ as
they are rather too dear for them, they generally make
their own (hoes, fometimes of the hide of oxen, but
more frequently of {beeps leather. They make them
by cutting a fquare piece of leather, rather wider than
the length of the foot; this they few up at the toei
and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather
thongs. Thefe ftioes are convenient enough where the
country is level ; but it would be very difficult for us
who are not accuftomed to walk with them amongft the
rocks and ftones, though the Icelanders do it with
great cafe.
The women are likewife dreffed in black wadmal.-
They wear a bodice over their ftiifts, which are fewed
up at the bofom ; and above this a jacket laced bo-
fore with long narrow fieeves reaching down to the
wrifts. In the opening on the fide of the fleeve, they
have buttons of chafed filver, with a plate fixed to
each button j on which the lover, when he buys them
in order to prefeut them to his miftrefs, takes care t*
have his name engraved along with hers. At the top
of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of about,
three inches broad, of velvet or filk, and frequently
trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewife of '
wadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the
top of it is a girdle of filver or fome other metal, to
which they fallen the apron, which is alfo of wadmal,
and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed filver.
Over all this they wear an upper drefs nearly refem-
bling that of the Swedilli peafants; with this differ¬
ence, that it is wider at bottom : this is clofe at the
neck and wrifts, and a hand’s-breadth {hotter than the
petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the
bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally
wove by the Icelandic women. On their fingers they
wear gold, filver, or brafs rings. Their head-drefs
confifts of feveral cloths wrapped round the head al-
moft as high again as the face. It is tied fall with a
handkerchief, and ferves more for warmth than orna¬
ment. Girls are not allowed to wear this head-drefs
till they are marriageable. At their weddings they
are adorned in a very particular manner $ the bride
wears, clofe to the face, round her head-drefs, a crown
of filver gilt. She has two chains round her neck,
one of which hangs down very low before, and the
other refts on her ffioulders. Befides thefe, ffie wears
a leffer chain, from whence generally hangs a little
heart, which may be opened to put fome kind of per¬
fume in it. This drefs is worn by all the Icelandic
women without exception : only with this difference,
that the poorer fort have it of coarfe wadmal, with
ornaments of brafs ; and thofe that are in eafier cir-
cumftances have it of broad cloth, with filrer orna¬
ments gilt.
[ 57 1
H
The .
ICE [ 55 1 ICE
Iceland. The houfes of the Icelanders are very indifferent,
V v—— worft are fjjjfj be on the fouth lide of the
Houfw. ifland. In fome parts they are built of drift-wood, in
others of lava, alraoft in the fame manner as the ftone-
walls we make for inclofures, with mofs fluffed be¬
tween the pieces of lava. In fome houfes the walls are
wainfcotted on the infide. The roof is covered with
fods, laid over rafting, or fometimes over the ribs of
whales j the walls are about three yards high, and the
entrance fomewhat lower. Inftead of glafs, the win¬
dows are made of the chorion and amnios of ftieep, or
the membranes which furround the womb of the ewe.
Thefe are ftretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in
the roof. In the poorer fort of houfes they employ for
the windows the inner membrane of the ftomach of ani-
1Q mals, which is lefs tranfparent than the others.
Diet. As the ifland of Iceland produces no kind of grain,
the inhabitants of confequence have no bread but what
is imported 5 and which being too dear for common
ufe, is referved for weddings and other entertainments.
The following lift of their viands is taken from Troil’s
Letters.
“ 1. Flour of jialgras, (lichen ijlandicus'), or rock-
grafs. The plant is firft walhed, and then cut into
fmall pieces by fome j though the greater number dry
it by fire or in the fun, then put it into a bag in which
it is well beaten, and laftly work it into a flour by
ftamping.
“ 2. Flour of komfygr, (polygonum bifiorta'), is pre¬
pared in the fame manner, as well as the two other
forts of wild corn melur (arundo arenaria, and arundo
foliorum lateribus convolutis), by feparating it from the
chaff, pounding, and laftly grinding it.
“ 3. Surl fmoer, (four butter). The Icelanders
feldom make ufe of frefh or fait butter, but let it grow
four before they eat it. In this manner it may be kept
for 20 years, or even longer •, and the Icelanders look
upon it as more wholefome and palatable than the but¬
ter ufed among other nations. It is reckoned better
the older it grows •, and one pound of it then is valued
as much as two of frefti butter.
“ 3. Striugy or whey boiled to the confiftence of four
pfflk, and preferved for the w inter.
“ 4. Fiftx of all kinds, both dried in the fun and in
the air, and either faked or frozen. Thofe prepared in
the laft manner are preferred by many.
“ 5. The flefli of bears, ftieep, and birds, which
is partly faked, partly hung or fmoked, and fome
preferved in calks w ith four or fermented whey poured
over it.
, “ 6. Mifojl, or whey boiled to cheefe, which is very
good. But the art of making other kinds of good
cheefe is loft, though fome tolerably palatable is fold
in the eaft quarter of Iceland.
“ y. BeinaJlriug, bones and cartilages of beef and
mutton, and likewife bones of cod, boiled in whey till
they are quite diffolved : they are then left to ferment,
and are eaten with milk.
“ 8. Shyr. The curds from which the whey is
fqueezed are preferved in calks or oilier veffels j they
are fometimes mixed with black crow'-berries or juni-
per-berries, and arc likewife eaten with new milk.
“ 9. -Syra, is four whey kept in calks, and left to
ferment j which, however, is not reckoned fit for ufe
till a year old,
\
“ 10. Bianla, is a liquor made of water, to which Iceland,
a twelfth part of fyra is added. In winter, it is -v—
mixed with the juice of thyme and of the black crow-
berries.
“ 11. They likewife eat many vegetables, fome of
which grow wild, and fomc are cultivated j alfo Ihell-
fifh and mulhrooms.”
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at
feven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine
at night. In the morning and evening they common¬
ly eat curds mixed with new' milk, and fometimes with
juniper or crow-berries. In fome parts, they alfo have
pottage made of rock-grafs, which is very palatable,
or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red colour,
or new milk boiled a long time. At dinner, the food
oonfifts of dried filh, with plenty of four butter 5 they
alfo fometimes eat frefti fifti, and, when poflible, a lit¬
tle bread and cheefe with them. It is reported by
fome, that they do not eat any fifli till it is quite rot¬
ten j this report perhaps proceeds from their being
fond of it when a little tainted : they however fre¬
quently eat fifti which is quite frefti, though, in the fame
manner as the reft of their food, often without fait.
The common beverage is milk, either warm from
the cow or cold, and fometimes boiled : they likewife
ufe butter-milk with or without water. On the coafls
they generally drink blanda and four milk ; which is
fold after it is Ikimmed at two-fifths of a rixdollar
per calk : fome likewife fend for beer from Copenha¬
gen, and fome brew their own. A few of the princi¬
pal inhabitants alfo have claret and coffee. T he com¬
mon people fometimes drink a kind of tea, which they
make from the leaves of the dryas oElopetala, and the
veronica officinalis.
On the coafts the men employ themfelves in fifti-
ing, both fummer and winter. On their return home, ment, ma-
when they have drawn and cleaned their fifti, they give nufadturei,
them to their w ives, whofe care it is to dry them. In
the winter, when the inclemency of the weather pre¬
vents them from fiftiing, they are obliged to take care
of their cattle, and fpin wool. In fummer, they mow
the grafs, dig turf, provide fuel, go in fearch of ftieep
and goats that were gone aftray, and kill cattle. They
prepare leather with the fpircea ulmaria inftead of
bark. Some few work in gold and filver ^ and others
are inftru£led in mechanics, in which they are tolerable
proficients. The w'omen prepare the fifti, take care
of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, few, fpin,
and gather eggs and down. When they work in
the evening, they ufe, inftead of an hour-glafs, a
lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train
oil, which is contrived to burn four, fix, or eight
hours.
Among the common people of Iceland, time is not
reckoned by the courfe of the fun, but by the work
they have done, and which is prefcribed by law. Ac¬
cording to this prefcription, a man is to mow as much
hay in one day as grow s on 30 fathoms of manured foil,
or 40 fathoms of land which has not been manured ; or
he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet long and three
broad. If as much fnow falls as reaches to the horfes
bellies, a man is required daily to clear a piece of ground
fuflicient for 100 ftieep. A woman is to rake together
as much hay as three men can mow , or to weave three
yards of wadrual a-day.
Th*
TcelantJ.
I C £
The wages of a man are fixed
12
T:lifeafe>
*3
Commerce
and reve-
tme.
12 yards of wadmal j and thofe of a woman at two
dollars and five yards of wadmal. When men are fent
a-fi(hing out of the country, there is allowed to each
man, by law, from the 25th of September to the 14th
of May, fix pounds of butter, and 18 pounds of dried
fifii every week. This may feem to be too great an
allowance ; but it muft be remembered that they have
nothing elfe to live upon. When they are at home,
and can get milk, &.c. every man receives only five
pounds of dried fifii and three quarters of a pound of
butter a-week.
The food and manner of life of the Icelanders by no
means contribute to their longevity. It is very rare
indeed to fee an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age
of 50 or 60 ; and the greater part are attacked by
grievous difeafes before middle age. Of thefe the
feurvy and elephantiafis or leprofy are the worft. . I hey
are alfo fubjeft to the gout in their hands, owing to
their frequent employment in fiihing, and handling
the wet fifiiing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony’s
fire, the jaundice, pleurify, and lownefs of fpirits, are
frequent complaints in this country. The fmalhpox
alfo is exceedingly fatal, and not long ago deftroyed
16,000 perfons. By thefe difeafes, and the frequent
famines with which the country has been affii&ed, the
inhabitants are reduced to a much fmaller number than
they formerly were, infomuch that it is computed they
do not in all exceed 60,000.
The exports of Iceland confift of dried fifii, failed
mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil,
coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, gloves, raw wool,
fheep-fkins, lamb-fldns, fox-furs of various colours, ei¬
der down, feathers, and formerly fulphur; but there is
no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other
hand, the Icelanders import timber, fiftiing-lines and
hooks, tobacco, bread, horfe-fiioes, brandy, wine, fait,
linen, a little filk, and a few other neceflaries, as well
as fuperfluities for the better fort. The whole trade
of Iceland is engroffed by a monopoly of Danes, in¬
dulged with an exclufive charter. This company
maintains factories at all the harbours of Iceland,
where they exchange their foreign goods for the mer-
ehandife of the country j and as the balance is in fa¬
vour of the Icelanders, pay the overplus in Danifii
money, which is the only current coin in this ifland.
All their accounts and payments are adjufted accord¬
ing to the number of fi(h : two pounds of fifli are
worth two Ikillings in fpecie, aud 48 fifti amount to
one rixdollar. A Danifh crown is computed at 30
fifii: what falls under the value of 12 fifii cannot be
paid in money ; but mufi: be bartered either for filh
wr roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to ono fifh.
The weights and meafures of the Icelanders are nearly
the fame with thofe ufed in Denmark. The Icelanders
being neither numerous nor warlike, and altogether
unprovided with arms, ammunition, garrifons, or fleets,
are in no condition to defend themfelves from invafion,
but depend entirely on the prote&ion of his Danifii ma-
jefty, to whom they are fubjeft. The revenues which he
draws from this ifiand confift of the income of divers
eftates, as royal demefne, amounting to about 8coo dol¬
lars per annum j of the money paid by the company
foj an exclufive trade, to the value of 20,000 dollars j
[ S9 1 1 c E
at four dollars and and of a fixed proportion in the tythes of fi£h paid in ,
•v*
14
fome particular diftri£ls. . #
Iceland is noted for the volcanoes with which it V()lc;,7i0es
abounds, as already mentioned, and which feem to be0f jceiai-4,
more furious than any yet difeovered in the other parts
of the globe. Indeed, from the lateft accounts, it
would feem that this miferable country were little
ether than one continued volcano. Mount Hecla has
been commonly fuppofed to be the only burning
mountain, or at leaft the principal one, in the ifiand :
(fee Hecla). It has indeed been more taken notice of
than many others of as great extent, partly from its
having bad more frequent eruptions than any fingle
one, and partly from its fituation, which expofes it to
the fight of fiiips failing to Greenland and North
America. But in a lift of eruptions publiftied in the
appendix to Pennant’s Arftic Zoology, it appears, that
out of remarkable ones, only one-third have pro¬
ceeded from Hecla, the other mountains it feems being
no lefts adtive in the work of defiruftion than this
celebrated one. Thefe eruptions take place in the
mountains covered with ice, which the inhabitants
call Johuls. Some of thefe, as appears from a large
map of Iceland made by order ©f his Danifti majefty
in 1734, have been fwallawed up. Probably the great
lakes met with in this country may have been occa-
fioned by the finking of fuch mountains, as feveral
inftances of a fimilar nature are to be met with in other
parts of the world. The great Icelandic lake called
Myvatu may probably have been one. Its bottom is
entirely formed of lava, divided by deep cracks, which
fhelter during winter the great quantity of trout
which inhabit this lake. It is now only 3c feet deep,
but originally was much deeper $ being nearly filled up
in the year 1718 by an eruption of the great mountain
Krajie. The fiery ftream took its courfe toward*
MyvatUy and ran into it with an horrid noife, which
continued till the year 1730.
“ The mountains of Iceland (fays Mr Pennant) are
of two kinds, primitive and pofterior. The former
confift of ftrata ufually regular, but fometimes confu-
fed. They are formed of different forts of {tone without
the leart appearance of fire. Some are compoled of
fand and free-ftone, petrofilex or chirt, flaty or fiffile
ftone, and various kinds of earth or bole, and fteatitesj
different forts of breccia or conglutinated {tones j ja{-
pers of different kinds, Iceland cryftal •, the common
rhomboid fpathum, chalcedonies ftratified, bofryvid;
zeolites of the moft elegant kinds j cryftals, and va¬
rious other fubftances that have no relation to vol¬
canoes. Thefe primitive mountains are thofe called
Johuls, and are higher than the others. One of them,
called JEJian or Rias, is 6coo feet high. It feems to
be compofed of great and irregular rocks of a dark
gray colour, piled on each other. Another, called
Enneberg, is about 3000 feet high *, the Sncefeld Johul,
2287 yards j the Sncefeldnas or promontory of Stuejie/d
is from 300 to 400 fathoms. Hartijlrand or the coaft
by the north Cape Nord is very high, from 300 to 400
fathoms. The rocks of Drargo are feven in number,
of a pyramidal figure, rifing out of the fea at a fmall
diftance from the cliffs, four of which are of a vaft
height, and have a moft magnificent appearance.
“ Eaftward from the Sncejield begins the Eifberge,
H 2 foaring
ICE r 60 ] ICE
^Ireland. ^ fosring io a vaft height j many parts cf which have
y'"felt the eftefts of fire, and in feme of the melted rocks
are large cavities. Budda-lekkur, a rock at one end of
this mountain, is alfo volcanic, and has in it a great
cavern hung with JIalaSitce. The name of Sohahamar
is given to a tremendous range of volcanic rocks, com-
pofed entirely of flags, and covered in the feafon with
fea-fowl. It would be endlefs, however, to mention
all the places which bear the marks of fire in various
forms, either by having been vitrified, changed into a
fiery colour, ragged and black, or bear the marks of
having run for miles in a (loping courfe towards the
fea.”
Thefe volcanoes, though fo dreadful in their effects,
feldom begin to throw out fire without giving warning.
A fubterraneous rumbling noife, heard at a confider-
able diftance, as in other volcanoes, precedes the erup¬
tion for feveral days, with a roaring and cracking in
the place from whence the fire is about to burft forth $
many fiery meteors are obferved, but generally unat¬
tended with any violent concuflion of the earth,
though fometimes earthquakes, of which feveral in-
itances are recorded, have accompanied thefe dreadful
conflagrations. The drying up of fmall lakes, ftreams,
and rivulets, is alfo confidered as a fign of an impend¬
ing eruption ; and it is thought to haften the eruption
when a mountain is fo covered with ice, that the holes
are flopped up through which the exhalations former¬
ly found a free paffage. The immediate fign is the
burfling of the mafs of ice with a dreadful noife $
.flames then iffue forth from the earth, and lightning
and fire balls from the fmoke j ffones, afhes, &c. are
thrown out to vaft diftances. Egbert Olafsen relates,
that, in an eruption of Kattle giaa in 1755, a ftone
weighing 290 pounds was thrown to the diftance of 24
Englifh miles. A quantity of white pumice (tones is
thrown up by the boiling waters : and it is conjectured
with great probability, that the latter proceeds from
the fea. as a quantity of fait, fufficient to load feveral
horfes, has frequently been found after the mountain
has ceafed to burn.
To enumerate the ravages of fo many dreadful vol¬
canoes, which from time immemorial have contributed
to render this dreary country (till lefs habitable than it
is from the climate, would greatly exceed our limits.
The conn- It will be fufficient to give an account of that which
try almoft happened in 1783, and which from its violence feems
by an or up to ^ave ^een unparalleled in hiftory.
tion in 1 hgns were obferved on the ift of June by
ajSj. a trembling of the earth in the weftern part of the
province of Skapterfiall. It increafed gradually to the
41th, and became at laft fo great that the inhabitants
quitted their houfes, and lay at night in tents on the
ground. A continual fmoke or fleam was perceived
riling out of the earth in the northern and unin¬
habited parts of the country. Three jire-fpouts, as
they were called, broke out in different places, one
in Ulfarfdal, a little to theeaft of the river Skapta; the
other two were a little to the weftward of the river
called Ilwerfipfliot. The river Skapta takes its rife in
the north-eaft, and running firft weftward, it turns to
the fouth, and falls into the fea in a fouth-eaft direction.
Part of its channel is confined for about 24 Englifh
miles in length, and is in fome places 200 fathoms
deep, in others 100 or 150, and its breadth in fome
places 100, 50, or 40 fathoms. Along the whole of this Iceland,
part of its courfe the river is very rapid, though there —v"-—
are nft confiderable catarafts or falls. There are f’eve-
ral other fuch confined channels in the country, but this
is the moft confiderable.
The three fire-fpouts, or dreams of lava, rvhich
had broke out, united into one, after having rifen a
confiderable height into the air, arriving at laft at fuch
an amazing altitude as to be feen at the diftance of
more than 200 Englifh miles ; the whole country, for
double that diftance, being covered with a fmoke or
fleam not to be deferibed.
On the 8th of June this fire firft became vifible.
\ aft quantities of fand, afhes, and other volcanic
matters were eje&ed, and fcattered over the country
by the wind, which at that time was very high. The
atmofphere was filled with fand, brimftone, and afhes,
in fuch a manner as to oecafion continual darknefs $
and confiderable damage was done by the pumice
ftones which fell, red hot, in great quantities. Along
with thefe a tenacious fubftance like pitch fell in vart
quantity; fometimes rolled up like balls, at other
times like rings or garlands, which proved no lefs-
deftru&ive to vegetation than the other. This fhower
having continued for three days, the fire became very
vifible, and at laft arrived at the amazing height already
mentioned. Sometimes it appeared in a continued
ftveam, at others in flafhes or flames feen at the dif¬
tance of 30 or 40 Danifh miles (180 or 240 of ours),
with a continual noife like thunder, which lafted the
whole fummer.
The fame day that the fire broke out there fell a
vaft quantity of rain, which running in ftreams on the
hot ground tore it up in large quantities, and brought
it down upon the lower lands. This rain-water was
much impregnated with acid and other falls, fo as to be
highly corrofive, and occafion a painful fenfation when
it fell on the hands or face. At a greater diftance from
the fire the air was exceffively cold. Snow lay upon
the ground three feet deep in fome places j and in
others there fell great quantities of hail, which did
very much damage to the cattle and every thing with¬
out doors. Thus the grafs and every kind of vege¬
tation in thofe places neareft the fire was deftroyed,
being covered with a thick cruft of fulphureous and
footy matter. Such a quantity of vapour was raifed
by the conteft of the two adverfe elements, that the
fun was darkened and appeared like blood, the whole
face of nature feeming to be changed j and this ob-
feurity feems to have reached as far as the ifland of
Britain; for during the whole fummer of 1783, an
obfeurity reigned throughout all parts of this ifland ;
the atmofphere appearing to be covered with a con¬
tinual haze, which prevented the fun from appearing
with his ufual fplendour.
The dreadful feene above deferibed lafted in Iceland
for feveral days; the whole country was laid w'afte,
and the inhabitants fled everywhere to the remoteft
parts of their miferable country, to feek for fafety from
the fury of this unparalleled tempeft.
On the firft breaking out of the fire, the river
Skapta was confiderably augmented, on the eaft fide of
which one of the fire fpouts was fituated ; and a fimi-
lar overflow of w:ater was obferved at the fame time
in the great river Fiorfa^ which runs into the fea a
little
ICE [ 61
Iceland, little to the eaftward of a town called Orrebakha, and
T—into which another river called Tuna, after having run
• through a large traft of barren and uncultivated land,
empties itfelf. But on the nth of June the waters of
the Skapta were leffened, and in lefs than 24 hours
totally dried up. The day following, a prodigious
ftream of liquid and red hot lava, which the fire*fpout
had difcharged, ran down the channel of the river.
This burning torrent not only filled up the deep chan¬
nel above mentioned, but, overflowing the banks of
it, fpread itfelf over the whole valley, covering all
the low grounds in its neighbourhood ; and not ha¬
ving any fulficient outlet to empty itfelf by, it rofe to
a vaft height, fi> that the whole adjacent country was
overflowed, infinuating itfelf between the hills, and
covering fome of the lower ones. The hills here are
not continued in a long chain or feries, but are fepa-
rated from one another, and detached, and between
them run little rivulets or brooks ; fo that, befides
filling up the whole valley in which the river Skapta
ran, the fiery ftream fpread itfelf for a confiderable
diftance on each fide, getting vent between the above-
mentioned hills, and laying all the neighbouring coun¬
try under fire.
The fpouts ftill continuing to fupply frefti quanti¬
ties of inflamed matter, the lava took its courfe up the
channel of the river, overflowing all the grounds above,
as it had done thofe below the place whence it iiTued.
The river was dried up before it, until at laft it was
flopped by the hill whence the Skapta took its rife.
Finding now no proper outlet, it role to a prodigious
height, and overflowed the village of Buland, confu-
ming the houfes, church, and every thing that flood
in its wray : though the high ground on w-hich this vil¬
lage ftood feemed to enfure it from any danger of this
kind.
The fiery lake ftill increafing, fpread itfelf out in
length and breadth for about 36 Englilh miles j and
having converted all this traft of land into a fea of fire,
it ftretched itfelf toward the fouth, and getting out
again by the river Skapta, rulhed down its channel
with great impetuofity. It was ftill confined be¬
tween the narrow banks of that river for about fix
miles (Englilh) ; but coming at laft into a more open
place, it poured forth in prodigious torrents with
amazing velocity and force ; fpreading itfelf now to¬
wards the fouth, tearing up the earth, and carrying
on its lurface flaming woods and whatfoever it met
with. In its courfe it laid wafte another large diftrift
of land. The ground where it came was cracked, and
fent forth great quantities of fleam long before the fire
reached it 3 and every thing near the lake was either
Burnt up or reduced to a fluid ftate. In this fituation
matters remained from the 12th of June to the 13th
of Auguft 3 after which the fiery lake no longer fpread
^ itfelf, but neverthelefs continued to burn 3 and when
any part of the furface acquired a cruft by cooling, It
was quickly broken by the fire from below 3 and
tumbling down among the melted fubftance, was roll¬
ed and toffed about with prodigious noife and crack¬
ling 3 and in many parts of its furface, fmall fpouts or
at leaft ebullitions, were formed, which continued for
fome length of time.
In other dire6iions this dreadful inundation proved
] ICE
no lefs deftru&ive. Having run through the narrow Iceland,
part of the channel of Skapta as early as the 1 2th ofy’—“
June, it ftretched out itfelf towards the weft and fouth-
weft, overflowing all the flat country, and its edge
being no lefs than 70 fathoms high at the time it got
out of the channel of the river. Continuing its de-
ftrucfive courfe, it overflowed a number of villages,
running in every direction where it could find a vent.
In one place it came to a great cataraft of the river
Skapta, about 14 fathoms in height, over which it
was precipitated with tremendous noife, and thrown in
great quantities to a very confiderable diftance. In an¬
other place it flopped up the channel of a large river,
filled a great valley, and deftroyed two villages by
approaching only within 100 fathoms of them. Others
were overflowed by inundations of water proceeding
from the rivers which had been flopped in their cour-
fes ; until at laft all the paffageson the fouth, eaft, and
weft, being flopped, and the fpouts ftill fending up in¬
credible quantities of freftr lava, it burft out to the north
and north-eaft, fpreading over a tradl of land 48 miles
long and 36 broad. Here it dried up the rivers Tuna
and Axafydri; but even this vaft effufion being infuffi-
cient to exhauft the fubterraneous refources of liquid
fire, a new branch took its courfe for about eight miles
down the channel of the river I/werJisJUot, when coming
again to an open country, it formed what our author
calls a fmall lake of fire, about twelve miles in length
and fix in breadth. At laft, however, this branch alfo.
flopped on the 16th of Auguft 3 the fiery mountains
ceafed to pour forth new' fupplies, and this moft aftonilh-
ing eruption came to a period.
The whole extent of ground covered by tills dread¬
ful inundation was computed at no lefs than 90 miles
long and 42 in breadth 3 the depth of the lava being
from 16 to 20 fathoms. Two rivers were dried up, 20
or 21 villages were deftroyed, and 224 people loft their
lives. The extent above mentioned, however, is that
only on the fouth, eaft and weft j for that towards thq
north being over uninhabited land, where no body
cared to venture themfelves, was not exaftly known.
Some hills were covered by this lava : others were
melted down by its heat 3 fo that the whole had the
appearance of a fea of red hot and melted metal.
After this eruption two new iflands were thrown up
from the bottom of the fea. One, about three miles
in circumference, and about a mile in height, made its
appearance in the month of February 1784, where
there w:as formerly i©o fathoms of water. It was about
100 miles fouth-well from Iceland, and 48 from a cluf-
ter of fmall iflands called Gierfugal. It continued for
fome time to burn with great violence, fending forth
prodigious quantities of pumice-ftones, fand, &c. like
other volcanoes. The other lay to the north-w'eft, be¬
tween Iceland and Greenland. It burnt day and night
without intermiflion for a confiderable time 3 and was
alfo very high, and larger than the former. Since that
time, however, one or both of thefe illands have been
fwallowed up.
All the time of this great eruption, and for a con¬
fiderable time after, the whole atmofphere was loaded
with fmoke, fleam, and fulphureous vapours. The
fun was fometimes wholly invifible 3 and when it could
be feen was of a reddilh colour. Moft of the filhe-
ries
4
ICE [ 62 ] ICE
Iceland. i/ie£ v.ere cleftroyed ; the banks where the fiih ufed to
Vn~—y—beiug f0 changed, that the fithermen could not
know them again j and the fmoke was fo thick, that
they could not go far out to fea. The rain water, fall¬
ing through this fmoke and (team, was fo impregnated
with fait and fulphureous matter, that the hair and
even the Ikins of the cattle were deftroyed ; and the
whole grafs of the ifland was covered with foot and
pitchy matter, that what had efcaped the deftru&ive
effeds of the fire became poifonous $ fo that the cattle
died for want of food, or perilhed by eating thofe un-
wholefome vegetables. Nor were the inhabitants in a
much better fituation j many of them having loft their
lives by the poifonous qualities of the fmoke and fleam
W'ith which the whole atmofphere was filled $ particu¬
larly old people, and fuch as had any complaint in the
breaft and lungs.
Before the fire broke out in Iceland, there is faid to
have been a very remarkable eruption in the uninha¬
bited .parts of Greenland j and that in the northern
parts of Norway, oppofite to Greenland, the fire was
vifible for a long time. It was alfo related, that when
the wdnd was in the north, a great quantity of allies,
pumice, and brimftone, fell upon the north and weft
coafts ©f Iceland, which continued for the whole fum-
j»er whenever the wind was in that quarter j and the
air was always very much impregnated with a thick
fmoke and fulphureous fmell.
During the fall of the lharp rain formerly mention¬
ed, there was obferved at Trondheim, and other places
in Norway, and likewife at Faw, an uncommon fall of
iharp and fait rain, which totally deftroyed the leaves
of the trees, and every vegetable it fell upon, by
fcorching them up, and caufing them to wither. A
.eonfiderable quantity of allies, fand, and other volca¬
nic matters, fell at Faro, which covered the whole fur-
face of the ground whenever the wind blew from Ice¬
land, though the diftance between the two places is not
lefs than 480 miles. Ships that were failing betwixt
Copenhagen and Norway were frequently covered with
allies and fulphureous matter, which ftuck to the mails,
lails, and decks, befmearing them all over with a black
?.nd pitchy fubftance. In many parts of Holland,
Germany, and other northern countries, a fulphureous
vapour was obferved in the air, accompanied with a
thick fmoke, and in fome places a light gray-coloured
fubftance fell upon the earth every night 5 which, by
yielding a bluilh flame when thrown into the fire, evi¬
dently ihowed its fulphureous nature. On thofe nights
in which this fubftance fell in any quantity, there W'as
little or no dew obferved. Thefe appearances con¬
tinued, more or lefs, all the months of July, Auguft,
and September.
Vhorke- Some curious particulars relative to the ancient Hate
lyn’s ac- of this illand have lately been publifhed by a Mr
count of Vhorkelyn, a native of the country. From his work
of the ^ aPPears that Iceland, for a very confiderable fpace
if and time, viz. from the beginning of the loth to the
middle of the 13th century, w'as under a republican
form of government. At firft the father, or head of
every family, was an abfolute fovereign ; but in the
progrefs of population ^nd improvement, it became ne-
ceflary to form certain regulations for the fettlement of
difputes concerning the frontiers of different eftates.
Jfor this purpofe the heads of the families concerned af-
fembled themfelves, and formed the outlines of a re- Icclans.
public. In the mean time they carried on a profper-
ous trade to different parts j fending ftups even to the
Levant, and to Conftantinople, at that time celebra¬
ted as the only feat of literature and humanity in the
world. Deputies were likewife fent from this ifland
over land to that capital, for the improvement of their
laws and civilization j and this a whole century before
the firft crufade. In thefe ancient Icelandic laws, there¬
fore, we meet with evident traces of thofe of the Greeks
and Romans. For example, befides a body of written
laws which W'ere read every third year to the peo¬
ple, they had tw'o men chofen annually by the heads of
families, with confular power, not only to enforce the
laws then in being, but w hen thefe proved deficient, to
aft as neceffity required.
Thefe laws do not appear to have inflifted capital
punilhments upon any perfon. Murderers were banifti-
ed to the wood; that is, to the interior and uncultiva¬
ted parts of tht ifland : where no perfon was allowed
to approach them w’ithin a certain number of fathoms.
In cafes of banifliment for leffer crimes, the friends of
the offender were allowed to fupply him with neeeffa-
ries. The culprit, however, might be killed by any
perfon who found him without his bounds ; and he
might even be bunted and deftroyed in his fanftuary,
provided he did not withdraw himfelf from the ifland
within a twelvemonth after his fentence, which it was
fuppofed he might accomplifh by means of the annual
arrival and departure of fliips. Every man’s perfon
was free until he had forfeited his rights by fome crime
againft fociety ; and fo great was their refpeft for in¬
dependence, that great indulgence was allowed for the
power of paflion. If any proveking word or behaviour
had been ufed, no puniftiment was inflifted on the par¬
ty who refented it, even though he fhould have killed
his adverfary.
By the laws of Iceland, the poor were committed to
the proteftion of their neareft kindred, who had a right
to their labour as far as they were able to work, and
afterwards to indemnification if the poor perfon ftxould
acquire any property. Children were obliged to main¬
tain their parents in their old age j but if the latter
had neglefted to give them good education, they were
abfolved from this duty.
While the republic of Iceland continued free and
independent, {hips were fent from the ifland to all parts
of the -world. Till very lately, how'ever, not a Ihip
belonged to it, the little commerce it enjoyed being
monopolized by a Danifh company, until in 1786 it
was laid open to all the fubjefts of Denmark. “ There
is at prefent (fays Mr Pennant*) a revival of the cod * Appendix
fifhery on the coaft of Iceland from our kingdom. A.-to Arftic
bout a dozen of veffels have of late failed from the ifleZoo^W»
of Thanet, and a few from other parts of Great Bri-^>- I^‘
tain. They are either Hoops or brigs from 50 to 80
tons burden. A lugfail boat, fuch as is ufed in the
herring fifliery, failed laft feafon from Yarmouth thus
equipped. The crewr eonfifted of five men from the
town, and five more taken in at the Orkneys. They
had twelve lines of 120 fathoms each, and 200 or 300
hooks j fix heading knives, twelve gutting and twelve
fplitting knives. They take in 18 tons of' fait at Leith,
at the rate of three tons to every thoufand fiflj \ of
which ftx ox feven thoufand is a load for a vefiel of
this
Iceland
n
Jehoglans.
I C H [63
They go to fea about the middle of April;
I
I C H
this kind.  ^ 0
return by the Orkneys to land the men j and get into
their port in the latter end of Auguft or beginning of
September. Pytheas fays, that Iceland lies fix days
failing from Great Britain. *• A veffel from Yarmouth
was, in the laft year, exaftly that time in its voyage
from the Orkneys to Iceland. With a fair wind it
might be performed in far lefs time ; but the winds
about the Ferroe ifles are generally changeable.
ICELAND -dgale, a kind of precious Hone met with
in the iflands of Iceland and Afcenfion, employed by
the jewellers as an agate, though too foft for the pur-
pofe. It is fuppofed to be a volcanic product j being
folid, black, and of a glafly texture. When held be¬
tween the eye and the light, it is femitranfparent and
greeniih like the glafs bottles which contain much
iron. In the iflands which produce it, fuch large
pieces are met with, that they cannot be equalled in
any glafshoufe.
ICENI, the ancient name of the people of Suffolk,
Norfolk, Cambridgefliire, and Huntingdonfhire, in
England.
ICH-dien. See Heraldry, chap. iv. feft. 2.
ICHNEUMON, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mam¬
malia Index.
Ichneumon is alfo the name of a genus of flies of
the hymenoptera order. See Entomology Index.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in PerfpeBive, the view of any
thing cutoff by a plane, parallel to the horizon, juft at
the bafe of it.—The word is derived from the Greek
f00tJleP, and y?*?1*’? ^ iv rite, as being a defcrip-
tion of the footfteps or traces of a work.
Among painters it fignifies a defcription of images
or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, of bufts and
femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, mofaic works, and
ancient pieces of miniature.
Ichnography, in ArchiteBure, is a tranfverfe or
horizontal feftion of a building, exhibiting the plot of
the whole edifice, and of the feveral rooms and apart¬
ments in any ftory $ together w ith the thicknefs of
the walls and partitions j the dimenfions of the doors,
windows, and chimneys j the projeflures of the co¬
lumns and piers, with every thing vifible in fuch a
jeftion.
ICHOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages ferving
in the feraglio. Thefe are the children of Chriftian
parents, either taken in war, purchafed, or fent in
prefents from the viceroys and governors of diftant
provinces : they are the raoft fprightly, beautiful, and
well-made that can be met with ; and are always re¬
viewed and approved of by the grand fignior himfelf,
before they are admitted into the feraglios of Pera,
Conftantinople, or Adrianople, being the three col¬
leges where they are educated, or fitted for employ¬
ment, according to the opinion the court entertains of
them.
ICHOR, properly fignifies a thin watery humour
like ferum j but is fometimes ufed for a thicker kind
flowing from ulcers, called alfo Janies.
1CHTHYOCOLLA, Isinglass, a preparation
from the filh known by the name of hufo. See Acci-
PENSER. The word is Greek, formed of lyfivs, fijhy
and xoAA*, glue.—The method of making ifinglafs was
long a fecret in the hands of the Ruflians ; but hath
lately been difcovered, and the following account of
it publiftied by Humphrey Jackfon, Efq. in the 63d
volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions. .
“ All authors who have hitherto delivered pro-
ceffes for making ichthyocolla, filh-glue, or ifinglafs,
have greatly miftaken both its conftituent matter and
preparation.
“ To preve this aflertion, it may not be improper to
recite what Pomet fays upon the fubjeft, as he appears
to be the principal author whom the reft have copied.
After defcribing the fi(h, and referring to a cut en¬
graved from an original in his cuftody, he fays : ‘ As
to the manner of making the ifinglafs, the finewy parts
of the filh are boiled in water till all of them be dif-
folved that will diflblve j then the gluey liquor is
drained, and fet to cool. Being cold, the fat is care¬
fully taken off, and the liquor itfelf boiled to a juft
confiftency, then cut to pieces and made into a twift,
bent in form of a crefcent, as commonly fold j then
hung upon a ftring, and carefully dried.’.
“ From this account, it might be rationally con¬
cluded, that every fpecies of fifh which contained gela¬
tinous principles would yield ifinglafs : and this parity
of reafoning feems to have given rife to the hafty con-
clufions of thofe who ftrenuoufly vouch for the extrac¬
tion of ifinglafs from fturgecn j but as that fifh is eafily
procurable, the negligence of afcertaining the faft by
experiment feems inexcufable.
“ In my firft attempt to difcover the conftituent
parts and manufa&ure of ifinglafs, relying too much
upon the authority of feme chemical authors whofe ve¬
racity I had experienced in many other inftances, I
found myfelf conftantly difappointed. Glue, not ifin¬
glafs, was the refult of every procefs j and although, in
the fame view, a journey to Ruflia proved fruitlefs, yet
a fteady perfeverance in the refearch proved not only
fuccefsful as to this obje<ft, but in the purfuit to difco¬
ver a refinous matter plentifully procurable iu the Bri-
tifh fifheries, which has been found by ample experi¬
ence to anfwer fimilar purpofes. It is now no longer
a fecret that our (a) lakes and rivers in North Ame¬
rica are flocked with immenfe quantities of fifh, faid
to be the fame fpecies with thofe in Mufcovy, and
yielding the fineft ifinglafs ; the fifheries whereof, un¬
der due encouragement, would doubtlefs fupply all Eu¬
rope with this valuable article.
“ No artificial heat is neceffary to the produflion of
ifinglafs, neither is the matter diffolved for this purpofe j
for,
Ichor,
Ichtli) c-
colla.
(a) As the lakes of North America lie nearly in the fame latitude with the Cafpian fea, particularly Laks
Superior, which is faid to be of greater extent, it was conje&ured they might abound with the fame forts of
fifh ; and in confequence of public advertifements diftributed in various parts of North America, offering pre¬
miums for the founds of fturgeon and other fifh, for the purpofe of making ifinglafs, feveral fpecimens of fine
ifinglafs, the produce of fifh taken in thefe parts, have been lately fent to England, with proper atteftations as
to the unlimited quantity which may be procured.
I C H [ 64 ] I C HI
Ichthyo- fofj as the continuity of its fibres would be deftroyed by
coua' folution, the mafs would become brittle in drying, and
fnap fiiort afunder, which is always the cafe with glue,
but never with ifinglafs. The latter, indeed, may be re-
folved into glue with boiling water $ but its fibrous re-
compofition would befound impracticable afterwards, and
a fibrous texture is one of the moft diftinguifhing cha-
raCteriftics of genuine ifinglafs.
“ A due confideration that an imperfeCt folution of
ifmglafs, called fining by the brewers, poffeffed a pecu¬
liar property of clarifying malt liquors, induced me to
attempt its analyfis in cold fubacid menftruums. One
ounce and a half of good ifinglafs, deeped a few days
in a gallon of ftale beer, was converted into good fining,
of a remarkable thick confiftence : the fame quantity of
glue, under fimilar treatment, yielded only a mucilagi¬
nous liquor, refembling diluted gum-water, which, in-
ftead of clarifying beer, increafed both its tenacity and
turbidnefs, and communicated other properties in no re-
fpeCt correfponding with thofe of genuine fining. On
commixing three Ipoonfuls of the folution of ifinglafs
with a gallon of malt liquor, in a tall cylindrical glafs,
a vaft number of curdly maffes became prefently formed,
by the reciprocal attraClion of the particles of ifinglafs
and the feculencies of the beer, which increafing in
magnitude and fpecific gravity, arranged themfelves ac¬
cordingly and fell in a combined ftate to the bottom,
through the well-known laws of gravitation j for, in this
cafe, there is no elective attraftion, as fome have imagi¬
ned, which bears the lead affinity with what frequently
occurs in chemical decompofitions.
“ If what is commercially termed long or Jliort fiapled
ifinglafis be fteeped a few hours in fair cold wrater, the
untwified membranes will expand, and reaflume their
original beautiful (B) hue, and, by a dexterous addrefs,
may be perfedtly unfolded. By this fimple operation,
we find that ifinglafs is nothing more than certain mem¬
branous parts of fiffies, divefted of their native mucofity,
rolled and twilled into the forms above mentioned, and
dried in open air.
“ The founds, or air-bladders, of freffi-water fifli in
general, are preferred for this purpofe, as being the moll
tranfparent, flexible, delicate fubllances. Thefe conlli-
tute the finell forts of ifinglafs j thofe called book and
ordinary fiaple are made of the inteftines, and probably
■ of the peritonaeum of the fifh. The belluga yields the
greatell quantity, as being the largeil and molt plenti¬
ful fiffi in the Mufcovy rivers j but the founds of all
freffi-water fifh yield, more or lefs, fine ifinglafs, par¬
ticularly the fmaller forts, found in prodigious quan¬
tities in the Cafpian fea, and feveral hundred miles be¬
yond Altraean, in the Wolga, Yaik, Don, and even as
far as‘Siberia, w here it is called kle or kla by the natives,
which implies a glutinous matter •, it is the balls of the
Ruffian glue, which is preferred to all other kinds for
its llrength.
“ The founds, which yield the finer ifinglafs, confift
of parallel fibres, and are eafily rent longitudinally}
but the ordinary forts are found compofed of double
membranes, whofe fibres crofs each other obliquely, re-
(b) If the tranfparent ifinglafs be held in certain
tic colours.
fembhng the coats of a bladder : hence the former are Ichtliyo^
more readily pervaded and divided with fubacid li- colla-
quors ; but the latter, through a peculiar kind of inter- ' """v 1 '*
woven texture, are with great difficulty torn afunder,
and long refill the power of the fame menftruum j yet
when duly refolved, are |j^und toatl writh equal energy
in clarifying liquors.
“ Ifinglafs receives its different ffiapes in the follow¬
ing manner :
“ The parts of which it is compofed, particularly
the founds, are taken from the fiffi while fweet and
frelh, flit open, walhed from their flimy fiordes, divelt-
ed of every thin membrane which envelopes the found,
and then expofed to lliffen a little in the air. In this
Hate, they are formed into rolls about the thicknefs of
a finger, and in length according to the intended fize
of the llaple: a thin membrane is generally fcledled
for the centre of the roll, round which the reft are
folded alternately, and about half an inch of each ex¬
tremity of the roll is turned inwards. The due di«
menfions being thus obtained, the two ends of what
is called fihort fiaple are pinned together with a fmall
w'ooden peg j the middle of the roll is then preffed a
little downwards, which gives it the refemblance of a
heart-fhape $ and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up
in the air to dry. The founds, which compofe the \
long-ftaple, are longer than the former j but the.ope¬
rator lengthens this fort at pleafure, by interfolding
the ends of one or more pieces of the found with each
other. The extremities are faftened with a peg, like
the former 5 but the middle part of the roll is bent
more confiderably downwards, and, in order to pre~
ferve the tliape of the three obtufe angles thus formed,
a piece of round Hick, about a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, is fallened in each angle with fmall wooden
pegs, in the fame manner as the .ends. In this ftate,
it is permitted to dry long enough to retain its form,
when the pegs and (ticks are taken out, and the
drying completed j laftly, the pieces of ifinglafs are
colligated in rows, by running pack-thread through
the peg-holes, for convenience of package and exporta¬
tion.
“ The membranes of the book fort, being thick
and refra6lory, will not admit a fimilar formation with
the preceding ; the pieces, therefore, after their fides
are folded inwardly, are bent in the centre, in fuch
manner that the oppofite fides referable the cover of a
book, from whence its name ; a peg being run aerofs
the middle, fallens the fides together, and thus it is
dried like the former. This fort is interleaved, and
the pegs run acrofs the ends, the better to prevent its
unfolding.
“ That called cake-ifinglafis is formed of the bits
and fragments of the ftaple forts, put into a flat me¬
talline pan, with a very little water, and heated juft
enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake when
it is dried} but frequently it is overheated, and fuch
pieces, as before obferved, are ufelefs in the bufinefs of
fining. Experience has taught the confumers to rejefl
them.
li Ifinglafs
ions to the light, it frequently exhibits beautiful prifina-
I C H [ 65 3 I C H
Ichthyo- “ lunglafs is befl: made in tlie fummer, as froft
colla. gives it a difagreeable colour, deprives it of weight,
and impairs its gelatinous principles j its fafhionable
forms are unnecelfary, and frequently injurious to its
native qualities. It'is common to find oily putrid
matter, and exuvice of infefts, between the implicated
membranes, which, through the inattention of the
cellerman, often contaminate wines and malt liquors in
the aft of clarification. Thefe peculiar fiiapes might
probably be introduced originally with a view to con-*
ceal and difguife the real fubitance of ifinglafs, and
preferve the monopoly •, but, as the malk is now taken
off, it cannot be doubted to anfwer every purpofe more
effeftually in its native ftate, without any fubfequent
manufafture whatever, efpecially to the principal con-
fumers, who hence wit! be enabled to procure fufficient
fupply from the Britifh colonies. Until this laudable
end can be fully aecompliihed, and as a fpecies of ifin¬
glafs, more eafily proauceable from the marine fifheries,
may probably be more immediately encouraged, it may
be manufaftured as follows :
“ The founds of cod and ling bear great, analogy
with thofe of the acclpe\ifer genus of Linnaeus and Ar-
tedi j and are in general fo well known as to require
no particular defcription. The Newfoundland and
Iceland fifhermen fplit opep the filh as foon as taken,
and throw the back-bones with the founds annexed in
a heap; but previous to incipient putrefaftion, the
founds are cut out, walked from their ilimes, and fak¬
ed for ufe. In cutting out the founds, the intercollal
parts are left behind, which are much the heft ; the
Iceland fifhermen are fo fenfible of this, that they beat
the bone upon a block with a thick ftick, till the
pockets, as they term them, come out eafily, and thus
preferve the found entire. If the founds have been
cured with fait, that muff be diffolved by keeping
them in water before they are prepared for ifinglafs ;
the frefli found muff then be laid upon a block of
wood, whole furface is a little elliptical, to the end of
which a fmall hairbrufh is nailed, and with a faw-knife
the membranes on each fide of the found muff be fcra-
ped off. The knife is rubbed upon the brulh occa-
fionally, to clear its teeth ; the pockets are cut open
with fcifiars, and perfeftly cleanfed of the mucous mat¬
ter with a coarfe cloth ; the founds are afterwards
wafhed a few minutes in lime-water in order to abforb
their oily principle, and laflly in clear water. They
are then laid upon nets to dry in the air ; but if in¬
tended to refemble the foreign ifinglaf?, the founds of
cod will only admit of that called book, but thofe of
ling both fiiapes. The thicker the founds are, the bet¬
ter the ifinglafs, colour excepted ; but this is immate¬
rial to the brewer, who is its chief confumer.
*' -l bis ifinglafs refolves into fining, like the other
forts, in fubacid liquors, as ftale beer, cyder, old hock,
&c. and in' equal quantities produces fimilar effefts
upon turbid liquors, except that it falls fpeedier and,
clofer to the bottom of the veffel, as may be demon-
ftrated in tall cylindrical glaffes ; but foreign ifinglafs
retains the confiftency of fining preferably in warm
weather, owing to the greater tenacity of its native
mucilage.
“ Vegetable acids are, in every refpeft, beft adapted
to fining- ; the mineral acids are too corrofive, and even,
infalubrious, in common beverage.
“ It is remarkable, that during the converfion of
ifinglafs into fining, the acidity of the menftruum feems
greatly diminifhed, at leak; to tafte, not on account of
any alkaline property in the ifinglafs, probably, but
by its enveloping the acid particles. It is likewife re¬
ducible into jelly with alkaline liquors, which indeed
are folvents of all animal matters ; even cold lime-wa¬
ter diffolves it into a pulpous magma. Notwithftanding
this is inadmifiible as fining, on account of the men¬
ftruum, it produces admirable effefts in other refpefts :
for, on commixture with compofitions of plafter, lime,
&c. for ornamenting walls expofed to viciflitudes of
weather, it adds firmnefs and permanency to the ce¬
ment ; and if common brick-mortar be worked up
with this jelly, it foon becomes almoft’ as hard as the
brick itfelf; but for this purpofe, it is more commodi-
oufiy prepared, by diffolving it in cold water, acidu¬
lated with vitriolic acid ; in which cafe, the acid quits
the jelly, and forms with the lime a felemtic mafs,
while, at the fame time, the jelly being deprived in
fome meafure of its moifture, through the formation
of an indiffoluble concrete amor.gft its parts, foon dries,
and hardens into a firm body ; whence its fuperior
firength and durability are eafily comprehended.
“ it has long been a prevalent opinion, that ftur-
geon, on account of its cartilaginous nature, would
yield great quantities of ifinglafs ; but, on examina¬
tion, no part of this fifh, except the inner coat of the
found, promifed the leaft fuccefs. This being full of
rt/gce, adheres fo firmly to the external membrane,
which is ufelefs, that the labour of feparating them
fuperfedes the advantage. The intcftines, however,
which in the larger fifh extend feveral yards in length,
being eleanfed from their mucus, and dried, were
found furprifingly ftrong and elaftic, refembbng cords
made with the inteftines of other animals, commonly
called cat-gut, and, from fome trials, promifed fupe¬
rior advantages when applied to mechanic opera¬
tions.”
Ifinglafs is fometimes ufed in medicine ; and may be
given in a thin acrimonious ilate of the juices, after
the fame manner as the vegetable gums and mucilages,
regard being had to their different difpofition to putref-
cence.
Ichthyo-
colla.
 v ^
Vor.. XL Part I.
I
ICHTHYOLOGY.
t 66 ]
ICHTHYOLOGY.
CHAP. I. HISTORY OF ICHTHYOLOGY.
definition. TCHTHYOLOGY (from the Greek ^05, “ a fifli,”
•——V—— and Mytg, “ difeourfe”), is that part of zoology
which treats of fifties.
Fifties are fuch animals as have a heart with one au¬
ricle and one ventricle, with cold red blood, which in¬
habit water, and breathe by means of gills. Moft of
the fpecies are like wife diftinguilhed by fins and
feales.
Difficult’/ The very element in which fifties live prevents us
of ftudying from following their motions with exaftnefs, from ftu-
fiflies. dying their inftindls, and from noting with fidelity their
fpecific differences. Their colours often vary, accord¬
ing to the accidental circumftances of age, fex, climate,
feafon, breeding, &c. and often vaniih in the open air,
or with the principle of life. On the fame fliores un¬
known kinds feldom occur ; and when they do, they
may pafs unnoticed by the illiterate fiftierman. Hence,
the natural hiftory of the finny tribe has, in all ages,
been involved in greater obfeurity than that of land
animals, which are more readily fubje£ted to the invef-
Ancient tigation of the learned and the curious. Hence, sin-
writers on Jioile, Pliny, and JE!iany in treating of fifties, have
Sfhcs. mingled much fable with feme truths, and have even
confounded claffes which nature has diftindlly feparated.
Such, too, is the ambiguity which now' attaches to
their vague and unfcientific nomenclature, and fuch,
we may add, is the indifpenfable limitation of our plan,
that we {hall forbear enlarging on the ichthyological
- portions of their writings. The claflical and inquifitive
reader may, however, derive entertainment and fome
inftrudlion from a careful perufal of their text, and of
fome of the moft ingenious and judicious annotations of
more recent fcholars and naturalifts. To the names
juft mentioned, we may add that of Athenceus, who, in
''the feventh book of his Deipnofcphijlc?, difeourfes of
fifties. Ovid celebrates them in his Halieuticon ; and
his example has been followed, not without fuccefs, by
Qppian, a Greek poet, who flourifhed in the fecond
century, under the reign of Caracalla. Aufonius, a
native of Bourdeaux, who died towards the conclufion
of the fourth century, in his admired poem on the Mo-
felle, has not* forgotten to fing of its inhabitants.
Modem. In the more downward periods of the dark and mid¬
dle ages, no writer of eminence appears in this depart¬
ment of natural hiftory. Indeed, the firft who laid the
foundation of ichthyological arrangement was Pierre
Be/or, a French phyfician, born in 1518, and advan-
tageoufly known by his travels in Judaea, Greece, and
Arabia, as well as by his writings in natural hiftory.
Some of his divifions of fifties, as the eleventh, which
comprifes the flat fpecies that are not cartilaginous-, the
twelfth, thofe that are both flat and cartilaginous •, the
thirteenth, which includes the fqunii, &c. are deduced
from natural refemblances } but others are more fanci¬
ful \ and the. wooden cuts are deficient in accuracy and
Eelon. aeatnefs. Belon was an induftrious, and rather an
acute obferver, who wrote with pleafing naivete, and Hiftory.
who fhould rank high in the eftimation of the learned k——y——J
world, when we refleft on the few refources of which
he could avail himfelf. His hiftory of fifties appeared
in 1551. That of his countryman, Rondelet, was pub-
lilhed three years afterwards, and exhibited more accu¬
rate deferiptions and figures, with many excellent re¬
marks, the refult of his own obfervation. In point of
arrangement, however, Rondelet’s woxk is extremelyRondelet,
imperfedt, and even puerile. He tells us, for example,&c.
that, after very mature deliberation, he refolved to be¬
gin with the gilt-head, becaufe it w*as bejl known to the
ancients and moderns, and highly priced for its delicacy.
He had, however, the merit of exciting a general tafte
for the ftudy of ichthyology ; and Salviani, Bojfveti,
Conrad Gefner, Pifon, &c. who followed him in rapid
fuccefixon, contributed their (hare to the flock of feien-
tific fadfs, though they made few advances to the con-
ftrudlion of a natural order.
in i6oy, Aldrovandus, who publiftied a large com-Aldrovaiv
pilation on natural hiftory, diftributed the fifties accord-d1*3,
ing to the nature of their refidence •, thus, his firft book
treats of thofe that frequent rocks ; the fecond is de¬
voted to the littoral j the third to the pelagian, &c.
Several authors, whom we cannot flay to name, dif-
played their talents, with more or lefs felicity, on the
fame fubjedf. But their labours w'ere eclipfed by thofe
of Willoughby, W'hofe work, entitled De Hiftoria Pf- Willough-
cium, was printed at Oxford in 1686, and unfolded
many new and accurate notions relative to the anatomy
and phyfiology of fifties. His arrangement may be con-
fidered as an improved modification of that of Belon.
The celebrated Ray publiftied, in 1707, his Synopjis
Methodica Pifcium, which may be regarded as an abrid¬
ged and corredled view of Willoughby’s larger work,
and as indicating, if not fixing, a feries of genera. This
valuable deferiptive catalogue continued to be appealed
to as a ftandard, till the combined genius of Artedi
and Linnaeus effefted an important reform in the fei-
ence of ichthyology.
Artedi, the countryman and friend of the greatArteffi,
Swedifli naturalift, had adopted his principles, and w*as
engaged in applying them to the fyftematic illuftration
of fifties, when death prematurely arrefted the profecu-
tion of his defign. His illuftrious friend put the finifti-
ing hand to his papers, and publiftied them in the form
of two odfavo volumes, under the title of Bibliotheca
Ichthyologic a, and Philofophia Ichthyologica, which Wal-
baum re-edited, in four volumes, in 1792. Thus, then,
to Artedi we may aferibe the merit of having firft tra-Hjs method
eed the outlines of that claflification of fifties which hasof arrange-
now become fo popular in Europe; for he firft inftitu-ment>
ted orders and genera, and defined the characters on
which thefe divifions are founded. Independently of
the cetaceous tribes, which are now generally chaffed
with the mammalia, and of which we have treated in
the
at firft fol¬
lowed by
Linnseus.
Method of
Klein
Chap. I. I C H T H Y
Hiftory, tlie article CetoloGY, his method confided of four
1 r  great divifions or orders, namely, the Malacopterygian,
sicanthopterygian, Branchiojlegous, and Chondroptery-
gian. The firft denoted thofe fpecies which have foft
fins, or fins with bony rays but without fptnes, and in¬
cluded twenty-one genera j the fecond, thofe with fpiny
fins, containing fixteen genera j the third, correfpond-
ing to the amphibia nantes of Linnaeus which want the
operculum or branchioftegous membrane \ and the
fourth, the Linnaean amphibia nantes which have not
true bones, but only cartilages, and the rays of whofe
fins hardly differ from a membrane. In his firff edi¬
tion of the Syftem of Nature, Linnaeus wholly adopted
the Artedian method. With regard to the changes
which he afterwards introduced, it would be unnecef-
fary to ftate them in this rapid hiftorical Iketch, efpe-
ciaiiy as we purpofe to follow his divifions in our fyite-
matic expofition.
Thofe ichthyologifts who have propofed methods in
oppofition to that of Linnaeus, have ufually fallen ftiort
of the latter in point of fimplicity. Ihus K/ein, who
vainly attempted to rival the proteffor of Upfala, diltri-
buted fillies into three fe&ions, according as they had
lungs, and vifible or invifible gills ; but his fubdivifions
were fo numerous and complex, that hisfcheme has ne¬
ver been adopted. That of Gronovius was, at leaft
for a few years, much more favourably received. It is
principally founded on the prefence or abfence, and the
number or the nature, of the fins. The nrft clafs in¬
cludes all the cetaceous animals, and the fecond all the
fiflies. The chondropterygian, and the ojfeous or bony,
form two great divifions 5 and the offeous are fubdivid-
ed into branchio/iegous and branchial. Thefe laft are
grouped according to the Linnaean rules \ but, in the
formation of the genera, the number of dorfal fins is
admitted as a chara&er, which Linnaeus has, perhaps
injudicioufly, overlooked, and which gives rife to feveral
genera which are not to be found in the Syftem of Na¬
ture.—Brunnich laboured, with much pains and confi-
derable ingenuity, to combine the Linnaean and Arte¬
dian divifions 5 but his fyftem remained without encou-
and others, ragement or fupport.—Scopoh boldly ftruck out a new
path, and affumed the pofition of the anus as the balls
of his three primary divifions. His fecondary charac¬
ters fometimes coincide with thofe of Gronovius, and
fometimes with thofe of Linnaeus; while his third feries
of diftinffions is fometimes drawn from the form of the
body, and fometimes from the teeth. Gouany the ce¬
lebrated profeffor of botany at Montpelier, preferved
the Linnaean genera, but formed his greater divifions
from the union of thofe of Linnaeus and Artedi. His
two principal feftions are, of fiflies with complete, and
of thofe with incomplete, gillsand the firft is divided
into two others, viz. acanthopterygian, and malacoptery¬
gian, in each of which are ranged the apodal, jugular,
thoracic, and abdominal fpecies. The fame procefs is
followed in the fecond fe&ion, which includes the
branchiojiegous and the chondropteryvian.
All the authors who have juft paffed under our re¬
view, with the exception of Belon, Rondelet, and Gro¬
novius, publiihed their works without any regular feries
of plates illuftrative of their defcriptrons. Among thofe
who embellilhed their volumes with valuable figures,
we have to mention Seba, in his large collection of
o L o G Y.
fubjeCts belonging to natural \)i\pLVCg,—CateJhy, in his
Natural Hiftory of Carolina,—Brouffonet, in his. Ich-
tliyologin,—-and Bloch, in his Natural Hiftory of Fifties,
firft publiftied at Berlin in German, and in French in
1785, and recently republiftied in a fmall form, by He-
terville, at Paris, forming part of the extenfive work
entitled Hijioire Naturelle de Bujfon, &c. Bloch’s ori¬
ginal work includes about 600 Ipecies of fifties, which
are generally defcribed with great accuracy, figured as
nearly as circumftances will admit, of the natural fize,
and beautifully coloured. T. he author enters with fome
minutenefs into the hiftory of thofe which afford food
for man, or which fugged; fa£ts worthy of remark. He
has followed the Linnsean method, and made confider-
able additions to the number of genera.
La Cepede, the friend and continuator of Buffon, has Of La Ce-
likewife executed an elaborate and extenfive undert&k P'-de.
ing on the natural hiftory of fifties. He divides this
clafs of animals into two fecondary claffes, viz. the car¬
tilaginous and the ojfeous. Each of thefe fubordmaie
claffes confifts of four divifions, taken from the combi¬
nations of the prefence or abfence of the operculum,
and of the branchial membrane ; thus, the firft divifion
of the cartilaginous includes thofe fifties which have nei¬
ther operculum nor branchial membrane ; the fecond,
thofe which have no operculum, but a membrane; the
third, thofe which have an operculum, but no mem¬
brane ; and the fourth, thofe which have both. I he
fame chara&ers, ftated in the inverfe order, determine
the divifions of the offeous ipecies. Each of thefe divi¬
fions is again diftributed into the Linnaean orders, and
thefe, in turn, into the Linnaean genera. The con¬
tents of the latter, however, do not always correfpond
with the enumerations in the Syftem of Nature ; for
the French zoologift has withdrawn many fpecies from
their former categories, and ranged them under new
genera. His innovations in this refpeft are, perhaps,
not always improvements ; and fome of his generic ap¬
pellations, •&% gobie, gobiofore, gobioide, gobiotnere, and
gobiomoro'ide, pomacanthe, pomacentrc, pomadafys, and
pomatome, &c. are too nearly allied in found and ortho¬
graphy, to be readily difcriminated by the memory.
We have, moreover, to regret that the plates are not
coloured, and that they are executed on too fmall a
fcale. Yet, after every deduftion which even rigid
criticifm may require from the merits of this publica¬
tion, enough will remain to atteft the induftry and the
talents of its author, and to juftify the high rank
which he has obtained among the waiters on ichthyo¬
logy.
Before doling even tbefe very condenfed notices, it Of Pen-
would be unpardonable to emit reminding our readers,n:mt'
that the Britifti fifties have found an able and entertain¬
ing expofitor in Mr Pennant, to whom the natural hif¬
tory of this country is under many obligations. In the
third volume of his Britifti Zoology, this author de-
feribes the fiflies under the three great diviftons of ceta¬
ceous, cartilaginous, and bony, '1 he latter, which is
by far the moft numerous, he fubdivides into four fec-
tions, entitled, agreeably to the Linnsean orders, apo¬
dal, thoracic, jugular, and abdominal.
Befides the fources of information to which we have
referred, the curious inquirer into the hiftory of fifties
may occafionaily refort to DuhamePs General Treatife
I 2 on
68
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. If.
Anatomy 0n the Fifheries, Fabriexns’s Fauna Grceulandica, Fla-
ot Yifhc-s. nieH on Jifferent kinds of frefh-water fifhes, Forf-
kal’s Fauna Arabian, johnfton’s Hiftoria Natura/is de
Fifcibus et Celts, Kolreuter’s papers in different vo¬
lumes of the Peterfburg Tranfa&ions, the fourth vo¬
lume of Marfigli’s Danubius Pannonico Mysius, &c. Anatomy
Monro’s Anatomy of Fifties, Pallas’s Spicilegia Z0&/0-
gica, &c. Vicq d’Azyr’s Memoirs on the Anatomy ^
of Fifties, and the two volumes of the Encyclopedic Me-
thodique which are devoted to the article Poy(fons.
CHAP. II. ANATOMY OF FISHES.
Form of TPIE fhape of the body of fifties is fubiecf to confi-
the bod). ^erakle varieties. It is faid to be comprejjed, when the
diameter, from fide to fide, is lefs than from back to
belly j and deprejfed, on the contrary, when the diame¬
ter, from fide to fide, is greater than from back to bel¬
ly. It is cylindrical, when it is circular in the greater
part of its length } enjiform, or fword-ftiaped, when the
back and belly terminate in a ftiarp edge, or when the
body gradually tapers from the head to the tail : cul¬
trated, or knife-ftiaped, when the back is fornewhat
flat, and the angle below acute ; carinated, or keel-
fliaped, when the back is rounded, and the under part
of the belly acute, through its length \ oblong, when
the longitudinal diameter is much longer than the
tranfverl’e j oval, when the longitudinal diameter not
only exceeds the tranfverfe, but the bafe is circular,
and the apex more acute-, orbicular, when the longitu¬
dinal and tranfverfe diameters are nearly equal; latnel-
laled, or fpear-fttaped, when oblong, and attenuated at
both extremities ; cuneiform, or wedge-ftiaped, when
the body gradually flattens towards the tail conical,
when it is cylindjical, and grows gradually more {len¬
der towards the tail -, ventricofe, when the belly is very
prominent j gibbous, when the back prefents one or
more protuberances j annulated, when the body is fur-
rounded by rings, or elevated lines ; articulated, when
it is covered with conne&ed and bony plates ; trigon,
tetragon, pentagon, and hexagon, when the lides are
plain, with three, four, or fix longitudinal angles \ if
the number of thefe angles exceed fix, it is termed a
polygon.
The furface of the body of fifties is termed nabed,
when it is deftitute of feales 5 fcaly, when provided
with them ; fmooth, when the feales are without angles,
furrows, roughnefs, or inequalities ; lubricous, or flip-
pery, when inverted with a mucous or flimy humour ;
tuberculated, or rough, when covered with prominent
warts or tubercles -, papillous, when covered with fteft.y
points-, fpinous when the afperities are elongated, and
pointed at their extremities ; /oriented, or mailed,
when the body is inclofed in a hard, callous, or bony
integument, or in feales fo clofely united as to feem
but one ; fafeiated, or banded, when marked with
tranfverfe zones from the back to the belly ; firiped,
when marked with very narrow, fcattered, and colour¬
ed {freaks ; vitiated, when marked with longitudinal
zones along the fide, from the head to the tail ; reti¬
culated, or checquered, when marked with lines form¬
ing the appearance of net-work ; pointed, or dotted,
when marked with points, either longitudinally difpo-
• fed, or without order ; and variegated, when of differ¬
ent colours.
The parts of the body are either external, or inter¬
nal: the former include the head, trunk, and Jins; the
latter, the Jkelcton, mufcles, and vifeera.
I. The. HEAD is always placed at the anterior part xhe head;
of the body, and reaches from the extremity of the See.
nofe to the gills.
Several of the technical terms already defined, are
applied to the head as well as to the whole body j but
others, which are more appropriate, require to be ex¬
plained. Obtufe or truncated, denotes that the head is
blunt, or terminated by a tranfverfe line ; acute, that
it terminates in an acute angle ; Jlanting, that it pre-
fents an inclined plane, from the top of the anterior
part to the extremity of the nofe ; aculcated, or prickly,
that it is armed with {harp points or fpines; unarmed,
that it is without fpines or tubercles) beardlefs, that it
is without cirrhi, &c.
The head contains the mouth, nofe, jaws, lips, teeth,
tongue, palate, noftrils, eyes, branchial opercules, the
branchioftegous membrane, the aperture of the gills,
and the nape.
The mouth is that cavity, which is terminated in
front by its own orifice j on the fides, by the branchial
opercula j and behind, by the throat. It is fupenor,
when placed at the upper part of the head ) inferior,
when at the lower part) vertical, when it dekends
perpendicularly from the upper part) tranfverfe, or ho-
ritnontal, when it is parallel to the furface of the water
when the firti fwims) oblique, when it is neither verti¬
cal nor horizontal ) tubular, or fjlular, when the ori¬
fice is narrow, round, and deep ) furious, or flat-nofed,
when the orifice is not prominent or deep.
The nofe, or fnout, is the fore part of the head, ex¬
tending from the eyes to the extremity of the jaws. It
is cujpidated when its apex terminates in a ftiarp point
or briftle; fpatula-fhaped, when its extremity is flatten¬
ed and extended ) bifid, forked, or lobed, when its ex¬
tremity is divided into two lobes-, triquetrous and tetra-
quetrous, when it has three or four flat fides 5 and re¬
flex, when it is incurved towards the belly.
TY\\e jaws are always two in number, and difter in
different fpecies chiefly in refpefl of figure and propor¬
tion. They are fubulate, or awl-ftiaped, when they are-
rounded at the bafe, and are gradually attenuated to¬
wards the apex-, carinated, or keel-ftiaped, when the
lower jaw- is longitudinally ridged, either without or
within -, equal, ^vhen both are of the fame length ) un¬
equal, when one projects beyond the other ; naked,
when not covered w ith lips j labiate, when covered
with one or two lips ; edentulated, w hen deftitute of
teeth ) dentated, or toothed, when furnilhed with teeth
of unequal fize ) dentato-crenated, when the bones are
formed into the appearance of teeth ; cirrated, or cir-
rofe, when furniflied with cirrhi, or briftly membrana¬
ceous appendages, which hang from one or both jaws j.
vaginated, or flieathed, when the margin of one covers
that of the other ) arched, or covered, when furniihe.d
with a membranaceous veil, attached before, and look
behind,.
Anatomy
of Fillies.
Chap. 11- I C H T H
behind, within which, and the upper or under part of
the mouth, the filh lays its tongue, or difcharges water
from its mouth ; and moveable^ when they can be
thruft out or drawn in.
The lips are obvious only in a few fifhes, and are ei¬
ther of a flefhy or bony confidence. They are alio dif-
tinguifhed into plicated, or confiding of folds, and re-
trattile, or capable of being drawn out or in, at the
pleafure of the animal.
The teeth are acute, when their extremity terminates
in a point \ obtufe, when it is rounded ; granular, when
the teeth are of the fize and drape of fmall grains ;
plane, when fiat on the fides •, femi-fagittate, when hook¬
ed on one fide only } ferrated, when toothed like a faw
on the margin •, emarginate, when the extremity is
fomewhat cleft j recurved, when inclined towards the
gullet j parallel, when of the fame direftion, length,
and figure ; diverging, when the apices dand wide, or
didant from each other 5 Jimilar, when they are all of
the fame fize and figure •, diffimilar, when fome are
acute, and others obtufe ; ordinate, when difpofed in
one or more rows •, confufed, when crowded, and not
difpofed in any regular order.
The tongue is termed acute or obtufe, according as
its extremity terminates in a point, or is rounded •, it is
emarginate, or bifid, when the extremity is divided in¬
to two lobes ; carinated, when angulated on the upper
or lower furface 5 dent a ted, when its fur face is furnifhed
with teeth ; and papillous, when covered with fieihy
points.
The palate is that part of the mouth which is in¬
cluded between the bale of the jaws and the origin of
the tefophagus. It is either fmooth, when its furface is
deditute of tubercles, teeth, and aiperities 5 or denticu¬
lated, when furnifhed with teeth.
The nojlrils are orifices, almod always fituated in the
rodrum, before the eyes. They are anterior, when they
occupy the fore part of the rodrum, and are fomewhat
didant from the eyes 5 pojlerior, when fituated at the
bafe of the rodrum, and very near the eyes ; fupenor,
when on the crown of the head, between the eyes, and
clofe to them ; cylindrical, when they form a tube •,
Jingle, or folitary, when there is only one on each fide
of the head ; and double, when there are two on each
fide.
The eyes are always two, and are compofed of two
principal parts, which as they are vifible from without
belong to the defeription of the external drmfture.
Thefe parts are the pupil and the iris. The fird occu¬
pies the centre of the globe ; and is ufually fpherical,
but fometimes oval ; and the fecond is the coloured
circle which furrounds the pupil, and is often furnidied
with a diftindl ring. It is, for the mod part black or
gold-coloured, but fometimes it affumes a filvery hue.
—The eyes are faid to be covered, when they are en¬
veloped in the {kin, or in a niftitating membrane;
femi-covered, when this membrane is arched, or lunu-
lated, or perforated like a ring \ naked, when deditute
of a niilitating membrane ; vertical, when fituated on
the crown of the head \ lateral, when placed on the
fides of the head ; binate, when they are both on the
fame fide of the head \ plane, or deprefifed, when the
convexity of the ball does not exceed the furface of
She head \ convex, when the convexity projefts beyond
Y O L O G Y.
this furface; falient, when the eyes are very
69
nent.
promi- Anatomy
of Fifhes.
Eyes.
The branchial opercles, are fcaly or bony proceffes, Branchial
fituated on both fides of the head, behind the eyes, opercles.
clofing the aperture of the gills, and ludaining the
branchial membrane. They are termed fimple, when
compofed of a lingle piece } diphyllous, triphyllous, or
tetraphyllous, when confiding of two, three, or four
pieces 5 Jlexile, or foft, when they can be eafily bent ;
fub-arcuated, when the poderior margin is rounded j
JiJlulous, when the branchial opening leems to be exca¬
vated out of the fubdance of the opercula } acuminated,
when the hinder plate runs out into a {harp procefs j
ciliated, when the poderior margin is fringed, or fet
with membranous i'etaceous appendages 5 jrenated, or
bridled, when connected with the body by means of a
membrane ; fcabrous, when their furface is covered
with afperities 5 Jlriated, when marked with hollow
and nearly parallel lines j radiated, when the lines run
like rays, from the centre to the edge j graved, when
the lines appear in no regular order j aculeated, when
the poderior margin is terminated by one or more
fpines } ferrated, when it is cut like the teeth of a faw j
fcaly, when the furface of the opercles is covered with
fcabs.
The branchial or branchiofegous membrane, is a true And mem-
fin, formed of cartilaginous crooked bones, joined by abraiu'*
thin membrane, lurking under the opercula, to which
it adheres, and is capable of being folded or expanded,
as necefTity requires. This membrane is faid to be pa¬
tent, when it projefts beyond the margin of the oper¬
cula ; retraEled or latent, w hen it is concealed under
them ; covered, when concealed under them, yet fo as
to be vifible without hurting them.
The aperture of the gills, is a cleft commonly lateral,
which opens between the opercula and the trunk, by
means of the gills. It is arcuated, or arched, when it
reprefents a crefcent ; operculated, when quite covered
by the opercula j pipe-fhuped, when in the form of a
tube. Its place, in fome of the cartilaginous Ipecies, is
fupplied by vents, or fpirac/es, which are either round,
arched, lateral, or inferior, i. e. placed underneath the
body.
The nape is the hind and terminating part of the*’
head, which is attached to the firlt vertebra of the
trunk, in the region of the gills. It is carinated, when
its furface is fharply angulated $ plane, when flat, and
on a level with the body } and falcated, when ridged or
furrowed.
2. The TRUNK is that part of the body, which ex-The trunk
tends from the nape and branchial aperture, to the ex¬
tremity of the tail. It comprehends the gills, throat,
thorax, back, fides, abdomen, lateral line, anus, tail,
and feales.
The gills, or branchice, conflft, for the moft part, of
four crooked, parallel, unequal bones, furniflied, on the
outer or convex part, with fmall foft appendages, like
the beards of a feather, and generally of a red colour.
They are aculeated, when the concave or interior part
has fpines inftead of tubercles; anomalous, when fome
are ciliated, others tuberculated, or of a different ftruc-
ture : denuded, when wanting opercles, the branchi-
oftegous membrane, or both j peBinated, when the con¬
vex or exterior part, towards the branchial aperture,.
-o I C H T H "
Anatomy of]s furnifhed with red fetaceous rays, or lamella: ; 'ivith-
^ llaeS‘ drawn, when not confpicuous, lying nearer the throat
than the aperture ; Jimple, when furnilhed either with
filaments or tubercles $ approaching, when they corre-
f'pond to the fame aperture.
The throat is that part which correfponds to the
branchial apertures, and is placed between them. It is
/welling, when it exceeds the level of the body and the
head 5 carinated, when angulated underneath j plane,
when on a level with the thorax and head.
" The thorax is that part which begins at the extre¬
mity of the throat, and is terminated by a line drawn
to the infertion of the pedloral fins.
The bach is the upper part of the trunk, extending
from the nape to the origin of the tail. It is aptery-
gious, without fins 4 monopterygious, dipterygious, &c.
with one, or two fins j convex, higher in the middle
than toward the fides j ferrated, having a deep longi¬
tudinal furrow for the fame purpofe.
The /des are that part of the trunk, which reaches
from the gills to the anus, between the back and the
abdomen. They are fometimes marked with zones,
lines, fpots, or points.
The abdomen is the under part of the trunk, between
the pofterior extremity of the thorax and the origin of
the tail. It is carinated, or acute through its length j
ferrated, when the fcales forming the carina are difpo-
fed like the teeth of a faw j plane, when without pro¬
minence or depreflion.
The lateral line ufually commences at the extremity
of the branchial opercles, runs along the fides, and
terminates at the caudal fin. It is formed by lines,
dots, or fmall tubercles. It is fraight, when it pre-
fents no inflexion through its length ; curved, when it
inclines to the back or belly \ broken, when divided
into two or more parts, which follow different direc¬
tions j obliterated, when fcarcely perceptible ; double,
when there are two on each fide j fntoolh, when with¬
out prickles or tubercles: aculeated, when furnifhed
with fpines; defcending, when it runs obliquely from
the head to the tail 5 inferior, when fituated on the
lower part of the fide ; loricated, or mailed, when rough
with fmall bones, or hard fcaly tubercles ; mean, wdien
fituated in the middle of the fide ; obfolete, when near¬
ly effaced ; porous, when punctured with fmall holes 5
Jtnuous, when bent in a w aving line j folitary, when
there is one line on each fide ; fiperior, when on the
upper part of the fide, near the back j banded, when
covered with a longitudinal zone, coloured or filvery.
The anus is the external orifice of the reftum. It
is jugular, when fituated under the branchial opercles ;
peEloral, when under the gills 5 mean, when equally
removed from the head and extremity of the tail ;
remote, when near the tail.
The tail is the folid part of the trunk, which it ter¬
minates, being fituated behind the anus. It is round,
as in the lamprey and eels ; carinated, wdien its furface
prefents feme fharp angle •, muricated, when befer with
fpines or tubercles ; apterygions, when deftitute of fins j
dipterygious, when the fin is divided at the bafe.
The fcales are pellucid, cartilaginous, or horny te¬
guments, which ufually cover the trunk. They are
oval, when one extremity is rounded, and larger than
tlje other } orbiculate, wrhen nearly round 3 fmooth, when
0 L O G Y. Chap. II.
deftitute of fenfible angles or afperities j ciliated, when Anatomy qi
the margin is fet with fetaceous procefles ; ferrat<d, 1 ^aes~
when the margin is toothed like a faw 3 imbricated, v '
when the fcales partly cover one another, like tiles on
a roof 3 rare, when fenfibly feparated from one ano¬
ther 3 deciduous, when they eafiiy fall off 3 tenacious,
when they are detached with difficulty 3 remote, when
feparated from one another 3 verticiliate, when furreund-
ing the body in rings.
3. The fins confift of feveral rays connefted by a Fins*
tender film, or membrane; and they are raifed, ex¬
panded, or moved in various dire&ions, by means of
appropriate mufcles. The rays of the fins are either
jointed and flexible imali bones, whole extremity is of¬
ten divided into two parts 3 or hard and prickly, without
divifion at the extremity. In fome cafes, thole on the
back of the fiffi are furniffied with membranaceous ap¬
pendages, Ample, or palmated, and adhering to the apex
or fides.—The fins, according to their pofition, are de¬
nominated dorfal, peBoral, ventral, anal, or caudal.
The dorfal fins are fituated on the upper part of the
body, between the head and the tail. Their number
varies from one to three, and fo gives rife to the epi¬
thets monopterygious, dipterygious, and tripterygious. If
the back has no fin, it is laid to be apterygious. The
form, fize, and fituation of the dorfal fins have like-
wife fuggefted various technical appellations 3 but few
of thefe require to be particularly defined. We fnall
notice, therefore, only the flejhy, which are covered
with a thick fkin, or mufcular fubftance 3 and the ra~
mentaceous, which are furniffied with membranaceous
or filamentous appendages.
The peBoral fins are fituated on each fide, about the
aperture of the gills. In fome fpecies, they are want¬
ing 3 in others, folitary, or one on each fide 3 in a few
they are double, i. e. two on each fide 3 in fome, they
are falcated, or arched above, and concave below.
The ventral or inferior fins are always placed on
the under part of the fiffi ; but at a greater diftance
from the mouth. They are abdominal, when placed in
the belly, behind the peftoral fins, and not fixed in the
fternum, but in the offa pelvis 3 dijform, when they
have a fpine or cirrhus, befides the offides ; jugular,
when placed under the throat before the pedtoral fins,
and fixed to the clavicles 3 multiradiated, when they
have feveral rays, though feldom exceeding feven 3 tho¬
racic, when placed under the peftoral fins, often a lit¬
tle behind them, but always fixed to the fternum.
The anal fin is placed between the anus and the cau¬
dal fin. It is bifurcated, or two-forked, when the offi-
cles in the middle are ffiorteft 3 coalefcing, when united
with the caudal fin 3 longitudinal, when it extends from
the anus to the tail 3 pojlerior, when placed at the end
of the tail, near the caudal fin.
The caudal fin is fituated vertically, at the extremi¬
ty of the body. It is equal, or entire, when its rays
are of equal length ; lanceolaied, when the rays in the
middle are longer than the ethers 3 emarginate, when
they are ffiorter than the others 3 bifid, when they are
very ftiort 3 trifd, when the fin is divided into three
lobes 3 coalefcing, when united with the dorfal and anal
fins 3 cujpidated, when attenuated at the apex, or ter¬
minating in a fetaceous point 3 fetiferous, when a fili¬
form appendage proceeds from the divifion.
Internal
Chap. II.
I C H T H Y
Anatomy
of Fifties.
Skeleton.
Internal Parts,
I, The SKELETON of a fiih is the affemblage of bones
which conftitutes the frame-work of its body.. The
number of thefe bones is not uniform in each indivi¬
dual, but varies according to age and fpecies. They
may be conveniently divided into thofe of the head,
thorax, abdomen, and fins.
The head contains a confiderable number of bones ;
that of the perch, for example, has eighty. As the
limited nature of our plan precludes minute fpecifica-
tion, we Ihall indicate only a few of the molt import¬
ant. The Jkull covers the whole head, its fides fre¬
quently forming the fockets of the eyes, the temples,
and the cheeks. The upper and Xovtx javo-bones are
placed on the fore part of the head. The upper is
more or lefs of an arched form. In fome fillies it is
wanting, and its place is fupplied by a portion of the
Ikull. The lower jaw is ufually arched or triangular,
and its length regulates that of the fnout, or roll rum.
The bones of the palate are, for the moft part, four, viz.
two on each fide of the fauces, oval, and nearly plane,
often crowded with teeth, or rough with tubercles, or
furrowed tranfverfely, the bafe of the one connefted
with the apex of the other. The gills are attached to
thefe oHides on each fide by a cartilage. The opercu¬
lar bones are fituated at the hind part of the jaws, on
each fide of the head, and behind the eyes. In fome
fpecies, they form a part of the upper jaw. The hyoid
bone is an officle fituated between the two fides of the
lower jaw, ferving as a bafis for the tongue, prefenting
the figure of a V, and occafionally furnilhed with a
hook.
The thorax is a cavity principally formed by the
vertebrae, the fternum, the clavicles, and the fcapulse.
The vertebrce form the back-bone, which reaches from
the Ikull to the extremity of the tail. They are ftrong-
er and thicker towards the head, and grow weaker and
more flender towards the tail. Each fpecies has a de¬
terminate number of vertebrae, which grow with the
body. They are furnilhed with tranfverfe and fpiny
proceffes, the former of which are marked by tranfverfe
lines, by the number of which, it is fuppoi'ed, the age
of filhes may be known. The fpinal marrow is con¬
tained in the canal which paffes through the vertebrce.
The Jlernum in fillies, is not cartilaginous, as in other
animals, but always bony. Its form varies confider-
ably, being fometimes triangular, fometimes rounded
before, and pointed behind, but moft frequently of a
rhomboidal figure. It occupies the fore part of the
thorax, and clofes that cavity. The clavicles are two
bones fituated tranfverfely behind the opening of the
gills 5 and are fometimes formed by twooflkles united.
T hey are attached to the firft vertebra. The fcapulce
are two flat, rhomboidal, or arched bones, fituated on
the lateral fide of the body, under the pofterior margin
of the clavicles, and ferving as a bafe to the pe&oral
fins. When the fcapulae are wanting, the pectoral fins
are attached to the fternum, or to the margin of the
clavicles.
The abdomen forms a cavity always larger than that
of the thorax, extending from the extremity of the
latter to the anus. It is encompafted by the ribs
and the o[fa pelvis. The ribs are bony arches, fi¬
tuated obliquely on the lateral parts of the abdomen,
2
O L O G Y. 71
having their upper extremity articulated with the ex-
tremity of the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebrae. 01
Their number is very variable. In thole fpecies which
are without ribs, the abfence of the latter is compen-
fated by the length and direaion of the tranfverfe pro-
cefles of the vertebrae. The ofa pelvis are two bones
which defend the vifeera contained in the abdomen.
The ventral fins are ufually attached to their pofterior
margin. When thefe fins are wanting, or when they
are attached under the throat, or on the thorax, the
q//a pelvis are alfo wanting. The tad is compofed of
certain bones, which terminate the vertebral column.
The proceffes of each vertebra of the tail are incident
to great variety in refpeft of number and dimenfions.
The fins are formed of a certain number of o flicks,
connefted to one another by firm membranes, ihe
dorfal and anal fins are fupported by the inter-fpinous
bones (offa interfpinofa), which lie between the pointed
proceffes of the vertebrae, and are conne&ed with them
by a lig-ament. The rays of the anal fin have nearly
the fame conformation as thole of the dorial.
2. The MUSCLES are an affemblage of fmall bundlesMufclevj
of flefliy fibres, partly red, and partly whitilh, envelo¬
ped in a common membrane. The firft o! thefe is call¬
ed ihefejhy portion of the mufcle, the fecond, the tendon.
Each mufcle, thus compofed, is fufceptible of contrac¬
tion and dilatation. The former is accompanied by
a vifible fwelling, hardening, wrinkling, and Ihorten-
ing of the mufcle, and the latter by its elongation, ex-
panfion, and recovery of its former foftnefs and flexi¬
bility. Its force, in general, depends on the quantity
of fibrous matter which enters into its compofition, and
its moving power on the length and fize of the fibres.
The mufcles vary much in refpetl of number, fize, and
fituation. There are two which proceed from the head
to the tail, along the fides of the body, and thence de¬
nominated lateral mufcles. Each of thefe feems to be
compofed of feveral tranfverfe mufcles, which are film-
lar and parallel. There are four fituated at the cau¬
dal fin, namely, three fuperior, and one inferior. Of
the two former, one is ftraight, and two are oblique.
The fourth occupies the half of the lower extremity of
the tail. There are likewife four at each pefloral fin,
namely, two ereElors and two deprejfors ; the two former
fituated on the external furface of the clavicles and
fcapulae, and the two latter under thefe parts. Each
ventral fin has three mufcles, one ereflor and two de-
preffors; the firft placed over the whole external lur-
face of the os pelvis, and the two latter on the internal
furface of the fame part. The carinal mufcles of the
back and tail are (lender, and clofely united, occupy¬
ing the fpace that is left between the lateral mufcles.
Their number is always proportioned to that of the
dorfal fins. Fifties, for example, which have no dorfal
fin, have but one pair of carinal mufcles, thofe which
have one dorfal fin, have two pairs, and thofe which
have two dorfal fins, have three pairs, viz. one pair
between the firft and fecond fin, another between the
two fins, and a third between the fecond dorfal and the
caudal fin. The proper inter-fpinous mufcles are thofe
whofe office it is to raife or deprofs the dorfal and anal
fins. Each inter-fpinous ray is furnifhed with four,
two ere6tors, and two depreffors. The dilating mufcle
of the branchioftegcus membrane is fmall, and attached
by its anterior extremity, partly under the angle of the
lower
73
Anatomy lower jaw, and partly to tire fides of the os pelvis. It
,ot ^ 1^>es', is fixed to the branchial membrane by as many tendons
as there are tendons in the membrane.
Brain and 3- ORGANS and VISCERA.—The brain of fillies is a
other or> very fmall organ, relative to the fize of the head. It is
gans. divided into three equal lobes, of which the two an¬
terior are contiguous •, the third being placed behind,
and forming the cerebellum, Thefe three lobes are
furrounded by a frothy matter, refembling faliva. In
this region the optic and olfaftory nerves are eafily
difcovered.
The cefjphairus, or gullet, begins at the bottom of the
throat, and defcends, in a ftraight line, to the upper
orifice of the ftomach. It is membranous, fmooth, and
lined with a mucous humour
TheJlomach is a membranous fack, fometimes cylin¬
drical or fpherical, and fometimes divided into two
lobes.
The fwimming, or air-bladder, or found, is an ob¬
long, white, membranous bag, fometimes cylindrical,
fometimes elliptical) and fometimes divided into two
or three lobes, of different lengths. It is ufually fitu-
ated between the vertebrae and the ftomach, and in¬
cluded within the pentonceum. In fome fifhes it com¬
municates with the ftomach, and in others, with the
cefophagus. The fiat fifhes are unprovided with this
, organ.
The intejhnes, which in man are placed tranfverfely,
have a longitudinal pofition in fifhes, and are all con-
nedled with the fubftance of the liver. They are in
general very fhort, making only three turns, the laft
of which terminates in a common outlet or vent. The
appendices, or fecondary inteftines, are very numerous,
eompofing a groupe of worm-like proceffes, all ulti¬
mately terminating in two large canals, opening into
the firft inteftine, into which they difchargc their pe¬
culiar fluid.
The liver is commonly of a yellowilh colour. It is
fituated on the right or left fide, or in the anterior
region of the abdomen, of whofe cavity it fills about
two-thirds. It is fometimes Ample, and fometimes di¬
vided into two, three, or more lobes. It ufually con¬
tains a large portion of oil or fat.
The gall-bladder is oval or oblong, and lies under the
right fide of the liver. It communicates with the
ftomach or the inteftines, by means of the eyftic dudl
and the eholedochic canal.
The fpleen varies in form and pofition. Sometimes
it is all of a piece; fometimes divided into many lobes,
which adhere only by very flender filaments. In fome
individuals it is black, in others it has the red hue of
clotted blood. It is placed near the backbone, and at
a place where it is fubjeft to an alternate conftridiion
and dilatation, from the prefiure of the air-bag, which is
fituated in its neighbourhood.
Almoft all fitlies are provided with the urinanj blad¬
der. Its form is nearly oval. It terminates u;nder the
tail ; and has no communication with the reftum.
The kidneys are two flat bodies, of a pyramidal form,
as long as the abdomen, and of a reddilh colour. They
are attached to the vertebrae, feparated from the cavity
of the abdomen by the peritonceum, and frequently pro¬
longed from the diaphragm to the region of the uri¬
nary bladder.
The diaphragm is a white and fhining membrane
Chap. II.
which feparates the thorax from the abdomen. This Anatomy
partition is partly fleftiy and partly tendinous. of Fifhes.
The peritonceum, or membrane inverting the con- '
tents of the abdomen, is thin and of a blackifti colour.
I he ova^ in the females, are difpofed into two large
oblong bodies, one on each fide of the abdomen ; and
the milt or foft-roe, in the male, appears in a fimilar
form in the fame part.
The pericardium is a fmall bag which contains the
heart.
I he heart is a vifcus fituated on the fternum, under
the pofterior gills. It varies confiderably in form, be¬
ing fometimes flat, frequently triangular or pyramidal,
&c. Its pofition is not tranfverfe, as Artedi has al¬
leged, but longitudinal, as in quadrupeds. It confifts
of one ventricle and one auricle. The fides of the
former are rugofe, and exhibit many fmall cavities.
1 he latter is a very flender mufeular bag, with a larger
cavity than that of the ventricle, and forming the com¬
munication between the heart and
'1 he venous Jinus. The capacity of this laft is ftill
greater than that of the auricle. Its pofition is tranf¬
verfe, correfponding to that of the diaphragm. It com¬
municates with the auricle by a large aperture, and
receives at the* other end three large trunks of veins.
The aorta is an artery attached to the apex of the
heart, and fending out numberlefs branches to the gills,
on which it is lubdivided into ramifications fo minute as
to efcape the eye unlefs aflifted by a glafs.
T he blood of fifhes is red, and the red particles are
not round as in the mammalia, but oval as in the am¬
phibia.
Dr Monro’s elaborate defcription of the abforbent
fyjlem in fifhes, is thus ftated by Dr Shaw in the fourth
volume of his General 'Zoology.
“ On the middle of the belly, immediately below
the outer fkin, a lymphatic veflel runs upwards from
the vent, and receives branches from the fides of the
belly and the fin below the vent ; near the head this
lymphatic pafies between the two pe&oral fins, and
having got above them, receives their lymphatics : it
then goes under the juncture of the two bones which
form the thorax, where it opens into a net-work of very
large lymphatics which lie clofe to the pericardium,
and almoft furrounds the heart: this net-work, befides
that part of it behind the heart, has a large lymphatic
on each fide, which receives others from the kidney,
runs upon the bone of the thorax backwards, and when
it has got as far as the middle of that bone, fends off a
large branch from its infide to join the thoracic du£l;
after detaching this branch, it is joined by the lympha¬
tics of the thoracic fins, and foon after by a lymphatic
which runs upon the fide of the fifh ; it is formed of
branches, which give it a beautiful penniform appear¬
ance. Befides thefe branches, there is another fet lying
deeper, which accompanies the ribs ; after the large
lymphatic has been joined by the above-mentioned vef-
fels, it receives others from the gills, orbit, nofe, and
mouth : a little below the orbit another net-work ap¬
pears, confifting in part of the veffels above defcribed,
and of the thoracic dudl: this net-work is very com¬
plete, fome of its veffels lying on each fide the mufcles
of the gills, and from its internal part a trunk is fent
out, which terminates in the jugular vein.
“ The lafteals run on each fide of the mefenteric ar¬
teries,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
chap. nr. i c h t h -i
Phyfiology teries, anaftomofing frequently acrofs thofe veffels : the
and receptacle into which they enter is very large in pro-
Hahirurlc5 p0rtion to them> and confifts at its lower part of two
branches, one of which lies between the duodenum
and the ftomach, and runs a little way upon the pan¬
creas, receiving the lymphatics of the liver, pancreas,
lower part of the ftomach, and the la&eals from the
greateft part of the fmall inteftines : the other branch
of the receptacle receives the lymphatics from the reft
of the alimentary canal. The receptacle formed by
thefe two branches lies on the right tide of the upper
part of the ftomach, and is joined by fome lymphatics
in that part, and alfo by fome from the found and gall¬
bladder : the thoracic du& takes its rife from the re¬
ceptacle, and lies on the right fide of the osfophagus,
receiving lymphatics from that part *, and running up
about half an inch, divides into two dufts, one of
which paffes over the ocfophagus to the left fide, and
the other goes ftrait upon the right fide, palling by the
upper part of the kidney, from which it receives fome
fmall branches, and foon afterwards is joined by a
branch from the large lymphatic that lies above the
bone of the thorax, as formerly mentioned : near this
part it likewife fends off a branch to join the duft of
the oppofite fide j and then, a little higher, is joined
by thofe large lymphatics from the upper part of the
gills and from the fauces.
“ The thoracic duft, after being joined by thefe
O L O G Y. 73
veffels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit, Pliyfiology
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics HaJ"udes
from the pofterior part of the gills, and from the fupe- of Fiflies>
rior fins, belly, &c. and then from this net-work a vef- ^ J
fel goes into the jugular vein juft below the orbit.
This laft veffel, which may be called the termination
of the whole fyftem, is very fmall in proportion to the
net-work from which it rifes} and indeed the lympha¬
tics of the part are fo large as to exceed by far the fize
of the fanguiferous veffels.
“ The thoracic du& from the left fide, having paffed
under the oefophagus from the right, runs on the infide
of the vena cava of the left fide, receives a branch
from its fellow of the oppofite fide, and joins the large
lymphatics which lie on the left fide of the pericardium,
and a part of thofe which lie behind the /heart, and
afterwards makes, together with the lymphatics from
the gills, upper fins, and fide of the filh, a net-work,
from which a veffel paffes into the jugular vein of this
fide : in a word, the lymphatics of the left fide agree
exaftly with thofe of the right. Another part of the
fyftem is more deeply feated, lying between the roots
of the fpinal proceffes of the back-bone. 'I his part
confifts of a large trunk that begins from the lower
part of the fifti, and as it afcends receives branches
from the dorfal fins and adjacent parts of the body : it
goes up near the head, and fends a branch to each
thoracic duff near its origin.”
CHAP. III. PHYSIOLOGY AND HABITUDES OF FISHES.
MOST of the obfervations which belong to this fec-
tion may be referred to the general topics of
external fenfes^ motion^ nourijhment, reproduftion, and
duration.
i. Refpiration.
Refpiration This important animal funflion is performed, iti
performed fifftes, by means of gills, which fupply the place of
lungs. Though all fithes live in water, the prefence of
air is not lefs neceffary to their exiftence than to our
own. If a carp, for example, be put into a large vafe
of water, from which the air is extracted by the air-
pump, a number of bubbles are obfervable on the "fur-
face of the fifh’s body ; foon after, the animal breathes
fwifter and with greater difficulty •, it then rites to the
' furface to get more air ; the bubbles on its furface be¬
gin to difappear ; next, the belly, which was fwollen,
will fuddenly fall, and the fifh fink to the bottom, con-
vulfed and expiring. For the fame reafon, if the ex¬
ternal air be excluded from a fmall pond by a fufficient
and durable covering of ice, the fifh within it will be
killed : or if a hole be made in the ice, before it be too
late, they will all come near it for a frefin fupply of
air. In ordinary cafes, a fifh in the water firft receives
a quantity of that element by the mouth, from which
it is driven to the gills *, thefe clofe and prevent the
water fo fwallowed from returning by the mouth, at
the fame time that their bony covering prevents it
from pafting through them, until the proper quantity
of air has been drawn from it. The covers then open,
and give it a free paffage : by which means the gills al¬
fo are again opened, and admit a frefh body of water.
Vol. XI. Part I.
Should the free play of the gills be fufpended, or their
covers kept from moving, by a firing tied round them,
the fifti would foon fall into convulfions, and die in a
few minutes. Though the branchial apparatus be com-
prifed in a fmall compafs, its furface, if fully extended,
would occupy a very confiderable fpace, fince that of the
common fkate is equal to the furface of the human body.
This fingle fa6l may convince us of the numberlefs con¬
volutions and ramifications in which the included water
is elaborated and attenuated in the courfe of giving out
its air in the refpiratory procefs. This procefs, in fifties,
as in the human fubje<ft, is carried on during fleep, and
is repeated about twenty-five times in a minute. ^
Atmofpheric air, though in fmall quantities, is Change
thus imparted to the blood at the ramifications °fPr°ftU^dthe
the gills, without, however, depriving, it of a largeon
ftiare of the hydrogenated and carbonized fubftances
furnifhed by the aliments ; and, confequently, without
communicating to it fo much of the vermilion tinge as
is obfervable in warm blooded animals with lungs.
Hence the oily quality of the blood of fifties, and the
greafy congeftions wrhich take place in their livers, and
in the abdominal regions of animals wbofe refpiration is
flow or fcanty. The aft of breathing is, in reality,
a fpecies of combuftion; and the temperature of animals,
in whofe fyftem this combuftion is imperfectly perform¬
ed, is neceffarily low. As that of fifties is little elevated
above the mean temperature of water, fome fpecies, as
eels and gudgeons, are occaftonally benumbed by the
winter’s cold, and remain concealed in the mud or
faiid, without motion, food, or breathing, till the
warmth of forint roufes them from their torpor. As
K the
74
Phyfiolagy tLe botteKi of the lea, however, probably preferves a
les e^lua^ degree of heat at all times, the myriad
of Fifhes. trihes which inhabit it are permanently fecured againft
—y—the inclemency of the feafon. The tardy circulation
of the blood in fifnes may likewife, in fome meafure,
depend on their mode of refpiration. The heart of the
carp contrafts only thirty-fix times in the courfe of a
minute, or about half as often as that of a man. In
the earnivorous fpecies of fifties, as the fliark, pike, fal-
mon, Sec. the heart is comparatively larger, the circu¬
lation more rapid, and the breathing more powerful.
A&ive, robuft, and courageous, they are alfo lefs en¬
cumbered with fat, and their liver is lei's bulky than in
the other fpecies. It deferves to be remarked, how¬
ever, that the blood in fifties, after being thrown by the
heart into the ramification of the gills, is collected a-
gain by a vail number of fmall veins, fomewhat in the
fame manner as in the mammalia •, but inftead of re¬
turning to the heart again, thefe veffels unite and form
a defeending aorta, without the intervention of an au¬
ricle and ventricle, a circumftance which may alfo ma¬
terially contribute to the llownefs of the circulation.
For fome time it was believed, that the cartilaginous
fifties were provided with internal lungs, an idea which
has been abandoned by later phyfiologifts, who have
proved, that the fuppofed lungs are only a peculiar
modification of gills. To the want of lungs we may
aferibe the want of voice : for, though fome kinds of
fifties, as thofe of the genus balijies, when feized, dif-
charge a quantity of air and water with a ruftling noile,
and tlie rubbing of the fins on the feales fometimes pro¬
duces an indiftinft rattling found ; yet both are very
different from any thing like audible language that can
be underftood among the individuals of a fpecies.
2. External Senfes.
Senfe of That fifties poflefs the faculty of feeing, is evident
feemg. from the accuracy with which they direct their motions
to the objefts of their purfuit. Their organs of vifion,
too, are admirably adapted to the cir cum fiances of their
condition. As their eyes are not placed in the fore¬
part, but in the fides of the head, they cannot look, at
the fame time, with both on one object, fo convenient¬
ly as quadrupeds. Their optic nerves, accordingly, are
not confounded with one another, in their middle pro-
grefs betwixt their origin and the orbit, but the one
pafles over the other without any communication ; fo
that the nerve which comes from the left fide of the
brain, goes diftindtly to the right eye, and vice verfa.
As fifties are continually expofed to injuries in the un¬
certain element in which they refide, and as they are in
perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger ones,
it was neceffary that their eyes ftiould never be ftiut j
and as the cornea is fufticiently waftied by the element
in which they live, they are not provided with eyelids j
yet, as in the current itfelf, the eye muft be expofed to
1'everal injuries, it is defended by a firm pellucid mem¬
brane, being a continuation of the fame tranfparent
cuticle which covers the reft of the head, and which,
being infenfible and deftitute of veffels, is not liable to
obfiruftions and opakenels. Wt may likewife obferve,
|hat the optic nerve and cryftalline lens are larger than
m other animals, that the choroides is compofed of two
leparate membranes, and that all tbefe parts are differ¬
ently modified and arranged, according to the manners
Chap. Ill,
and habits of different fpecies. Thofe fifties which un- Phyfiology
dertake long voyages, and traverfe much fpace in a T and
Ihort time, as the trout, falmon, falvelin, &c. have the Ha^.ltude3
conformation of the eye like that of birds j whofe fight 01
is very acute. Were we, indeed, to form our judge¬
ment of the power of vifion in fifties merely from the
external appearance of their eyes, we ftiould conclude,
that it is far from perfeft, and that the fmall convexity
of the cornea would occafion very little refraction in
the rays of light; but this defeat is fufficientiy com-
penfated by the ftrufture ef the cryftalline lens, which
is almoft fpherical, and more denfe than in terreftrial
animals. In its natural ftate, it is tranfparent, and
not much harder than a jelly j and it forms that little
hard pea-like fubftance which is found in the eyes of
fifties after boiling. As the rays fall on this convex
humour, undergo a powerful refraction, gradually ap¬
proach one another, and unite at the axis of the eye,
w here they form their impreffions. In moft fifties the,
eyes are naked ; but thofe of the fkate tribe are diftin-
guiftied by a digitated curtain, which hangs over the
pupil, and which may exclude the light when the ani- -
mal refts ; and, in the genera Gadus and Blennius, the
eyes are covered with an internal nictitating mem¬
brane.
That fifties poffefs the fenfe of hearing, has been al-Hearing,
ternately maintained and denied by the moft celebrated
naturalifts, fince the days of Ariftotle. Among the
moderns, Artedi, Linnaeus, and Govan have contended
for the non-exiftence of this faculty, although fome
very ordinary fads naturally lead to an oppofite con-
clufton. It is well known that fifties are afftCfed by
noife, and that they feem to be alarmed at loud ex-
plofions. On the coaft of Brittany, they are frequent¬
ly chafed into nets by the found of a drum ; in China,
by that of the tam-tam j and in ponds, they have been
taught to affemble at the ringing of a bell. Thefe
founds, however, it has been alleged, produce certain
changes or vibrations in the water, which are jeen by
the animals, or which affeCt them in fome way differ¬
ent from afting on the organ of hearing, an organ
which naturalifts and anatomifts had long laboured in
vain to difeover. As the eruptions of Etna are fome¬
times at Malta, and an earthquake will fometimes
vifibly agitate the fea, at the difiance of many leagues,
it is fuppofed that fmaller commotions in the atmofphere
may communicate fimilar impreffions t&the finny tribes,,
independently of the medium of hearing. The labo¬
rious Klein fpared no pains in ftarching for fiome bid¬
den organ, by which he hoped to demonftrate that
fifties are not more deftitute of the faculty of hearing
than other animals; but though his invefiigations proved
fruitlefs, we are indebted to him for many curious ob-
fervati#ns on the number and figure of the fmali bones
which are to be found in the head of various fpecies.
Geoffroy alfo made fome important drlcoveries, but
without arriving at decifive refults. At length, the
abbe Nollet proved, that water is a conductor of found,
and that even the tones and articulation of the human
voice may be tranfmitted through its medium. All
that now remained to fet the queftion completely at
reft, was to deteft the parts of the auditory organ in
fillies, and thefe the celebrated Camper has diftinctly
revealed in confequence of numerous difleftions. For
his particular defeription of the figure and mechanifm
of
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. III. I C H T H
Phyfioiogy of the whole apparatus, we mu ft refer our readers to
Habitude- ^ ^even^ volume of the Haerlem Memoirs, and to a
of Fifties." PaPer "’hich he has inferted in one of the volumes of
the Journal </i?j Sfavans Etrangers. Suffice it for the
prefent to note, that this curious organ is contained in
the cavity of the head, and that it confifts of three fe»
mieircular, cartilaginous canals, and an elaftic bag,
which includes one or two very moveable oflicles* float¬
ing in a jelly more or lefs thick, and flightly adhering
to the contiguous parts. The moment that the vibra¬
tion of the water, which is analogous to that of the air,
is communicated to the fifli’s head, the impreffion is
tranfmitted to the oflicles, which, afting in the ratio
of their mafs multiplied by the force of the irapulfe,
impart their movement to the hole of the elaftic bag
and to the femicircular canals. The fentient principle
is more or lefs alive to the aflion of the oflicles on the
nerves, that is to fay, in Camper’s own language,
“ that the fifli perceives found, but found peculiar to
the watery element.” Hunter, whoobferved the fame
organs in the head offiflies, remarks that their ftrufture
varies in different fpecies. His minute and ingenious
obfervations on this fubjeft are publiflied in the 77th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions. “ Fifties,
particularly of the fkate kind, (fays Dr Shaw) have a
bag at fome diftance behind the eyes, which contains a
fluid, and a foft cretaceous fubftance, and fupplies the
place of the veftibule and cochlea: there is a nerve dif-
tributed upon it? fimilar to the portio moltis in man :
they have femicircular canals, which are filled with a
fluid, and communicate with the bag: they have like-
wife a meatus externus, which leads to the internal ear.
The cod-fifh, and others of the fame ftiape, have an or¬
gan of hearing fomewhat fimilar to the former ; but in-
ftead of a foft fubftance contained in the bag, there is
a hard cretaceous ftone.”
'Inouch. The fenfe of touch is probably very imperfect in
fifties, becaufe it refultsfrom the contact and immediate
application of the furface of fome objedt to that of the
animal,, and all parts of the body are not equally fit to
be applied to the furface of foreign fubftances. The
hand alone, which is divided into feveral flexible and
moveable parts, and is capable of being applied to dif¬
ferent portions of the fame furface, at the fame time
feems peculiarly deftined to convey the ideas of fixe*
and form, and even it would ill difcharge fuch an office,
if its contadl with objedls ftiould be intercepted by any
intermediate fubftance, as hair, feathers, ftiells, {bales,
&c. A rough and hard fldn blunts the fenfe of touch’
while a fine and delicate one renders it more lively and
exquifite. Hence, we may prefume, that fifties, which
are deftitute of palmated extremities, are incapable of
recognizing the forms of bodies. Befides, as they are
mvefted with a rough {kin, which is frequently cover¬
ed with tubercles, or numberlefs fcales, they appear to
be unfufceptiole of that delicacy of feeling which nature
has beftowed on many of the quadrupeds.
ttslte. In tne mouth of man, and of thofe animals which
are endowed with fisnfibility of tajie, there are number-
left nervous papilfte, large, porous, conftantly fupplied
with an abundance of lymph, and covered with a de¬
licate {kin,^ or inferted in {heaths of very unequal
lengths. The favorous matters are arrefted by thefe
afperities,.diluted by the lymph, and abforbed by the
pores, which convey them to the nervous papillte on
Y O L O G Y. -5
which they aft as ftimulants. The tongue is the prin- Phyfiology
cipal feat of this fyftem of organs, and is extremely fuf- 31ld
ceptible of impreflion, being compofed of fleffiy fibres, oi-a|j^es '
encompaffed by a medullary tiffue. In fifties, however,! — - j
few pores have been difeovered in the interior region of
the mouth, the lymph is conftantly carried off by the
paffage of the water, the tongue is fometimes imperfeft
and fometimes cartilaginous, and the palate is general¬
ly hard and bony. If to thefe circumftances we add
the want of maftieation, w-e may juftly infer, that fifties
are nearly deftitute of the diferiminating powers of
tafte. Accordingly, they are remarked for voracity,
rather than for particular relilhes j and they will often
fwallow fubftances which can afford them no nourifli-
ment.
The organ offmclling, on the other hand, is large ; SmelUpgi
and the animals have a power of contracting and dila¬
ting the entry to it as they have occafion. All have
one or more noftrils j and even thofe which have not
the holes perceptible without, yet have the proper for¬
mation of the bones for fmelling within. The olfac¬
tory nerves, which are extended over the noftrils, are
probably toe inftruments by which they are enabled to
diftinguifti their food. A fifti will difeover a worm
that is thrown into the water, at a conliderable di¬
ftance ; and that this is not done by the eye, is mani-
feft from the confideration, that after the fame worm
has remained for feme time in the water, and loft its
fmell, no fiffies will come near it j but if you make fe¬
veral little incifions into it, fo as to let out more of the
odoriferous effluvia, the creatures again approach it.
“ We may frequently obferve them (fays the intelli¬
gent naturalift quoted above), allowing themfelves to be
carried down with the ftream, that they may afeend
again leifurely againft the current of the water; thus
the odoriferous particles fwimtaing in that medium, be-
ing applied more forcibly to their organs ef fmell, pro¬
duce a ftronger fenfation.”
3. Motion.
.Moft fifties prefent us with the fame external form, Motions *f'
being {harp at either end, and fwelling in the middle, fifties ex-
whereby they are enabled to traverfe their native fluid tremeiF
with greater eafe and celerity. We wifely endeavouriapld’
to imitate this peculiar fhapein the conftruCtion of vef-
fels defigned to fail with the greateft fwiftnefs ; yet, the
progrefs of a machine moved forward in the water by-
human contrivance, is nothing to the rapidity of an
animal formed to refide in that element. The large
fifties are known to overtake a ftiip in full fail with the
greateft eafe, to play round it without effort, and to
outftrip it at pleafure. The flight of an arrow is not
more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a falmon, or a
gilt-head, through the water. It has been calculated
that a falmon will glide over 86,400 feet in dn hour,
and 24 feet in a fecond, that it will advance more than
a degree of the meridian of the earth in a-day, and
make the tour of the world in the courfe of fome
weeks. Every part of the body feems exerted in this
difpatch ; the fins, the tail, and the motion of the
whole back-bone affift progreffion j and it is to that
flexibility of body which mocks the efforts of art, that
fifties owe their great velocity.
. The chief inftruments in a fifti’s motion are its fins,Inftrumentsr
air-bladder, and tail. With at leaft two pair, and three motion.
K 2 Angle
?<5
Phyfiology
and
Habitudes
gf FiOies.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. HI.
Angle fins, it will migrate with great rapidity, and take
voyages of a thoufand leagues in a feafon, without in¬
dicating any vifible fymptoms of languor or fatigue.
But it does not always happen, that fifties which have
the greateft: number of fins, have alfo the fwifteft mo¬
tion : the ftiark, for example, which is reckoned one
of the fwifteft fwimmers, wants the ventral fins j while
the haddock, which has its full complement of fins, is
more tardy in its progrefs.
The fins ferve not only to aftift th^ animal in pro-
greflion, but in rifing or finking, in turning, or even
in leaping out of the water. To anfwer thele purpofes,
the pebtoral fins, like oars, ferve to pufti the animal
forward, and have, therefore, not unaptly, been com¬
pared to the wings of a bird. By their help and con¬
tinued motion, the flying-fifti is fometimes feen to dart
out of the water, and to fly above a hundred yards.
The pefloral fins likewife ferve to balance the head,
when it is too large for the body, and prevent it from
tumbling prone to the bottom, as happens tolarge-headed
fifties, when the pe&oral fins are cut off. The ventral
fins which lie flat in the water, in whatever fituation
the nib may be, ferve rather to raife or deprefs the bo¬
dy, than to aftift its progreflive motion. The dorfal
fin a£fs as a poifer, in preferving the animal’s equili¬
brium, at the fame time that it aids the forward move¬
ment. The anal is defigned to maintain the vertical or
upright pofition of the body.
By means of the air-bladder, fifties can increafe or
diminifti the fpecific gravity of their body. When
they contract it, or prefs out the included air, by means
of the abdominal mufcles, the bulk of the body is di-
miniftied, its weight in proportion to the water is in-
creafed, and the filh fwims eafily at a great depth. On
relaxing the operation of the abdominal mufcles, the
fwimming-bladder again acquires its natural fize, the
body increafes in bulk, confequently becomes lighter,
and enables the fifti to fwim eafily near the furface. So
fifties which have no air-bladder, or thofe whole blad¬
der has been injured, keep always at the bottom.
Laftly, the tail may be regarded as the directing
inftrument of motion, to which the fins are only fub-
fervient. To illuftrate all this by a fimple experiment
-—If we take a live carp, and put it into a large veffel,
the fifti, when in a Hate of repofe, will be feen to fpread
all its fins, and to reft on the pefloral and ventral near
the bottom ; and, if it fold up either of its pedtoral fins,
it will incline to the fide on which the folding takes
place. When it defires to have a retrograde motion,,
ftriking with the peftoral fins, in a contrary diredtion,
effeffually produces it. If it defires to turn, a blow
from the tail fends it about \ but if the tail ftrike both
■ways, the motion is progreflive. If the dorfal and ven¬
tral fins be cut off, the fifti reels to the right and left,
and endeavours to fupply its lofs by keeping the reft of
its fins in conftant exercife. If the right peftoral fin
be cut off, the filh,leans to that fide ; and, if the ven¬
tral fin on the fame fide be cut away, it lofes its equi¬
librium entirely. When the tail is removed, the fifh
lofes all motion, and abandons itfclf to the impulie of
the water.
The flimy glutinous matter which is fecreted from
the pores of moft fifties, not only defends their bodies
from the immediate contaft of the furrounding fluid,
but facilitates their progreflive motion.
The pelagian tribes of fifties, which traverfe large Phyfiology
portions of the ocean, as the falmon, tunny, and feveral am*
ipecies of coryphccna, gadus, /parus. feicena, &.c. are
furnilhed with large and ftrong fins, to enable them to ■. -
ftruggle again!! large waves and rapid currents 5 whereas
thofe which frequent the iliores and frelh waters have
their fins fmaller and weaker 5 while thofe with foft fins
feldom expofe themfelves to the fury of the florin, and
confine themfelves to depths that are not a Hefted by
the moft impetuous winds. A more ample explanation
of thefe particulars will be found in Borelli’s work de
Motu Ammahum.
Notwithftanding the aftonilhing agility of their move¬
ments, fifties often remain in a ftate of inaflivity and
fupinenefs, till roufed by the calls of hunger or love,
or ftimulated by the dread of an'approaching enemy.
The periodical and extenfive migrations of certain tribes
of fifties are not irreconcileable with this remark, fince
the want of food, or the important occupation of breed¬
ing, may induce them to change their ftation. But we
cannot give implicit credit to the relations of thofe na-
turalifts, who, copying from one another, affefl on this
fubjeft the language of wonder and myftery. In re-Reputed
gard to the reputed migrations of immenfe Ihoals ofmigration
herrings from the polar regions to the fouth of Europe,
and which have been generally aferibed to the depre¬
dations of the cetaceous tribes, we may be allowed to
alk, why thefe fmall fifties proceed feme hundred leagues
beyond the reach of their enemies, and why they re¬
turn in winter to the very haunts of their gigantic de-
ftroyers ? If it be alleged, that thofe monftrous ani¬
mals drive them into bays and inlets ; why do they
equally abound in the North fea and the Baltic,
which are not frequented by whales ? If mere want of
food compels the herrings to detach their crowded co¬
lonies j how happens it that the migration always
takes place at the fame time, and at the fame feafon of
the year ? It is difficult to conceive, that their flock
of provifions ftiould regularly be exhaufted at the year’s
end ? Belides, if the ardtic pole be the native Country
of the herrings, as has been ufually fuppofed, they fhouid
make their appearance, like birds of paflage, in nume¬
rous troops at certain fealons, and very few or none
ftiould be feen during the reft of the year. Yet it is
well known, that great quantities of them are caught
in Norway, during the whole of fummer ; in the iame
country, and in Swedifli Pomerania, the filhery is very
produdfive from January to March ; on the coal! of
Gothland, from October to December 5 in the north
of Holland, in February, March, and April ; and in
Sweden, in the middle of winter. That part of the
migrating Ihoal regularly diredts its courfe to the coaft
of Iceland, is an affertion unfupportable by refpedlable
teftimony. Horrebow, who paffed fome years on that
iftand, affirms, that a Angle herring will fometimes not
be feen for many years y and Olaffsen, ALgidius, Otho-
Fabricius, and others, corroborate his affertions.
To account, then, for the movements of the herring,
cod, tunny, anchovy, &c. it is. in vain to have recourfe
to the rapacity of the whale, or to the urgent preffiure of
hunger ; and leaft of all Ihould we adopt the marvel¬
lous tales of periodical voyages, performed with the ut-
moft order and exadtitude. M. Bloch explains in a much
more fimple and natural manner the arrival and difap-
pearance of the refpedtive ffioah?. According to him,
herrings-
Chap. HI.
1 C H T H Y O L O G Y.
77
Phjfiolugj herrings have the fame preper.fity as other fiflres, and
and ufually live in the depths of the water, till flnnuiated
Habitudes , defire of reproducing their fpecies. They then
.°f . quit their retreat, and fuddenly appear in places where
they were not formerly feen : and, as the fpawning time
occurs fometimes fooner, and fometimes later, accord¬
ing to the temperature of the water, and the age of the
fhhes we can ealily conceive why thofe fpecies which
are reputed migratory, iliould be obierved at different
times. Thofe fea filhes which aicend rivers in fpriug,
only return to their feveral haunts in autumn. The
herrings are, doubtlefs, guided by an analogous inftinft 5
and if we may be allowed to fuppofe, that they fome¬
times fpawn more than once in the courfe of the year,
we fhall be at no lofs to account for the circumftances
of their wandering.
bably feed on minute invifible infeas, or be endowed Ph}^°]ogy
with the power of decompofing water, and of converting Hal“;r‘Cuc}es
its elements into the means of fubfiftence. .Much,, in 0f fifties,
faft, remains to be difeovered on the interefling fubjed
of the food of fifties; for while the inceffant craving
and gluttony of fome are obvious to the moft fuperficial
obfervation, the methods by which others are maintain¬
ed in exiftence have only been furmifed by conjedure.
Meanwhile, it is of importance to remark, that in the
water, as on the land, nature, has nicely adjufted the
balance of deftrudion and renovation, thus providently
guarding againft an overwhelming accumulation of pu¬
trid carcafes, and multiplying, at the fame time, the
fources and centres of vitality and animal enjoyment,
c. RebroduElion.
4. NouriJ]jm?nt.
Among fifties, as among-quadrupeds and birds, fome
fearch for their food in the mud j others live on worms,
infeds, or marine plants. 1 he former have their ante¬
rior extremity adapted to the extradion of peculiar
juices from the earth ■, the latter have the conforma¬
tion of their jaws or teeth fuited to the capture and
M ft fifties deftrudion of their appropriate prey. The greateft
carnivorous number of fpecies, however, are carnivorous and ex-
and vora- tremely voracious^ fublifting chiefly on otner fifties, and
Clous, frequently not fparing even their own offspring. When
taken out of the water, and almoft. expiring, they will
often greedily fwallow the very bait which lured them
to their fuin. In the lequel, we ftiall have occafion to
adduce fome linking inftances of the violent and indii-
criminate appetite of feveral fifties. 1 he digeftive power
of their flomach is no lefs remarkable, and feems to
increafe with the quantity of food received into it.
This food, though reduced to a gelatinous (late, ufually
preferves its natural form } a circumftance which leads
us to conclude, that the procefs of digeflion is perform¬
ed by the folvent power of fome particular menftruum,
and not by any trituration.
Fifties, in general, manifeft a prediledion for what¬
ever they can fwallow pofttfle d of life. Some that have
very fmall mouths, feed on worms and the fpawn of
other fifh : others, whofe mouths are larger, feek larger
prey ; it matters not of what kind, whether of another
or their own. Thofe with the largeft mouths, purfue
almoft; every thing that has life ; and often meet each
other in fierce oppofition, and the vidor devours his
antagonift. Thus are they irritated by the continual
defire of fadsfying their hunger } and the life of a fifti,
from the fmallefi: to the greateft:, is but one feene of no-
flility, violence, and evafion. 1.he fmaller fry, which
Hand no chance in the unequal combat, refort to thofe
fhallows, where the greater are unable or too heavy to
purfue. There they become invaders in turn, and live
on the fpawn of large fifties, which they find floating
on the furface of the water, till they are imprifoned and
leifurely devoured by the muflel, oyfter, or feallop,
which lie in ambufti at the bottom,
but can Notwithftandingthe aftonifhing voracity of fifties, fome
bear ab- of them are capable of fuffering at leaft the apparent
ftinence. want of food for a long time. This is particularly the
cafe with the gold and filver fifties which are kept in
vafes, and which feem to enjoy perfed health, though
deprived of fuftenance for months. But they may pro-
’ * 3 ^
In moft, if not in "all fifties, there is a difference in
fex, though Bloch and others make mention of indivi¬
duals, w hich feemed to unite the two fexes, and to be.
real hermaphrodites. The number of males, it has
been remarked, is about double that of females} and
were it not for this wife pxovifion of nature, a large
proportion of the extruded eggs would remain unfecun-
dated. A few fpecies, indeed, as the eel, blenny, &.c.
are viviparous ; but by far the greater number are pro-Moft fiflies
duced from eggs. Thefe laft compofe the roe or ova-oviparous.,
ries of the females, which lie along the abdomen. The
milt of the males is difpofed along the back-bone, in
one or two bags, and confifts of a whitifti glandular
fubftance, which fecretes the fpermatic fluid. Though
the hiftory of the generation of fifties be ftill involved
in coniiderable obfeurity, it feems to be afcerlained,
that no fexual union takes place among the oviparous
kinds, and that the eggs are frudtified after exclufion..
They are of a fpherical form, and confift of a yolk, a
white part, and a bright crefcent-like fpot, or germ.
The yolk, which is ufually furrounded by the white,,
is round, and not placed in the middle, but towards
one of the fides ; and the clear fpot, or embryo, is fi-
tuated between the yolk and the white. In this fpot
there is obfervable, on the day after fecundation, a
moveable point, of a fomewhat dull appearance. On
the third day, it affumes the appearance of a thickilh
mafs, detached on one fide, and on the other ftrongly
adhering to the yolk, and presenting the contour of the
heart, which, at this period, receives an increafe of
motion, while the difengaged extremity, which forms
the rudiments of the tail, is perceived to move at inter¬
vals. On the fourth day, the pulfations of the heart
and the movements of the whole body occur in quicker
fucceflion. On the fifth, the circulation of the hu¬
mours in the veffels may be difeerned, when the fifti is
in a particular pofttion. On the fixth, the back-bone
may be diftindtly recognifed. On the feventh, two. •
black poifits, which are the eyes, and the whole form
of the animal, are vifible to the naked eye. Although
the yolk gradually diminifhes as the embryo enlarges,
the included animal cannot yet ftretch itfelf at length,
and makes a curve with its tail. Its motions are then
fo brilk, that when it turns its body, the yolk turns
w ith it; and thefe motions become more and more fre¬
quent, as the moment of birth, which happens be¬
tween the feventh and ninth day, approaches. By re¬
peated ftrokes of the tail, the covering of the egg at
length;
78
PhyfioJogy length gives v.Tay, and the fiili comes forth, firfl by the
ai!ii tail, redoubling its efforts, till it detach its head $ and
of Fifhes5 t^ien ^ moves nimbly, and at liberty, in its new ele-
■ . ^ ment. Such, at leaft, are the refults of fome particu¬
lar obfervations : but it is obvious, that they muft vary
confiderably according to circumftances j particularly,
that the fpawn muft continue in the egg Jdate in fome
fpecies longer than in others, and this in proportion to
the animal’s fize. The embryo falmon, for inftance,
continues in the egg from the beginning of December
to the beginning of April, and the carp not above
three weeks.
Fifties have different feafons for depofiting their
fpawn. Some which live in the depths «f the ocean,
are faid to choofe the winter months} but, in general,
thofe with which we are acquainted, choofe the hotteft
months in fummer, and prefer fuch water as is fome-
what tepified by the beams of the fun. They then
leave the deepeft parts of the ocean, which are the
coldeft, and fhoal round the coafts, or fwim up the
frefh-water rivers, which are warm as they are compa¬
ratively (hallow, depofiting their eggs where the fun’s
influence can moft eafily reach them, and feeming to
take no farther charge of their future progeny.
Of the eggs thus depoftted fcarcely one in a hundred
brings forth an animal, as they are devoured by all the
leffer fry which frequent the fhores, by aquatic birds
near the margin, and by the larger fifh in deep water.
Still, however, the fea is amply fupplied with inhabi¬
tants ; and, notwithftanding their own rapacity, and
that of various tribes of fowls, the numbers that efcape
are fufficient to relieve the wants of a confiderable por¬
tion of mankind. Indeed, when we confider the fe¬
cundity of a Angle fifh, the amount will feem aftonifh-
In umber of mg. If we fhould be told, for example, that a fingle
eggs im- being could in one feafon, produce as many of its kind
tneufe. as there are inhabitants in England, it would ftrike us
with furprife $ yet the cod annually fpawns, according
to Lewenhoeck, above nine million of eggs contained
in a fingle roe. The flounder is commonly known to
produce above one million ; and the mackarel above
five hundred thoufand 5 a herring of a moderate fize
will yield at leaft ten thoufand j a carp, of 14 inches
in length, contained, according to Petit, two hundred
and fixty-two thoufand, two hundred and twenty-four j
and another, 16 inches long, contained three hundred
and forty-two thoufand, one hundred and forty-four $ a
erch depofited three hundred and eighty thoufand, fix
undred and forty 5 and a female fturgeon, feven mil¬
lion, fix hundred and fifty-three thoufand, two hun¬
dred.—-The viviparous fpecies are by no means fo fruit¬
ful 5 yet the blenny brings forth two or three hundred
at a time, all alive and playing round the parent toge¬
ther.
• Some naturalifts have fufpe&ed, that there are fifhes
which undergo certain metamorphofes in the early pe¬
riod of their exiftence, like the tadpoles of frogs. Ma-
demoifelle Merian,- in her fplendid work on the Infefts
of Surinam, even defcribes frogs, which are transform¬
ed into fifhes. Spelmann makes mention of aquatic
animals of an ambiguous nature, which he met with at
all feafons of the year, and which he terms proteufes ;
and Schranck and Laurenti have remarked in the Ty-
rolian lakes particular races of animals, which feem to
form a gradation between tadpoles and branchioftegous
Chap. III.
fifties. Perhaps they are larvae, or imperfe& animals, Phyfiology
whole developement is ftill obfcure j yet it is not im- Ha£fdd
probable that fome fifhes may undergo transformations
analogous to thofe of young frogs and falamanders. i—y—
The hiftory of the qftracion and diodon families will
warrant fuch a fuppofition \ and the Jircn lacertina of
Linnaeus feems to be alike connected with reptiles and
fifhes.
For feveral curious and interefting experiments rela¬
tive to the artificial fecundation of the fpawn of fifhes,
we muft refer our readers to M. Jacobi’s Memoir, in-
ferted in the Berlin Tranfa&ions for 1764. By pref-
fing the contents of the milt of falmon and trout on the
fpawn of thefe fifhes, he fucceeded in rendering the
ova fruitful, and obtained live fifli. Among thefe were
feveral rnonfters, fuch as trouts with two heads, others
in the form of a crofs, &c. none of which lived beyond
fix weeks, exhaufting in that time the juices of their
own ftomach, and the yolk of the egg to which they
were attached.
6. Duration.
It is extremely difficult to afcertain the precife term
which nature has affigned to the exiftence of thofe crea¬
tures which inhabit a medium different from our own.
It is probable, that the life of fifhes which efcape the
numerous fnares that are laid for them, is confiderably
longer than their mere fize would feem to indicate. In
the firft ftages of their exiftence, their growth is, no
doubt, rapid ; but their fibres quickly become hard, and
lefs fufceptible of extenfion. When newly excluded
from its egg, the fifh grows four lines in the fhort fpace
of eight hours j but three weeks at leaft elapfe, before
it acquire an additional line. Nor is the rate of growth
at all equal in different fpecies. Thus a carp attains
only to the length of fix or feven inches in three years,
and to the weight of 12 pounds in ten yeairs. The
growth of the tench is ftill more tardy, fince twelve
years are required to give it the length of twenty
inches.
There have been two methods devifed for determin¬
ing the age of fifties, the one, by the circles of the
fcales, the other, by the tranfverfe feflion of the back¬
bone. When a fifh’s fcale is examined through a mi-
crofcope, it will be found to confift of a number of cir¬
cles, one within another, in fome meafure refembling
thofe which appear on the tranfverfe feftion of a tree,
and which are fuppofed to afford the fame information.
For, as in trees, w^e can tell their age by the number
of their circles, fo in fifhes, w'e can tell theirs by the
number of circles in every fcale, reckoning one ring
for every year of the animal’s exiftence. By this me-,
thod, the count de Buffon found a carp, whofe fcales
he examined, to be not lefs than a hundred years old.
Gefner adduces an inftance of one of the fame age, and
Albertus of one more than double that period.—The
age of the fkate and the ray, which are deftitute of
fcales, may be known by the other method, which con-
fifts in feparating the joints of the back-bone, and then
minutely obferving the number of rings which the fur-
face where it was joined exhibits. But whatever degree Great age
of precifion wre may attach to fuch evidence, we have of fome
no reafon to doubt the great age of fome fifhes. Thofe^es' ^
perfons who have ponds often know the oldeft by their
fuperior fize and other indications. The carp which
were
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap IV.
Apodal were bred in tbe ditches of Pont-Chartrain, are quoted
Fithes. ky Buffon, as exceeding a hundred and fifty years j and
vthofe in the royal gardens of Charlottenburg, in Pruffia,
are faid by Bloch to have their heads overgrown with
mofs. Ledelius alleges, that in forae pools in Lufatia
there are carp about 200 years old. At Manheixn,
there is the Ikeleton of a pike, 19 feet in length, and
which is faid to have weighed,when alive, 350 pounds^
It was caught at Kayferlautern, in 1497 ; and a Greek
infcription on a brafs ring, inferted at the gills, an¬
nounced that it had been put into the pond by the em¬
peror Frederick II. that is to fay, 267 years before it
was taken. Some fpecies, however, are known to have
a much ihorter exilience ; thus, the eel ufually lives
about 15 years ; the bream and the tench, from to to
12, and the fifteen-fpined ftickle-back feldom furvives
two.—The comparative fimplicity of their ftrufture,
the flexibility of their frame, the ilrength of their di-
geftive power, their want of fenfibrlity, and the eqnal
79
temperature of the element which they inhabit, proba- Apodal
bly all contribute to the longevity of fiflies. The fame ,
caufes may, perhaps, exempt them from many difeafes
vhieh are incident to other races of animals. Yet we
know for certain, that they are occafionally fubjedt to
indifpofition and diftempers. Before the fpawning fea-
fon, they undergo a change of their external covering,
analogous to moulting amongft the feathered tribes 5
their fcales and fkins are renewed, and the colours of
the more beautiful kinds aiTume more frefb and vivid
hues. But this annual change is nut eftefted without
evident fyraptoms of languor, decline, and fullering.
Some kinds of falmon trout are liable to a leprous aj-
fe&ion, the carp to fmallpox, and the eruption of fmall
tumours on the head and back, the perch to dropfy,
eels to a cutaneous diforder which often proves fatal,
and moft fpecies to ulcerated livers, or injured vifeera,
from the worms and infefts of various deferiptions which
multiply within them.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
CHAP. IV. SYSTEMATIC EXPOSITION OF FISHES.
THE Linnaean orders of fifhes have been inftituted
from the fituation, prefence, or abfence of the ventral
fins.
1. Such as are entirely deftitute of thefe fins, are
termed pifees apodes, apodal or footlefs fifties^
2. The jugularesy.or jugular, are thofe which have
ventral fins, placed more forward than the pedloral fins,
or under the throat.
3. The thoracici, or thoracic, include thofe whofe
ventral fins are placed immediately under the pectoral
fins, or on the breaft.
4. The abdominales, or abdominal, comprife thofe
whofe ventral fins are fituated behind the pe&oral fins,
or on the abdomen.
5. There ftill remains a particular tribe, denominat¬
ed cartilaginei, which, as their name imports, have a
cartilaginous inftead of a bony fkeleton. This tribe was
by Linnaeus feparated from the reft, on the miftaken
idea, that the individuals which cornpofe it were fur-
nifhed both with lungs and gills, and fhould be ranked
in the clafs of amphibious animals.
The genera which pertain to the preceding orders are
determined by the number of rays in the branchiofte-
gous membrane, the condition of the teeth, the figure
of the body, and of other remarkable parts.
The charafters of the fpecies are taken chiefly from
the number of rays in the fins, which differs in the dif¬
ferent fpecies. But, as the precife enumeration of thefe
rays is fometimes a matter of difficulty, and, as they
are likewife fubjeft to variation, it is neceffary to have
recourfe to other marks, and to adopt, as fubfidiary
characters, the form and fituation of particular fins, the
proportion of the head to the body, the condition of
the lateral line, the number of the vertebrss and
ribs, &c.
I. APODAL.
The fifties of this order approach very near to the
amphibia, and fome of them even referable the ferpent
tribe. They have a fmooth flippery Ikin,.which is, in
general, naked, or covered in fome fpecies only, witfe
fmall, foft, and diftant fcales. Their body is long and
{lender ; they have teeth in the jaws, and live in tha
fea y but fome are found in rivers and Handing waters.-
They feed on other animals^
Genus 1. Mur^ena. Muncir* j
Read fmooth $ noftrils tubular ; eyes covered by the
common integument y gill-membrane ten-rayed ; bo.
dy nearly cylindrical, fmooth, and flippery ; dorfal,
caudal, and anal fins united 5 {piracies behind the
head or peftoral fins.
Roman muraena, or murey. No peftoral fins y body helenttr-
eel-ftiaped, and variegated •, fpiracle on each fide the
neck.—The colour of this fifli is a dufley-greenilh
brown, diverfified with dull yellow patches, and form¬
ing a kind of obfeure net-work. The head is rather
fmall; the mouth moderately wide, and the teeth {harp.
The fins are of a dulky colour, with whitiffi fpots.
The murey is capable of living with equal facility in
frefli or fait water, though principally found in the lat¬
ter, efpecially on the coafis of the Mediterranean. It
attains to a fize at leaft equal, if not fuperior to the
common eel, which it much refembles in its manners
and voracity. The Piomans prized it as an exquilite
luxury, and kept it in appropriate refervoirs.
Snake eel, or fea ferpent. Snout lengthened \ tail vpldr*.
pointed, and finlefs j body round. The head of this
Species is long and flender, the gape very wide, the
teeth very fliarp, and the colour a very pale yellowifli
brown above, and bluilh white beneath. It is a native
of the Mediterranean and northern feas, where it often
arrives at a very eonfiderable fize, and has probably gi¬
ven rife to the marvellous tales of huge fea ferpents in
the northern ocean.—The anguilla ephis, or (potted eel
of Shaw, feems to be a diftinft fpecies, or elie a mark¬
ed variety, being fpotted with brown, and chiefly found
in the Indian feas, though fometimes alfo in the Medi¬
terranean, &c.
Common eel.—The lower jaw longer than the up- arguiUs,
§0
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Apodal
Fiihes.
s>er.
per *, body olive-brown above, fomewhat fllvery beneath.
( The figure and appearance of this fpecies are too well
known to require a particular defcription. It is a na¬
tive of almoft all the waters of the ancient continent,
frequenting not only rivers but ftagnant pools, and oc-
cafionally fait marlhe;s and lakes. In fpring it is found
even in the Baltic and other feas. In fome places near
the mouths of the Baltic, they aretaken'in fuch abund¬
ance that they cannot be ufed frelh, but are fmoked
and falted, and conveyed by waggon-loads into Saxony,
Silefia, &c. We are told that 2000 have been taken
in Jutland at a Angle fweep of the net, and 60,000 in
the Garonne in one day, by a fingle net. It is gene¬
rally alleged that the eel cannot bear the water of the
Danube ; and it is rarely found either in that river or
the Wolga, though Very common in the lakes and
rivers of Upper Auftria. Its ordinary fize is from
two to three feet, though it lias been known to attain
to the length of fix feet, and to weigh fifteen pounds.
Dale and others mention fome of uncommon magni¬
tude, but which were probably congers. Though im¬
patient of heat and cold, the eel can live longer out
of the water than any other fit'll, and is extremely te¬
nacious of life, as its parts will move a confiderable
time after it has been fkinned, and cut into pieces. It
fometimes quits the water, and wanders about mea¬
dows and moift grounds in quell of particular food, as
fnails, worms, &c. It is a1fo laid to be fond of new-
fown peas, and to have fometimes taken refuge from
fevere frolls in adjoining hay-ricks. Its ufual food con-
fills of water-infefls, worms, and the fpawn of fiihes.
It will alfo devour almoit any decayed animal Jub¬
ilance. It is viviparous, producing its young about
the end of fummer ; though both eggs, and ready-form¬
ed young are occafionally obferved in the fame indivi¬
dual. Its Ikin, which is proverbially llippery, from the
large proportion of mucus with which it is furnilhed,
ferves, in fome countries, from its toughnefs and pellu-
cidity, as tackle for carriages, &c. and glafs for win¬
dows. Though we learn from Athenmus, that the Sy¬
barites exempted from every kind of tribute the vend¬
ers of eels, the Remans feem to have held this filh very
cheap as an article of food. In modern times it is
reckoned highly nutritious, though fomewhat difficult
of digettion, and hurtful when taken to excefs.
Conger eel.—Two tentacula at the roitrum, the la¬
teral line whitilh and dotted. The firll of thefe cha-
radlers is not conllant. But the conger may be di-
ftinguilhed from the common eel by other marks, fuch
as its darker colour, larger eyes, its Ihorter lower jaw,
and the greater fize to which it ufually attains. Speci¬
mens from the Mediterranean have fometimes been
taken of the length of ten feet, and of the weight of
more than a hundred pounds. It is likewife an inha¬
bitant of the northern feas, and of thofe which furround
fome of the American illands. The conger is only an
occafional vifitant of freffi water, frequenting the
mouths of rivers in fpring. In the mouth of the Se¬
vern incredible quantities of the fry are taken in April,
under the name of elvers. In its full-grown Hate the
conger is alfo reckoned a ufeful article of food in many
parts of Europe. The great quantities that are taken
on the coaft of Cornwall are chiefly exported to Spain
and Portugal. Much of their abundant oil is drained
away in the procefs of drying, the weight being re¬
Chap. IV.
duced nearly eighty per cent. Congers are extremely Apodal
voracious, preying on other fillies, and on various kinds
of cruftacea, particularly on the fmall crabs during v "
their foft ftate after they have caft their ffiell.
Southern 7iiur<ena.—No peftoral fins; brown, 'xxtSs echidna.
black variegations; deprefied head and very turgid neck.
This fpecies, which inhabits the fouthern ocean, has a
repulfive appearance, grows to a very confiderable fize,
and affords excellent food.
The Jiren.—Pe&oral fins like hands with fourJiren.
fingers, gill membrane with three pinnatifid bones.
This is the Jiren lacertina of former editions of the
Syflem of Nature. It is peculiar to the muddy fwarops
of South Carolina, preys on ferpents, which it feizes
and holds with its ftrong and firm teeth. It is fome¬
times a foot and a half in length ; its heart has but one
ventricle ; it has ribs and a bony tail; and is fo fragile,
that if caft on the ground, it breaks into three or four
pieces.
The other fpecies are, co/ubrina,ferpens, rm/rus, gut¬
tata, cceca, catenata, reticulata, africana, zebra, mete-
ogris, and viridis.
Gen. 2. Synbranchus.
Body eel-fhaped ; no pedtoral fins ; fpiracle fingle be¬
neath the neck.
Synbraa-
chus.
Marbled fynbranchus.—Olive-brown, marbled with marmora
blackifh fpots ; the body yellow beneath. Native of/ttir>
the frefh waters of Surinam.
Plain fynbranchus. — Of a plain un variegated bvown {mmacu[aa
colour. A native of Surinam. tus.
Monop-
teius.
Gen. 3. PvIoNorxERus.
Body eel-fhaped ; noftrils placed between the eyes ; fin
cadal.
Javan monopterus.—Livid brown or blackiffi, withjnvanicus.
a very (harp-pointed tail. This fith, which has the
appearance and habits of a mursena, is a native of the
Indian feas, and very common about the coafts of Java,
where it is confidered as an excellent food.
Gen. 4. Gymnotus. Gymnotus.
Head with lateral opercula ; two beards or tentacula
on the upper lip ; eyes covered by the common in¬
tegument ; gill-membrane five-rayed ; body com-
preffed, without dorfal fin (in moil fpecies), but ca-
rinated by a fin beneath.
Carapo gymnotus.—Brown, with the vent-fin of Cnecarapo.
length of the attenuated tail, and the upper jaw longer
than the lower. This fifh is a native of the American
feas, and is faid to be moft frequent about the coaft of
Surinam. Its ordinary length is from one to two feet.
It is reckoned excellent by the South Americans.
Elecincal gymnotus, or cramp fjh.—Without fcalese/cdlricus,
or dorfal fin ; the caudal very obtufe, and joined to the
anal fin. This fifh bears a confiderable refemblance to
a large eel, though fomewhat thicker, and commonly of
an uniform blackiffi-browm. It was firft announced to
the philofophers of Europe on account of its remark¬
able eleflrical or galvanic properties, in 1677, by M.
Richer, who was commiffioned by the French Acade¬
my to make fome mathematical obfervations in Cay¬
enne.
Chap.
Apodal
Fifties.
IV.
I C H T H Y O X O G Y.
Si
ttcus.
Trichiurus.
enne. It would be tedious to recite all the remarks and
experiments of fucceeding obfervers, which'confpire to
prove the voluntary eleftricity of the gymnotus, which,
however, occafionally exhibits fome variations from the
phenomena of common electricity. If a perfon touches
the animal with one hand, in fuch a manner as to irri¬
tate it confiderably, while the other is held at a fmall
diftance from it in the water, he will experience as
ftrong a (hock as from a charged Leyden phial. The
Ihoek is aifo readily communicated through a circle of
eight or ten perfons at once, the perfon at one extre¬
mity putting his hand in the water near the fifh, while
the other touches the animal. It is by this extraordi¬
nary faculty that the gymnotus fupports its exiftence,
the fmaller fillies and other animals which happen to
approach it being inftantly llupified, and then falling
an eafy prey. It is even capable of depriving thofe
who approach it in its native waters, of fenfe and mo¬
tion. It is a native of the warmer regions of Africa
and America, in which 1^11 it inhabits the larger rivers,
particularly thofe of Surinam. In Africa, it is faid
to occur chiefly in the branches of the Senegal. In
f^ie 65th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, our
readers will find an accurate defeription of the external
form of the eledlrical gymnotus, by the late ingenious
Dr Garden, and one equally accurate of its internal
flruflure by the celebrated Mr John Hunter.
Needle gymnotus. Naked, with finlefs tail and belly,
the anal fin of fixty rays, terminating before’it reaches
the tip of the tail. The only European fpecies yet
difeovered, being a native of the Mediterranean, and
deferibed by Brunnich in his hiftory of the fifli of Mar-
feilles.
To the fame genus htlowg fafeiatus, albus, albifrons,
rcjlratus, notopterus, and qfiaticus.
Gen. 5. Trichiurus.
Head ftretched forwards, with lateral gill covers ; teeth
enfiform, femi-fagittated at the points, the fore teeth
the largeft *, gill-membrane feven-rayed ; body com-
prefled and enfiform, with a fubulate and finlefs tail.
Apodal
Fifties.
which have fore teeth and grinders. Of three fpeci-
mens examined by Dr Bloch, one had fix row's of grin¬
ders in the upper jaw, and as many in the lower ; ano¬
ther had fix rows above, and four below ; and a third
had five above, and three below. The diipofition and
ftru&ure of all the teeth are excellently adapted for
breaking and comminuting the crabs, lobflers, fcallops,
large whelks, &c. which this voracious animal grinds
to pieces, and fwallows with the {hells. When caught,
it faftens on any thing within its reach. Sehonfelde
relates, that it will feize on an anchor and leave the
marks of its teeth behind 5 and we are informed by
Steller, that one which he faw' taken on the coail of
Kamtfchatka, feized with great violence a cutlafs w ith
which it was attempted to be killed, and broke it in
pieces as if it had been made of glafs. The fifhermen,
dreading its bite, endeavour as foon as poflible to beat
ouf its fore teeth, and then kill it by ftriking it on the
head. Its flat and grinding teeth are often found in a
foffil flate, and known by the name of bufonites, or
toad-Jlones, to which many fuperflitious virtues were
formerly aferibed. The fea wolf grows to a very con-
fiderable fize, being frequently four, and fometimes
even feven feet in length. It has fmall feales and a la¬
teral line, though deferibed by mod: naturalifts as deftl-
tute of both. It commonly frequents the deep parts of
the fea, in the northern regions of the globe, and fome
parts of the Britifh coafts, approaching the fhores in
fpring, to depofit its fpawn among the marine plants.
It fwims fiowly, and with the ferpentine motion of the
eel. Owing to its forbidding appearance, it is not ge¬
nerally brought to market j but the fifliermen, the
Greenlanders, and the Scotch, find it excellent food.
The latter call it the fea cat, and take off the head and
{kin before drefling it. The frigofus is now generally
admitted to be only a variety of the preceding.
Smaller wolf fijh.—With very fharp cartilaginous minor.
teeth. Inhabits the coaft of Greenland.
Panther wolf fijb.—Yellow, or fulvous, fpotted with^,^^.^
brown. In other particulars it agrees with the
mon fpecies. Native of the northern feas.
ZepturttS'
indicus.
Silvery trichiurus, or gymnogafer.—The lower jaw
longer than the upper. This fifli is diftinguiflied by
the Angularity of its fhape, and the filver brilliancy of
its colour. It is from two to three feet long, very vo¬
racious, and a rapid fwimmer. In the purfuit of its
prey, it fometimes leaps into fmall veffels w’hich happen
to be failing by. It frequents the rivers and larger
lakes of South America, and is alfo faid to occur in
fome parts of India and China.
Indian or eleBrical trichiurus.—Jawrs of equal length.
Inhabits the Indian feas, and is faid to poifefs a degree
of eleftrical power.
Anarchi-
c'has.
lupus.
Gen. 6. Anarchicas.
Head fomewhat obtufe; fore teeth both above and be¬
low', conical, diverging, ftrong ; fix or more grin¬
ders in the under jaw, and palate rounded; gill-
membrane fix-rayed, body roundifli, caudal fin dif-
tinfr.
Wolfffh, fea wolf, or ravenous wolf fifh.—Of a
blackifti gray colour, the fides, anal and caudal fins,
and abdomen lighter. This is ©ne of the few fiflies
Vol. XI. Part I.
Gen. 7. Odontognathus. Odontcna.
1 ^ £>
Mouth furniflied with a ftrong moveable lamina or
proeefs on each fide of the upper jaw j gill-membrane
five-rayed.
Aculeated odontognathus.—Abdomen aculeated. Na- aculeatus,
live of the American feas, and common about the
coafts of Cayenne, where it ranks among the edible
fifties.
Gen. 8. TriuRUS. Triuru%
Snout cylindrical; one tooth in each jaw $ dorfal and
anal fin extended beyond the tail.
Commerfonian triple-tail.—The branchial orifice clo- comtner-
fed at pleafure by a valve. In general appearance and fonii*
fize it refembles a herring. It is diftinguiftied from the
whole clafs of fifties by the circumftance noted in the
fpecific chara&er. ' Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 9. AmmoDYTES. Ammo.
Head comprefted, narrower than the body j upper lip
doubled, the lower jaw narrow, and pointed $ teeth
L final! *
1
82 1 C H T H Y
Apodal fmall and {harp ; gill-membrane feven-raycd ; body
long, roundiih, with very fmall fcales 5 tail diftindf.
tohianus. Sand launce, or /and eel.—The lower jaw longer
than the upper. A native of the northern parts of Eu¬
rope, commonly frequenting the coalts, and lying im¬
bedded in the land, in the fummer months, at the-depth
of half a foot, or a foot, with its body rolled into a fpi-
val form. In this fituation it is taken at the recefs of
the tide, either for bait by the filhermen, or as an arti¬
cle of food, being regarded as a delicacy. It lives on
•worms and fmall filhes, not even excepting its own fpe-
cies; and it is itfelf preyed on by the porpoife, and
larger fiihes, particularly by the mackerel. Mold of
the older iehthyologifts have erroneoufly reprefented it
as deftitute of fcales, and Klein has improperly divided
it into two fpecies.
Ophidium. Gen. 10. OpHIDIUM.
Head fomewhat naked ; teeth in the jaws, palate, and
fauces ; gill-membrane feven-rayed, patulous} body
fword lhaped.
barbatum. Bearded ophidium.—Four cirrhi on the lower jaw.
This fpecies, which is frequent in the Mediterranean
and Red feas, grows to ten or twelve inches long, is of
a {livery hue, with a (hade of pink, and marked with
irregular linear fpots; its {kin is covered with foft ob¬
long fcales, adhering at their anterior edge. Accord¬
ing to Belon, the Romans prized its flefh, which is
white, but rather coarfe.
imberbe. Beardlefs ophidium.—.Taws beardlefs ; tail rather ob-
tufe ; in other refpefts, much allied to the former. In¬
habits the Mediterranean, and has alfo been taken near
Weymouth.
Viride, aculeatum, and ma/acembalus, the other fpe¬
cies, are but imperfedlly known.
Stromateus. Gen. 11. STROMATEUS.
Head comprefled ; teeth in the jaws and palate ; body
oval, broad, and llippery 5 tail bifid.
fiatola.
paru.
cinereus.
argenteus.
niger.
Stripedjiromateus.—Marked with tranfverfe undula¬
ted bands. This fpecies, which is beautifully variega¬
ted, inhabits the Mediterranean and Red fea, and is
known to the modern Romans by its fpecific appella¬
tion.
Paru Jiromateus.—Gold-coloured back, and filvery
abdomen. General fize, that of a turbot. Much el-
t.eemed as a food. Native of South America and Tran-
quebar. The cumarca of Gmelin’s Linnaeus feems to
be only a variety of this.
AJh-caloured Jromateus.—Tail forked, the lower
lobe longer than the upper. Native of the Indian feas,
and ferved at table, as a dainty, under the name of
pampel.
Silver flromateus.—With the lobes of the tail equal.
Nearly allied to the preceding, a native of the fame
feas, and equally efteemed as an article of food.
Black Jromateus.—Entirely of a blackifh colour.
This alfo frequents the Indian feas •, but is feldom pre¬
pared for the table, on account of its colour and the
circumftance of its feeding on wood-lice, which are
fometimes found in its mouth.
* 1
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
_ v ‘ Apodal
Gen, 12. XlPHIAS. Filhes.
Head with the upper jaw terminating in a fword-fliaped-^~^~ J
fnout; mouth without, teeth; gill-membrane eight-
rayed ; body roundiih, and fcalelefs.
Common or Sicilian fword-JJh.—The dorfal fin at-gl(lgiUSt
tenuated at the hind part. The body of the fword-filh
is long, round, and gradually tapers towards the tail ;
the head is flattifh, and the mouth wide, both jaws ter¬
minating in a point, but the upper ftretched to a great
diftance beyond the lower, forming what is commonly
called the /word, by which it pierces and kills the
fmaller kinds of fhhes. It fometimes meafures twenty
feet in length, and is of an active and ravenous difpo-
fition. The method of taking it, defcribed by Strabo,
exadlly agrees with the modern pradlice. A man a{-
cends one of the cliffs that overhang the fea, and as
foon as he fpies the fifh, gives notice by voice or fignal
of the courfe it takes. Another perfon in a boat
climbs up the maft, and on leeing the fifh, direfts the
rowers to it. The moment that he thinks they have got
within reach, he defcends and taking his fpear in his
hand, ftrikes into the fifh, which, after wearying itfelf
with its agitations, is feized and dragged into the boat.
Its flefh is much efteemed by the Sicilians, who cut it
in pieces and fait it. The pieces from the belly and
tail are moft efteemed, and the failed fins are fold un¬
der the name of callo. The fw'ord-fifh is frequently
found in the Mediterranean, efpecially on the coafts of
Sicily, where the male and female ufually appear in
pairs. It alfo occafionally occurs in the northern feas,
and fometimes in the Pacific ocean ; but Ailian errone-
oufiy alferts that it is at the fame time a freih-water
fifii, and an inhabitant of the Danube.
BroadJnnedfword-JJh.—Diftinguifhed from the platypte-
ceding' by a very broad back fin, and very long-ftiarp-
pointed thoracic appendages. Found not only in the
Brafilian and Eaft Indian feas, but alfo in the Northern
ocean. It is faid to have frequent combats with whales.
The bottom of an Eaft Indiaman was pierced by a fifh
of this fpecies, in fuch a manner, that the fword was
driven through almoft to its bafe, and the animal kill¬
ed by the violence of the effort. The wood, together
wdth the fword imbedded in it, is now in the Britifh
Mufeum. When this fpecies does not exceed four feet,
it is confidered as an eatable fifh ; but it is found of
the length of twenty feet, and fometimes even much
longer.
Short-fnouted fwordffj.—Black!(li ; with fnout °fmakaira^
middling length, and two bony tubercles on each fide
of the tail. Refembles the common fword-filh, except
that the fnout is much fhorter and thicker.
Gen. 13. SXERNOPTYX. Sternoptyx.
Head obtufe ; mouth turning up ; teeth very fmall; no
gill-membrane; body compreffed, without vifible
fcales ; breaft carinated, and folded both ways; ab¬
domen pellucid.
Tranfparent fernoptyx.—Silvery ; with diaphana,
breaft, and pellucid abdomen; two or three inches long,
broad, and compreffed, the back rifing into a fharp
edge, and the abdomen terminating in a carina. Na¬
tive of the American feas.
Gen. 14.
Chap. IV.
I C H T H Y
Apodal
Fifties.
Leptoce-
phalus.
niorrijii.
Gen. 14. Leftocephalus.
Head narrow ; body very thin and compreffed 5 no
peftoral fins.
Morris launce, or Anglefea morris.—Firft difcovered
on the coaft of Anglefea by Mr Morris, and defcribed
by Pennant under his name. Four inches in length *,
the head very fmall j the body extremely thin, and
almoft tranfparent.
Gen. I C. SXYLEPHORUS.
Stylepho-
r"s* Eyes pedunculated, (landing on a fiiort thick cylinder j
fnout lengthened, directed upwards, retradlile to¬
wards the head by means of a membrane } mouth
without teeth ; gills three pair beneath the throat 5
pefloral fins (mail 5 dorfal the length of the back }
caudal (hurt, with fpiny rays; body very long, com-
prelTed.
chordatus. ' Chordated Jlylephorus.—Silvery, with an extreme¬
ly long caudal thread. We (hall here defcribe Dr
Shaw’s defcription of this very extraordinary fpecies.
“ The roftrum or narrow part which is terminated
by the mouth, is connected to the back part of the
head by a flexible leathery duplicature, which permits
it to be either extended in fuch a manner that the
mouth points direftly upwards, or to fall back, fo as
to be received into a fort of cafe formed by the upper
part of the head. On the top of the head are placed
the eyes, which are of a form very nearly approaching
- to thofe of the genus cancer, except that the columns
nr parts on which each eye is placed, are much broader
or thicker than in that genus*, they are alfo placed clofe
to each other, and the outward furface of the eyes when
magnified, does not Ihow the lead appearance of a re¬
ticulated tlrufture. The colour ef the eye*, as well as
of the columns on which they (land, is a clear ehefnut
brown, with a fort of coppery glofs. Below the head,
on each fide, is a confiderable compreffed Semicircular
fpace, the fore part of which is bounded by the cover¬
ing of the gills, which covering feems to confift of a
Angle membrane of a moderately ftrong nature. Be¬
neath this, on each fide, are three fmali pair of bran¬
chiae. The body is extremely long, and compreffed
verv much, and gradually diminiflies as it approaches
the tail, which terminates in a firing or procefs of an
enormous length, and finifhes in a very fine point.
This firing, or caudal procefs, feems to be ftrengthened
throughout its whole length, or at leall as far as the
eye can trace it, by a fort of double fibre or internal
part. The pe£loral fins are very fmall, and filuated
almofl immediately behind the cavity on each fide the
thorax. The dorfal fin, which is of a thin and foft
nature, runs from the head to within about an inch of
the tail, when it feems fuddenly to terminate, and a
bare fpace is left of about a quarter of an inch. I am,
however, not altogether wit\ out my doubts whether it
might not, in the living animal, have run on quite to
the tail, and whether the fpecimen might not have re¬
ceived fome injury in that part. From this place com¬
mences a fmaller fin which conftitutes part of the cau¬
dal one. The caudal fin itfelf isfurnifhed with five re¬
markable fpines, the roots or originations of which may
be traced to fome depth in the thin part of the tail.
o L o G Y. 83
The general colour of this lilh is a rich [liver, except 11'1''
on the flexible part belonging to the roftrum, which is, 1^e .
of a deep brown , the fins and caudal procefles sie alfo
brown, but not lo deep as the part juft mentioned.
There is no appearance of feales on this fifh. From
the very Angular figure and fituation of the eyes, I
have given it the generic name of Jlylephorus, and as
the trivial name cannot be taken from any circumflance
more properly than from the extraordinary thread like
procefs of the tail, I have applied to it the title of chor¬
datus. It is a native of the Weft Indian feas, and was
taken between Cuba and Martinico, near a fmall cluf-
ter of little iflands about nine leagues from fhore, where
it was obferved near the furface. The whole length ox
this uncommon animal, from the head to the extremity
of the caudal procefs, is about 32 inches, of which the
procefs itfelf meafures 2 2.”
II. JUGULAR.
The fifties of this order have their ventral fins fi~
tuated before the pectoral fins, and, as it were, under
the throat. They are moflly inhabitants of the fea.
Their body is fometimes covered with feales, and
fometimes not. With a very few exceptions, they
have fpines in the dorfal and anal fins j and their
gills have bony rays.
Gen. I. CaLLIONYMUS.
Calliony-
mus.
The upper lip doubled*, eyes near each other*, the
gill-membrane fix-rayed *, two breathing apertures
in the hind part of the head •, opercula clofe ; body
fcalelefs ; ventral fins very diflant.
Gemmeous dragonet.—The firfl ray of tne firfl dorfal lyrn*
fin as long as the body. In this beautiful fpecies, the
pupils of the eyes are of a rich fapphire, the irides of a
fine flame colour \ the pe£loral fins light brown, and
the body yellow, blue, and white. “ The blue,” fays
Mr Pennant, “ is of an inexpreflible fplendour; the
richefl ccerulean, glowing with a gemmeous brilliancy j
the throat black.” Dr Tyfon has defcribed it, in the
24th volume of the Philofophical 1 ranfa<flions, under
the improper appellation of the yellow gurnard. It
grows to the length of 10 or 12 inches*, the body is
(lender, round, and fmooth *, and the membranes of all
the fins extremely thin and delicate. It is found as far
north as Norway and Spitzbergen, and as far fouth as
the Mediterranean, and is not unfrequent on the Scar¬
borough coafls, w here it is taken by the hook in 3° or
40 fathoms water. It is often found in the flomach
of the cod-fifh. Its flefh is white and well flavoured.
Rondelet compares it to that of the gudgeon. Pont-
oppidan, who never faw it, afferts, with his ulual cre¬
dulity, that it can fly in the air to the diflance of ie-
veral mufket (hot.
Sordid dragonet.—The rays of the firfl dorfal fin dracuncu-
fliorter than the body. In moll other refpecls it agrees
with the preceding.
This genus likewife comprifes mdicus, baikalenjis,
ocellatus, fagitta, and jcpunicus.
Gen. 2. Uranoscopus. UraBofce.
Head depreffed, rough and large j mouth turned up;^
the upper jaw fiioitefl; gill-metnbrane papillary and
L 2 dentated;
84
Jugular
Films.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
dentated j with fix rays, gill-covers membranaceous above the pectoral fins,
and ciliated 5 anus in the middle of the body.
fcabcr.
/
Japomcus.
Tracliinus.
draco.
ejhechi.
Cladus.
Xglejinus.
Bearded Jtar-ga^er,—Rack fmooth jr ufual length
about 12 inches. The head is large, fquarifli, and co¬
vered with a bony cafe. The mouth is wide, and opens
in an almoft vertical direftion. The eyes are fituated
very near each other on the top of the head. A long
cirrhus or beard extends beyond the lips, which are
themfelves edged with fmaller ones \ frequenting {hal¬
lows near the {bores ; it lies concealed in the mud, ex-
pofing only the tip of the head, and waving its beards
in various directions, and thus decoying the fmaller
fifties and marine infects, which miftake thefe organs
for worms. It is faid to fleep during the day. Is found
chiefly in the Mediterranean. Its flefli is white, but
tough, coarfe, and meagres
JapancfeJiar-ga<zer.—Back rough, with a feries of
fpinous feales. Body roundifh j yellow above j white
underneath. Native of the coafts of Amboyna.
Gen. 3. Trachinus.
Head {lightly rough, comprefled ; gill-membrane fix-
rayed 5 inferior plate of the gill-covers ferrated ;
vent near the bread.
Dragon weever. Somewhat filvery hue, with tranf-
verfe yellowilh ftreaks j the firfl; dorfal fin black, and
five-rayed : of a lengthened fliape, much compref-
fed, and covered with fmall deciduous feales. The
mouth and* eyes, in refpeft of pofition, refemble thofe
of the ftar-gazer. The ufual length of this fiih is from
10 to 12 inches. It frequently imbeds itfelf in the
fand, and if trodden on, endeavours to wound the ag«
greffor with the fpines of its firfl: dorfal fin. The punc¬
tures are very troublefome and painful, though it does
not appear that the fpines contain any poifonous mat¬
ter. It feeds principally on marine infedts, worms,
and fmall fiihes, and is very tenacious of life, being ca¬
pable of exifting many hours out of the water. From
this circumftance the French call it vive and viver,
which vTe have corrupted into weever. It frequents
not only the Mediterranean, but the northern feas, and
is found abundantly on the coarts of Holland and Fall
Friezland. Its flefli is well flavoured, eafy of digef-
tion, and highly efteemed by the Dutch. The great¬
er weever, deferibed. by Pennant, hardly deferves to be
confidered as a diftinft fpecies.
OJhechian xveever. White, fpotted with black; both
jaws of equal length. Native of the Atlantic 5 found
abouf the ifle of Afcenfion, &c. and deferibed by Qf-
beck in his voyage to China.
Gen. 4. Gadus.
Head fmooth •, gill-membrane with feven round rays*,
body oblong, with deciduous feales ; fins covered with
a common {kin ; more dorfal and anal fins than one }
the rays not prickly \ the pe&oral fins attenuated to
a point.
* IVith three dorfalfns, cirrhi at the mouth.
„ Haddock. Whitifli j the tail bilobated, the upper
jaw the longeft. Another diftinguirtiing character may
be deduced from the large black fpot on each fide
Chap. IV.
Superftition afiigns this mark Jugular
to the imprefiion which St Peter left with his finger
and thumb, when he took the tribute out of the month ""V"—^
of a fifli of this fpecies, and which has been continued
to the whole race. The haddock is ufually of a mo¬
derate fize, meafuring about 18 inches or two feet in
length, and the bell for the table weighing from two
to four pounds. It is found in the northern feas in
prodigious flioals, vifiting particular coafts at ftated fea-
fons, and for the moft part attended by immenfe
quantities of dog-fith, which, with feals, and other in¬
habitants of the ocean, are its conftant devourers. Its
food confifts of fmall fiihes, worms, crabs, and fea
infefts, and it fattens on herrings. In January, it de-
pofits its fpawn on the fuci near the fivore, and is out of
feafon till May. Its flefli is white, firm, delicate, and
eafy of digeftion.
Doife. Varied, with an even tail, and upper '}a.vjcollarias,
longeft. Somewhat fmaller than the haddock, feldom
exceeding the weight of two pounds. Its colour is
fubjeft to vary with age and feafons. It inhabits the
northern feas, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. Otto
Fabricius found in its ftomach the fea-fcorpion, fand-
eel, crabs, and different fpecies of fea-worms. Itfpawns
in January and February, is taken both by the line
and net, and is reckoned delicate eating.
Common-cod.—Tail nearly equal, the firft ray of the niorhuefz
anal fin armed with a fpine. Thiswell-known and im¬
portant fpecies, which yields food and wealth to large
diffrifts of country, is found in immenfe ftioals. It
meafures from two to three feet long, is of a cinereous
colour with yellowifh fpots above and white below,
and has larger feales than the other fpecies of this
genus. The young are fometimes reddifli, with orange-
coloured fpots. It feeds on fepiae, crabs, and fiihes, not
even fparing its own fpecies, catching at any fmall body
it perceives moved by the water, and throwing up
what it does not digeft. Its range of climate lies prin¬
cipally between the latitudes 50° and 66°. The great
rendezvous of cod is on the banks of Newfoundland,
and the other fand-banks that lie off the coafts of Cape
Breton, Nova Scotia, and New England. This fifli
likewife abounds off the Hebrides, Ireland, the coaft of
Holland, &c. and is generally fattefl: and moff numer¬
ous where the greateff fea runs^ In our feas they be¬
gin to fpawn in January ; though feme continue in
roe till the beginning of April. As they recover foon-
er after fpawning than molt other fifti, it is cuftomary
to take feme good ones ail the fummer. When cut of
feafon they are thin-tailed and loufy ; and the lice
chiefly fix themfelves on the pnfide of their mouths.
Thofe moft efteemed for the table are of a middling
fize, and are chofen by their plumpnefs and roundnefs,
efpecially near the tail, by the depth of the furrow
behind the head, and by the regular undulated appear¬
ance of the fides, as if they w-ere ribbed. The glutin¬
ous parts about the head lofe their delicate flavour after .
it has been four-and-twpnty hours out of the water.
The fifli itfelf dies on being removed from falt-water,
or put into frefti. The fiftiermen are well acquainted
with the ufe of the air-bladder, and dexteroufly perfor¬
ate the living fifli with a needle, in order to let out the
air } for without this operation the fifli could not be
kept under water in the well-boats, and brought frefli
to market. The founds, when failed, are reckoned, a
delicacyj
Chap IV.
I C H T H Y
Jugular delicacy, and are often brought in this ftate from New-
Fiflies, foundland. The Icelanders prepare from this part of
the fifh a fpecies of ifmglafs. Pennant makes men¬
tion of a cod taken at Scarborough in I755» which was
five feet eight inches in length, and weighed 78
pounds. But the general weight of thefe filh in the
Yorldhire feas is from 14 to 40 pounds.
lufcus. Bib.—The firil ray of the ventral fin fetaceous j
about a foot long ; body deep, and lides compreffed j
eyes covered with a loofe membrane, fo as to be blown
up at the pleafure of the animal. The mouth is final],
and under the chin is a cirrhus about an inch long.
Native of the European leas, and prized as an article of
food. —\
barbatus. Whiting pout Seven punftures on each fide of the
lower jaw. Much deeper in proportion to its length
than any of the genus, rarely exceeding a foot in
length j and one of that fize beipg nearly four inches
in the broadeft part. Inhabits the Mediterranean and
northern feas j burrows in the fand, and feeds on the
blenny, falmon, and even young crabs. Its flelh is
white" and delicate, but fomewhat dry.
minutus. Poor.—Vent in the middle of the body. Little
more than fix inches long ; a fmall beard on the chin,
and the eyes covered with a loofe membrane. Ihe
abdomen is lined with a black peritonaeum. Ihe poor
is fuppofed to feed chiefly on worms and infefts, or on
the yo’yt-ng and foft teftaceous animals. It occurs in the
Baltic and Mediterranean, and in fome parts of the
northern feas. It is reckoned a wholefome food, but is
not fit for being falted or dried.
bfenniot- Blennoidgadus.—With didaflyle ventral fins. Has
des* the habit of a whiting, and frequents the Mediterra¬
faida.
Virens.
merlan~
gus.
nean.
Saida gadus.—Bluilli, with brown back, white abdo¬
men, and the fecond ray of the ventral fins terminating
in a long briftle. Length about eight inches. Eatable,
but dry and juicelefs. A native of the White fea.
** Three dorfalJins, and no cirrhi.
Green gadus.—Greenifii back and forked tail. Near¬
ly refembles the pollack. Abounds in the northern
feas.
Whiting.—White *, the upper jaw longed:. Uiual
length about ten or twelve inches, and the largefl: fel-
dom exceeding twenty. Specimens from four to eight
pounds in weight have been taken in the deep water at
the edge of the Dogger bank. It is a fifli of an ele¬
gant make ; the body rather long, and covered with
fmall round filvery icales j the head and back are of a
pale brown, and the fidesare (lightly (freaked with yel¬
low. Though found in the Baltic, it is much more
numerous in the north feas, and appears in (hoals on
the coafts of Holland, France, and England, during
the fpring, keeping at the diftance of from half a mile
to three miles from the (bore. The whiting feeds on
fmall crabs, worms, and young fifties, and is particular¬
ly fond of fprats and young herrings, with which the
fiftiermen generally bait for it, and in default of them,
with pieces of frefti herring. This fpecies begins to
fpawn at the end of the year, and continues to the be¬
ginning of February. Its ilefti is white, tender, and
delicate •, but infipid when the fifh is out of feafon.
The chief time of the whiting filhery in France is in
o L o G Y.
January and February, though in England and Holland
it is pra&ifed at a much later period. # ——v—
Coai-fJh.-TVciQ under jaw longed, the lateral bne^o;;<J_
ftraight. When full grown, this fpecies will frequent-^
ly meafure two feet and a half m length, ^nd four 01
five inches in breadth, and is diftinguiftied from its
congeners by its very dark or black colour, tnough
the young are brown or olive. It is of any elegant
tapering drape, with a pretty large and forked tail.
It inhabits the Baltic^ the northern, and Mediterranean
leas, and fwarms round our rocky and deep coads, par¬
ticularly thofe of Scotland and the Orkneys, affording
by its fry, fubfidence to numbers of the poor. In its full
grown date it is coarfe food.
Pollack. The under jaw longed, the lateral Wn&pollaffhius*
curved. This fpecies is broad, and ot a brown colour;
feeds chiefly on (mall fifties, efpecially launees ; and - >
feldom grows to a very large fize, though fome have
been taken at Scarborough \\hich weighed nearly 28
pounds. It is found in the Baltic and northern fea,
and is very common on many of our rocky coafts.
During dimmer it is feen frolicking on the lurface of
the water, and will bite at anything that appears on
the top of the waves. It is reckoned a good eating
filh.
* * * With two dorfalfins.
Hake.—Beardlefs; the under jaw longed. Confider-mcrlucci-
ably lengthened, meafuring from one to two feet; the^r.
body pale alh-cclour on the back, and whitilh on the
fides and abdomen. This filh, which is very voraci¬
ous, frequents the Mediterranean and northern leas.
Its flelh is eatable and flaky, but little efteemed. It is
falted and dried as food for the lower orders of people.
One of the mod coniiderable hake-filheries i*> carried
on about the coafts of Brittany, both by the hook and
net. It js praclifed chiefly by night. The baits prin¬
cipally ufed are launces, fardines, and other fmall filhes. ?
Ling.—Bearded ; the upper jaw longed. Long andmoivet,
flender; the fides and back fometimes of an olive hue,
and fometimes cinereous; abdomen and ventral fins
white, and the tail marked near the end with a tranf-
verfe black bar, and tipped with white. Its ordinary
length is from three to four feet, but it will fometimes
grow to feven. It is an inhabitant of the northern
leas, chiefly frequenting deep water, living on fmall
filhes, Ihrimps, &c. ; and depofiting its fpawn^in June,
among the fuel in oozy bottoms. In the Yorklhire
feas, it is in perfection from the beginning of February
to the beginning of May, during which feafon the liver
is very white, and abounds with a fine flavoured oil.
In many places ling is falted both for exportation and
home conlumption. An excellent ifinglals is prepared
from its found.
Leverian gadus.—Somewhat cinereous, with ocellated leverian-
whitilh fpots. Suppofed to be a native of the Southern us. 9
ocean. .,
Whitijhgadus.—Bearded; ventral fins dida&yle zn&a/hidus;
elongated. Inhabits the Mediterranean.
Toad gadus—Bearded; gill-covers with three fpines; taUt
the firft dorfal fin with three rays. Native of the Ame¬
rican and Indian feas.
Burbat.—Bearded ; the jaws of equal length. Body /ol(.
much lengthened, fomewhat cylindrical, of a brownidi-
yellow
86
Jugular yellow colour, and white below : but the thades vary at
, iflies' different feafons, and in different individuals. It is a
frelh-water fifh, affecting clear lakes and rivers 5 feed¬
ing voracioufly on all the fmaller fifties, as well as on
frogs, worms, and aquatic infefts ; fjiawning in the
fineft: feafon of the year, and rapidly attaining to full
growth. The largeft which are taken in England rare¬
ly exceed the weight of three pounds; but in fome
parts of Europe they are found of more than double
that weight, and of the length of three feet and more.
They occur in great plenty and perfedtion in the lake
of Geneva, and are by no means rare in many places
in Europe, Siberia, and India. In England it frequents
the lakes of the northern counties, fome of the Lin-
colnthire fens, and the rivers Witham and Trent. Its
flefti is white, delicate, and eafy of digeftion ; and its
liver, when in feafon, is reputed a peculiar dainty. Al-
drovandus makes mention of an old German countefs
who expended the greateft part of her income in the
purchafe of this difh. According to Bloch the burbat
fiftiery once proved fo productive in the Oder, that the
fatteft were cut into narrow' thongs, which were dfied,
and ufed as matches.
mujlela. Weafel gadus, five-bearded cod, or whifilefijh.—Five
cirrhi; the firft dorfal fin incomplete. Grows to near¬
ly 19 inches : feeds on the teftaceous and cruffaceous
marine animals ; depofits its fpawn in autumn •, is co¬
vered with mucus and very thin fcales ; and is of a
broAvnith yellow colour, with black fpots, and white be¬
low. The tricirratus and the rujficus are only varieties
of this fpecies.
cimbrius. Cimbrian gadus.—Four cirrhi ; firft: dorfal fin in¬
complete, with the firft ray haftated. Nearly allied to
the preceding. Native of the Atlantic and northern
feas.
**** With one dorfialfin.
mediter- Mediterranean gadus.—Two cirrhi on the upper lip,
raneus. and one on the lower. Native of the Mediterranean.
Confidered by La Cepede as a blennius.
brofime. TorJk, or tufk.—Mouth bearded ; tail oval and acute.
About twenty inches in length j colour of the head
dulky, of the back and tides yellow, of the belly w hite.
Inhabits the northern feas, about the Shetland illands,
and is not obferved lower than the Orkneys. Both
barrelled and dried, it forms a confiderable article of
commerce.
Blennius. Gen. 5. Blennius.
Head Hoping, and covered with fcales ; gill-membrane
fix-rayed j body lanceolate *, ventral fins with two
fpinelefs proceffes, the anal fin detached.
* With crefied head.
gabrtta. Crefied blenny.—Creft tranfverfe,andtkinny. Length
about four or five inches ; body long, compreffed, and
flippery. The creft eredted or depreffed at pleafure.
Inhabits the European feas, and is fometimes found
about the rocky coafts of Great Britain.
cri/latus. Punarn.—Longitudinal fetaceous creft between the
eyes. Native of the Indian feas.
cornutus. Horned blenny.— Simple ray between the eyes 5 and
fingle dorfal fin. Inhabits the Indian feas.
'cellaris. Ocellated blenny.—Blueilb-green j fubfafciated with
Chap. IV.
brown broad dorfal fin, marked by a black ocellated Jugular
fpot. Length about fix or eight inches. Inhabits the, Fiflles-
Mediterranean, among the rocks and fea-plants near W’"‘v ^
the there. Its fleftr is meagre and not much efteemed.
Faficiated blenny.—Two fimple cirrhi between \\\efaficiatus.
eyes \ the vent fin with 19 rays. Native of the Indian
feas.
Salient blenny.—Brown, ftreaked with black, with afallens.
fimple cirrhus on the head, and very large pedloral fins.
Obferved by Commerton about fome of the fouthern
itlands, particularly thofe of New Britain. It was feen
fwimming by hundreds 5 and, as it wrere, flying over the
furface of the water, occafionally fpringing up and dowm
with great rapidity among the rocks.
Gattorugine.—Small palmated fins on the vyCaxo'X'igattorugu
and nape. Inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic \ne.
and is reckoned eatable.
Supercilious blenmy.—With palmated fa p c r c i 1 i a r yfuperc ilia -
cirrhi, the lateral line curved. Grows to the lengthykr.
of about twelve inches ; is viviparous ; and inhabits the
Indian feas.
Tentaculated blenny.—A fimple cirrhus over the eyes,tentacular
and a large ocellated fpot on the back fin. Nearly al-rfir.
lied to the horned fpecies j and is found in the Medi¬
terranean.
Simons blenny.—With a very final! cirrhus over tliefimus.
eyes ; dorfal fin united behind to the caudal fin, and
crooked lateral line. Length about three inches and
a half. Defcribed by Swief, from a fpecimen in the
mufeum of the Peterburgh Academy.
Hake blenny, or forked hake.—Noftrils fomewhaty^wc/j-.
crefted, a cirrhus on the upper lip, and two dorfal fins.
Grows to be eighteen inches long ; inhabits the Medi¬
terranean, and occurs on the coaft of Cornwall. Im¬
properly claffed by Pennant among the gadi.
** Head plain, or crefilefis.
Trifurcated blenny, or trifurcated hake.—Prown trifurca*
with white lips, and three-rayed open ventral fins./ax.
Much allied to gadus tau ; was firft difeovered by Mr
Davies near Beaumaris, and defcribed by Mr Pennant
as a gadus.
Pundulated blenny.—Whitith, fcaly, with pundula~
brown points, and elongated ventral fins. Head large 5 tus.
fize about five inches. Defcribed from a fpecimen in
the Paris Mufeum.
Srrtooth blenny.—The lateral line curved, and {xPo-pholis*
bifid. This fpecies, which frequents the northern and
Mediterranean feas, lying among ftones and fea-weed,
and occafionally entering the mouths of rivers, will
grow' to the length of feven or eight inches, but is ufual-
]y much fmaller. It bites fiercely, when firft taken,
and is fo tenacious of life, that it may be kept 24 hours
out of water. It feeds on fmaller fifties and their fpawn,
as well as on ftiell-fifti, fea-infe£ls, &c. It is fmooth,
and covered with mucus. Being a coarfe fifti, it is
principally ufed as a bait.
Bofcian blenny.—Olivaceous, with brown and whitifhboficianus. \
clouds j vent in the middle of the body. Very much
allied to the preceding. Native of the American feas,
and very common in the bay of Charleftown. It has
its name from M. Bofic, by whom it was difeovered.
Gunnel, fipotted blenny, or butter fifb.—The Aexi'AgetnelluS. j
fin marked with ten ocellated black fpots. About
nine or ten inches in length $ head fir.aH, body com¬
preffed.
ICHTHYOLOG Y.
Chap. IV.
Thoracic
fhhes.
tnujielaris*
’uiviparus.
iumpenus.
ramnus.
tnurcenoi-
des.
Kurtus.
indicus.
preffed, and the colour of the body yellow brown,
clouded and freckled with deeper fpecks. This fpecies
inhabits the Baltic, Mediterranean, and northern Teas.
Though coarfe, it is often dried and eaten by the
Greenlanders. The number of fpots on the back fin
varies from nine to twelve.
Wenfel blenny.—The anterior dorfal fin three-rayed.
Native of the Indian Teas.
Viviparous blenny. — 1 wo tentacula at the mouth. Is
fometimes found of the length of a foot, or even of 15
inches. Of a fomewhat {lender form, with a fmooth
llippery fkin, covered with fmall feales of a yellowifh
olive colour, paler beneath, and marked on the upper
parts by feveral moderately large dufky fpots, forming
a kind of bars on the dorfal fin and over the back.
The rays of all the fins are foft. This fpecies is a lit¬
toral filh, frequenting the coafts of the Mediterranean,
Baltic,and northern feas; fometimes entering the mouths
of rivers, and feeding like its congeners on the fmaller
fifties, iidedfs, See. Its ova are hatched internally, and
the young acquire their perfeft form before the time of
their birth. Not lefs than two or even three hundred
of thefe have been fometimes obferved in a fingle fifti.
When the latter is advanced in its pregnancy, it is
fcarcely pofllble to touch the abdomen without caufing
the immediate exclufion of fome of the young, which
are immediately capable of fwimming with great viva¬
city. It probably breeds more than once in the. courfe
of the year •, at leaft naturalifts have aftigned different
feafons to the produftion of its young. Its flefti is
white and fat j but a prejudice has been entertained
a gain ft it, becaufe the bones, like thofe of the gar-fifti,
become green by boiling. According to the obferva-
tion of Linnseus, they are alfo phofphorefcent in the
dark.
Areolated blenny—Yellowifli, with fubcylindric bo¬
dy, marked on the back by brown patches. Inhabits
the deep fandy fhores of the Mediterranean, and con¬
ceals itfelf among fuci, ftones, &c. Sometimes grows
to 10 or 12 inches.
Frog blenny.—Brown, with obfeurely fix-cleft ven¬
tral fins, and gular cirrhus. Native of the northern
feas and of the Swedifti lakes j in habit refembling the
gadus tau. Is not eatable, and is faid to frighten away
other fifti.
Murcenoid blenny.—Gill-membrane three-rayed ;
ventral fins one-rayed, with very minute fpines. Body
compreffed, fword-fhaped, fmooth, and without vifible
feales. Defcribed by Swief from a fpecimen in the
Mufeum of the Peterftmrgh academy.
Gen. 6. Kurtus.
Body carinated above and below, back elevated, gill-
membrane two-rayed.
Indian lurtus.—Silvery, with gold-coloured back.
Inhabits the Indian feas. Length, including the tail,
about ten inches, and the greateft breadth fomewhat
more than four inches. Feeds on ihell-fifti, fmall
crabs, &c.
III. THORACIC.
The fifties of this order have the ventral fins at the
breaft, or nearly under the pe&oral fins. They are
ICHTHYOLOGY. 87
generally voracious, preying on other fifties j they are Thoraac
moftly inhabitants of the iea j and their {kins, with a ^ ^
few exceptions, are furnifhed with feales. None of them
are viviparous.
Gen. I. CjEPOLA. Csepola.
Head roundifti and compreffed ; mouth turning up, a
fingle row of curved teeth •, gill-membrane fix-ray¬
ed ; body fword-fliaped and fcalelefs j the abdomen
fcarcely fo long as the head.
Common band-jijh, ribland-jijh, or tape-Jifh.—
dal fin attenuated, head very obtufe. Very thin., and
almoft tranfparent, fo that its vertebrae are vifible.
Grows to the length of four or five feet. It fwims
with rapidity, and haunts the muddy or weedy {bores
of the Mediterranean. Scarcely eatable, having little
or no tlefti.
Rubejcent band-jijh.—Caudal fin attenuated, rubejeens,
pointed. A rare fpecies, and not very diftinftly.de-
feribed by authors. It is faid to inhabit the Mediter¬
ranean.
The other fpecies are trachyptera and hermanmana.
Gymnetrus.
Gen. 2. Gymnetrus.
Body very long and compreffed ; teeth numerous and
fubulate •, gill-membrane four or five-rayed \ anal fin
wanting.
Afcaniangymnetrus.—Silvery, fpeckled longitudinal- aJcanH^
ly with brown points, and with the ventral cirrhi di¬
lated at the tips. This Angular fifti, which is but im¬
perfectly defcribed in the leones Rerum Naturahum of
Pvofeffor Afcanius, is diftinguiftied by the peculiar con¬
formation of its ventral fins, which have more the ap¬
pearance of long fingle rays or proceffes terminated by
a fmall ovate and expanded tip. It is faid either to
precede or accompany the ftioals of herrings in the nor¬
thern feas, and is popularly denominated king of the
herrings. That defcribed by Dr Shaw from a draw¬
ing and notes in the poffeflion of Dr Ruffel, is perhaps
either a variety or fexual difference of the afeaman.
Havokinfian or Blochian gymnetrus.—Bluith, filvery, haix'ienu*
with oblique, linear, brown bands, and rounded fpots,
red fins, and four long ventral proceffes. Defcribed
by Dr Bloch, from a drawing communicated by J.
Hawkins, Efq. In general appearance, much allied
to the other kinds of gymnetrus j from which, how¬
ever, it is readily diftinguiftied by its two pair of ven¬
tral proceffes with their finny extremities, and large
diftant round fpots on the body. A native of the In¬
dian feas. A fpecimen was thrown on the coaft of
Cornwall in February 1798.
Cepediangymnetrus.—Defcribed by La Cepede, from lanceo{aa
a coloured Chinefe drawing, therefore very imperfeftly ^
known.
Gen. 3* Vandellius. Vandellius,
Body very long and fword-ftiaped ; gill-membrane five
er fix-rayed j teeth fubulate, and thofe in front lar-
geft.
Lujitanian vandel.—Silvery, with forked tail. Oc- /Ujitanicus
curs, though very rarely, in the Mediterranean and
Atlantic feas. It has been fometimes taken near Lif-
bon.
88
Thoracic bon. Dr Vandelli confiders it as nearly related to the
, Fl^ies- genus trichiurus. There is in the Britifli Mufeum a
^ dried fpecimen, which is four feet eight inches in length,
the breadth three inches and a half, and the thicknefs
very flight in proportion.
Echenek Gen. 4. Echeneis.
Head oily, naked, and depreffed, flat above, and emar-
ginated, tranfverfely falcated, and the fulci ferratedj
gill-membrane ten-rayed ; body fcalelefs.
remora. Mediterranean remora, or fuchng-jijh.—Tail fork¬
ed } head with eighteen ftrioe or bars. This number,
however, is fubjeft to vary, and cannot be fafely af-
fumed as a certain character. Grows to the length of
about eighteen inches, and is ufually of an uniform
brown colour. It is remarkable for the apparatus on
its head, by which it firmly adheres to rocks, {hips, or
animals, being incapable of fwimming eafily to any
confiderable diftance. From this adhefive property
arofe the marvellous account of the ancients, who al¬
leged that the remora could arrefl: a (hip under full
fail in the midft of the ocean. They alfo pretended,
that it completely fubdued the paflion of love. Five
individuals of this fpecies have been found fattened to
the body of a Angle {hark. The latter fifh, it is faid,
will not fwallow them. The Indians of Cuba and Ja¬
maica formerly kept and fed fueking-fifhes for the pur-
pofes of catching others. The owner, on a calm morn-
ing, would carry one of them out to fea, fecured to his
canoe by a fmall but ftrong line, many fathoms in
length •, the creature fattened on the firtt fifh in its
way. The Indian, meanwhile, loofened and let go the
line, which was provided with a buoy to mark the courfe
which the fucking-fifli had taken ; and he purfued it
in his canoe, until he perceived his game to be nearly
exhaufted. He then gradually drew the line towards
the (here, the remora {'till fo inflexibly adhering, to his
prey, as not eafily to be removed. Oviedo fays, he has
known turtle taken by this mode, of a weight that no
Angle man could fupport. This fpecies inhabits the
ocean and the Mediterranean. Its fleflr is faid to tafte
like fried artichokes.
fieucrates, Indian remora, or longejl faching-fijh.'—Tail entire ;
24 bars on the head. Occurs more frequently in the
Indian and American feas than in thofe of Europe, and
is very common about the Mozambique coaft, where
it is ufed in catching turtle. It is found of the length
of two or three feet, or even of feven. The upper parts
of the body are olive green, and the under parts are
whitifli. Its flefli is tough and meagre.
lineata. Lineated remora.—Tail wedge-fhaped ; head with
ten bars, two longitudinal white lines on each fide of
the body. Inhabits the Pacific ocean.
Coryphsena. Gen* 5- CoRYPHjENA.
Head much floping and truncated •, gill membrane five-
rayed j the dorfal fin of the length of the back.
lilppurur. Common coryphene, or dolphin. Forked tail. In¬
habits the Mediterranean, Indian, and Atlantic feas,
often appearing in large ftioals, playing round {hips,
and eagerly devouring any articles of food that happen
to be thrown overboard. It will even fwallow indi-
geftible fubftances, fuch as iron nails, &c. Like its
4
Chap. IV,
congeners, it exhibits fplendid and vivid hues in the Thoracic
water, being of a bright and beautiful blue-green, ac- Fifhes.
companied by a golden glofs. When taken out of
the water-, this fine combination of colouring gradually
vaniflies with the principle of life. Its ordinary length
is about three feet; but it is often feen of four, or even
five feet in length. It is ftrong and voracious, purfuing
the fmaller fifties, and efpeeially perfecuting the flying-
fifti. In fpring and autumn it frequents ftiores, to de-
pofit its fpawn. As its flefli is much efteemcd, it is
taken both with the line and net. Though popularly
called dolphin, it is not to be confounded with the
delphinus of the ancients.
Of the following, which more or lefs refemble the
preceding, the hiftory is too obfeure to detain us :
equifetis, plumieri, ccerulea, pentada&yla, novacula, chry-
furus, pompilus, fafeioiata, t'clifera, pjittacus, fcombe-
roides, acuta, Jima, virens, hemiptera, branchiojiega, 4
japonica, clypeata, lineata, and JinenJis.
Gen. 6. Macrourus. Macreuruft
Head and eyes large; body at the hind part attenuated
into the tail.
Long-tailed irmhinfet. Twro dorfal fins, of which the rupejlrisa
firft has the firtt ray toothed at the back. This is the,
corypheena rupejlris of Linnseus. It chiefly occurs about
the coafts of Greenland and Iceland, where it is re¬
garded as a dainty. The head is large and thick, and
the body is covered with rounded feales, each of which
is furniftied with a toothed carina, ending in a pointed
tip, fo that the hand is wounded by drawing it over
the fifti from the tail towards the head. When taken,
its body fwells, as if with rage, and its- eyes project in
a hideous manner.
Gen. 7. GoBius. Gobiuje
Head fmall, with two approximated pores between the
eyes, one pore placed before the other ; gill-mem¬
brane four-rayed ; body fmall, comprefled on both
fides, covered with fmall feales, and furniflied with
a pimple behind the vent; the ventral fins coalefcing
into an oval flrape; two dorfal fins.
Common, or black goby, fea gudgeon, or miller''s- niger*
thumb. Fourteen rays in the fecond dorfal fin. Grows
to the length of fix inches. The body is wedge-lhaped,
foft, and flippery, and overfpread with fmall duiky or
blackifh fpecks. This fpecies is faid to affix itfelf to
the rocks by the union of its ventral fins in the form of
a funnel, from which circumflance it is fometimes call¬
ed roch-fjh. It is a native of the Mediterranean and
fouthern feas, frequenting the {bores in the beginning
of fummer, when it depofits its fpawn. It is edible,
but not held in particular eftimation.
To this numerous genus alfo belong bicolor, cruenta-
lus, paganel/us, arabicus, nebulofus, eleotris, aphya,
minutus, jo%o, peBinircflns, fchlojfen, melanurus, bod-
'daerti, lagoccphalus, cyprinoides, lanceolatus, bofeu, cce-
rulens, broujfoncti, plumieri, ocellaris, ater, and anguil-
laris.
Gon. 8. GOBIOMORUS. .
Habit as in the preceding genus ; ventral fins diftin£Lrus-
Southern gobiomoret Gobrius frigalus of Linnaeus. aunralls
Blue J
ICHTHYOLOGY,
Chap. IV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Thoracic Blue green, with red fpots j whltidi beneath ; head ya-
Fifhes. riegated ivith yellow, and, the fins with red.—Native
U",~v of the fouthern ocean.
89
Gen. 10. ScoRPiENA,
Thoracic
Fillies.
quadricor-
nis.
grunniens.
Coitus. Gen* 9- GoTTus.
Head broader than the body, and armed with fpines $
eyes vertical, furnilhed with a ni&itating membrane j
gill-membrane fiK-rayed j body round, without fcales,
attenuated towards the tail; dorfal fins more than one.
cataphrac- Mailed or armed bull-head, or pogge.—Covered with
tus. a hard cruft j two bifid warts on the roftrum; head fur-
niftied with cirrhi below. General length about five or
fix inches. The head large, bony, and rugged ; the
body odlagonal, and covered with a number of ftrong
bony crufts.—Frequents the European feas, and is
plentiful on our own coafts, living on worms and water
infefts, particularly young crabs, and fpawning in the
month of May. It is dreffed for the table, but not_
efteemed a luxury.
Four-horned bull-head, with four bony tubercles on
the head.—Native of the Mediterranean, Baltic, and
northern feas. Ufed chiefly as a bait.
Grunting bull-head.—Throat (bagged with cirrhi;
body naked.—When firft taken, it utters, like fome of
the gurnards, a kind of abrupt grunting found, by the
fudden expulfion of air from the internal cavities,
through the gill-covers and mouth. It is reckoned ef-
culent •, but the liver is faid to be hurtful. Native of
the Indian and American feas.
fcorbius Lafher bull-head, or father-lajher.—Several fpines on
“ * the head ; the upper jaw rather longer than the lower.
, Inhabits the Mediterranean, and the northern ocean of
Europe and America.—It is very ftrong, frrims with
'great rapidity, and is very voracious, preying on the
blennies, cod, herring, falmon, as "well as on fmaller
fillies and infefts. It is very frequent in Greenland,
where it fometimes attains to the length of fix feet,
and where it is much relifhed as an article of food. It
is faid to be able to live a confiderable time out of wa¬
ter, having the power of doling the gill-covers fo as to
exclude the effeds of atmofpheric air. Like the grunt¬
ing bull-head, it utters a ftrong found when firft
taken.
r-obio River bull-head, or miller's thumb.—Smooth, with
two fpines on the head.—Inhabits the clear rivers and
brooks of Europe and Siberia, generally lying on the
gravel, or concealing itfelf beneath the (tones, preying
on worms, water infeds, and very young fi(hes._ It
depofits its fpawn in March or April. In this country
its length feldom exceeds three inches and a half; but
in other parts of Europe it feems to arrive at a fuperior
fize, and is even found of the length of feven inches.
It is of a yellow olive colour, has a large head, (lippery
(kin, and tapers to the tail. It is mod readily caught
during the night, and its flefh, which grows red by
boiling, is efteemed good and wholefome.
znjidiator. Injidious bull-head.—Head marked above by (harp
lines, and on each fide by two fpines.—Native of the
Arabian feas, in which it conceals itfelf under the land,
and fprings on fuch of the fmaller fifties as happen to
approach its haunts.
To this genus alfo appertain fcaber, japonicus, mn(fi¬
ll enjis, monoptenjgius, madagafcarienfis, niger, and au-
Jlralis.
Vol. XI. Part I.
Head large, aculeated, cirrhated, obtufe, fcalelefs, and
fubcomprefled j eyes approximated j teeth in the
jaws, palate, and fauces ; gill membrane feven-ray¬
ed } body (le(hy 5 one dorlal fin, long ; the firft rays
fpinous.
Porcine fcorpecna, little fea fcorpion, or fea devil.—porcus.
Cirrhi at the eyes and noftrils. Common in the Medi¬
terranean. Seldom exceeds a foot in length. Wounds
with the fpines of its dorfal fin. Flelh tough, and
fcarcely eatable.
Rufous fcorpama, or larger fea fcorpion.—Two cirrhifcrofa.
on the under lip. Larger than the preceding, being
fometimes four feet in length. It preys not only on
the fmaller fifties, but, occafionally, on marine birds.
Inhabits the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and northern
feas.
Horrid fcorpeena.—Scattered over with callous tu- horrida.
bercles. Of a very uncouth and forbidding afpedt.
Meafures from 12 to 15 inches in length, and inhabits
the Indian feas.
Flying fcorpcena.—Thirteen rays in the dorfal fin ; cc0[ltans.
fix cirrhi, the pedloral fins longer than the body. Like
fifties of the exoccetus and trigla'genus, it ufes its pec¬
toral fins for the purpofes of occasional (light. Native
of the rivers of Japan, Amboyna, &c. where it is rec¬
koned excellent food.
Befides the preceding, naturalifts reckon plumieri,
commerfonii, bicapillata, braclnata, aculeata, barbata,
antennata, capenjis, fpinofa, and amencana.
Gen. 11. Zeus. Zeus‘
Head comprefied, and (loping; upper lip arched with
a tranfverfe membrane; tongue fubulated; gill mem¬
brane with feven perpendicular rays, the lowed tranf¬
verfe ; body compreffed, thin, and fhining; the rays
of the firft dorfal fin ending in filaments.
Brajilian dory.—The fecond ray of the dorfal and vomer.
anal fin very long. Of a rhomboidal (hape, about fix
or eight inches long, very thin, and fcalelefs. Native
of the American feas, and fometimes feen in thofe of
the north of Europe. Edible, but not much in re-
queft.
Infidious dory.—With a narrow mouth. Native otinfidiator.
the rivers and frefti waters of India.
Indian dory.—The tenth ray of the dorfal and the (e-gallus.
cond of the anal fin longer than the body. Native of
the American and Indian feas.
Ciliated dory.—With fome of the rays in the dorfal ciliaris.
and anal fin very long. Native of the Indian feas.
Common dory.—The tail rounded ; a brown central faher.
fpot on each fide of the body; two anal fins. Grows
to nearly 18 inches in length, and weighs from 10 to
12 pounds. The head is abrupt, the mouth wide, the
back much arched, and furnilhed with a row of ftrong
(mail prickles. The body is covered with very minute
fcales, du(ky brown above, and of a fliining greenifh
yellow on the fides. ‘ We are indebted (fays Mr Pen¬
nant) to that judicious actor and bon vivant, the late
Mr Quin, for adding a moft delicious fi(h to our table,
who overcoming all the vulgar prejudices on account of
its deformity, has effectually eftabllftied its reputation.’
M The
o I C H T H
Thorac’o The dory jj extremely voracious, and, when firft taken,
1^les‘ makes the fame kind of found, as the gurnards and
Y fcorpaenas. I: is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlan¬
tic, and northern feas. It is fiihed on the fouthern
coafts of England j but the largeit are found in the
bay of Bdt ay.
aper. Red dory.—Tail even ; body reddilh. Refembles the
preceding, but is much fmaller. Native of the Medi¬
terranean.
0pah. ^ dory—Tail fomewhat lunated ; body reddilh,
with white fpots. This beautiful fpecies mealures from
four to five feet in length j the general colour fome-
times a brilliant filvery green, and fotnetimes a bright
gold colour, variegated with pretty numerous, and mo¬
derately large, oval white Ipots j while the fins and tail
are bright fcarlet. It is the xeus luna of Linnaeus.
Found, though rarely, in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas.
auadratus. Square don/.—Tail even : body cinereous, withtranf-
verle dulky bars. Native of the coaits of Jamaica.
Pleuronec-
tes.
Jdppoglof-
Jus.
eynog'of-
fus.
pialejfa.
Gen. 12. Pleuronectes.
Plead fmall ; eyes fpherical, both on the fame fide of
the head, and near each other ^ mouth arched ; jaws
with teeth, and unequal \ gilhmembrane, with four
to feven rays ; the gill-cover, in moll of the fpecies,
confiding of three plates ; body comprefft d, carina-
ted ; the one fide fomewhat convex, anfwering to
the back ; the other, of a paler colour, to the belly 5
the vent nearer the head than the tail.
The filhes of this genus are remarkable for having
both eyes on one fide of the head ; and they are divid¬
ed into two fections, according as they have the eyes
towards the right, when the animal is laid with'its co¬
loured fide upwards, with its abdomen towards the fpec-
tator \ or to the left, when the filh is in the fame fi-
tuation.
'* With eyes towards the right.
Halibut.—The whole body fmooth. Dufky above,
pure white beneath. Narrow in refpecd to its length.
Individuals have been taken on the Engliih coall, v,3iich
weighed from 200 to 300 pounds; and the Icelanders
have caught feme which weighed 400 pounds. Olafsen
mentions, that he faw one which meafured five ells $
and we are told by the Norwegian filhermen, that a
lingle holibut will fometimes cover a whole IkifF. This
fpecies, then, is more entitled to the epithet maximus,
than that to which it is applied. Though it inhabits
the Mediterranean, it arrives at a larger fize in the
northern feas of Europe and America. It is fe voraci¬
ous, that it devours rays, crabs, haddocks, and even
lump-fife, of which it feems to be very fond. The part
of the body nearelt the fins, is fat and delicate, but
furfeiting ; the reft of the fifli is regarded as coarfe
food. The Greenlanders cut it into thin Hips, and dry
them in the fun. This fife depofits its fpawn in fpring,
among rocks near the feore.
Smaller holibut.—Body fmooth, oblong ; teeth ob-
tufe 3 tail roundife. Very like the preceding, but fmall¬
er, and more relifeed as an article of food. Native of
the northern feas.
P/afe.—Body fmooth, with fix tubercles on the
Lead. Readily diftinguifeed by its very broad and flat
Y O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
fliape, its pale brown colour above, and the orange co- Thoracic
loured fpots with which it is marked. One of eight or
nine pounds is reckoned a large fife, though inltances ' u‘" 'r~~J
occur of their weighing 15 pounds. They fpawn in
tire beginning of May, and are common in the Baltic
and northern feas. The bell are faid to be taken off
Rye, on the Suffex coalt, and near Holland. They
are in confiderable requelt in the fife-market, though
far inferior to the foie and turbot.
Flounder.—With a rough lateral line, and a feries.y%/«E»
of fpines at the bafe of the fins. Ealily diillnguifhed
from the reft of the genus by the fpecific character j
and very generally known, as it inhabits every part of
the Britifh lea, and even frequents our rivers at a con¬
fiderable diiiance from fait water, it likewife occurs
in the northern, Baltic, and Mediterranean feas. In
fize, it is much inferior to the plaile ; but it affords a
light and wholefome food.
Dab.—Scabs ciliated $ fmall fpines at the origin oflimandetj
the dorfal and anal fins ; teeth obtufe. Of a very
broad, ovate feape, yellowifo brown above, and white
beneath. Inhabits the fame feas as the plaife and floun¬
der \ but is leis common, of a fmaller fize, and mors
prized as an article of food.
Smear-dab, or kit.—Yellowifh brown, w ith fmooth lavis*
feales ; five dufky fpots, white beneath. Caught on
the Cornifo coaft.
Long dab.—Body oblong and rough, lateral line limando*
ftraight and broad. Much longer than the dab. In- ides.
habits the northern feas, and is efteemed at table.
Rofe-colouredJlounder.—Colour of a delicate xo{e ^refeus*
and general proportions thofe of a flounder. Taken in
the Thames, and preferved in the Leverian mufeum.
Sole.—Body oblong and rough 5 upper jaw longefl.y^/^a
More narrow and oblong than any other of the genus.
Sometimes grows to the length of more than two feet,
and to the weight of eight pounds. Its general fize,
however, is much fmaller. Thofe of moderate fize are
generally in molt rtqueft for the table j and next to .
the turbot, are reckoned the moll delicate of the genus.
The foie is an inhabitant of the northern, Baltic, Me¬
diterranean, and American feas. On the weft coaft of
Great Britain it attains to a much larger fize than on
the eaft. The principal fole-fifhery is at Brixham, in
Torbay.
St?ioath fole.~— WKite, tranfparent, with fmall, thin,dlcphanns
deciduous feales. Found about the coafts of Cornwall,
where it is called lantern-fjh.
** With eyes towards the left.
Wh'jf.—Body broad and rough. Native of thepunBatus.
northern fea.
Pearl. — Body fmooth j pale brown above, marked
by fcattered yellowifo, or rufous fpots, and white be¬
neath. Refembles the turbot, but is inferior in fize.
Native of the European feas.
Turbot, or bret / plew oneBes maximus of Linnaeus.— tubercular
Body rough. This fifh, which is reckoned fueh ddi-^j-.
cate eating, is found both in the Mediterranean and
northern feas. It is broader and fquarer than any
of the genus, except the pearl, and is of a dark brow n:
above, marbled with blaekith fpots of different fizes,
and white beneath. Like the red of this germs, the
turbot generally lies in deep water, preying on worms,
{hell-life, final! fifties, &c. It is taken in great quan¬
tities
Chap. IV. I C H T H 1
Thoracic titles about the nortliern coafts of England, as well as
Fifhcs. on tk0fe 0f France, Holland, &c. They are fo ex-
^ tremely delicate in their choice of baits as not to touch
a piece of herring or haddock that has been x 2 hours
out of the fea. Though the turbot and holibut are
often confounded in our markets, the former may be
ealily recognifed by the large, unequal, and obtufe tu¬
bercles on its upper part.
In this numerous genus are alfo claffed tnchoda Ely his,
%ebra, plagiufa, ocellatus, rondeletn, linguatu/a, glacia-
iis, platejfoides, argenteus, barbatus, marmoratus, pavo-
ninus, hneatus, bilineatus, ornatus, dentatus, macrolepi-
detus, pajftr, papillofus, argus,Jbellatus, zn&japonicus.
Ofuetodon. Gen. 13* CtLElODON.
Head fmall •, mouth narrow, with retraftile lips ; teeth
generally fetaceous, flexible, moveable, equal, very
numerous, and clofe •, eyes' round, fmall, vertical,
and furnifhed with a nictitating membrane •, gfll-
membrane from three to flx-rayed } body broad, thin,
comprefled, covered with hard fcales, and coloured;
dorfal and anal fins rigid, flefhy, fcaly, and general¬
ly terminated with pickles.
To avoid much unneceflary repetition, we flrall ob-
ferve, in general, that upwards of 60 fpecies of chseto-
dons have been diftinCtly afcertained 5 that they are
moftly natives of the American and Indian feas ; that
they are diftinguiihed by the great depth and highly
compreffed form of the body, which is often beautiful¬
ly variegated by tranfverfe, oblique, or longitudinal
bands, and covered with ftrong fcales, finely denticula¬
ted on the margins 5 and that the dorfal and anal fins
are remarkably broad, and, in many fpecies, of an un-
ufual length.
One of the moil remarkable fpecies of this genus is
the roflratus, rojlrated, or beaked chectodon, with an en¬
tire tail, nine fpines in the dorfal fin, an ocellated (pot
on the fides, and the beak cylindrical. It is of a
sroundiih-ovate flxape, about fix or eight inches in length,
of a whitifh colour, with a dulky tinge on the back,
and marked by fine tranfverfe and nearly equi-diiiant
brown bands, with milk-white edges. It is a native of
the frefli waters of India, and feeds principally on flies
and other fmall winged infers which hover about the
furface of its native waters. When it fees a fly at a di-
ftanee, alighted on any of the plants in the (hallow wa¬
ter, it approaches very flowly, and with the utmoft cau¬
tion, coming as much as poflible perpendicularly un¬
der the objeft. Then putting its body in an oblique
direction, with the mouth and eyes near the furface,
it remains a moment immoveable. Having fixed its
eyes directly on the infe£t, it darts at it a drop of wa¬
ter from its tubular fnout, but without (hewing its
mouth above the furface, from which only the drop
feems to rife, and that with fuch effedt, that, though at
the diflance of four, five, or fix feet, it very feldom
fails to bring its prey into the water. With the clofefl:
attention the mouth could never be difcovered above
the furface, although the fifh has been feen to fpout fe-
veral drops fucceflively, without leaving the place, or
in the (mailed apparent degree moving its body. This
very fim'.ula: mode of attacking its prey was reported
to M. Homel. governor of the hofpital at Batavia, and
fo far excited his curioflty, that he ordered a large tub
O L O G Y. ft
to be filled with fea-vater, and had feme of the fifties T£‘:'p”'ir‘
caught and put into it. When they were reconciled to ,
their confinement, he caufed a (lender (lick, with a fly
faftened at the end, to be placed in (uch a manner on
the fide of the veffel, as to enable the fifh to ftnive it ,
and it was not without inexpreffible delight, that he
daily law them exercifing their (kill in (hooting at it,
with amazing force, and feldom miffing .their mark.
This faeulty is poffeffed by a few other fpecies belong¬
ing to very different genera. The flefh of the roftrated
chaetodon is white and well-tafted. ^
Angel efuetodon, or angel-fijh of Catefby, is of a fine catejben,,
gold-green colour, with the fcales covered by fmaller
ones. The pe&oral, ventral fins, and tail, are of a vi¬
vid orange j and the dorfal and anal, violet-blue at the
bafe, and bright crimfon towards the tips.-—It is com¬
mon off Carolina and the Bahama ides, where it is
much efteemed for its delicacy.
Imperial chcetodon, is a magnificent fpecies, growing imperata?*
to the length of a foot or more. Its ground colour is a
golden-yellow, which is longitudinally, though fome-
what obliquely, ftriped with very numerous bright blue
parallel rays. It is a native of Japan, and faid to be
fuperior to the falmon in flavour. _ ...
Sea lat, or bat chcetodon, furpaffes all the other fpecies 1}efpertihe%
in the great extent and breadth of the dorfal and anal
fins, both ■which nearly equal the body itlelf in fize, and
are of a fomewhat triangular fhape. It is a native of
Japan. .
Redjlripcd cL'etodon, is diftinguilhed by rmmeronsJe!!J£1 *
red (tripes on the body, and an eye-(haped fpot and
brittle on the dorfal fin.
Three-colouredchcetodon, is golden-yellow on the fore- tricolor*
part, jet black behind, except the tail, which is yellow,
and red near the end, while the edges cf the gill-co
vers, and of all the fins, are bright red.
Gen. 14. Acanthurus. Acanthurus
Teeth fmall, and in mod fpecies lobated j tail aculeated
on each fide. This genus comprifes fuch fpecies of
the Linnaean chretodon as, in contradiction to the
principal character of that genus, have moderately
broad and (trong teeth, rather than (lender and feta¬
ceous ones.
Unicorn acanthurus.—Gray-brown ; with a frontal unicornis*
horn projecting over the fnout, and two fpines on each
fide of (he tail. Of the length of three feet or up¬
wards. Its horn flipped procefs is (trong and conical,
terminating rather obtufely.—It is a native of the In¬
dian and Arabian feas, in the latter of which it is uiual-
ly feen in (hoals of two or four hundred, fwimming
with great ftrength, and feeding principally on the dif¬
ferent kinds of lea-weed. It is lingular that fo remark¬
able a filh (hould have been entirely overlooked by
Linnaeus, even in the twelfth edition ot the Syjlema Na¬
turae.
The other fpecies are denominated nafus. teuthis, ni¬
gricans, militaris, triojlegus, harpurus, folia/, mgro-fuf-
cus, achilles, /meatus, umbratus, meleagris, and velifer.
Gen. J 5. Eques. Equen
Teeth in feveral rows j body banded.
American kaght fifh.—Clio: to don lanceolatus, 1_l\n.amenca*
Body oblong ; yellowith. with three black bands, theSWJ«
M 2 firft
92
1 horacic fjrft acrofs the eyes, the fecond acrofs the thorax, and
■ ^ ,1‘1<':i' the third along the body,. Native of the American
feas.
Trichopus. Gen. l6. Trichopus..
Body compreffed; ventral tins, with a very long hla-
ment.
goratfjij. Goratny trichopus.—Rufefcent, with a filvery caft
on the fides j and the lec«nd ray of the ventral fins ex¬
tremely long. Native of the frelh waters of China,
where it is much prized as an article of food.
arahicus. Arabian trichopus. Labrus ga!Iusy Lin.— Greenith,
with violet and blue ftripes, and fecond ray of the
ventral fins very long. Native of the Arabian feas.
fatyrus. Satyr trichopus.—With finking forehead, projecting
chin, and extremely long, fingle-rayed, ventral fins.
Native of the Indian feas.
pallajii. Pallajian trichopus. Labrustrichopterus, Lin.—Brown,
with pale undulations, a black fpot on each fide of the
body and tail, and long fingle-rayed ventral fins. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
monodac- Monodaciile trichopus.—Silvery, with brownifh back,
tylus. and ftiort, fingle-rayed, rigid ventral fins. Native of
the Indian feas.
Spams. Gen. 17. SPARUS.
Strong cutting or canine teeth, with obtufe and clofe-
fet grinders ; lips double ; gill membrane five-rayed,
gill covers fcaly ; body comprefied, lateral line cur¬
ved behind j peCtoral fins rounded.
Of this very extenfive genus, molt of the fpecies are
exotic •, and their hiftory is very imperfedlly known.
Confiderable confufion takes place with refpeft to the
characters by which they ought to be difcriminated
from the labri, a family to which they are much allied.
We {hall briefly notice only a few of the mod ftriking
and belt known fpecies.
uurata. Gilt-head, has a lunulated fpot between the eyes.
A more permanent character may be alfumed from the
fix cutting teeth in each jaw. This fpecies is about 15
inches long, but fometimes of a much larger fize. It
is of a filvery bluifli caft, with gold-coloured brown,
and fometimes with feveral brownilh longitudinal ftripes.
The body is broad and thin, and the back elevated.
The gilt-head is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlan¬
tic, and Indian feas 5 frequenting deep water on bold
rocky ftiores ; and living chiefly on teftaceous animals.
It is faid to lleep at ftated times, and to be very fufcep-
tible of cold. The Greeks and Romans reckoned it a
moft delicate morfel, and the former held it to be con-
fecrated to Venus.
srythn- Rofe fparus, is remarkable for its beautiful rofe-red
colour. In fize and fliape, it refembles the perch. It
is a native of the Mediterranean and Indian feas, in the
latter of which it is faid to acquire noxious qualities.
fafflatus. Fafciated fparus, is of a fquarifti elongated fliape j
with tranfverfe dulky bands, and the fins edged with
black. It is a native of Japan.
chlorou- Green-tailed fparus, is a native of the American feas,
rus. and a highly elegant fpecies j having its yellowifti and
large feales crofted by a green band, green fins, and
rofe-coloured gill-covers. The green tail is ftrongly lu¬
nulated, and marked by minute pale fpecks.
Chap. IV.
A ftriking difpofition of colours likewife diftinguifli- Thoracic
es the chryfirus, ox gold-tailed fparus, which is found , Flflies‘
in the feas of South America. Its general complexion 1 ’ v"~ J
is a bright rofe-red, which is deepeft on the back ; a
gold yellow ftripe runs on each fide from the gills to
the tail, and a fecond on each fide of the bottom of the
abdomen.
Spinedfparus, has the dorfal fpines recumbent, andfplnfert
the five in the middle filiform and elongated. It is of
a reddifti filvery hue, with the back and the lines on
the body dulky ; Ihape ovate ; and length, a foot and
a half. It inhabits the Red fea j and is reckoned a de¬
licious fifti for the table.
_ Squirrelfparus, fqmrrel-ffh, ox grunt.—G r ay - b r o v n ,fciu rus.
with large feales bordered with yellow, and head mark¬
ed longitudinally by numerous blue and yellow lines.
According to Bloch, the blue lines alfo run along the
body. Native of the American leas. It is the perca
formofa of Linnmus.
Infdious fparus.—Red, yellowifh on the fides j tail inf dial or-.
fub-forcipated. Length about ten inches. Native of
the Indian feas, where, through its long tubular fnout,
it {hoots a drop of water at the infefts on which it feeds,
in the fame manner as the roftrated chsetodon.
Gahlcean fparus—-Greenilh, with whitilh abdomen.Ulceus*
Very common in the lake of Genefareth, and therefore
fuppofed to have been the principal fpecies in the mira¬
culous draught of fifties recorded by St Luke.
Desfontaine',s fparus.—With 23 rays in the dorfal desfonta*
fin, 11 in the anal, and a black fpot on the gill-covers, nil.
Inhabits the warm waters of Caffa in Tunis, which, in
January, are about 30 degrees of Reaumur’s thermo¬
meter above the freezing point 5 but it is alfo found in
the cold and brackifti waters furrounding the date plan¬
tations at Tozzar.
Argus fparus.—Of a filvery blue j with many ooo\-argus
lated brown fpots. A very elegant fpecies, of which
the native country is uncertain.
Climbing fparus.—Olive-green, with yellowilh abdo-fandens,
men, and gold-coloured eyes. Length about a fpan j
Ikin covered by a blackilh mucus. “ This filh (fays
Dr Shaw) is remarkable for its power of climbing,
which it performs by the afliftance of the fpines of its
gill-covers, moving itfelf at pleafure up the Items of
trees growing near the waters it frequents. In this li-
tuation it was cbferved in the month of November 1791,
at Tranquebar, by Lieutenant Daldorfif, who communi¬
cated its defeription to Sir Jofeph Banks. It was feen
afeending a fiffure in the Item of the palm called boraf-
fus flabellifer, growing near a pool of water, and was
obferved to move itfelf forwards by alternately apply¬
ing the fpiny fides of the gill-covers to the fides of the
fiffure, aflifting itfelf at the fame time by the fpines on
each fide of the tail, and had already afeended to the
height of more than five feet above the water when it
was firft obferved : it was found to be very tenacious of
life, moving about on dry fand, many hours after it was
taken,”
Gen. 18. Scarus, Scarus,
Inftead of teeth, the jaws are eminent, crenated, and
bony, with a toothed margin 5 gill-membrane five-
rayed, gill-cover entire, lateral line generally branch¬
ed,.
I € K T H Y O L O G Y.
Cretan
Chap. IV.
I C H T H Y
Thoracic
Fi flics.
cretenjis.
viridis.
rivulatus.
Jlellatus.
croicenfis.
pjittacus.
purpura-
tus.
niger.
ghobban.
ferrugi-
THUS.
fordidus.
harid.
fchlojferi.
Cretan fcarus.—Green, yellowifh beneath, with very
large fcales, ramified lateral line, and fublimated^tail.
Native of the Mediterranean and Indian feas. Com¬
mon about Crete.
Green fcarus.—Yellowifii green ; with large fcales,
edged with green •, lateral line interrupted towards the
tail. Native of the Japanefe feas.
Rivulatedfcarus.—Bluiflt, fpotted with black, and
marked by longitudinal yellow undulations. Native of
the Red fea.
Stellated fcarus.—Oval, blackilh j variegated with
fubhexagonal pale rings. Native of the Arabian
feas.
Red fcarus.—Rofe-red, with filvery abdomen. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
Parrot fcarus.—Greenilh, marked with yellowilh
lines, and with the edges of the fins, abdominal band,
and variegations of the head, blue. Native of the Ara¬
bian feas.
Purpledfcarus.—Dull-green, with three longitudinal
ferrated purple bands on each fide, and blue abdomen.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Black fcarus.—Ovate-oblong *, blackifh brown, with
red lips, and the margin of the fins greenilh-blue. Na¬
tive of the Arabian feas.
Blue-fripedfcarus.—Whitilh, with the fcales mark¬
ed by tranfverfe bluilh bands, and double lateral line.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Ferruginous fcarus.—Brown-ferruginous, with the
jaws and margins of the fins green, and tail even. Na¬
tive of the Arabian feas.
Sordidfcarus.—Brown-ferruginous, with darker-co¬
loured fins, and rifing, even tail. Native of the Ara¬
bian feas.
Scahj-tailed fcarus.—Tail forked, the middle of its
back befet with fcales. Native of the Arabian feas.
Schlofferian fcarus.—Gold-coloured, with five duiky
fpots on each fide, brownilh back, and nearly even tail.
Native of Java.
Gomphofus. Gen. i(). Gomphosus.
Jaws lengthened into a tubular fnout j teeth fmall, thofe
in the front larger.—This genus, inftituted by La
Cepede, contains two fpecies, both natives of the
Indian feas, and both agreeing in the remarkable
form of the mouth, which confifts of a tubular pro-
cefs, fomewhat truncated at the tip.
cceruleus. Blue gomphofus.—Entirely blue. About the fize of a
tench.
variegatus. Variegated gomphofus.—Variegated with red, yellow,
and blue. Smaller than the preceding.
Gen. 20. Labrus.
Teeth acute 3 lips not doubled 3 gill-membrane fix ray¬
ed 3 gill-covers fcaly 3 the rays of the dorfal fin fur-
nifhed behind with a filiform procefs 3 the peftoral
fins acuminated 3 and lateral line ftraight.
O L O G Y. 93
purple. This beautiful full is a native of Ceylon, where Thoracic
it is reckoned edible. . <—-v—
Jaculator, or Jhooting labrus.—Gray, clouded jaculator%
yellow 3 five tranfverfe dufky bands 3 and lower jaw
longer than the upper. Darts water on its prey, like
the roftrated chaetodon and infidious fparus. Native of
the Indian feas. _ .
Scare labrus.—Whitifh, mixed with red 3 with tranf-yc^/w.
verfe appendages on each fide of the tail. Native of
the Mediterranean 3 where it feeds principally on fuci,
and fwims in fltoals. It was in high efteem with the
ancients as a food, and confidered by the Romans as
one of the principal delicacies of the table.
Bal/an labrus, or ballan wraffe.—Yellow, with ful- bal/anus.
vous fpots, reflex lips, and ramentofe dorfal fin. Weighs
about five pounds. Appears annually in great fiioals off
Filey-bridge, near Scarborough.
Ancient labrus, ancient wraffe, or old wife.—Beak tinea.
bent upwards 3 end of the tail circular. Size and habit
of a tench. Native of the European feas, and ufually
found in deep waters, about rocky coafts. Liable to
vary much in colour.
Parrakeet labrus.—Green, with three longitudinal^/iVtacw*
red ftripes on each fide, and yellow dorfal fin marked
by a longitudinal red band. A beautiful ipecies, which
inhabits the American feas.
Beautiful labrus.—Red, with longitudinal, interrupt-yo/'wo/wj',
ed, flexuous, blue Breaks; and fins edged with blue.
Jurella labrus.—Sides bluilh, both marked by a Xoxi-juhs.
gitudinal, fulvous, and dentated band. Length about
eight inches, and form fomewhat lengthened. Occurs
in Ihoals in the Mediterranean. Rhe more ancient ich-
thyologkfts erroneoufly confidered it as poifonous, and
as the moll beautiful of the finny tribes.
Gen. 21. OphicephaluS. Ophlcepha-
lus.
Head coated with diffimilar fcales; body elongated.
PunBated ophicephalus.—Duiky, paler beneath, \\\\BpunBatus.
the head pierced by pores, and the body fpeckled with
black points. Length about ten inches. Frequents
rivers and lakes in India 3 and is reckoned a delicate
and wholefome food.
Striated ophicephalus.—Duiky, with the abdomenfriatus.
and fins ftriated with duiky and whitilh variega¬
tions. Length about twelve inches. Native of In¬
dia 3 inhabiting lakes, and equally efteemed with the
former as food.
Gen. 22. Lonchurus. Lonchuru?.
Head fcaly; ventral fins feparate 3 tail lanceolate.
Bearded lonchurus.—Ferruginous-brown 3 with flight- harbalus*
ly lengthened nofe 3 two beards at the lower jaw 3 and
the fir ft ray of the ventral fins elongated into a
briftle. Length about twelve inches. Native of Su¬
rinam.
Gen. 23. SciiENA.
Scisena,
%eijlanu
cus.
From this very numerous genus, the diferimination of
which has never been accomplilhed with accuracy, we
can afford to feleft only a few fpecies.
Ceylonefe labrus, or Ceylon wraffe.—Green, purplifh
beneath, with blue head, and gill-covers variegated with
The whole head covered with fcales 3 gill-membrane
fix-rayed; a furrow on the back, in which the dorfal
fin is feated.
Moft of the fpecies of this genus are exotic, and but
obfeurely known.
Cirrhafe
94
Thoracic
Fifiies.
cirrkofa.
fabrax.
ICHTHYOLOGY. > Cliap. IV.
Cirrhofe or bearded fctcena, lias the upper jaw long¬
er than the lower, and a beard on the latter. It has the
habit of a carp, and meafures from one to two feet.
Native of the Mediterranean. Was valued by the
Greeks and Romans as an article of food.
BaJJe fcicvna, or bnjje. Perea labrax of Lin.—Sub-
argenteous, with brown back, yellowilh-red fins, and
dulky tail. Habit of a falmon. Native of the Me¬
diterranean and northern feas } frequently entering ri¬
vers. Known to the ancients by the names of labrax
and lirpus, and greatly prized, particularly by the Ro¬
mans.
about a foot in length. Native of the Mediterranean, Thoracic
Indian, and American feas, and confidered as an excel-
lent fifh for the table.
Spur-gilledholocentrus.—-Subargenteous, with brown- calcarifer,
ifh back, large feales, and fpurred gill covers. Native
of Japan.
Surinam holocentrus.—Brownifh j with yellowifh/hA«tf-
clouds, red head, and anterior gill-covers ciliated \vithmenjis.
fpines. Native of Surinam, where it is reckoned one
of the bell filhes which the country produces.
26. BoDIANUS. Bodianus.
\
Ferca. Gen. 24. Perca.
Jaws unequal, armed writh {harp-pointed and incurved
teeth 5 gill-covers conhfting of three plates, of which
the uppermoft is ferrated 5 gill-membrane feven-
rayed, the lateral line following the arch of the
back j the feales hard and rough ; fins fpiny; and
vent nearer the tail than the head.
jhiviatills. Common perch.—The fecond dorfal fin with 16 rays,
of a brown olive, fometimes accompanied by a flight
gilded tinge on the fides, and commonly marked by
five or fix broad, blackifh, tranfverfe bars. This well
known fiih ufually meafures from 10 inches to twm
feet, and weighs from two to four pounds, though
fome have weighed eight, nine, or ten pounds. The
perch inhabits clear rivers and lakes in mod; parts of
'Europe, haunts deep holes In gently flowing rivers,
fpawns early in fpring, is of a gregarious difpofition,
very voracious, and fo tenacious of life, that it may be
carried to the diftance of 60 miles in dry ftraw, and yet
furvive the journey. It feeds on aquatic infefts and
the fmaller fillies, and is preyed on by the pike, eel,
&c. Its flefh is firm and delicate, and was held in re¬
pute at the table of the ancient Romans. In fome of
the northern countries a fort of ifinglafs is prepared
from the {kin.
ducioperca. Sandre perch.—rX\\<i fecond dorfal fin with 23 rays j
of a larger fize, and more like a pike, than the prece¬
ding. Native of clear rivers and lakes in tbe middle
parts of Europe.
Xternua. Ruffe perch, or ruffe.—Dorfal fin with 27 rays, of
which 15 are fpiny. Length from fix to eight inches,
and fhape more {lender than that of the common perch.
Feeds on worms, infefts, and young fifties, and is fre¬
quently preyed on by the pike, larger fifties, and aqua¬
tic fowls. Spawns in March and April \ inhabits cleat-
rivers in many parts of Europe, efpecially towards the
north and affords excellent food.
pujilla. Small perch. Body ovate, comprefled, rough. Scarce¬
ly exceeding the length of an inch and a half. Native
of the Mediterranean.
marina. Sea perch.—The dorfal fin with 15 fpiny rays, and
iqfoftones; the body variegated with dulky lines.
Colour red, marked with dulky tranfverfe lines on the
fides. Inhabits rhe Northern, Mediterranean, and At¬
lantic feas, and is in high efteem for the table.
Holocen¬
trus.
25. Holocentrus.
Habit of the genus perca gill-covers fcaly, ferrated,
and aculeated *, feales in moft fpecies, hard and rough.
figo.
Sogo holocent'-us.—Silvery r<d, with longitudinal
yellow lines on each fide. A highly beautiful fpecies,
Habit of the genus perca ; gill-covers fcaly, ferrated
and aculeated ; leaks in moft. fpecies fmooth.
Purple-bached bodian.—Gold yellow, w ith purple bodianus.
back. Shape like that of a trout 5 length about 14
inches. Native of the South American feas.
Five-fpined bodian.—Rofe-coloured, with fiivery zh-pentacan-
domen, and dorfal fin yellow on the fore part. Nativethusl
of the Brafilian feas. Accounted good food.
Aija bodian.—Red, with fiivery abdomen, fingle-oy^.
fpined gill-covers, and kmated tail. This highly
beautiful fpecies is faid to grow' to the length of three
feet. It is found in the Brafilian feas, and regarded as
a delicacy.
Large-fealed bodian.—Gray brown, with large round- macrole-
ed feales denticulated at the edges. Length about apidotus.
foot. Native of the Eafi: Indies.
Spotted bodian.—Olivaceous yellow, with blue fyolsmacuiatus.
and reddifti fins. Native of Japan.
Louiibodian.—Oblong lanceolate, with fmallifh xio-louti.
laceous fpots, and fins edged with yellow'. Native of
the Arabian feas.
Palpebral bodian.—Somewhat ferruginous, with oc\\xe-pa fpebra*
coloured eyes, protected by a moveable yellow valve./wj-.
Shape nearly that of a perch. Native of the feas about
Amboyna.
Silvery bodian.—Silvery, with bluilli back. Nativeargenteus.
of the Mediterranean.
Apua bodian.—Red, with the back fpetted, the body 4^^.
fpeckled, and the fins edged with black. Native of the
Brafilian feas.
Guttated bodian, jew-fjh, or Jacob iverjlen.—ASS.-guttatus,
lowifti brown, with body and fins marked by fmall
ocellated deep brown fpots. Native of the Indian and
American feas. Efteemed as an edible fifti.
Zebra bodian.—Yellowifh, with the body marked hy%ebra. i
tranfverfe, and the head by longitudinal, brown bands.
Native of Japan.
Rogaa bodian.—Blackifh rufefeent, with black fins, rogaa.
Native of the Arabian feas.
donated bodian.— Rlackith ferruginous, with hlack.lunulatus.
fins, whiifh tranfparcnt towards the back part. Native
of the Arabian feas.
Black and white bodian.—Silvery, with irregular, melanoleu*
tranfverfe, black bands. Native of the Indian feas cui,.
Star-eyed bod'an.—Silvery, with yellowifti back, zwd.Jl el lifer.
orbits fpiny beneath. Native of the feas about the Cape
of Good Hope.
Gen. 27. GasTEROSTEUS. Gafterofte-
us.
Head oblong and fmooth. the jaws armed with fmall
teeth j tnngue fhort and obtufe; palate fmooth ; eyes
moderately fized, fcarcely prominent, lateral 5 gill-
membrane
Chap. IV. I C H T II
Thoracic membrane fix or fcverv-rayed j gill-cover confiftmg
Fiflies. of two plates, rounded and ftriated body at the
-V ' tail carinated at both fides, and covered with fhields,
diftindt prickles before the dorfal fin j the back and
lateral line parallel and ftraight •, the ventral fins
behind the pedtoral, but above the fternum.
aculeatuu Common JHckleback, banJUchle, Jhatpling, &c. with
three fpines on the back. Length two inches, or three
at moft. In the early part of fummer, the gills and
abdomen are of a bright red, the back a fine olive
green, and the Tides filvery. Lives only two or three
years, is very adive and very voracious, devouring the
young and fpawn of other fillies, worms, infe&s, and
their larvae. 1 he {Longer inhabitants of the watera
fhun it on account of its fpines ; but it is infefted by
inteftinal worms. In April and May it depoiks its
fpawn in fmall quantities on aquatic plants, efpecially
on the white and yellow water lily. It occurs very
commonly in ponds, rivers, and marlhes, and in iome
parts, as about Dantzic and the fens of Lincolnlhire, in
extreme profufion. At Spalding, according to Mr
Pennant, they appear in the Welland once in feven or
eight years in fuch amazing Ihoals that they are ufed
as manure, and a man has got for a confiderable time four
(hillings a day by felling them at the rate of a halfpenny
per bulhel.
SkippingJlichlebach.—Eight dorfal fpines connected
by a membrane. Native of the feas about Carolina,
where it is often obferved {kipping out of the water.
Smaller or ten-fpinedftickleback.—Ten dorfal fpines.
The number of fpines is fometimes only nine, and
fometirnes, though rarely, eleven, ibis is fmailer than
the common fpecies, feldom exceeding an inch and
three quarters. It is found both in feas and lakes, and
enters \.he mouths of rivers in fpring.
Fifteen-fpinedflichleback.—Fifteen dorfal fpines. From
five to feven inches long, of a {lender form, with the
head produced, and fomewhat tubular. I requents {hal¬
low places in the European feas, and preys on marine
infecls. and the fpawn and fry of other fifties.
Minute JHckleback.—Four ferrulated fpines at the hind
part of the head •, the lateral ones as long as the abdo¬
men. Native of India.
To the fame genus belong japomeus, carounus, ca-
nadus.
Gen. 28. Scomber. '
Head comprefted and frnooth •, gill-membrane feven-
rayed ; body fniooth, the lateral line carinated be¬
hind, often fpurious fins towards the tail.
* Spinous finlets diftincl.
Common mackrel—With five finlets. Its ordinary
length is from 12 to 16 inches, though it has fometimes
been found of a much greater fize. Its elegant ftiape
and the beauty of its colouring are too well known to
require particular defeription, and its qualities as an
edible ilfti have been long duly appreciated. It dies
very foon after it is taken out of the water, exhibits for
a fhort time a phofphoric light, and partly lofes the
brilliancy of its hues. It is very voracious, and makes
great havock among the ihoals of herrings. It dwells
in the European and American feas, chiefly afiefting
the regions within the Arclic circle, and appearing at
3
95
Thoracic
Fi flies.
faltatrix.
pungiticus.
fpinachia.
fpinarella.
Y O L G G Y.
ftated feafons about particular ranges of coafi. _ Its al¬
leged migrations, like thofe of the herring, begin to be
queftioned by fome acute obfervers, and it is more pro¬
bable that it refides at the bottom of the waters during
winter at no great diftance from the places where it vi-
fibly abounds in fummer. A film grows over its eye
in winter, when it probably conceals itfelf in muddy
bottoms, and becomes torpid. It is very prolific, and
depofits its fpawn among the rocks about the month of
June. The tendernefs of its flefti renders it unfit for
carriage in a frefh ftate 5 but in Cornwall, ana {everal
parts of the continent, it is preferved by faking and
pickling. Caviar is prepared from the roes on the
coafts of the Mediterranean y and the celebrated garum
of the Romans is faid to have been a condiment prepar¬
ed from this fifh.
Coly mackrel.—Bright green and azure. Somewhatcolias*
fmaller than the preceding, which it very much refem-
bles. F >und on the coafts of Sardinia.
Bonito mackrel.—Seven inferior finlets ; body marK pelaml^
ed on each fide by four black lines. Refembles the
tunny, but is more {lender.. Frequents the Atlantic
and tropical feas, perfecuting flying fifhes and other
fpecies, and tormented in turn by internal worms
Tunny.— Eight finlets above and below. Ufual
length about two feet, but fometimes grows to eight, or
even ten. The upper part of the body is of a dufky
blue, and the abdomen filvery. The tunny is grega¬
rious, and inhabits the Mediterranean, Northern, In¬
dian, and American feas, preying with fiercenels on all
kinds of fmaller filh, and perfecuting the mackrel and
flying fifh. The Greeks and Romans admired its flefti,
though rather coarfe, and eftabliftied their tunny-
fiftieries on various parts of the Mediterranean coaft,
where this fpecies is ftill taken in great quantities.
The fmaller fifties are chiefly fold frefh, and the larger
cut in pieces and faited.
Scomber.
/comber.
* *
Spurious finlets connate.
Scad or Ihrfe mackrel.—Dorfal fin recumbent, la-irackunss*
teral line marked. Length trom 12 to 1 8 inches. Na¬
tive of the European leas, and nearly equal to the com¬
mon kind in point of flavour.
We forbear to enumerate feveral other fpecies which
have been recently defined, but whofe hiftory is ftill
very incomplete, and {hall terminate this abridged ac¬
count of the genus by the
Pilot mackrel, or pilot fijh; gafierefieus duElor of auElcr?
Linnseus.—Silvery blueifli, with four tranfverfe blue
hands \ four dorfal fpines, and tail barred with black.
Ifiength about 18 iijches ; general ftiape that of the ,
tunny, but the head much fhorter. Inhabits the Ame¬
rican and Indian feas, and has its name from often
Iwimming near or before {harks, which, it is laid, it
guides to its prey.
Centroga.
her.
Gen. 29. Centrcgaster.
Plead compreffed, fmooth •, gill-membrane generally
feven-rayed •, body depreffed and fmooth ; fins fpiny •,
ventral fins united by a membrane, which is fiunifti-
ed with four acute fpines and fix foft rays.
Brownijh centrogafier.—Brownifti, whitifti beneathjfufcefccni
live of file Tnnanele fens.
tail fomewhat forked.
Native of the Japaneie feas.
Silvery^
96
I C H T H
Thoracic
Fiflies.
argenta-
tus.
cquula.
rhombeus.
Silvery centrogafler.—Silvery, with a large brown
fpot on the nape, and a blackifh one on the dorfal fin.
Native of the Japanefe feas.
Saddled centrogajler.—Finlets and dorfal fin connate.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Rhombic centrogajler.—Ventral fins one-rayed. Na¬
tive of the Red fea.
Mullus.
barbatus.
furmule-
tus.
Trigla.
cata-
phracia.
lyra.
gurnardus
Mr undo.
Gen. 30. Mullus.
Head comprefled, Hoping, covered with fcales ; eyes
oblong, approximated, and vertical, with a militat¬
ing membrane 5 noftrils fmall and double 5 jaws and
palate rough, with very fmall teeth ; tongue thort,
narrow, fmooth and motionlefs ; gill-membrane three-
rayed 5 gill covers confifting of three finely ftriated
plates ; the aperture moderate ; body round, elonga¬
ted, red, with large and deciduous fcales.
Redfurmullet.—Two cirrhi ; the body red. Length
from 12 to 13 inches ; colour a fine rofe-red, with an
olive tinge on the back, and a filvery hue towards the
abdomen. It is found in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas, is very ftrong and ailive, and feeds principally
on fmaller fidies, worms, and infeils. The Roman epi¬
cures expended large fums in purchafing this fifli for
their tables ; contemplated, with inhuman pleafure, the
changes of its colours, during its flow expiration ; and
feafted on it with delight, when it was dreffed with rare
and coftly fauces.
Stripedfurmullet.—Two cirrhi, and light-yellow lon¬
gitudinal lines. Nearly refembling the preceding, and
equally delicate as a food. Inhabits the Mediterra¬
nean, and is fometimes found in the Atlantic.
The other fpecies are japonicus, auriflanvna, indi-
cus, bandi, vittatus, tr jafciatus, bifafeiatus, maculatils,
aureovittatus,, and imberbis.
Gen. 31. Trigla.
Head large, mailed, with rough lines ; eyes large,
round, and placed near the top of the head ; gape wide,
palate and jaws fet with'acute teeth ; noftrils double •,
gill-aperture large ; cover confifting of one radiated
aculeated plate ; gill membrane feven-rayed ; body
covered with fmall fcales ; back ftraight, with a
longitudinal furrow, fpiny on both fides ; lateral line
near the back, ftraight ; belly thick *, ventral and
pectoral fins large ; at each of the latter free and ar¬
ticulated finger-fhaped procefies.
Mailed gurnard.—Double fingers, fnout forked, and
elongated \ body mailed 5 length about 12 inches. Na¬
tive of the Mediterranean.
Piper gurnard.—Triple fingers ; nofirils tubular 5
length from one to two feet ; bright rofe-red, filvery
beneath. Native of the European feas ; confidered as
an excellent fifli for the table.
Gray gurnard.—Triple fingers j back marked with
black and red ipots $ length of the preceding. Native
of the European feas, and not uncommon about our own
coafts. Feeds on teftaceous and cruftaceous animals,
fpawns in May and June, and is good eating.
Tub JJh, ox Japphirine gurnard.—Triple fingers, la¬
teral line aculeated. Size of the gray gurnard. Native
of the European feas. Occafionally fprings out of the
water to fome diftance.
Y O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
Flying gurnard.—Sextuple fingers, conne&ed by a Abdominal
membrane. A highly lingular and beautiful fpecies, Fiflles-
which inhabits the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and In-
dian feas, where it fwims in (hoals, and frequently flies ^ l^ans'
out of the water to a confiderable diftance.
The Carolina, alata, minuta, cavil lone, pundlata,
adriatica, pini, chabrontera, cuculus, lucerna, lincata,
ajiatica, and cvolans, alfo belong to this genus.
Gen. 32. Trachichthys. TncfcicU.
Head rounded in front; eye large ; mouth wide, tooth-thys*
lefs, defeending 5 gill-membrane furnifhed with eight
rays, of which the four lowermoft are rough on the
edges ; fcales rough j abdomen mailed with large
carinated fcales.
Southern trachichthys.—Mailed abdomen. The whole auflralis-
of this curious fifli is ftrongly coated, and of a bright
pink ferruginous colour. It is a native of the coafts of
New Holland, and is minutely deferibed by Dr Shaw,
in his Naturalifts Mifcellany, and in the fourth volume
of his General Zoology ; a work from which we have
derived much afliftance in the compilement of the pre-
fent article.
IV. ABDOMINAL.
The fiflies of this order have the ventral fituated be¬
hind the pedtoral fins, or on the abdomen. They are
moftly inhabitants of the frefli waters.
Gen. 1. Cobitis. r ,...
Cobitis, /
Head fmall, oblong, and fcalelefs ; eye in the upper
part of the head ; nape flat ; gill-membrane from
four to fix rayed j gill covers formed of a Angle
plate, fliutting clofe below ; body covered with mu¬
cus and fmall deciduous fcales, and variegated with
bands and fpots, almoft equal 5 the tail towards the
caudal fin being a little narrowed \ back ftraight,
with a fingle fin ; lateral line fcarcely vifible } vent
near the tail, and the tail rounded.
Common or beardedloche.—Six beards • head fmooth, barhatula.
and comprefled. About three inches in length 5 mouth
fmall, toothlefs, and placed beneath. Common in clear
rivulets in many parts of Europe. Lives on aquatic
infects, worms, &c. Spawns in fpring, is very proli¬
fic, dies very foon after being taken out of the water,
and even when placed for any length of time in ftill
water. It is very delicate eating, but quickly lofes its
fine flavour.
Spiny loche, or the armed loche.—Six beards, a fpine tcenia.
below the eyes. Refembles the preceding, and is found
in various parts of Europe, concealing itfelf below
ftones, feeding on worms, aquatic infefts, andthefpawn
and fry of fifties. It is about five inches long, is tena¬
cious of life, utters a hilling found when handled, and
is feldom eaten by man.
Great loche.—Eight beards ; a fpine above the eye. fojilu.
The largeft of the genus, inhabiting large lakes, and'
marfhes in the midland countries of Europe- Reftlefs
on the approach of ftormy weather.
The other known fpecies are heteroclita and ja~
ponica.
Gen. 2,
Chap. IV.
Abdominal
Fiflies.
Anableps.
Gen. 2. Axaeleps.
tetroph-
thalmus.
Amia.
calva.
Silurus.
glanis.
tfleciricus.
afcita.
Head fomewhat depreffed 5 mouth terminal j teeth fmall,
and placed on the jaws ; eyes protuberant, with
double pupils j gill-membrane fix-rayed.
<atus.
Four-eyed anab/eps. Colitis anableps of Linnaeus.—
Yellowilh-gray, with longitudinal black lines on each
fide. Length from fix to eight or ten inches. Its
general appearance like that of a loche ; but its eyes
differ from thofe of every known fifh, each being ap¬
parently divided into two diflimft eyes, united in a com¬
mon receptacle j on difieftion, however, this obfervation
is found to apply only to the anterior half of the organ.
This fith is a native of South America, principally fre¬
quenting the rivers of Surinam, near the fea-coafls.
Gen. 3. Amia.
Head bony, naked, rough, and furnifhed with futures j
teeth acute, and clofe in the jaws and palate 5 two
beards at the nofe 5 gill-membrane twelve-rayed j
body fcaly.
Carolinian atnia.—With a black fpot at the tail ;
fmall, of a roundifh form, and feldom eaten. Inhabits
Carolina.
Gen. 4. Silurus.
Head naked, large, broad, and compreffed 5 mouth fur¬
nifhed with beards ; gape and throat wide ; lips thick;
jaws dentated $ tongue thick, fmooth, and very fhort $
eyes final] j gill-membrane furnifhed with from four
to fix teen rays ; body elongated, compreffed, feale-
lefs, covered with vifcid flime j lateral line near the
back j the firft ray of the pectoral fins, or of the dor-
fal fin, fpiny, and dentated backward.
Sly, or European JHurus.—One foft dorfal fin ; fix
beards. Grows to the length of eight, ten, or even fif¬
teen feet, and to the weight of three hundred pounds j
but its ordinary fize is from two to three or four feet.
It is fluggiih, and ufually lies half imbedded in the foft
bottoms of the rivers which it frequents, with its mouth
half-open, moving about its beards, which the finaller
fillies miflaking for worms, lay hold of, and are entrap¬
ped. It inhabits the larger rivers of Europe, as well
as fome parts of Alia and Africa, but is in no high ef-
timation as a food.
EleEtnc Jilurus.—With one adipofe dorfal fin, and
fix beards. About twenty inches long, very broad in
the fore-part, deprefled, and of a cinereous colour, with
fome blackilh fpots towards the tail. Is found in fome
rivers in Africa, and when ftruck, gives a galvanic
Ihock, though not fo ftrong as that from the torpedo
and gymnotus. It is ufed as food.
^fcitic Jilurus.—Brown, alh-coloured beneath, with
beards longer than the body •, forked tail, and eleven
rays in the anal fin. The young of this fpecies are ex¬
cluded in the form of large ova, the integuments of
which they foon break, but adhere to the parent till
the yolk is confumed. Native of India.
Cat Jilurus,— I he hinder dorfal fin adipofe ; twenty
rays in the anal fin, and eight beards. Inhabits the fea
and rivers of North America, preying on all kinds of
fmaller filhes, and not fparing even thofe of its own
Vol. XL Part I.
ICHTHYOLOGY. 9
kind. Taftes like an eel, and is muck relilhed by the Abdominal
Americans. Fillies.
The other fpecies are denominated inilitaris, bagre,
hertzbergii, inermis, galeatus, nodofus, bimaculatus, faf-
ciatus, clarias, quadrimaculatus, erythropterus, batra-
chus, fojjilis, vittatus, atherinoides, ajotus, myjtus, an-
gull laris, undecimalis, cornutus, felts, cous, carinatus,
docmac, chilenfis, and bajad.
Gen. 5. Platystacus. Platyftacus;
Habit of filurus j mouth beneath, bearded with cirrhi 5
body fcalelefs, depreffed j tail long, compreffed.
Acetabulatedplatyjlacus, Silurus afpredo of Linnaeus, cotylepho-
Grows to the length of a foot or more, has a very un-rar.
couth appearance, and is remarkable for the many fmall
acetabular procefies, or fuckers, with which the body is
befet. Native of the Indian feas and rivers.
Smooth platyjlacus.—Eight beards, and plain abdo-
men. Very like the preceding, but wants the abdo¬
minal fuckers.
Wartedplatyjlacus.—Brown, marked above by Ion- verruca-
gitudinal warted lines, with finort anal fin. Smaller,y«j-.
and lefs elongated than the two preceding. Native of
the Indian feas.
Eel-Jbaped platyjlacus.—Brown, with longitudinal anguilla-
white ftripes, and the fecond dorfal, anal, and caudal rA.
fin united. Length twelve or fifteen inches. Native
of the Indian feas.
Gen. b. LoRICARIA. Loricaria.
Head fmooth, depreffed j mouth w ithout teeth, and re-
tra&ile j gill-membrane fix-rayed j body covered
with a hard cruft.
Ribbedloricaria. Silurus cojlatus of Linnaeus.—Yel-cojlata.
lowilh brown, mailed with a fingle row of fhields on each
fide ', tail forked. This is a fpecies of great ftrength
and boldnefs, which inflifts very painful and dangerous
wounds with its fpines. It is a native of the Indian
and American feas.
Armed loricaria.—-One dorfal fin, two beards j length cata-
about ten or twelve inches. Much allied to the ^xz-phra£la.
ceding, but has a rounded tail. Native of the Ameri¬
can feas.
Soldier loricaria. S’lurus calhchthys of Linnaeus.'—callich-
Brown, with depreffed rounded head; double row o{thys.
fcales on each fide, and rounded tail. Native of South
America, where it is in eonfiderable efteem as a food.
Speckled loricaria.—Yellow, with brownifli back -funBata,
double row of fcales on each fide ; fins fpeckled with
black ; and forked tail. Only five or fix inches long,
but very elegant. Native of the rivers of Surinam.
Toothed loricaria.—Lengthened ; yellow ifti brown ; dentata.
with toothed, bearded mouth, and flightly pointed
fnout. Native of (lie Indian feas.
Yellow loricaria. Loricaria plecq/tomus of Linnaeus. Pan a
Yellow, fpotted with brown ; two dorlal fins; and tail
marked by tranfverfe bands. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 7. Salmo.
Head fmooth and compreffed ; mouth large; lips fmall
tongue white, cartilaginous, and moveable ; eyes
middle-fized ; lateral teeth in the jaws and tongue j
gill-membrane furnilhed with four to ten rays; gill-
N cover
Salmo.
§8
Abdominal cover .confifting of three plates 5 body elongated,
, ^ i^les- t covered with round feales minutely ftriated 5 back
flraight 5 lateral line ftraight, and near the back $
hinder dorfal fin adipofe j ventral fins many-rayed.
Moft of the fillies of this genus frequent pure and
rapid fireams •, a few of them inhabit the fea, but enter
rivers for the purpofe of depofiting their fpawn in
fpring, and return to the fea in autumn. They feed
on infefts and other fithes, and their flefii is much re-
liflied as a food. We fiiall confine our notices to a few
of the mofi: important and remarkable Ipecies.
falar. Common falmon.—The upper jaw projecting beyond
the under. The general length of the falmon is from
two and a half to three feet ; but is faid to be fome-
times found the length of fix feet, and Mr Pennant
mentions one of *74 pounds weight as the largeft he ever
heard of. The general colour of both fexes is a filvery
gray, of a much darker call on tin back \ the fides of
the male are marked with many 1'mall, dulky and cop¬
per coloured fpots, while the markings on the female are
larger, mere diftant, and ruundifh, or lunated. The male
is alfo of a more {lender form than the female. This fifli,
which is fo highly efleemed for the delicacy of its
flavour, and which forms fuch an important article of
commerce, occurs chiefly in the fait and frefli waters of
the northern regions, being unknown in the Mediter¬
ranean and other warm climates j but frequenting fome
of the rivers in France, which empty themfelves into
the ocean, and being found as far north as Greenland
and the northern parts of North America. It quits the
fea at certain periods to depofit its fpawn in the gravelly
beds of rivers, often afeending to a great diftance from
their mouths, forcing itfelf againft themoft rapid ftreams,
and leaping with furprifing agility over catarafds of a
confiderable height. On the river Liffey, the fa1 ;on
are often obferved to fall back before they furmount the
cataraft, which is 19 feet high } and bafkets are placed
near the edge of the ft ream to catch them as they fall.
At the falls of Kilmorack in Scotland, where the fal¬
mon are very numerous, the country people are ac-
cuftomed to lay branches of trees on the edge of the
rocks, and thus intercept fuch of the fifli as mifs their
leap. Alongfide one of thefe falls the late Lord Lovat
ordered a kettle full of water to be placed over a fire,
and many minutes bad not elapfed before a large falmon
made a falfe leap and fell into it. When the falmon
enter the frefli water in winter, they are more or iefs in-
fefted with the falmon-loufe, {Lernceafalmonea Lin.)
and are then reckoned to be in high feafon. Thefe in¬
fers, however, foon die and drop off, and the fifli be¬
comes lean at fpawning time. The male and female
unite in forming a receptacle in the fand or gravel,
about 18 inches deep, for the ova, and having covered
up the latter, which are not hatched till the enfuing
fpring, haflen to the fait water much emaciated, and foon
recover their plumpnefs. The fry appear about the end
of M arch, and are five or fix inches in length, in the be¬
ginning of May, when they are called falmon fmeltx or
fmouts. The firtf flood fweeps them in immenfe fwarms
into the fea. About the middle of June, the largeft: of
thefe begin to return into the rivers. Towards the end
cf July, they are called gife, and weigh from fix to
nine pounds. Their food is other fifli, infefts, and
worms} but as no food is found in their ftomach during
Chap. IV.
fpawning time, it is probable that they neglecl it during Abdominal
that feafon. The fiftiing feafon commences in the Tweed , Flflies- _
on the 30th of November, and ends about old Michael- ' v'
mas day. A particular account of this fiftiery occurs in the
third volume of Pennant’s Britifli Zoology, to which
we beg leave to refer our readers,—A perfon of the
name of Graham (fays Mr Bingley), who farms the fea-
coafl: fifliery at Whitehaven, has adopted a fuccefsful
mode of taking falmon, which he has appropriately de¬
nominated falmon-hunting. When the tide is out, and
the fifli are left in {hallow waters, intercepted by fand
banks, near t^ie mouth of the river 3. or when they are
found in any inlets up the fhore, where the water is*
not more than from one foot to four feet in depth, the
place where they lie is to be difeovered by their agitation
of the pool. This man, armed with a three-pointed
barbed fpear, with a {haft of 15 feet in length, mounts
his horfe, and plunges, at a fwift trot, cr moderate gal¬
lop, belly deep, into the water. He makes ready his fpear
with both bands 3 when he overtakes the falmon, he
lets go one hand, and with the other ftrikes the fpear,
with almoft unerring aim, into the fifli : this done, by
a turn of the band he raifes the falmon to the furface of
the water, turns his horfe head to the fliore, and runs
the falmon on dry land without difmounting. This
man fays, that by the prefent mode he can kill from 40
to 50 in a day : ten are however no defpicable day’s
work for a man and horfe. His father was probably
the firft man that ever adopted this method oi killing
falmon cn horfeback.”-—In the inteftinal canal oi* iai-
mon is often found a fpecies of tteniat about three feet in
length 3 and Dr Bloch mentions, that in a fpecimen
which had been three weeks dead, he found one of thefe
worms flill living.
Gray falmon, or gray.—With afh-coloured fpots, themed
extreme part of the tail equal. Weighs from 13 to 20
pounds. The head is larger in proportion than in the
preceding ipecies 3 it is a llrong fi!b, and does not afeend
the frefti water till Auguft, when it rufties up with great
violence, and is feldom taken.
Salmon trout, fea trout, or bull trout.—Marked with truttcu.
black ocellated fpots, the middle brownifti, fix dots on
the peftoral fins. The general appearance very like
the common falmon, but feldom equal to it in fize.
Like the falmon it inhabits the European feas, pafling
into rivers to depofit its fpawn. Its fiefh, too, is of
equal delicacy. The vifeid mucus which covers the
Ikin pofleffes the quality of exhibiting phofphoric light.
Common trout.—With red fpots, the lower jaw rz-fario,
ther longer than the upper. The general length of this
fpecies is from 1 2 to 15 or 16 inches 3 the ground co¬
lour yellow ifh gray, darker on the back, and marked
on the fides by feveral {haggling, round, bright-red
fpots, each furrounded by a tinge of pale blue gray.
The colouring however, is fubjeft to confiderable variety.
The trout is a common inhabitant of European ftreams
and lakes, preferring thofe that are clear and cold,
living on worms, fmall fifties, and aquatic infe£ls and
their larvte. Like the falmon, it occafionally {prings
over obftacles in its courfe. It ufually fpawns in Sep¬
tember or O61ober. Thofe which are in moft requeft
for the table, are native,s.of the cleareft waters.— 1 he
gillaroo trouts which are found in the lakes of Galway,
in Ireland, are not fpecifically different from the com¬
mon, but their ftomachs acquire an extraordinary de¬
gree
ICHTHYOLOG Y.
Chap. IV. I C H T II
Abdominal gree of tliicknek and mufcular force, a circumftanee
which is afcribed to their living much on fliell-filh, and
"* fwallowing fmall ftones.
hicho. Hucho falmon.—Oblong, two rows of teeth in the
palate, marked with flightly blackifh fpots. More
flender fliaped than the common falmon, and its flefli
not fo firm. Inhabits the Danube, the Bavarian and
Auftrian lakes, and the rivers of Ruflia and Siberia.
nlpinus, Alpine trout, or charr.—Back black, fides bluifh,
belly reddilh yellow. Length about a foot. In great
requeft for the table. Native of the Alpine lakes and
rivers, as well as of thofe of Germany, Lapland, Swe¬
den, &c. Found in fome of the lakes of Cumberland
and Weftmoreland, Loch-Leven in Scotland, Stc.
fafaelinus. Salvelin trouts or red ckarr.—About a foot in length,
the upper jaw longeft. Inhabits nearly the fame regions
as the preceding, and is equally elteemed for the deli¬
cacy of its flavour.
tperlanus. Smelt fa'mon, or /melt ; fpirling or fparimg of the
Scotch.—Head tranfparent, 17 rays in the anal fin.
Of an elegant, tapering form, and of a very peculiar
flavour, whieh fome compare to rulhes, others to violets,
and others to cucumbers. It varies in length, from fix
to 12 inches, inhabits the feas of Europe, and afcends
rivers for the purpofe of fpawning, early in fpring. In
the Thames and the Dee, however, they are taken in
great quantities in November, December, and January.
There is a fmaller variety which abounds in the north
of Europe.
4avarctus. Gwiniadfalmon, or gwiniad.—The upper jaw long-
eft, 14 rays in the dorfal fin. Refembles a trout, but
is thicker in proportion. Inhabits the lakes of the Al¬
pine parts of Europe, and thofe of Cumberland, Wales,
and Ireland. It occurs alfo in Loch Lomond, in Scot¬
land, where it is called powan. A fifherman at UHs-
water is faid to have taken between feven and eight
thoufand of this fpecies at one draught. Its ufual
length is from ten to twelve inches. According to Dr
Bloch, the gvjiniad alfo inhabits the northern lea, and
the Baltic.
dlbula. Marcenulafalmon.—-Jaws writhout teeth, the under
one longeft. Length about fix inches 5 fliape like that
of a trout, but more flender. Native of feveral of the
European lakes, and much efteemed as a food. At
Lochmaben, the only place in Scotland where it oc¬
curs, it is-called According to tradition, it
was brought to Lochmaben, from England, in the time
of Robert Bruce.
■ihjmallus. Grayling falmon, or grayling.—Xlyptx jaw the long¬
eft, 23 rays in the dorfal fin. About the length of 18
inches. Frequents the clearer and colder rivers in many
parts of Europe and Alia, particularly thofe which flow
through mountainous countries. It is an elegant fpecies,
voracious, and of quick growth j fpawns in April and
May ; has white, firm, and fine flavoured flelh, and is
confidered to be in higheft feafon in the middle of win¬
ter.
To this genus alfo belong leno'k, nelina, taifnen, ery-
thrinus, pbinoc, falmulus, fchieffermiilleri, gadenu, fal~
mannus, carpio, lepechim, lacujlris, umbla, argentinus,
arBicus, fcgnalis, riva/is, froemii, faurus, tumbil,
fastens, grcenlandicus, dentex, gibbofus, not at us, bimacu-
latus, immaculatus, cyprinoides, niloticus, agyptius, pul¬
verulent us, anajlomus, rhombeus, gajleropelecus, falca-
ius, fafeiatus, friderici, unimaculatus, melanurus, ful-
Y O L O G Y. 99
vus, migratorius, autumr.alls, wartmanni, rojlratus, na- Abdominal
fus, marcena, peled, pidfehan, mudfchan,fchokur, mulleri,, ^ ll'hes‘ ,
vimba, oxyrhinchus, leucichthys, and edentulus.
Gen. 8. Acanthonotus. Acamho-
Body elongated, without dorfal fin. Several fpines on11 tU
the back and abdomen.
* Snouted acanthonotus.—Gray, w ith the back tranf-mr/ax,
verfely barred with brown. The only known fpecies of
this genus. The fpecimen deferibed by Bloch mea-
fured two feet and a half. Native of the Indian feas.
Geh. 9. Fistularia.
Fiflularift.
Snout cylindrical, with jaws at the apex j gill mem¬
brane feven-rayed.
Slenderfiftularia or tobacco-pipe fifh.—Tail bifid and t abac aria.
fetiferous. Length three or four feet, fliape refembling
that of an eel 5 the head about nine inches long, from
the eyes to the tip of the mouth. From the middle of
the furcature of the tail, proceeds a very long and
thickilh briftle, like whalebone, which gradually tapers
to a very fine point. The fpine of this Angular fifh is
alfo of a very peculiar ftru&ure, the firft vertebra being
of immoderate length, the three next much fhorter, and
the reft gradually decreafing as they approach the tail.
It inferts its long fnout into the hollows of rocks, under
ftones, &c. to lay hold on the fmaller fifties, worms,
and fea infedls on which it chiefly feeds. Inhabits Ame¬
rica and Japan, and is edible.
Chinefe jijiularia, or chinefe trumpet Jifb.—Simple chinenfs*
rounded tail. Body thicker in proportion than in the
preceding fpecies. Native of the Indian fea*, though
its foflil impreflions have been found under the volcanic
ftrata of Monte Boka, near Verona.
Paradoxical fijlularia.—Finely reticulated, with par a dor a.,
fiightly prominent lines, and lanceolate tail. Length
from two to four inches, body angular, and the whole
filh bearing a clofe refemblance to a Syngnatkus. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
Gen. 10. Esox. £fot
Head fomewbat flat above ; mouth and gullet wide j
jaws dentated, unequal; the upper plane, under punc¬
tured j tongue broad and loofe, palate fmooth j eyes
round, middle fized, and lateral j noftrils double j near
the eyes rays; body elongated, covered with hard,
feales, convex above, cotnprefled at the fides-j lateral
line ftraight, neareft the back, fcarcely confpicuous j
jiorfal and anal fins very ftiort and oppofite.
Sea-pihe, or fpit-fijh.—Two dorfal fins, the anteriorfohyrane,
fpiny- Of a filvery bluifti colour, dulky on the back,
and flightly tinged with yellow on the head and about
the gills. Grows to the length of nearly two feet. In¬
habits the Mediterranean and Atlantic j and has fome-
what the flavour of the cod.
Bonyfcaled pike.—Upper jaw the longeft, fcaJes bony.^j^
This laft character gives it a very Angular appearance.
It attains to the length of three to four feet, inhabits
the American lakes and rivers, is very voracious, and
is an excellent filh for the table.
Common pike, or pickerel.—Snout depreffed, and near- juc{u{a
ly equal. Head very flat j the teeth very lharp and nu¬
merous, being difpofed not only in' front of the upper
N 2
jaw.
1°0 I C H T H
A Rfhes^i3"'’ *U ^0t:^ <U' ^ie ^ower» ’n ^ie r0Q^
t -,—vKS' ■ raouth, and often on the tongue, amounting to at lead:
700. I he ordinary colour of this fifh is pale olive gray,
deeped on the back, and marked on the fides by feveral
yellWifh fpotsj the abdomen is white, (lightly fpotted
with black. According to Pennant, the larged fpeci-
men of Englilh growth weighed 35 pounds. Thofe of
Lapland fometimes meafure eight feet. It is a prover¬
bially voracious fpecies. “ We have known one, (fays Mr
Pennant), that was choaked by attempting to fwallow
one of its own fpecies that proved too large a rnorfel.
Yet its jaws are very loofely connected, and have on
each fide an additional bone like the jaw of a viper,
which renders them capable of greater didenfion when
it fwallows its prey. It does not confine itfelf to feed
on fifh and frogs j it will devour the water rat, and
draw down the young ducks as they are fwimming about.
In a manufcript note, which we found, p. 244. of our
copy of P/ott's Hidory of Staffordjlnre, is the following
extraordinary fad : “ At Lord Gower's canal at
Trentkam, a pike feized the head of a fwan as die was
feeding under water, and gorged fo much of it as kil¬
led them both. The fervants perceiving the fwan with
its head under water for a longer time than ufual, took
the boat, and found both fwan and pike dead.”—The
fmaller fifhes manifed the fame uneafinefs and horror
at the prefence of the pike, as little birds at the fight
of the hawk or owl. If we may credit fome natu-
ralids of name, the longevity of the pike is not lefs
remarkable than its voracity. Rzaczynfki, in his Na¬
tural Hidory of Poland, tells us of one that was 90
years old \ but Gefner relates, that in the year 1497, one
was taken near Hailburn, in Swabia, with a brazen
ring affixed to it, on which were thefe words in Greek
chara61ers : “ I am the fiffi which was fird of all put
into this lake by the hands of the Governor of the
Univerfe, Frederick the Second, the 5th of October
1230.”—The pike fpawns in March and April, and is
faid to be of very quick growth.
belone. Gar-pLe, gar-jijh, or horn-jijh.—Both jaws fubulat-
ed. General length from two to three feet, the body
{lender, and the belly flat. The back is of a very fine
green, beneath which is a rich changeable blue and
purple cad, while the fides and belly are of a bright
filver colour. The jaws are very long and {lender, and
the edges of both are armed with numerous fliort {len¬
der teeth. Native of the European feas, arriving in
ffioals on the Britilh coads, preceding the mackrel.
The fpine and bones acquire a green colour by boiling,
notvvithdanding which it is eaten with perfeft fafety.
The other fpecies are barracuda, vulpes, maJubari-
cus, fynodus, hepfetus, argenteus, gymnocephalus, bra/i-
lienjis, chirocentrus, cJiinenjts, aureoviridis, becuna, fau-
rus, cepedianus, chilenjis, viridis, and Jiomias.
Polypterus. Gen. 11. Poi.YPTERUS.
Gill-membrane fingle-rayed ; dorfal fins numerous.
niloticus. Nilotic polypterus.—Green, with the abdomen fpot¬
ted with black. Of a long and ferpentine ffiape, the
body being nearly cylindrical, and covered with firong
and adhering fcales. The pe&oral and ventral fins are
attached by a fcaly bafe ; and the dorfal, to the num¬
ber of 16, 17, or 18, and of an ovate fliape, run along
She whole length of the back. Native of the Nile, and
Y G L O G Y. • Xhap. lV.
one of the bed fiffies which that river produceSj but■A-bclominal
very rare. The Egyptians call it bichir. Fithes.
Gen. 12. Flops. Ebps.
Head finooth j numerous fmall teeth in the margin of
the jaw and in toe palate j gill-membrane with 30
rays, and armed in the middle externally with five
teeth.
Saury e/ops, great faury, fein-jifh, or fca gally-wafp.fauruu
—The tail armed above and below with a fpine.
About 14 inches long, and has fome refemblance to a
falmon, but wants the adipofe fin. Native of the
American feas.
Gen. 1,5. Argentina. Argentina.
Teeth in the jaws and tongue; gill-membrane eight-
rayed j vent near the tail j ventral fins with many
rays.
Pearl-bladdered argentine.—Anal fin nine-rayed. Kfphjrcena*
fmall brilliant fifli, inhabiting the Mediterranean, and
affording, by its air-bladder and fcales, fome of the bed
kind of filvery matter ufed in the preparation of artifi¬
cial pearls.
The other fpecies are giojfodonta, Carolina, and mack-
nata.
Gen. 14. AtHERINA. Atherma.
The upper jaw fomewhat flat; gill-membrane fix-rayed,
a filvery ffripe along the fide.
Mediterranean atherine.—About 12 rays in the anal hepfetus*
fin. An elegant fpecies, of the length of fix or feven
inches, and fliaped like a fmelt. Native of the Medi¬
terranean and Red feas. Alfo found on the coad of
Southampton, where they are often called by the name
of fnelts.
To the fame genus belong menidia, fhama, japonic a,
brofonii, and pinguis.
Gen. 15. Mugil. MugiL
Lips membranaceous, the under one carinated within ;
no teeth, but a denticle above the opening of the
mouth ; gill-membrane 7-rayed ; gill-covers fmooth,
rounded j body whitifh.
Mullet, or common mullet.—Five rays in the fird cephalus,
dorfal fin.—Length from 12 to 16 inches 5 colour blu- 1
ilh gray, darker on the back, and filvery on the abdo¬
men. Very common in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas, chiefly haunting the {hallows near the fhores,
and feeding on marine worms, infefls, and plants. It
likewife occurs in the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In
the fpring and early fummer months, it afeends rivers.
The roe is often prepared into an inferior kind of ca¬
viar, called botargo ; and the fiffr itfelf, though not fa-
fliionable in our own country, is reckoned excellent for
the table. In plentiful feafons, it is dried and faked.
The other fpecies are crenilabis, albula, malabaricus,
tangyplumieri, casruleomaculatus, chilenjis, and chanos.
Gen. 16. Exocoetus. Exocoetus,
Head fcaly, no teethj jaws convex on both fides; gill-
membrane ten-rayed ; body whitiffi, belly angulat-
ed ; peftoral fins very long, adapted to flying ; the
rays carinated before.
Oceanic
Chap. IV.
Abdominal Oceanic fiying JiJh.
Fillies.
uoliians.
ixi/iens.
i C H T H
Abdomen carinated on both
Tides. Of a bright" filver colour, gradually deepening
into purpliih brown on the back •, the peftoral fins duT-
ky, the dorfal and anal yellowith, and the ventral
fins and tail reddilh. It is a native of the American
and Indian Teas, but is occafionally oblerved in the
Mediterranean ; and Pennant mentions an inllanee of
its being Teen about the Britifh coafts. The largenefs
of the air-bladder, and the peculiar ftru&ure of the
mouth, which can be clofed while the jaws are open,
affift its power of flight.
Mediterranean Jhjing Jij'h--—rYh.<; Ye.Yi\.xa\ fins reaching
to the tail. The general length of this fpecies is from
12 to 15 or 16 inches 5 and its general Thape is not
unlike that of a herring, to which it is alfo compared
as an eatable fifh. It is of a bright filvery call, with
a blue or dufky tinge on the upper part. It is frequent¬
ly obferved in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, fome-
times fingly, and fometimes in fhoals. During the de¬
cline of its flight, it fometimes falls into fliips ; the
height, however, at which it generally exercifes its
flight, is about three feet above the furface of the wa¬
ter. From the length and fize of the pectoral fins, it is
enabled to continue this motion through the air to the
difiance of 200 or 300 feet, when the fins becoming
dry, it is again obliged to have recourfe to the water.
Here it is perfecuted by the dorado, bonito, dolphin,
and other predacious fifiies, while, in its aerial career,
it is equally haraffed by the gull and the albatrofs.
American fiying-Jiff).—Silvery bluifh, with the ven¬
tral fins fituated on the middle of the abdomen. Na¬
tive of the Atlantic ocean.
commerfo- Commerfonian Jiijing-Jifb.—With a dark blue fpot on
the dorfal fin. Native of the Indian Teas.
mefoga-
fier.
Polynemus.
Gen. 17. Polynemus.
Head comprefied and fcaly ; fnout very obtufe and pro¬
minent ; gill-membrane with five or feven rays, fe-
parate finger-like proceffes at the peftoral fins.
paradife- Varadife polijneme, the fifh of Paradife, or mango-
us. —Seven fingers, and forked tail. Grows to the
length of about 12 or 15 inches, and the thoracic fila¬
ments are very long, the outer ones often extending
beyond the tail, and the others gradually fhortening.
It inhabits the Indian Teas, and is reckoned by much
the moft delicate fifh at Calcutta.
plebeius Plebeianpolyneme.—Five fingers, the firft reaching
beyond the vent, the others gradually fhorter. Refem-
bles a mullet, except that the head is much blunted.
It fometimes meafures upwards of four feet, is a native
of the Indian and American Teas, and is confidered as
an excellent fifh for the table.
dfiinquanus, niloticus, decada£ly!ns, indie its ^ tetra-
daBy/us, virgmicus, commerfonii, and plumieri^ compofe
the reft of the genus.
Clupea. Gen. 18. Clupea.
Head compreffed ; mouth compreffed, and denticulat¬
ed within *, jaws unequal, the upper furnifhed with
ferrated fide-plates j tongue ihort, rough, with teeth
turned inwards •, eyes middle-fized, round and mar¬
ginal ; gills internally fetaceous, their covers confift-
ing of three or four plates, the membranes eight-
3b
Y O L O G Y. icr
rayed j body comprcffed, elongated, covered with Abdominal
feales ; lateral line ftraight, near and parallel to the 'Flflics- t
back •, under part of the abdomen forming a ferrated
ridge ; ventral fins often with nine rays, caudal long
and forked.
Herring.—Without fpots j the under jaw the long- harengus..
eft. In fize, this well-known fifh is found to vary very
confiderably, though the general length may be reckon¬
ed from 10 to 12 or 13 inches. The back is of a dufky
blue or greenlfh, and in the recent or living fifh, the
gill-covers are marked by a reddifh or violet-coloured
fpot. The feales are rather large, and adhere flightly.
The fins are rather fmall, and the tail is much forked.
In moft fpecimens, the anal fin has 1 7 rays. The her¬
ring inhabits the northern feas of Europe, and the At¬
lantic ocean, and is feldom found farther fouth than the
coaft of France. Its food principally confifts of fmall
fifties, fea worms, and a minute fpecies of crab, cancer
halecum, which abounds in the Norwegian feas. When
it has fed on this laft, its inteftines are filled with the
red ova of the infetl, and is unfit for being falted. At
fpawning time itsftomach is always empty, which feems
to indicate that, like the falmon, and fome other fifties,
it is, at that feafon, quite negligent of food. Herrings
fpawn at different feafons, fome in fpring, fome in fum-
mer, and fome in autumn, when they approach our
ftiores in immenfe ftioals. But the reality of their long
and periodical migrations is by no means afeertained.
On the contrary, it is more probable, that, like the
mackrel, they pafs the winter in deep water, or in the
foft mud aUhe "bottom, at no very great diftance from
the ftiores. They dre, in faff, found about fome of
the European coafts lit almoft every feafon of the year;
and the alleged rapidjty of theirnorthern voyages great¬
ly exceeds the fwifteft progrefs of which they are capa¬
ble. They are the ceafelefs prey of feveral of the ceta¬
ceous tribe of animals, of various fifties, and of different
forts of fea fowl, particularly of the gannet, or folan
goofe. Notwithftanding the great importance of this
fifti to the inhabitants of modern Europe, we find no
certain defeription of it in any of the Greek or Roman
writers. The Dutch engaged in the herring-fiftiery in
1x64, and the difeovery of the pickling procefs is af-
cribed to William Beukelen, of Biervlet, near Sluys.
He died in 1397 ; and Charles V. in honour of his
memory, paid a folemn vifit to his tomb.
Pilchard.—Silvery, with dufley back, and \-\xgzpilchardiiS'.
ftrongly adherent feales. Very like the preceding, but
fmaller and thicker, with larger feales, and the dorfal
fin placed exadlly in the centre of gravity. Very fre¬
quent on fome of the European coafts. Ufually vilits
the ftiores of Cornwall in vaft ftioals, about the middle
of July, and difappears on the commencement of win¬
ter. On the 5th of October, 1767, there were includ¬
ed in St Ives’ Bay 7000 hogftieads, each of which
contained 35,000 fifti, in all 24 millions.
Sprat.—With 16 or 17 rays in the dorfal fin. Afprattus*.
very fmall fpecies, like the fry of herring ; but it has
a ftrongly ferrated abdomen, and only 48 vertebrae in
the back-bone, whereas the herring has 56. Inhabits
the northern and Mediterranean feas, and approaches
the ftiores in countlefs fwarms, in autumn.
Shad.—Black fpots on the Tides, the fnout bifid. In alefa*
general appearance refembles the pilchard j but is much
larger,,
io2 I C H T H Y
Abdominal larger, ai*d much thinner in proportion. Native of
, rthe Mediterranean and northern feas. In fpring, it
afcends rivers for the purpofe of depoliting its fpavrn.
X.ike the herring, it dies almoft immediately on being
taken out of the water. Though prepared for the table
in many countries, it is rather coarfe and infipid.
encrajico- Anchovy.—The upper jaw longed. Ufual length
lus. from three to four inches, of a fomewhat lengthened
form, and covered with large, thin, and eafily deciduous
fcales. Native of the Mediterranean, northern, and
Atlantic feas. Spawns from December to March. It
is in great requeft as a pickle, the bones diflblving en¬
tirely in boiling. The principal anchovy fifhery is
about the fmall illand of Gorgona, near Leghorn.
The remaining fpecies are tnalabarica, africana, fi¬
ne n/is, thrijfa, gigantea, atherinsides, fetirojiris, dor ab,
tubcrculata, chryfoptera, fafeiata, nefm, macrocephala,
and tropica.
Cyprirms. Gen. 19. CyPRINTJS.
Without teeth ; mouth in the apex of the head, and
bifulcated', gill-membrane three-rayed j bodyfmooth
and whitifh j ventral fins generally nine-rayed.
Molt of the cyprini inhabit the frelh waters, and are
much elteemed as food. They live on clay, mould,
worms, infe&s, and leguminous and aquatic plants,
though feme of them alfo prey on other fillies. Molt
of them fpawn in April or May.
barbus. Barbel.—Anal fin feven-rayed, four beards ; fecond
ray of the dorfal fin ferrated on both fides. Has fome¬
what the habit of a pike, and is ufually found in deep
and rapid rivers in molt of the middle and fouthern parts
of Europe. It is eafily diltinguilhed by its two pair of
long and unequal beards. Its ordinary length is from
28 inches to two feet. Though capable of fwimming
with Itrength and rapidity, it fometimes allows itfelf to
be taken by the hand by divers employed for that pur¬
pofe. It is a coarfe filh j and the roe is faid to operate
as an emetic and cathartic.
varpio. Carp.-*-hxi?L\ fin nine-rayed, four beards, the fecond
ray of the dorfal fin ferrated behind. The molt com¬
mon colour of this fpecies is a yellowilh olive, much
deeper on the back, with a gilded tint on the fide. In
our own country it meafures from 1 2 to 16 inches in
length j but in warmer climates attains to a much lar¬
ger fize, and fometimes weighs from 20 to 40 pounds,
it feeds chiefly on worms and water infedts, and fre¬
quents the lakes and fmall rivers in the fouthern parts
of Europe, ufually decreafing in fize the farther it is
removed into a northern region. It is very tenacious
of life, and may be kept for a confiderable time in any
damp place, though not immerfed in water } and well
authenticated inftances are quoted of its attaining to the
age of more than a century. It is faid to have been
introduced into England about the year 1514. In Ger¬
many and Poland, it is cultivated as a confiderable ar*
tide of commerce. A carp of three pounds w eight
will produce 237,000 ova, and one of nine pounds-,
621,600. A green pigment is obtained from its bile,
and ifinglafs from its air bladder. It is reckoned one
of the molt delicate of frelh-w'ater fillies. A variety
occurs in home parts of Germany, with very large feales,
and termed by Bloch rex cyprinorum.
gobfo. .Gudgeon.—Andi fin eleven-rayed, two beards. Ge-
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
neral length from four to five or fix inches •, the body Abdominal
thick and fomewhat cylindrical, for the moft part of a Gflies.
pale olive brown above, the fides filvery, and the ab-
domen white. This is a very prolific fpecies, and de-
pofits its fpawn, at intervals, in the fpring. Inhabits
fmall lakes and gently flowing rivers in mofl: parts of
Europe, and is particularly abundant in fome parts of
Germany, efpecfally in autumn. In requelt for the
table.
Tench.—Anal fin with 25 rays j tail entire-j body tinea..
flimy } two boards. I he ordinary length of the tench
is about 12 or 14 inches 5 but it varies confiderably
both in fize and colour, according to its fituation. It
refides in ftagnant waters with muddy bottoms, in moft
parts of the globe, depofits its minute greenifli ova in
May and June, is very prolific, of quick growth, and
is fuppofed by fome to hibernate in the mud of the wa¬
ters which it inhabits. It is reputed a delicate fifli for
the table. In Mr Daniel’s Rural Sports, w^e find tha
following remarkable paffage. “ A piece of water, at
Thornville Royal, Yorklhire, which had been ordered
to be filled up, and wherein wood, rubbilh, &c. had
been thrown for years, was, in November, 1801, di¬
rected to be cleared out. Perfons were accordingly
employed4 and, almoft choaked up by weeds and mud,
fo little water remained, that no perfon expeCted to fee
any fifli, except a few eels j yet nearly 200 brace of
tench, of all fizes, and as many perch, w-ere found.
After the pond was thought to be quite free, under
fome roots there feemed to be an animal, which was
conjeCtured to be an otter $ the place was furrounded,
and on opening an entrance among the roots, a tench
was found of a mofl Angular form, having literally af-
fumed the lhape of the hole, in which he had of courfe
for many years been confined. His length from forlji
to eye, w as two feet nine inches j his circumference,
almoft to the tail, was two feet three inches $ his weight
11 pounds, nine ounces and a quarter : the colour was
alfo Angular, his belly being that of a ebarr, or a ver¬
milion. This extraordinary filh, after having been in-
fpeCted by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a
pond j but either from confinement, age, or bulk, it
at firlt merely floated, and at laft, with difficulty, fwam
gently away. It is now alive and well.”
Crufian.—Anal fin ten-rayed, lateral line ftraight, caraJJhtSjt
Length from eight to ten inches j lhape very deep,
with confiderable tbicknefs j colour deep olive yellow,
wflth a filvery tint on the abdomen. Inhabits ponds
and large ftagnant wraters in many parts of Europe.
Grows llowly, and is much infefted by the lerncea cypri-
nacea. Spawns but once in two years, and is in confi¬
derable efteem as an eatable filh.
Golden carp, or goldjifh. Two anal fins, the cau- auratus*
dal tranfverfe and forked. This favourite ornament of
our houfes and gardens, is a native of the fouthern parts
of China, and exifts in its natural ftate in a large lake
in the province of Kiang, whence it has been diffufed
over the country, and cherilhed with fondnefs and at¬
tention. It is faid to have been firft introduced into
England in 1691. In its domeftic ftate, it is fubjeft
to vtry confiderable Variations in colour, form, and even
number of fins. It may be fed with fine bread crumbs,
fmf. 11 worms, water-fnails, yolk of eggs dried and pow¬
dered, &c. and Ihould be fupplied with a frequent
change of water.
Minow.
Chap.
kucifcus.
rutllus.
w.
Abdominal Anal fin eight-rayed j a brown fpot at the
Fithes. ta;i. body tranfparent. A fraall but elegant and fa-
 miliar fpecies, frequenting the fmall gravelly ftreains
phoxinus. -n many parts 0f Europe and Siberia. In our own
country it appears firft in March, and difappears about
the beginning of October, when it fecrets itfelf in the
mud. It is gregarious, and fond of warmth, often
fwimming in thoals near the furface of the water, in
clear hot weather. It feeds on herbs and worms, is
very prolific, and of a delicate flavour, though feldom
prepared for the table, on account of its Imallnefs.
It is more frequently ufed as bait for other fiflres.
Dace, or dare.—Eighteen rays in the anal, and nine
in the dorfal fin. Length from fix to eight or ten
inches. In manners, allied to the roach, and inhabits
lakes and rivers in many parts of Europe. Little
efteemed for the table.
Roach.—Anal fin with I 2 rays ; ventral rays of a
blood-red colour. Silvery, with a call of dull yellow,
more dulky on the upper parts ; fins red. Frequents
deep, Hill, and clear rivers in moft of the middle parts
©f Europe, often appearing in large fhoals, preceded
by one or more, apparently ilationed as a kind of guard.
It fpawns about the middle of May, and is very prolific.
It ufually weighs about a pound, or a pound and a
half. Its flelh is white, firm, and well tailed, but not
held in any great repute.
Orf.—Thirteen rays in the anal fin. Length from
10 to 12 inches, or more. Refembles the gold-filh;
and kept in fmall ponds on account of its beautiful ap*
pearance. Native of many parts of Germany, Ruflia,
See.
Rud.— Anal fin with 15 rays j fins red. About 8
or 10 inches long. Native of feveral parts of Europe,
in lakes and rivers with a gravelly bottom.- Reputed
edible, and in feafon in fummer.
Chub.—Fourteen rays in the anal fin j fnout rounded.
Refembles the tench, but has a more lengthened form,
and a thicker head in proportion. Ordinary length
from 1410 18 inches. Native of many parts of Eu
rope, and not uncommon in Great Britain, occurring
chiefly in clear and rapid rivers. Rather coarfe and
unpalatable, and apt to acquire a yellow colour in
boiling.
Rleah.—Twenty rays in the anal fin. Length five
or fix inches ; fhape {lender ; colour bright filvery.
From its feales is prepared the filvery matter ufed in
the manufaflure of artificial pearls.
Bream.—Twenty-feven rays in the anal fin-, the fins
brown. Of a very broad or deep fliape, and from two
feet to two and a half long. Of an olive hue, with a
pale or flefh-coloured tinge on the under parts. Inha¬
bits the lakes and rivers of many parts of Europe. As
an article of food, it is reckoned rather coarfe and infi-
pid.
Befidcs the above, this genus likewife comprehends
the ronde/ciii, gibe/io, b lice a, ball crus, pomeranicus, fim-
briatus, cirrhofus, falcatus, americanus, biorhna, fere-
?)us, grjlagine, by uni, bulatmai, capata, caucus, mal-
chus, julus, bvpkthahnus, qtiadrilobus, tincaurea,ferru-
gineus, nigro-auraius, viridi-vlolaceus, punElatus, ama-
rus, fericeus, capita, cultratus, cephalus, afptus, idus,
nafus, ferta, dobula, lancaftrienfis, murfa, regius, la-
lea, leptocephalus, catafomus, gallon, clupeoides, gono-
rhgnchus, aphya, and rivularis.
I C H T H Y O L O G Y.
Hffus,
erythroph-
thalmus.
jefes.
alburnus.
hrama.
103
Cartilagi-
Gen. 20. MORMYKXJS. nous Fi flies.
Snout produced mouth terminal teeth feveral, and Momiyrus.
emarginated j aperture without gill-cover 4gill-mem¬
brane fingle-rayed } body fealy.
In confequence of Geoffroy’s recent inveftigations,
this hitherto obfeure genus is ranked in the abdominal
order j and the number of fpecies has been increafed
from three to nine. They are all natives of the Nile.
Anguilliform mormyrus,. has a fharp fnout, equal anguil-
jaws, 26 rays in the dorfal fin, and a bifid acute/We/..
tail.
The other fpecies are kannume, oxyrlnjnchus,falahia%
bebe, herfe, cyprinoides, bane, and hajjelquijhi.
V. CARTILAGINOUS.
The fifties of this order have their fins furniftred with
cartilaginous rays. Their lungs are more fimilar to the
gills of fifties than to the pulmonary fyftem of the mam¬
malia and amphibia and in fome of the genera are*
found bath-lungs and gills.
Gen. I. OSTRACION. Ollracion.
Teeth pointing, forward y body mailed by a bony cover-*
ing.
Triquetral or three-fided trunH-fiJh.—Body triangu-
lar and unarmed. This fpecies is of a trigonal ftiape,
meafures about 12 inches in length, and except to with¬
in a fmall diftance from the tail, is completely enve¬
loped in a bony covering, divided into hexagonal fpaces.
Its prevailing colour is brown, with a white fpot in the
centre of each hexagon, which is alfo marked by fine
rays diverging from the centre to the edges. Native of
the Indian and American feas, and highly efteemed as
an eatable fifti among the Eaft Indians.
The generic characters of the trunk-fifties are readily
recogniied •, but the {pacific marks are not eafily afeer-
tained. Dr Shaw enumerates, in addition to the pre¬
ceding, trigonus, hiaculeatus, cornutus, tricar ms, qua-
dricornis, turritus, concatenatus, nafus, cubicus, me lea-
gris, auritus,friatus, lubcrculatus, and gibbofus.
Gen. 2, TetrodoN. Tctrodon,
Jaws bony, divided at the tip j body roughened be¬
neath j no ventral fins.
The fifties of this genus, like the diodans, have the
power of inflating their body at pleafure, by means of
an internal membrane for that purpofe and during the
time of inflation, the fmall fpines difperfed over their
fides and abdomen are raifed in fuch a. manner as to
operate as a defence againft their enemies. They are
chiefly natives of the tropical feas, though, fometimes
feen in the higher northern and fouthern latitudes, and
are fuppofed to live principally on the cruftaceous and
teftaceous animals.
Eleclric tetrodon.—Body brown above, yellow on the cleElricus
fides, fea green beneath, and varied with red, green,
and white fpots. Length feven or eight inches. Inha¬
bits rocky places among the corals, in the Indian and
American feas; and, when touched, affeCls the hand
with a galvanic ftiock.
Oc dialed
104 I C H T H Y
Cartilagi- Ocellated tetrodon.—Dull green ; whitifh beneath,
nous Fjflies. a black crefcent over the fhoulders, and fpot on
ecellatus ^ac^> both edged with yellow. Inhabits the In¬
dian feas, and fometimes the adjoining rivers, particu¬
larly thofe of China and Japan. It is of a very poifon-
ous nature ; and the emperor of Japan prohibits his fol-
diers, under very fevere penalties, from eating it. The
fceleratus is alfo reputed highly noxious.
The other fpecies are lagocephalus, iineatus, hi/pidus,
tejludlneus, fpengleri, honkenii, oblongus, Levigatus, Jlel-
latus, pun&atus, meleagris, and rojlratus.
Ciodon' Gen. 3. Diodon.
Jaws bony, undivided j body befet with moveable
fpines.
hyjlrix. pQrcup
ine diodon.—01 a fpherical form, with trian¬
gular fpines. Of a confderable fize, fometimes mea-
furing two feet in lengths It pofleffes the power of in¬
flating and contrafting itfelf at pleafure, remarkable in-
ftances of which property it is faid to exhibit when ta¬
ken with a line and hook. Its flefh is coarfe, though
fometimes eaten by the inhabitants of the Weft-Indian
iflands.
atinga. Oblong diodon.—With round fpines. Nearly allied
to the preceding, and confidered as poifonous.
The remaining fpecies are denominated orbicularis^
plumieri, and liturofus.
Cephalu?. Gen. 4. Cephalus.
Jaws bony ; body terminating abruptly, fo as to refem-
ble the head of a fifh.
Short fun-fijh, or fhort diodon. Tetrodon mola of
Linnaeus.—Body fuborbicular, very fhort and broad,
terminating abruptly on the hind part, where it is
edged by a fhallow fin. The general colour brown,
with a filvery cafl on the fides and abdomen. Native
of the northern feas, where it fometimes arrives at the
length of eight or even ten feet, and to the weight of
500 pounds. Alfo a native of the Atlantic and Ethi¬
opian fea. It is faid to exhibit a ftrong phofphoric
light during the night. The oblong is probably only a
variety of this fpeeies, as La Cepede has obferved inter¬
mediate gradations between the two. The variegated
is diflinguifhed by whitifh undulations and fpots j and
the pallafian by its filvery hue, brownifh back, and
fpiny carinated abdomen.
Syngnathus Gen. 5. SYNGNATHUS.
Snout fubcyllndrical, with terminal mouth j body
lengthened, jointed, and mailed ; no ventral fins.
actts. Great pipe-jijh, or longerpipe-fijh.—Caudal, anal, and
pefloral fins radiated \ body hexangular. Generally
from twelve to fifteen inches long, but fometimes from
two to three feet •, of a very {lender form, and of a
pale yellowifh brown colour, with broad alternate zones
of a deeper brown. In fpring, as in others of this genus,
the c-va appear in an appropriate channel at the lower
part of the abdomen, and the young are excluded from
them completely formed. Native of the European feas.
The typhle, or fmaller pipe-fjh^ feems to be only a va¬
riety.
hippocam* Sea-horfe> or fea-horfe pipe-jijh.—Tail quadrangular,
pus.
o L O G Y. ' Chap. IV.
without a terminating fin ; body heptangular and tu- Cartilagi-
berculated. General length from fix to ten inches jnous ^ieSa
body much compreffed j colour greenifh brown, varied ' " v~"
with darker and lighter fpecks. In its living ftate, the
head and tail are carried nearly ftrait, but when dry or
contracted, it refembles the fkeleton of a horfe. It is
a native of the Mediterranean, northern, and Atlantic
feas.
Foliated pipe-jijh.—Blackifh olive, with white fpecks,
and leaf-fhaped appendages. Thefe laft are fituated on
very ftrong, rough, fquare fpines or procelfes attached
to the back, tail, and abdomen, and give the whole
animal a very grotefque and anomalous appearance.
This curious fpecies is a native of the Indian feas ; but
nothing particular feems to be known relative to its
habits or natural hiftory.
The ophidian, biacu/eatus, pelagians, cequoreus, and
barbarus, require no particular defcription*
Gen. 6. Pegasus. Pegafus.
Mouth beneath, with a retraClile probofcis *, upper jaw
elongated, denticulated, enfiform under the fnout and
linear; gill-aperture fimple, placed before the pec¬
toral fins ; body com prefled, articulated with bony
incifures, and covered with a hard cruft ; ventral fins
placed behind the peftoral.
Little or dragon pegafus.—Snout conical. Only JraC()n{St
or four inches long, with large pe&oral fins, which
enable it to fupport itfelf for fome moments in the air,
when it fprings oecafionally over the furface of the wa¬
ter. Native of the Indian feas.
Fly mg pegafus.—Snout enfiform and denticulated.
Length three inches. Native of the Indian feas.
Swimming pegafus.—Snout enfiform and unarmed.
Length three or four inches; more flender than the
preceding. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 7. Centriscus. Centrifcus*
Plead produced into a very narrow fnout; no teeth ;
the lower jaw' longeft ; gill aperture waving ; body
comprefled ; abdomen carinated ; ventral fins united.
Mailed or fielded trumpet-fifh.—Back fmooth, withficutalus*
a hard Ihield, like a thin plate ; eight inches long.
Native of the Indian feas.
Snipe centrifcus.—Body fealy and rough ; tail ftrait fcohpax.
and extended. Smaller than the preceding. Native of
the Mediterranean and Indian feas. Ranked among
edible fifties.
Light-armed centrifcus.—Half-ftiielded, filvery, with velitans.
fubrecumbent dorfal fpine. Length about twm inches.
Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 8. Baeistes. Bdiftar.
Head compreffed, and an apparent continuation of the
trunk, in fome fpecies, armed with a fpine between
the eyes ; mouth narrow ; eight teeth in each jaw ;•
the twro foremoft longer than the reft ; three interior
teeth on both fides, refting againft as many lateral
ones ; gill-aperture narrow, above the peftoral fins;
gill-covers wanting ; gill-membrane two-rayed ; body
compreffed, carinated on the fides, with feales growl¬
ing on the fkin, and rough with lharp prickles.
Moft
Chap. IV. I C H T H
Cartilagi- Mod of tlie fpecies of tills genus are natives of the
nous Fifties. Indian and American feas. They can in fome degree,
' " "v inflate their abdomen by means of a ftrong bone, rough
with fmall prickles, which lies under the Ikin. They
feed on other fiflies. Some of them are very large,
and fome remarkable for the brilliancy and variega¬
tions of their colours. In general, they are reckoned
poifonous.
tnonoce- Unicorn file-fifh.—A fin of one ray on the head 5
ros. rays of the caudal fin carinated. The body is of an
oval form, from one te two feet long, and covered all
over with very minute fpines. The general colour is
gray, inclining to brown on the upper parts, and varied
with irregular wavings and fpots. Juft above the eyes
is a Angle fpine of confiderable length, a little recurved,
and ferrated on the hind part. Its food chiefly confifts
of cruftaceous and teftaceous animals.
caprifcus. Mediterranean jile-Jifh.—Violet-gray, with red or
blue variegations, Angle ventral fin, and rounded tail.
Length of the preceding, and (hape ovate. Almoft the
only fpecies found in the European feas. The rays of
the firft dorfal fin are fo continued as to aft in concert
with confiderable force in raifing the fin at the pleafure
of the animal.
Wtula. Ancient jile-fifh, or old 'ivife.—Firft dorfal fin three-
rayed, ventral fin longitudinal ; caudal bifid. Length
from one to two feet, or more \ general colour yellowifh-
olive, paler beneath. Several blue ftreaks on the front
and cheek, and fome tranfverfe and longitudinal ftrips
on the body. This fpecies is fuppofed to have obtain¬
ed its name from the mouth, when viewed in front, or
from the flightly murmuring noife which it utters when
firft taken.
undulatus. Undulated file fifh.—Black, but waved by oblique
Cyclcp-
terus.
him pus.
red lines. Obferved about the ftiores of Sumatra by
Mr Mungo Park.
The other forts defcribed by the moft recent ichthy-
ologifts are, hifpidus, tomentofusj&papillofus, chinenfis,
rmgens, hturofus, lcvvisy fonneratii, bicolor, virefcens,
fafciatus, unimaculatus, cinereus, maculatus, aculeatus,
verrucofus, biaculeatus, forcipatus, Jignatus, punclatus,
capiflratus, hleinii, curaffavius, and ajjhji.
Gen. 9. CycLOFTERtrs.
Head obtufe ; mouth Handing forward ; tongue fhoft
and thick ; jaws armed with fmall fliarp teeth 5 gill-
membrane four-rayed ; gill-cover of one plate $
body fhort, thick, and fcalelefs j ventral fins united
into an orbicular membrane.
Lump fucher, lumpfijh, fea-owl or cock-paddle.—
Body angulated, with bony tubercle $ grows to the
length of 19 inches, and to the weight of feven pounds.
It is of a deep and very thick ftiape, and fwims edge-
wife } the back is (harp and elevated, and the belly
flat. there are four rows of large tubercles, and the
whole fkin is rough with fmaller ones. On the upper
part of the back is a thick ridge, deftitute of fpines.
Beneath the peftoral fins is an oval aperture, furround-
ed with a flelhy mufcular fubftance, edged with fmall
filiform proceffes, which aft as clafpers. By means of
this organ it adheres very ftrongly to any thing it
pleafes. The belly is of a bright crimfon colour. In¬
habits the northern, American, and Indian feas. I)e-
pofits its orange-coloured ova near the fhore in April
VOL. XI. Part I.
Y O L O G Y. xo
and May. The Greenlanders boil the roe, which is Cartilagi-
very large, and eat both it and the fifh. In England,“ous
the latter is fometimes ftewed, but is flabby and infipid.
The lump fuckers are frequently devoured by feals,
which leave the fkins } numbers of which, thus emptied,
may often be found in the fprtng, along thofe diltrifts
of fhore which are frequented by this (pecies. “ It is
eafy, (adds Mr Pennant), to diliinguifti the place
where feals are devouring this or any unftutms fifh, by
a fmoothnefs of the water immediately above the ^pot.,,
The pavoninus, or p/ivonian fucker, agrees with this
fpecies in all particulars, except fize, and is, therefore,
probably only a variety. The gibbofus of Willoughby, ^
or pxjramidal fucker, feems alio to belong to the fame
fpecies, and to be diftinguifhed only by the pyramidal
elevation of the back.
Small fucker.—Body naked •, fnout marked above the
mouth by three tubercles. A very fmall fpecies, which
inhabits the Atlantic ocean, and feems to be allied in
habit to the common lump-fifh. The body is comprefs-
ed, of a whitifh colour, and has two white unequal tu¬
bercles on each fide.
UnBuous or fnailfucker.—Body naked •, dorfal, ainal,7z/»«m.
and caudal fins united. The length varies from five to
eighteen inches. The fliape is elongated, thick, com-
prefl'ed j the (kin thin and lax, and covered with a vif-
cid humour, like a fnail. It is brownifh, with darker
ftripes above, white beneath, and flightly yellow on
the head and fides. It inhabits the northern feas, and
fometimes afcends rivers.
Cornifh or jura fucker, or lejfer fucking-ffh.—Of a cornuli-
purplilh brown colour, with lengthened front. AboutfW/£r.
four inches long ; Ikin without fcales, and flippery.
Native of the European feas. Found by Dr Borlafe on
the coaft of Cornwall, and by Mr Pennant in the found
of Jura.
Bimaculatedfucker.—Body without fcales ; peftoral bimacula-
fins placed very high ■, a round black fpot on each fidfe;ftJ.#
of the ventral membrane. About an inch and a half
long 5 the colour of the head and body fine pink. In¬
habits the fea about Weymouth.
The remaining known fpecies of this genus are, den-
tex, gelatinofus, ventricofus, lineatus, and bifpinofus.
Lophius,
Gen. 10. Lophius.
Head depreflfed ; many (harp-pointed teeth •, tongue
broad, and armed with teeth *, eyes on the upper
part of the head ; noftrils fmall *, gills three ; one
lateral aperture ; peftoral fins placed on the long ^
branchiae •, dorlal and anal fins oppofite, and near
the tail *, body fcalelefs, covered with a thin and lax
fkin ; Vent in the middle ; no lateral line.
The fiftres of this genus are of a Angularly uncouth
appearance ; the body being thick and fhapelefs j the
head exceffively large, and the fins fliort and broad.
European or common angler, f ogf/h, toadffb, h:r.,nlr
fifhing frcg, fen-devil, &c.—Deprefied •, head rounded.).^
The ordinary length of this fpecies is from two to four
feet, though it fometimes meafures fix or even feven
feet. Its form refembles that of a tadpole. The fkin
of the trunk is fmooth, but that of the upper parts
marked by various inequalities. The eyes are large
and whilifh $ the lower jaw is confiderably longer than
the upper. Two or three long thread-like procefles
O*
ic6
Cartilagi¬
nous Fi fhcs
hijirio.
Accipenfer.
Jlurio.
i c H T h y
proceed £rom tlie upper part »of tlie head, and Tome
fhorter ones from the back, while the edges of the
body are fringed at intervals with (liortcr appendages
of a fomewhat limilar nature. The upper furface is
brown, with deeper or pale variegations, and the under
furface whitifh. The frog-fifli inhabits the European
Teas j fwims flowly j lies in ambufh, in (hallows, half-
concealed by fea-plants or mud, and decoying its prey
by moving its worm-like procefles. It feeds on the
dog-fifh and fmaller fiflres. The cornubicnjis, cor nip,
ox long angler, ox JiJlnng.frog of Mount’s bay, deferibed
by Borlafe and Pennant, is fo nearly allied to this that
it may be regarded as only a variety.
Harlequin angler, ox American toad-fifh.—Compreffed j
of a yellowHh brown colour, with irregular blackilh
fpots, and beards on the head and body. This, which
is one of the moft grotefque and Angular of fillies, is a
native of the Indian and American feas, growing to
the length of ten or twelve inches, and in manners re-
fembling the European angler.
The other fpecies are, muricatus, vefpertiho, fnatus,
piclus, marmoratus, and commerfonh.
Gen. ii. Accipenser.
Head obtufe; mouth placed under the head5 retractile,
toothlefs j four beards under the fnout and before the
mouth.
The AAies of this genus are among the largeft of the
tribe. They are all inhabitants of the fea, though fome
occaAonally afeend rivers in great Aioals. All the
fpecies are large, feldom meafuring, when full grown,
lefs than three or four feet in length. Their AeAi is
reckoned delicate and nutritious 5 and they form a very
conAderable article of commerce on the banks of the
Cafpian fea, and many parts both of Europe and Ame¬
rica. They feed principally on worms and other Alh.
Common furgeon.—Snout obtufe ; the tranfverfe di-
fyneter of the mouth equal to the longitudinal j the
beards on the fnout near the end of it j lips biAd. Of
a long, flender, and pentagonal 'form, attaining fome-
times to eighteen feet in length, and weighing five
hundred pounds, ihe whole length of the body is
covered by Ave rows of large, ftrong, and bony tuber¬
cles, rounded at the bafe, radiated from the ^centre,
and terminated above by a ftiarp curved point in a re-
verfed direaion. The whole Ikin, on the upper parts
and Ades, is alfo roughened with very fmall tubercles
of a Amilar ftruftore. The general colour is cinereous
above, and whitilh or yellowilh beneath. Though gene¬
rally a fluggilh Alh, it fometimes fpringsout of the wa¬
ter with great force. It feeds on Alhes, particularly
the herring, falmon, mackrel, and coal-AAn It fpawns
in fpring, and is amazingly proliHc, Lewenhoeck having
found in the roe of one of them I 50,000,000,000 ova !
It inhabits the ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Red,
Black, and Cafpian feas, efpecially fuch parts of them
as are not remote from the aeftuaries of large rivers,
which they occaAonally afoend in great multitudes. In
fome of the rivers of Virginia they are fo numerous
that Ax hundred have been taken in two days merely
by a pole, with a ftrong hook Axed to the end of it.
The AeAi is very delicate, white, and Arm, and when
roafted, is faid to referable veaL In this country it is
nfually ferved in a pickled ftate, being imported from
CLOG Y. Chap. IV.
America and the Baltic. It is foraetimes, however, Cartilagi-
taken in our rivers in the falmon-nets. The flurgeon nous ^flie!i;
was a AAi in high repute with the Greeks and Romans,
and according to Pliny, was brought to table with
much pomp, and ornamented with flowers, the (laves
who carried it being alfo ornamented with garlands,
and accompanied by mufle. Caviar is made of the
dried and failed roe. The Ikin makes a good covering
for carriages.
Sterlet fturgeon.—Brownilh, with the Ades fpotted ruihenus*
with pale red, and the body Ihielded above by a triple
feries of.tubercles. The fmalleft and moft delicate fpecies
of the genus. Native of the Cafpian fea ; found alfo
in the Volga and Ural, and occaftonaljy in the Baltic.
In feafons when this Alh happened to be unuiually dear,
Prince Potemkin paid three hundred rubles for a Angle
tureen of fterlet foup, which formed the mere prelude
to his repaft.
Ifnglafs f urgeon, or beluga.—Snout very obtufe,//w/S.
tranfverfe diameter of the mouth lefs than the longitu¬
dinal ; beards near the mouth; lips not cleft. Larger
than the common fpecies, and fometimes meafuring
25 feet in length/ The tubercles are fmaller than
thofe of the furio, and feem to fall off with age. In¬
habits the northern, Cafpian, and Mediterranean feas-
lAnglafs is prepared from its found or air-bladder, and
an inferior fort from the Ikin, tail, ftomach, and intef-
tines. See Ichthyocolla.
To thefe may be added fchypa, zn&fellatus ; the Arft
perhaps only a fmaller variety of furio, and the latter
diftinguiAied by the ftar-like marks on its head.
Gen. 12. CHIMYERA. Cbimasra.
Head (harp-pointed ; fpiracles folitary, in four diviAons
under the neck 5 mouth under the head \ upper lip
with Ave diviAons j fore teeth like cutting teeth, two
in each jaw 5 body long, with a Angle fpine on
the back •, the tail ending in a briftle, and longer
than the reft of the body.
Sea monfer, northern chimeera.—Punftured folds be- monfroJa^
low the fnout. A Angularly grotefque fpecies, inhabit¬
ing the northern and Atlantic ocean ; frequenting the
deeped receffes, preying on fmaller Afties and mollufca
and teftacea ; and rarely approaching the (bore, except
during the breeding feafon. It is from three to four
feet long, of a lengthened and compreffed form, tapering
to the tail, which is produced into a long and (lender
Alament. The head and eyes are very large •, and at
the bafe of each ventral An, in the male, is a lengthen¬
ed procefs, rough with numerous (harp prominences in
a reverfed dire&ion. The whole body is of a yellow-
brown above the lateral line, and of a bright Alvery
colour beneath it, variegated with numerous irregular
deep brown or blackiAi fpots and patches. Its Aefti is
conAdered as coarfe and uneatable.
Elephant fp, or fouthern chimeera.—Snout produced
beneath into an inAe&ed lip. Native of the fouthern c/foj.
feas.
Gen. 13. SqUALUS. Squalus.
Head obtufe, from four to feven femilunar fpiracles on
the Ades of the neck j eyes oblong, half covered,
placed before the temporal opening * mouth in the
under part of the head, armed with feveral rows of
ferrated
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Cartilagi
!ous Fifties
!hap. IV.
ferrated fliarp-pointed teetli, fome of which are move-
able, feme fixed, and of different forms; body ob¬
long, round, rough, with (lender prickles ; ventral
fins, for the mod part, lefs than the pe&oral, clofe,
placed about the vent, and in the males about the
organs of generation.
The animals which compofe this tribe are entirely
marine, and more frequent in the hot than in toe tem¬
perate climates. In general they are folitary, and often
wander to great diftances, devouring almoft every thing
that comes in their way, and that they are capable of
fwallowing. Some of them will follow veflels feveral
hundred leagues for the carcafes and offals. They
fometimes attain to an enormous fize, as they often
weigh from one to four thoufand pounds each. Some
few fpecies are gregarious, and live on the mollufca
and other marine worms. They are ail viviparous, and
like the rays, protrude their young in pellucid horny
cafes, terminated at the four corners by long, (lender
filaments, and which are generally found twifted round
corallines, fea-weed, and other fixed fubftances. 1 heir
fle(h is fo tough, coarfe, and unfavoury, that even the
young are hardly eatable. Their bodies emit a phof-
phoric light in the dark.
Canicula. Panther Jhark, greater or /potted dog/JJj.—Nof-
trils furrounded by a fmall lobe, and a vermiform ap¬
pendage, ventral fins feparated. Three or four feet
long •, brownifh, with red or black fpots ; body cylin¬
drical, but eompreffed at both extremities ; (kin rough,
and when dried, ufed for policing and other purpofes.
Inhabits the fea almoft everywhere. The female breeds
frequently, and brings about nineteen young at a
timei
ttalulus. Spotted fiarh, or lej/er /potted dog//h. No ft r i 1 s fur-
rounded by a fmall lobe and a vermiform appendage ;
ventral fins united. Length from two to three feet.
Colour pale brick-red, with very numerous fmall duiky
fpots. Very common in the European feas, very vo- „
racions, and a great annoyance to the fifiiermen. Ac¬
cording to Pennant, it breeds from nine to thirteen at
a time. Its liver is faid to be highly noxious, inducing
long continued ftupor, fucceeded by an univerfal itch¬
ing and lofs of the cuticle.
galeut. Tope.—Teeth nearly triangular, and denticulated on
the upper margin. Grows to five feet or more, is
round and elongated, and often weighs upwards of 27
pounds. It is of a lighter or darker cinereous hue
above, and whitifh below. It fmells very rank, and is
fo bold as to purfue its prey to the very edge of the
(bore. It inhabits the European ocean, and is fre¬
quently feen about the Britifh coafts.
%ygcene. Hammer-headed [hark, or balance-//).—Head very
broad and tranfverfe, fomewhat in the (hape of a ham¬
mer. This deformed fpecies meafures from five to fif¬
teen or feventeen feet. The body is rather (lender,
and fomewhat cylindrical the head dilated on each
fide to a great extent, with the eyes which are very
large, placed at each extremity. It is brown above,
and paler, or whitifh beneath. Native of the Medi¬
terranean and Indian feas, where it attacks fuch as are
accidentally expofed to its fury, or are incautioufly
bathing or fwimming in its neighbourhood. The na¬
tives of Otaheite, trufting to their dexterity in fwim¬
ming, appear to hold it in contempt.
IO7
Heart-headed Jhark.—Head very broad and heart- Cartilagi-
fhaped. In other refpeas greatly allied to the preced-1;0^^1^;
ing, but is much more rare, and chiefly inhabits the tj(}UrQt
South American feas.
Blue Jhark.—Sides of the tail fmooth, a cavity on g/aucus.
the back of the tail. Of a more (lender and elegant
(hape than the other fpecies, meafures from ten to four¬
teen feet, is of a blue-green above and white be¬
neath. It is very bold and voracious ; inhabits the
European feas, and frequents feveral of the Britilli
coafts, efpecially thofe of Cornwall during the pilchard
feafon. _ ,.
Porbeagle/ark.— A longitudinal fold on each fide^™^
of the. tail. Length from three to eight feet ; draper-
round, except near the tail, where it is deprefled j co-.
lour deep on the back, and white or filvery beneath.
Inhabits the fea about Cornwall. The manen/uy or
Beauman's Jhark of Pennant, is now regarded only as
a variety of cornubicus.
Ba/ing /ark.—With conical teeth, not ferrated. maximum,
Body (lender, and from three to twelve yards in.kngth,
of a deep lead colour above, and white below. The
upper jaw is blunt at the end, and much longer than
the lower. The mouth is. furnilhed with a great mul¬
titude of fmall teeth, of which thofe in front are much
bent, and the remote ones conical and (harp pointed.
It has two dorfal, two peftoral, two ventral fins, and
one finall anal fin. This fpecies inhabits the northern
feas, and derives its name from its propenfity to lie on
the furface of the water, as if to balk in the fun, gener¬
ally on its belly, and fometimes on its back. It feeds
on fea-plants and medufae, and betrays none of that fe¬
rocity of difpofition which characlerizes moft of the
(hark tribe j on the contrary, it feems fo little afraid
of mankind, as often to fuffer itfelf to be patted and
ftroked. Thefe animals frequent our feas during the
warm fummer months, and appear in (hoals on the
Welfti and Scottifti coafts, after intervals of a certain
number of years. They are obferved in the frith of
Clyde and among the Hebrides in finall troops of feven
or' eight, or more commonly in pairs, about midfum-
mer, and difappear about the latter end of July. They
fwim very deliberately, and generally with their upper
fins above water. Sometimes they may be feen fporting
among the waves, and fpringing feveral feet above the
furface. They are purfued and taken by the fiftiermen
for the fake of the oil contained in the liver ; that vif-
cus fometimes weighing a thoufand pounds, and yield¬
ing eight barrels of oil, and two of ufelefs fediment.
When purfued, they do nofc quicken their motion till
the boat is almoft in contaft with them, when the har-
pooner ftrikes his weapon into the body, as near the
gills as he can. Sometimes they remain in the fame
place till the united (Length of two men is exerted to
force the inftrument deeper. Then they plunge head¬
long to the bottomland frequently coil the rope round
their bodies, and endeavour to get rid of the harpoon
by rolling on the ground. Difcovering that thefe ef¬
forts are vain, they fwim with fuch (Length and rapi¬
dity, that one inftance has occurred of a bafking (hark
towing to fome diflance a veffel of 70 tons burthen,
againft a frelh gale. They fometimes run off with 200
fathoms of line, and two harpoons in them, and will
employ the men from 12 to 24 hours before they are
fubdued. A large fik has afforded the captors a pro-
ioS
Cartilagi¬
nous Fillies..
tarcha-
rms.
priJUs*
acanthias.
Jcualina*
I C H T H Y O L O G Y.
fit of 20 pounds. “ A male of this fpecies (fays Dr
Shaw) was taken in the year 1801, at Abbotfbury in
Dorfetftiire, entangled in a filhing feine, and after a
violent refiltance, was dragged alhore. It is faid to
have received 17 mulket-balls before it expired \ its
length was 28 feet, and its circumference, in the thick-
eft part about 20 feet 5 its tail, from point to point,
near eight feet ; the teeth, according to its proprietor,
who took the pains to count them, amounted to the
number of four thoufand.” The fkin makes excellent
fhagreen.
WhiteJharli.-—Triangular ferrated teeth. This fpe-
eies, fo remarkable for its powers of deftruftion, is a
native of moft feas, but occurs more frequently in the
warm than the cold latitudes. It arrives at the length
of more than 30 feet, and is rather thicker and broader
than moft of its congeners. The mouth is very wide,
and furniftied on the margin of each jaw with from
three to ftx rows of ftrong, flat, triangular, lharp point¬
ed, and finely ferrated teeth, which can be railed or
depreffed at pleafure. The general colour of the ani¬
mal is a pale alh, darker or browner on the upper
parts. So great is the ftrength of the tail, that a young
ihark of fix feet in length, is able by a ftroke of this
part to break a man’s leg j hence it is ufual for failors
to cut off the tail the inftant they drag a Ihark on
board. Gillius quotes a fpecimen which weighed four
thoufand pounds, and another in W’hofe belly was found
an entire human body j and Muller afferts, that in one
taken at the ifle of St Margaret, there was found a
horfe which had probably been throwrn overboard from
fome (hip. The fize of the foffil teeth of this fp ecies,
fo often found in the ifle of Malta, &c. affords a con¬
vincing proof of the ^enormous fpecimens which have
once exifted. Sharks are the dread of failors in all hot
climates, where they conftantly attend the (hips, in ex¬
pectation of what may drop overboard j and a man
who has that misfortune is almoft inftantly devoured.
In the pearl-fifheries of South America, every negro,
to defend himfelf againft thefe animals, carries with him
into the wrater a {harp knife, which, if the filh offers
to affault him, he endeavours to ftrike into its belly,
on which it generally fwims off. The officers who are
in the veffels keep a w'atchful eye on thefe voracious
creatures, and on difeovering them, (hake the ropes
faftened to the negroes, to put them on their guard.
Many, when the divers have been in danger, have
thrown themfelves into the water, with knives in their
hands, and haftened to their defence : but too often
all their dexterity and precaution have been of no
avail.
Saxv-Jnouted Jhark, or fawJiJh.—With a long flat
fnout, fet with teeth on both fides through its whole
length. Inhabits the fouthern and northern oceans,
grows to fifteen feet in length, and is readily diftin-
guiffied by its produced and faw-like fnout, which is
often preferved in mufeums.
Picked/hark, or picked dog jifh.—Dorfal fin fpinous ;
body fomewhat round. Length from three to four feet}
colour brownilh alh above and white beneath; rough,
with minute prickles, hooked backwards. Common in
the European feas, efpecially about the coafts-of Scot¬
land and Norway. When fplit and dried, it is eaten
by the common people.
Angel-Jhark) or angel-jijh.—Peftoral fins very large
a
Chap. IV.
and emarginated before. A deformed fpecies, with Cartilagi-
large head and peftoral fins, and depreffed body, attain-nous Fiih.es,
ing to fix or eight feet in length. It is a native of the  'r~mJ
European feas, and is extremely voracious, fierce, and
dangerous. It produces twelve or thirteen young at a
birth.
The other known fpecies of this genus are vulpes^
JlclIariS) mujleluS) fpinax, centrina, philippinus, cinereus,
fpinofus, ijabelict) cirrhatus, barbatus, africanus, ocel-
latm, grfeus, americanus, fqitamojus, denticu/atus, punc-
tulatus, %ebray gronovianus, tentacu/atus, and Jemi fagit-
tatus.
Gen. J4. SPATULARIA. Spatularia.
Spiracles fingle on each fide of the neck, concealed by
a large gill-cover; fnout produced, and lhaped like a
fpatula ; mouth beneath the head, large, and fur-
niffied with ftiarp ferrated teeth.
Reticulatedfpatularia.—Inhabit and appearance this reticulate,
remarkable fpecies is allied to the (harks, but dif-
tinguiffied by its thin fnout, of the form of a fpatula,
and nearly equal in length to the whole remainder of
the animal. Its hiftory and manners are very imper-
feftly known.
Gen. 15. Raia. Raia,
Spiracles on the under part of the neck, ten on each
fide, oblique ; mouth under the head, finall, acumi¬
nated, as if continuous with the breaft, tranfverfe
and dentated ; body thin, depreffed, and of a rhom¬
boid figure.
The fpecies of this genus are entirely confined to the
fea, and, being deftitute of an air bladder, live chiefly
at the bottom, generally in deep water, covering them¬
felves in winter in fand or mud. They live on Ihell-
fiih, or other animal fubftances that fall in their way.
Some of them become of a fize fo large as to weigh tw »
hundred pounds and upwards. They feldom produce
more than one young at a time, which, as in the ffiarks,
is inclofed in a four-cornered capfule, ending in {lender
points, but not, as in the former, produced into long
filaments. The liver is large, and often produces a
great quantity of oil. They are moftly edible.
Torpedoy torpedo ray, cramp ray, cramp jijh, &c.— torpedo*
Wholly fmooth. The body of this fpecies is of a fome¬
what circular form, llightly convex above, marked
along each fide of the fpire by feveral fmall pores; about
eighteen inches or two feet in length, and for the moft
part of a pale reddilh brown on the upper furface*
fometimes marked by five large circular and dulky
fpots, and whitifli or fleffi-coloured beneath. It inha¬
bits moft feas, but feems to thrive beft in the Mediter¬
ranean, ufually lying in water of about forty fathoms
depth, in company with fome of its congeners. It
preys on fmaller filh, which it is fuppofed to ftupefy by
its ele&ric or galvanic faculty. This property, which
has been fo much exaggerated both by ancient and mo¬
dern writers, is neverthelefs, fufficiently remarkable.
From fome experiments which were made by Mr Wallh
on a very flout and healthy filh, it appears that no {"park
could be difeovered to proceed from it, and that pith-
balls were never found to be affefted by it. When in¬
flated, it gave a fliock to perfons who were likewif
infulatedj.
Chap. IV.
Cartilagi- infulated, and even to feveral who took hold of each
nous Fifties. hands j this it did forty or fifty times fucceflive-
an(^ wjth very little diminution of force. If touch¬
ed only with one finger, the (hock was fo great as to
be felt with both hands. Yet the animal was not able
to tranfmit the (hock acrofs the minuted: traft of air,
nor from one link of a (mall chain freely fufpended to
another, nor through an almoft inviiible feparation
made by a penknife" in a flip of tin-foil palled on feal-
ing-wax.
bans. Skate.—Back fmooth in the middle, with one row of
fpines. Common in the European feas. I he general
colour on the upper parts is a pale afh-brown, varied
with feveral dufky undulations, and of the under parts
white, marked with numerous diilant black (pines. In
the male, the pe&oral fins are bent towards their tips
or edges with numerous fmall fpines. In October, the
fkate is ufually poor and thin, but begins to improve
in November, and is reckoned to be in the higheft per-
feftion in May. Willoughby makes mention of a fingle
fkate of two hundred pounds weight, which was fold in
the fi(h market at Cambridge to the cook of St John’s
College in that univerfity, and was found fufficient
to dine the whole fociety, confiding of more than 120
perfons.
oxyrin- Sharp-nofed ray.—Ten aculeated tubercles along the
chus. middle of the back. In (hape, refembles the preced¬
ing, but has a longer and (harper fnout in the form of
a fpontoon. Native of the Mediterranean and northern
feas.
n&raletus. Mirror ray.—Back and belly fmooth j fpines at the
region of the eyes, and a triple row of them at the tail.
Each of the peftoral fins is marked about the middle,
or near the body, with a large circular, eye-fhaped fpot,
confiding of a purplilh or dufley circle, with a whitilh
or yellowifh centre. Inhabits the Mediterranean.
t'ubus. Rough ray.—One row' of prickles on the back, and
three on the tail. Greatly allied to the thorn-back j
and rough, with many fpines. Inhabits the Mediter¬
ranean and other feas.
pajlinaca. Sting ray.—Body fmooth *, long ferrated fpine on
the fore part of the tail ; no dorfal fin. Shape fome-
what rhomboidal ; fnout pointed ; colour of the body
yelknviih olive above, and whitifh beneath. With its
long flattened fpine, which is finely ferrated in a reverfe
diredlion on both fides, it is capable of inflicting very
fevere wounds. As it is annually cad, the new' fpine
fometimes arrives at a confiderable fize before the old
one drops off, in which date the animal has been occa-
fionally deferibed as a didinft fpecies. Though form¬
erly fuppofed to contain a very aftive poifon, this wea¬
pon is found to be wholly deditute of any venomous
quality. Inhabits the European, Red, and Indian feas,
and is ranked among the ediblfe rays.
Thorn-back.—Prickly ; teeth tuberculated 5 a tranf-
clavata. verfe cartilage on the abdomen. Refembles the com¬
mon Ikate, but is fomewhat broader in proportion, and
is eafily didinguiihed from it by the very drong curved
fpines with which its upper furface is covered. It is an
inhabitant of the Mediterranean and other feas, and
edeemed as a food. The thorn-back begins to be in
feafon in November, and continues fo later than the
ikate ; but the young of both are good at all times of
the year.
To complete the fpecific catalogue of this genus, we
iocy
have to add fullonica, eglanteria, acus> nigra, pifla, tin- Cartilagi-
dulata, aiba, marginal a, chagnnea, aquila, guttata, faf- n‘ms ^1 ies;
data, lymna, cuculus,fephen, tuberculata, poecilina, dia-
bolus, manatia, giorna,fabroniana, ban hji anajunbriata,
maculata, bicolor, fmenfis, rhinobatos, thouiniana,. djid-
denjis, and cuvien.
Gen. 16. PETROMYZON. Petroaio-
zon.
Head more (lender than the body j mouth larger above
than below •, teeth orange-coloured, hollow within,
furrounded with a (le(hy rim, curved above,, broad
below •, feven (piracies at the fides of the neck ; a
fidulous opening at the back part of the head; no
peftoral or ventral fins.
Lamprey, great lamprey, or fca lamprey.—Mouth mannas,.
within covered with papillae ; the hinder dorfal fin fe-
parate from the tail. In general appearance, approaches
nearly to the eel tribe, efpecially to the muroenae.
Though it fometimes exceeds three feet in length, the
BritHh fpecimens are ufually of inferior fize. Its gene¬
ral colour is a dull brownilh olive, clouded with yel-
lewifli white variegations ; the fins are tinged with dull,
orange, and the tail with blue. On the top of the head
is a fmall orifice for the difeharge of the fuperfluous
water taken in at the mouth and gills. Among the car¬
tilaginous fiflies, none is fo deftitute of all appearance
of real bone as the lamprey, in which, the fpine itfel£
is no other than a mere foft cartilage, w ithout any pro-
ceffes or protuberances. The heart, inftead of being
inclofed in a foft pericardium, as in other animals, is
guarded by a ftrong cartilaginous one ; and the liver is
of a fine grafs-green colour. It inhabits the ocean, and
afeends rivers chiefly during the latter end of winter
and the early months of fpring. It is viviparous *, and
the young are of flow growth. Though capable of
fwimraing with rapidity, it is more commonly feen at¬
tached by the mouth to fome large (lone or other fub-
ftance, and that with fuch power of adhefion, that a
weight of more than twelve pounds may be raifed with¬
out forcing the fi(h to forego its hold. It is fuppofed:
to live principally on worms and young fi(h. Like the
eel, it is remarkably tenacious of life, the feveral parts,
when cut in pieces, continuing to move, and the head'
ftrongly attaching itfelf for feveral hours to a Hone,
though by far the greater part of the body be cut away
from it. “ As an article of food, (obferves Dr Shaw),
the lamprey has for many ages maintained its credit as
on exquifite dainty y and has uniformly made its appear¬
ance at the mod fplendid of our ancient entertainments.
The death of King Henry I. it is well known, is at¬
tributed to a too luxurious indulgence in this his fa¬
vourite di(h. It dill continues to be in high edeem j
and w'e are told by Mr Pennant, that the city of Glo-
ceder continues to fend yearly, at Chridmas, a prefent
of a rich lamprey pye to the king. It fometimes hap¬
pens that the lampreys at that feafon are fo rare, that a
guinea is demanded for the price of a fingle fidi. They
are mod in feafon during March, April, and May, and
are obferved to be much more firm when fre(h arrived
from fea than when they have been a confiderable lime
in frefh water. They are found in feveral of the Bri-
ti(h rivers, but that which is mod celebrated for them
is the Severn.”
LeJJer lamprey, or lampern,—The hinder dorfal fin\Jlimatills,
angulated.
I C H T H Y O L O G Y.
no I C H T H
Cartilagi- angulated. From 10 to 15 inches long ; the back
nous liQies. [-)rowi-1 or fometimes clouded, or mived with
blue ; the upper part of the body marked by numerous
annular lines, and the whole under fides filvery. In¬
habits the fea, and afcends, in fpring, mold of the Eu¬
ropean rivers, in which it is found much more frequent¬
ly and plentifully than the great lamprey. It is often
potted with the latter, and by fome preferred to it, on
account of its milder tafte. The Dutch purchafe vaft
quantities of this fpecies as bait for their cod and tur¬
bot fhheries. In the river Baufter, in Courland, great
quantities are taken from beneath the ice, with nets ;
they are much larger than thofe found elfewhere, and
are packed in fnow, and fent to any diftance 5 and,
when put into cold water, recover themfelves. This
fpecies is fo tenacious of life, that itwilllive many days
out of the water.
hranchia- Minute lamprey or pride.—The hinder dorfal fin li-
Us, near j the lips behind lobated. Has a w'orm-like ap¬
pearance ; meafures from four to feven inches in length j
is not obferved to adhere to other bodies j inhabits the
European rivers, and is more frequent in the Ifis than
elfewhere, in England.
The remaining fpecies are planeri, ruber, fanguifugay
argenteus, plumbeus, and bicolor.
Galtro-
branchus.
Gen. 7. GastRobranchus.
Body eel-fhaped \ mouth beneath, with numerous
peftinate teeth j two fpiracles beneath the abdo¬
men.
ceecus. Blindgajlrobranchus. Myxin eg lu tin of a, Lin.—Livid,
paler beneath ; with eight beards at the mouth. Re¬
moved to the clafs of fifties, in confequence of Dr Bloch’s
accurate examination of its external and internal ftruc-
ture. In general appearance, in the fituation of the
mouth, and in the orange colour of the teeth, it ap¬
proaches very near to the lamprey. But it is remark¬
able for the total want of eyes, no veftige of any fuch
organ being difcoverable by the molt attentive exami¬
nation. The body is deftitute of fcales, lateral line,
and fins, except that (hallow one which forms the tail.
Beneath the body, from head to tail, runs a double row
of equidiftant pores. The fpiracles, which are a pair
of oval apertures, are fituated beneath the body, at fome
diftance from the head. This lingular fpecies is faid to
enter into the bodies of fuch fifties as it happens to find
on the filherman’s hooks, and which confequently have
not the power of efcaping its attack, and by gnawing
its way through the fkin, to devour all the internal
parts, leaving only the bones and the Ikin remaining.
Such is its uncommon glutinous nature, that, if put in¬
to a large veffel of fea water, it foon renders the whole
fo vifcid, as eafily to be drawn out into the form of
threads. It inhabits the northern feas, and feems alfo
to occur in thofe of the fouthern hemifphere.
(ktnbeyi. Dombeyan gaftrobranchus.—Head tumid. Much
larger than the European fpecies; the head rounded,
and larger than the body ; four beards on the upper
lip, the number of Uiofe on the lower uncertain, the
fpecimen being defcribed in a dried ftate. Eyes and
noftrils imperceptible. Native of the South Ame¬
rican feas. Obferved by M. Dombey, and defcribed
by La Cepede from the dried Ikin in the Paris mu-
feu m.
4
Y O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
Before we conclude this article, it may be proper to Naturali-
direft the reader’s attention to M. Nouel’s paper rela-zat!0,n> &c'
tive to two methods of multiplying fifties. The firft con- .ot
fills in conveying from the lakes to the rivers, and from
the rivers to the lakes, fifli found only in one of them;
the fecond, in introducing into frefti water, as it were
infenfibly, and by means of artificial ponds, fifti produ¬
ced in fait water, giving the preference to thofe fpe¬
cies, which, by their habits and manner of living,
might be moll adapted to this kind of naturalization.
The firft of thefe methods has been fuccefsfully prac-
tifed in Germany, with regard to the Iliad, in ponds
and clear ftagnant waters, with a bottom of fand or
gravel. Perch and trout have, in like manner, been
conveyed into lakes and rivers in Scotland, and have
thriven remarkably well. The carp, wdiich afteifts a
warm temperature, has been fucceffively introduced In¬
to the rivers and ponds of Pruflia, Denmark, and Eng¬
land. M. Poivre firft brought the gourami of Ben¬
gal into the ille of France, where it has greatly mul¬
tiplied.
“ Our rivers (fays this judicious writer), do not
contain more than about twenty indigenous fpecies, and
fome migratory fifties, which at certain periods of the
year afcend to a certain diftance from their mouths, or,
like the falmon, fwim towards their fources as far aa
they can. The fmall rivers poffefs Hill fewer fpecies ;
the greateft part even are confined to the tench, the
trout, eels, and fome fmaller fifti of little value. How
advantageous would it be to introduce into thefe rivers
a multitude of foreign fifti, which, in thefe waters could
find aliment more agreeable to their tafte, and which
would enjoy a temperature as analogous to their wants,
as favourable to their reprodutftion !
“ The Seine, which I (hall take as an example,
nourilhes many fpecies offalmo and cyprinus : but how-
many other filh of the fame kind might be propagated
in it! If the Seine poffefs the falmon, it wants the
thymollus, the umber of Auvergne, the lavaretus, the
murcena of Germany, the grilfe of Scotland, the pala
of Swifferland, the ferra of the lake of Geneva, &c.
Why fnould not the carp of the lago di Guarda, and
the fchwart%-ntter of the lakes of Berchftoldgaden,
an excellent kind of falmon, highly praifed by Baron
de Moll, a naturalift of Salzbourg, fucceed in France,
if that bottom, to which they are moft attached, were
procured for them, at the foot of the Cevennes or the
Voges ? Why might they not be afterwards gradually
introduced into our fmall rivers ? Can it be believed,
that the numerous tribe of the trout kind, which fwarm
in the rivers of Scotland, would refufe to fupply our co¬
lonies rvith their fpecies ? No. There can be no doubt
that they would bring thither that fecundity, abun¬
dance, and riches, which render them fo valuable to
their native ftreams. The cafe would be the fame with
the boudelles and hiiglings prefented to us by the lakes
of Swifferland, and with the gudgeon, the cyprinus
ballarus, and the falmo umbla, bred in the rivers of’
Lower Germany. Let us open, then, with thefe coun¬
tries a philofophical and liberal exchange of the bell
filh of France for thofe of which we wilh to be pof-
feffed.”
Nature herfelf feems to point to the fuccefs of the
fecond method. In many inftances, falmon and ftur-
geon have habituated themfelves to a frelh-water refi-
dence.
I G H T H Y
Natural dence. Pallas dlfcovered the fea-dog in the lake Bai-
zation, 6cc. ^3]. an(l Liancourt found the herring in feveral of the
of Fiflies. rivers of jsjoj.tij America. It likewife deferves to be
remarked that the large plaife, tranfporled from the
North fea to the ponds of Eaft Friefland, have increaf-
ed by myriads, and imparted great value to water which
was formerly unproductive.
“ In the year I 799, (continues M. Noucl), I had
the honour of reading, in one of the fittings of the
National Inftitute, a memoir on the means and advan¬
tages of naturalizing the herring, a falt-water fith, in
the waters of the Seine, near its mouth, &c. The ac¬
count of the proceffes for accomplilhing this end, which
I there pointed out, are not fufceptible of analyfls, and
cannot, therefore, be introduced into this eflay ; it will
be fufficient for me to fay, that the report of La Cepede,
Cuvier, and Teffier, was entirely in their favour. At
prefent, I am ftill more convinced of the efficacy of the
means which I then propofed *, and I have no doubt
that, if artificial ponds were formed on the edges of
rivers, the experiment would be attended ivith complete
fuccefs. ‘ Every man, (fays Dr Franklin), who catches
a fith, draws from the water a piece of money.’ Let
not the maxims and example of this philosopher be loft
to pofterity ; let them rather produce fruit, like ftrong
and vigorous feed fown in a fertile foil. Having oa-
ferved ’in New England, that the herrings afcended
from the fea into one river of that country, while a
O L O G Y. Ill
{ingle individual was never feen in another river, fepa- Naturah-
rated from the former by a narrow tongue of land, and
which communicated alio with the fea, this phiiofopher , w
took the leaves of fome plants on which the herrings
had depofited their ova, already fecundated, and con¬
veyed them to the river which was deprived of the an¬
nual vifit of thefe filh. The fuccefs of this experiment
furpafied his expeftations ; the ova were completely
productive j and the following year the river was peo¬
pled with a numerous fhoal of herrings, which, fmce
that time, have continued to frequent it.
“ This filh is not the only one which I wilh to fee
naturalized in frefti water j to the herring I would add
feveral fpecies of pleuroneEles—alfo the mullet, goby,
whiting, gar-fith, and perhaps, one or two fpecies of
the gurnard. I wrould pay the greateft attention pofli-
ble to the nature of the water proper for each fpecies.
This happy choice is the principal condition, and that
which could enfure fuccefs; but I would feleft in par¬
ticular for this colonization, the filh found in lakes,
which, though little known, are more numerous than
is commonly fuppofed, and ought to be fo.”
By the adoption of this plan, which is fufceptible of
more ample developement, foeiety would gain an in-
creafed quantity of provifion, and the naturalift would
multiply his opportunities of obfervation.
For the modes of preferving filh in cabinets, fee
Preserving Fijh, means of.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate CCLXXIX.
'Explanation of Terms.—ay (fig. 2.) pecloral fins ; by
ventral fins *, e, c, anal fins 5 dy caudal fin, or tail 5
e, ey ey dorfal fins 5 f bony plates that cover the gills ;
g, branchioflegous rays and their membranes j //, lateral
or fide line.
Fig. 1. Anguilla Conger. Conger Eel.—Example of
apodal fiihes, in which the ventral fins are wanting.
The launce or fand-eel, the wolf-fifn, and fword-filh,
belong to this order.
Fig. 2. The Haddock, an example of jugular filhes,
in which the ventral fins by are placed before the pec¬
toral fins a. To this order belong the dragonet,1* the
cod-filh, the blenny, &.c.
Fig. 3. The Father-lalher, an example of thoracic
filhes, in which the ventral fins a, are placed beneath
the peftoral j as in the bull’s-head, the dory, the
mackrel, the perch, &c.
Fig. 4. The Minow, an example of abdominal filhes,
having the ventral fins a, placed behind the pe&oral
fins b. To this order belong the falmon, the herring,
the carp, &.c.
Fig. 5. The Dog-filh, an example of cartilaginous
fillies, in which the mofcles are fupported by cartilages
inftead of bones, and which breathe by means of aper¬
tures placed near the neck inftead of gills j. a the lateral
apertures.
Fig. 6. Gymnotus EleBricusy Electrical Gymnotus,
©r Cramp-filh.
Fig. 7. Trichiurus Lepturus, Silvery Trichiurus,
Fig. 8. Anarchichas Lupus, Sea-wclf.
Fig. 9. Odontognathus Aculeatus.
Fig. 10. Shnmodytes Tobtanus, Sand-eel,
Fig. II. Ophidium Barbatum, Bearded Ophidium.
Plate CCLXXX.
Fig. 12. Sternoptyx Diaphana, Tranfparent Sternop-
tyx.
Fig. 13. Leptocephalus Morrifii, Morris Launce.
Fig. 14. Sty/ephorus Chordatus, Chordated Stylepho-
rus.
Fig. 15. Callionymus Dracunculus, Sordid Dragonet..
Fig. 16. Uranofcopus Scaber, Bearded Star-gazer.
Fig. 17. Trachinus Draco, Dragon Weever.
Fig. 18. Gadus Molva, Ling.
Fig. 19. Blennius Pholisi Smooth Blenny.
Fig. 20. Kurtus Indicus, Indian Kurtus.
Fig. 21. Echineis Remora, Indian Remora, or Long.
eft Sucking-fifli.
Plate CCLXXXI.
Fig. 22. Coryphcena Hippurus, Dolphin.
Fig. 23. Macrourus Rupejlris, Long-tailed Imminfet.
Fig. 24. Cottus Scorpius, Lalher, Bull-head, or Fa¬
ther-lalher.
Fig. 25. Scorpcena Antennata, Antennated Scorpaena,
Fig. 26. Tjeus Faber, Common Dory.
Fig. 27. Rleuroneftes Rlateffa, Plaife.
Fig. 28. Chcetodon Ro/lratus, Beaked Chaetodon.
Fig. 29. Acanthurus Unicornus, Unicorn Acanthurus.
Fig. 30.
sia I C H T H Y
Fig. 30. Equcs Americanus, American Knight-fifh.
Fig. 31. Trichoput Satyr us, Satyr Trichopus.
Plate CCLXXXII.
Fig. 32. Labrus Cyanopterus, Blue-finned Labrus.
Fig. 33. Scicena Unimaculata, Single-fpotted Scioena.
Fig. 34. Perea Cernua, Ruffe, or Ruffe Perch.
Fig. 35. Gafierofleus Spinachia, Fifteen-fpined Stic-
kl e-back.
Fig. 36. Mul/us Aurijlamma, Oriflamme Surmullet,
j Fig. 37. Trachichthys Atijlralis.
O L O G Y.
Fig. 38. Cobitis Taenia, Spiny loche.
Fig. 39. Efox Aurco-mridis, Gold-green Pike.
Fig. 40. Exocatus Volitans, Oceanic Flying-fiih.
Plate CCLXXXIII.
Fig. 41. O/lracion Cornutus, Horned Trunk-fifti.
Fig. 42. Diodon Brevis, Short Sun-fiffi.
Fig. 43. Centrifcus Scolopax, Snipe Centrifius.
Fig. 44. Pegafus Draconis, Dragon Pegafus.
Fig. 45. Accipenfer Hufo, Ifinglafs Sturgeon.
Fig. 46. Squalus Canicula, Panther Shark.
Index.
INDEX.
Abdominal fifhes, order of,
Acanthonotus, chara&ers of,
fpecies of,
Acantburus, charafters of,
fpecies of,
Aceipenfer, characters of,
fpecies of,
Age of fifties,
Amia, characters of,
fpecies of,
Ammodytes, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anarchichas, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anableps, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anatomy of fifties,
Anchovy, fee Clupea,
Ancient writers on fifties,
Angel-fjh, fee Chcctodon,
Apodal fifties, order of,
Argentina, characters of,
fpecies of,
Artedi, a writer on fifties,
Atherina, characters of,
fpecies of,
B
Balifles, characters of,
fpecies of,
Band-jifh, fee Ccepola,
Be/on's hiftory of fifties,
Bleak, fee Cyprinus,
B/ennio'ides,
Blennius, characters of,
fpecies of,
Bodianus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Body of fifties, form of,
Branchial opercles,
membrane,
Bream, fee Cyprinus,
Bullhead, fee Coitus,
C
Callionymus, characters of,
fpecies of.
p. 96
99
ib.
91
ib.
106
ib.
78> 79
97
ib.
81
82
81
ib.
97
ib.
68—73
102
66
91
79
100
ib.
66
100
ib.
104
ib.
87
66
102
85
86
ib.
94
ib.
68
69
ib.
102
89
83
ib.
Carp, fee Cyprinus, p. 102
remarkably prolific, ib.
Cartilaginous fifties, order of, 103
Ccepola, characters of, 87
fpecies of, ib.
Centrifcus, characters of, 104
fpecies of, ib.
Centrogajler, characters of, 95
fpecies of, ib.
Cephalus, characters of, 104
fpecies of, ib.
Chcetodon, characters of, 91
fpecies of, ib.
Pharr, fee Salmo, 97
red, ib.
Chinefc trumpet-fifti, fee Fijlularia, 99
Circulation in fifties flow, 74
Clupea, characters of, 101
fpecies of, ib.
Coal-fjb, fee Gadus, 84
Cobitis, characters of, 96
fpecies of, ib.
Cod, common, fee Gadus, 84
Chub, fee Cyprinus, 102
Cock-paddle, fee Cyclopterus, 105
Conger eel, fpecies of muraena, 80
Coryphcena, characters of, 88
fpecies of, ib.
hippurus, or dolphin, hifto¬
ry of, ib.
Coitus, characters of, 89
fpecies of, ib.
Cramp-fi/h, fee Gymnotus, 80
Cyclopterus, characters of, J05
fpecies of, ib.
Cyprinus, characters of, 102
fpecies of, ib.
D
Diodon, characters of, 104
fpecies of, ib.
Dolphin, fee Coryphcena, 88
Dory, fee Zeus, 89
Dragon iveever, fee Trachinus, 84
Dragonet, fee Callionymus, 83
Duration or age of fifties, 78, 79
Echeneis, characters of, p. 88
fpecies of, ib.
remora, Angular hiftory .of, ib.
Eel, fnake,
common, >- fee Murcena, 78
conger, j
fand, fee Ammodytes, 8i
Elops, characters of, 100
fpecies of, ib.
Eques, characters of, 91
fpecies of, ib.
Efox, characters of, 99
fpecies of, ib.
Exococtus, characters of, 100
fpecies of, ib.
Eyes of fifties, anatomy of, 69
File-fifh, fee Balifles,
Fins of fifties,
Fifhes, ancient writers on,
moderns,
hiftory of, by Belon,
Rondelet,
Aldrovandus,
Willoughby,
Artedi,
arrangement of, by Klein,
Linnaeus,
La Cepede on,
Pennant,
anatomy of,
form of the body of,
head of,
eyes of,
opercles of,
branchial membrane of,
trunk of,
fins of,
Ikeleton of,
mufcles of,
vifeera of,
phyfiology of
refpiration of,
effeCts of air on,
104
70
66
ib.
ib.
67
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
68
ib.
ib.
69
ib.
ib.
ib.
7®
7X
ib.
72
73
ib.
ib.
Fijhes,
WArchttfiM Sculp ■
Sculp 1
UTJrcktlaid ■J'cillp •'
ICHTHYOLOGY
WAt'chi&a/rl Sculp
i^Ardi ilw/tt Sculp ■'
Index.
Fjfhes, fenfe of feeing of,
hearing of,
touch of,
tafte of,
fmelling of,
motions of,
inftruments of motion of,
migration of,
moftly voracious,
oviparous,
eggs of, immenfe,
great age of fome,
lyftematic expofition of,
orders of,
Tijlularia, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
flounder, fee PlturoneBes,
Flijing-fifh, fee Exocoetus,
. 74
ib.
75
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
76
77
ib.
78
ib.
79
ib.
99
ib.
90
100
Gadus, chara&ers of, 84
fpecies of, ib.
Gajlerojleus, charadiers of, 95
fpecies of, ib.
Gajlrobranchus, charadiers of, 110
fpecies of, ib.
Gillsy the organs of refpiration in
fiihes, 73
Gilt-head, fee Sparus, 9 a
greatly prized by the Greeks
and Romans, ib.
Gobiomorus, charadiers of, 80
fpecies of, ib.
Gobius, charadiers of, 88
fpecies of, ib.
Gold-fifh, or gold-carp, fee Cyprinus, 102
Gamphsfus, charadiers of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
Graylingy fee Salma, 98
Gudgeon, fea, or goby, fee Gobius, 88
Gurnard, fee Trigla, 96
Gymnetrus, charadiers of, 87
fpecies of, ib.
Gymmtus, charadiers of, 80
fpecies of, ib.
H
Haddock, fee Gadus, 84
Hake, fpecies of gadus, 8 5
Head of fifties, anatomy of, 68
Hearing, fenfe of, in fifties, 74
Heart of fifties, anatomy of, 72
Herring, fee Clupea, joi
hiftory of, ib.
firft pickled, ib.
Halibut, fee PleuroneBes, 91
Holocentrus, charadiers of, 94
fpecies of, ib.
Ichthyology, definition of, 66
difficulties in the ftudy of, ib.
Imminfet, fee Macrourus, 88
■Jugular fifties, order of, 83
Vol. XI. Part I.
I C H T H
K
Knight-JiJh, fee Eques,
Kurtus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
YOLO
P- 91
?7
ib.
Labrus, charadiers of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
La Cepede, a writer on fifties, 67
his arrangement, ib.
Lamprey, or fea-lamprey, fee Fetromy-
%on, 109
Leptocephalus, charadiers »f, 83
fpecies of, ib.
Ling, fpecies of gadus, 84
Loche, fee Cobitis, 96
Lonchurbsy charadiers ef, 93
fpecies of, ib.
Lophius, charadiers of, 105
’ fpecies of, ib.
Loricaria, charadiers of, 97
fpecies of, ib.
Lump-JiJh, or lump-fucker, fee Cyclop-
terus, 105
M
Macrourus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Mackrel, fee Scomber,
Membrane, branchial,
Merian, Mad. too credulous on the
transformation of fifties,
Metamorphofes of fifties,
Miller's thumb, fee Gobius,
Modern writers on fifties,
Minozv, fee Cyprinus,
Mormyrus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Motion of fifties very rapid,
inftruments of,
Migration of fifties doubted,
Monopterus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Morris launce, fee Leptocephalus,
Mugil, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Mullus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
barbatus, efteemed much by
the Romans,
Multiplication of fifties, methods pro-
pofed,
Muraena,
helena, a Roman luxury,
Mufcles of fifties,
88
ib.
95
69
7 8
ib.
88
66
102
103
ib.
75
ib.
76
80
ib,
83
100
ib.
96
ib.
ib.
HO
79
ib.
71
N
Nouel, M. bis plan for the multipli¬
cation of fifties, HO
Nourishment ot Oifats, 77
O
Gdoniognathus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
81
ib.
G Y.
Old-wife fifli, fee Baliftes,
Opercles, branchial,
Ophicephalus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Ophidium, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Orders of fifties, charadiers of,
Organs of fifties,
Ojlracion, charadlers of,
fpecies of,
Ova of fifties, evolution of,
number of, immenfe,
are depofited in diffe¬
rent feafons,
p. 104
69
93
ib.
82
ib.
79
7a
103
ib.
77
78
ib.
P
Pegafus, charadiers of, 164
fpecies of, ib.
Perea, charadiers of, 94
fpecies of, ib.
Perch, fee Perea, ib.
efteemed by the Romans, ib.
Petromyzon, charadiers of, 109
fpecies of, ib.
Phyjiology of fifties, 73
Pike, fee Efox, 99
voracity of, IOO
Pz'/oZ-fifti, fee Scomber, 93
Pilchard, fee Clupea, 101
Plaife, fee PleuroneSies, 91
Platyjlachus, charadiers of, 97
fpecies of, ib.
PleuroneSies, charadlors of, 91
fpecies of, ib.
Polynemus, charadiers of, 101
fpecies of, ib.
Polypterus, charadiers of, 100
fpecies of, ib.
R
Raia, charadiers of, 108
fpecies of, ib.
Ray, a writer on fifties, 66
Remora, or fucking-filh, fee Echensis, 88
marvellous account of, among
the ancients, ib,
ReproduSlion of fifties, 77
Refpiration of fifties, • 73
performed by gills, ib,
effedts of, on the air, ib.
Roach, fee Cyprinus, 102
Roe, or ova of fifties, 7 rl
S
Salmo, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Salmon hunting,
trout,
Saury, fee Elcps,
Sand-eel, or fand launce, fee Ammo*
dytes,
Scarus, charadiers of,
fpecies of,
Scomber, charadiers of,
97
98
ib.
ib.
IOO
89
92
ib.
95
Scombst'p
114
Scomber, fpecies of,
Scorpeena, characters of,
fpecies of,
Scorpion, fea, fee Scorpeena,
Scicena, characters of,
fpecies of,
Sea-borje, fee SyngnatJius,
Sea-owl, fee Cyclopierus,
Sea-devil, fee LopJuus,
Seeing, fenfe of, in fithes,,
Senfes, external, in fithes,
Serpent,, fea, fpecies of mursena,
Shad, fee Clupea,
Shark, fee Squalus,
Short fun-fifh, fee Cephalus,
Silurus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Skate, fed Raia,
Skeleton of fifties,
Smelling, fenfe of, in fifties.
Smelt, fee Salmo eperlanus.
Soft-roe, or milt of fifties,
Sole, fee RleuroneBes,
Sparling and fpirling, fee Eperlanus,
characters of,
fpecies of,
Spatularia, characters of,
fpecies of,
Sprat, fee Clupea,
Squalus, characters of,
fpecies. of,
Stylephorus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Sternoptyx, characters of,
fpecies of
Stickleback, fee Gajlerofeus,-
Stromateus, characters of,
fpecies of.
!>• 95
89
ib.
ib.
93
94
104
1 Pi
ib.
74
ib.
79
101
106
104
97
ib.
108
71
75
99
73
91
99
92
ib.
108
ib.
101
106
ib.
83
ib.
82
ib.
ib.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Sturgeon, fee Accipenfer, p. 106
remarkably prolific, ib.
affords ifinglafs, ib,
Sucking.fjh, fee Echeneis, 88
Surmullet, red, fee Mullus, 96
highly efteemed by the
Romans* ib.
Swimming or air-bladder, of fifties, 72
Swordfijh, fee Xiphias, 82
Synbranchus, generic characters of, 80
fpecies of ib.
Syngnathus, characters of, 104
fpecies of, ib.
SijJlem, abforbent, of fifties, 72
Triurus, fpecies of,
Trout, fee Salmo,
Trunk of fifties,
Trunh-fjh, fee OJlracion,
Tunny, tee Scomber,
admired by the Greeks
Romans,
Turbot, fee PleuroneBcs,
Tujk, fee Gadus,
U
Unicornis,
Uranofcopus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Index.
p. 81
98
69
103
95
and
T
Ta/le, {ente, of, in fifties,
Tench, fee Cyprinus,
fingular hiftory of one,
Tetrodon, characters of,
fpecies of,
Toad-fjh, fee Lophius,
Tobacco-pipe fifti, fee Fi/lularia,
Torpedo, fee Raia,
Torfk, fee Gadus,
Touch, fenfe of, in fifties,
Thorn-back, fee Raia,
Trachichthys, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trachinus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Tnchiurus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trichopus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trigla, characters of,
fpecies of,
Triurus, characters of,
75
102
ib.
103
ib.
i°5
99
108
84
75
108
96
ib.
84
ib.
81
ib.
.92
ib.
96
ib.
8!
V
Vandellius, characters of,
fpecies of,
Voracity of fifties, remarkable,
W
Weever, dragon, fee Trachinus,
Willoughby, a writer on fifties,
Wolf-fjh, or fea-wolf, fee Anar chi-
char, g!
fmaller, jb,
panther, jj,,
X
Xiphias, characters of, Sj
fpecies of, ib.
Z
Zeus, characters of, 89
fpecies of, ib,
?7
ib,
77
84
ib,
r c h
Ichthyo- ICHTHYOPHAGI, Fish-eaters, a name given
- ft8’’ t0 a PeoPle» or rat^er to feveral different people, who
ichthypc- lived wholly on fifties ; the word is Greek, compounded
> ^ . of rgjvs, pifcis, “ fifli,” and (payuv, edere, “ to eat.”
The Ichthyophagi fpoken of by Ptolemy are placed
by Sanfon in the provinces of Nanquia and Xantong,
Agatharcides calls all the inhabitants between Carma-
nia and Gedrofia by the name Ichthyophagi,.
From the accounts given us of the Ichthyophagi by
Herodotus, Strabo, Solinus, Plutarch, &c. it appears
indeed that they had cattle, but that they made no ufe
op them, excepting to feed their fiih withal. They made
t eir houfes of large fifli-bones, the ribs of whales fer-
vhng them for their beams. The jaws of thefe animals
feirved them for doors ; and the mortars wherein they
pounded their fifti, and baked it at the fun, were nothing
«lfe but their vertebrae.
1CH1HYPERIA, an old term in Natural Hi/lory,
which is applied by Dr Hill to the bony palates and
I G O
mouths of fifties, ufually met with either foflil, in fin- icbthype-
gle pieces, or in fragments. They are of the fame fub- ria
fiance with the bufonitae ; and are of very various fi- 11
gures, fome broad and fhort, others longer and {lender j Icomum^
fome very gibbofe, and others plainly arched. They ¥
are likewife of various fizes, from the tenth of an inch .
to two inches in length, and an inch in breadth.
ICKENILD-street, is that old Roman highway,
denominated from the Icenians, which extended from
Yarmouth in Norfolk, the eaft part of the kingdom of
the Iceni, to Barley in Hertfordfhire, giving name in
the way to feveral villages, as Ickwortb, Icklingham,
and Ickleton in that kingdom. From Barley to Roy-
fton it divides the counties of Cambridge and Hert¬
ford. From Ickleford it runs by Tring, crofles Bucks -
and Oxfordfhire, pafles the Thames at Goring, and ex¬
tends to the weft part of England.
ICOLMKIL. See Iona.
ICONIUM, at prefent Cogni, formerly the, capital
city
ICO [ I ]
Diiodaf- city of Lycaonia in Afia Minor. St Paul coming to
tes. Iconium (A£ts xiii. 51. 5civ. 1. &c.) in the year of
Chrift 45, converted many Jews and Gentiles there.
It is believed, that in his firft journey to this dty, he
converted St Thecla, fo celebrated in the writings of
the ancient fathers. But feme incredulous Jews ex¬
cited the Gentiles to rife againft Paul and Barnabas,
fo that they w'ere upon the point of offering violence
to them, which obliged St Paul and St Barnabas to
fly for fecurity to the neighbouring cities. St Paul
undertook a fecond journey to Iconium in the year
51 j but we know no.particulars of his journey, which
relate peculiarly to Iconium.
ICONOCLASTES, or Icokoclast®, breakers of
images a name which the church of Rome gives to
all who rejeft the ufe of images in religious matters.—
The word is Greek, formed from uxuv, imago^ and
v-Xtx.ru't, rumpere, “ to break.”
In this fenfe, not only the reformed, but fome of
the eaftern churches, are called Iccnoclajles, and effeem-
ed by them heretics, as oppofing the wmrlhip of the
images of God and the faints, and breaking their fi¬
gures and reprefentations in churches.
The oppofition to images began in Greece under the
reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the
Greeks a little after the commencement of the eighth
century, when the worfhip of them became common.
See Image. But the tumults occafioned by it were
quelled by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bar¬
danes of the imperial throne. The difpute, however,
broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Ifaurian,
who iffued out an edi£t in the year 726, abrogating, as
fome fay, the worfliip of images, and ordering all the
images, except that of Chrift’s crucifixion, to be re¬
moved out of the churches •, but according to others, this
edift only prohibited the paying to them any kind of
adoration or worlhip. Thisedift occafioned a civil war,
which broke out in the iflands of the Archipelago, and
by the fuggeftions of the priefts and monks, ravaged a
part of Afia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil
commotions and infurre&ions in Italy were chiefly pro¬
moted by the Roman pontiffs, Gregory I. and II. Leo
was excommunicated, and his fubjefts in the Italian
provinces violated their allegiance, and rifing in arms
either maffacred or baniftied all the emperor’s deputies
and officers. In confequence of thefe proceedings, Leo
affembled a council at Conftantinople in 730, which de¬
graded Germanus, the biflrop of that city, who was a
patron of images 5 and he ordered all the images to be
publicly burnt, and inflicled a variety of fevere puniffi-
ments upon fuch as were attached to that idolatrous wor¬
fhip. Hence arofe tw'o fatlions; one of which adopted
the adoration and w'orffiip of images, and on that account
were called iconoduli or iconolatrce ; and the other main¬
tained that fuch worffiip was unlawful, and that nothing
was more worthy the zeal of Chriftians than to demoliffi
and deflroy thofe ftatues and pictures which w ere the
occafions of this grofs idolatry j and hence they were
diftinguifhedby the titlesoiiconomachi^romaKuv^imagey
and pot-xu, I contend^) and iconoclajlce. The zeal of Gre¬
gory II. in favour of image worfhip, was not only imi¬
tated, but even furpafled by his fucceffor Gregory III.
<in confequence of which the Italian provinces were torn
from the Grecian empire.
Conftantine, called Cfyronymus, from xoTge?, “ fter-
5 1 ICO
cus,” and ctopot, “ name,” becaufe he w as faid to have Iconoclafi.
defiled the facred font at his baptifm, fucceeded his te^
father Leo in 741, and in 754 convened a council at
Conftantinople, regarded by the Greeks as the feventh
oecumenical council, which folemnly condemned the
worlhip and ule of images. Thole who, notwithftand-
ing this decree of the council, raifed commotions in
the ftate, were feverely punilhed; and new laws were
enabled, to fet bounds to the violence of monafticrage.
Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775> Purfue(i
the fame meafures, and had recourfe to the coercive
influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry
out of the Chriftian church. Irene, the wife of Leo,
poifoned her hulband in 780 •, affumed the reins of
empire during the minority of her fon Conftantine,
and in 786 fummoned a council at Nice in Bithynia,
known by the name of the fecond Nicene council, which
abrogated the laws and decrees againft the new ido¬
latry, reftored the worlhip of images and of the crofs,
and denounced fevere puniftiments againft thofe who
maintained that God was the only object of religious
adoration. In this conteft, the Britons, Germans, and
Gauls, were of opinion, that images might be lawfully
continued in churches, but they confidered the worfhip
of them as highly injurious and offenfive to the Su¬
preme Being. Charlemagne diftinguiffied himfelf as a
mediator in this controverfy : he ordered four books
concerning images to be compofed, refuting the rea-
fons urged by the Nicene bifhops to juftify the worffiip
of images, which he fent to Adrian the Roman pon¬
tiff in 790, in order to engage him to w ithdraw his ap¬
probation of the decrees of the laft council of Nice.
Adrian wrote an anfwer •, and in 794, a council of
300 bilhops, affembled by Charlemagne at Francfort
on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the
four books, and folemnly condemned the worffiip of
images. In the Greek church, after the baniftrment
of Irene, the controverfy concerning images broke out
anew, and was carried on by the contending parties,
during the half of the ninth century, with various and
uncertain fuccefs. The emperor Nicephorus appears
upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idola¬
trous worffiip. His fucceflor, Michael Curopalates,
furnamed Rhangabe, patronized and encouraged it. But
the fcene changed on the accefhon of Leo the Arme¬
nian to the empire ; who affembled a council at Con¬
ftantinople in 814, that aboliftied the decrees of the
Nicene council. His fucceffor Michael, furnamed Bul¬
bils, difapproved the worfhip of images, and his fon .
Theophilus treated them with great feverity. Howr-
ever, the emprefs Theodora, after his death, and du¬
ring the minority of her fon, affembled a council at
Conftantinople in 842, which reinftated the decrees of
the fecond Nicene council, and encouraged image
W'orfhip by a law'. The council held at the fame place
under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks
the eighth general council, confirmed and renewed the
Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this council, a
feftival was inftituted by the fuperftitious Greeks, call¬
ed the feajl of orthodoxij. The Latins were generally
of opinion, that images might be fuffered as the means
of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling
to their remembrance the pious exploits and virtuous
aflions of the perfons whom they reprefented 5 but
they detefted all thoughts of paying them the leaft
P 2 marks
ICO [I
Iconoelaftes marks of religious homage or adoration. Ihe coun-
f i-. . oil of Paris, aiTembled in 824 by Louis the Meek, re~
C° r‘a‘ folved to allow the ufe of images in the churches, but
feverely prohibited rendering them religious Avorlhip.
Neverthelefs, towards the conclufion of this century,
the Galliean clergy began to pay a kind of religious
homage to the images of faints, and their example was
followed by the Germans and other nations. How¬
ever, the Iconoclafts ftill had their adherents among
the Latins *, the moft eminent of whom was Claudius
bifhop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all images, and
even the crofs, to be cait out of the churches, and
committed to the flames ; and he wrote a treatife, in
which he declared both againft the ufe and worfhip of
them. He condemned relicks, pilgrimages to the Holy
Land, and all voyages to the tombs of faints; and to
his writings and labours it was owing, that the city of
Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time
after his death, much lefs infefted with fuperflition
than the other parts of Europe. The controverfy con¬
cerning the fanftity of images was again revived by
Leo bifhop of Chalcedon, in the 11th century, cn
oecafion of the emperor Alexius’s converting the fi¬
gures of filver that adorned the portals of the churches
into money in order to fupply the exigencies of the
flate. The bifhop obftinately maintained that he had
been guilty of facrilege ; and publifhed a treatife, in
which he affirmed, that in thefe images there refided
an inherent fandlity, and that the adoration of Chri-
ftians ought not to be confined to the perfons repre-
fented by thefe images, but extended to the images
themfelves. The emperor affembled a council at Con-
ffiantinople, which determined, that the images of Chrifi:
and of the faints were to be honoured only with a re¬
lative wmi fnip; and that invocation and worfhip were to
be addrefled to the faints only as the fervants of Chrift,
and on account ©f their relation to him as their ma¬
iler. Leo, diffatisfied even with thefe abfurd and fu-
perflitious decifions, was fent into banifliment. In the
weftern church, the worfhip of images was difapproved
and oppofed by feveral confiderable parties, as the Pe-
tvoboffiians, Albigenfes, Waldenfes, &c. till at length
this idolatrous practice was entirely abolifhed in many
parts of the Chriftian world by the Reformation. See
Image.
ICONOGRAPHIA (derived from uku, “ image,”
and y^xcpw, “ I deferibe), the defeription of images or
ancient ftatues of marble and copper j alfo of bufts and
femi-bufts, penates, paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICONOLATRiE, or Icokolaters (from uxa
and XxTiPiva, “ I worfhip,”) or IconoDUDI (from uxu
and tixXca), “ I ferve •,”) thofe who woefhip images : A
name which the Iconoclaftes give to thofe of the Ro-
mifh communion, on account of their adoring images,
and of rendering to them the worfhip only due to God.
See Iconoclasts and Image.
ICOSAHEDRON, in Geometry, a regular folid,
confifting of 20 triangular pyramids, whofe vertices
meet in the centre of a fphere fuppofed to circum-
feribe it; and therefore have their height and bafes
equal •, wherefore the folidity of one of thefe pyramids
multiplied by 20, the number of bafes, gives the folid
contents of the icofahedron.
ICOSANDRIA (from “ twenty,” and
16 ] IDE
“ a man or hufband”) ; the name of the I2th clafs in
Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants with her¬
maphrodite flowers, which are furnifhed with 20 or
more ftamina, that are inferted into the inner fide of
the calyx or petals. See Botany, p. 192.
ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architeft who lived
about 430 B. C. built feveral magnificent temples, ajid
among others that of Minerva at Athens.
IDA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain fituated in
the heart of Crete where broadeft ; the higheft of all
in the ifland \ round, and in compafs 60 ftadia (Stra¬
bo) ; the nurfing place of Jupiter, and where his tomb
was vifited in Varro’s time.—Another ZiA, a mountain
of Myfia, or rather a chain of mountains (Homer,
Virgil), extending from Zeleia on the fouth of the ter¬
ritory of Cyzicus to Leftum the utmoft promontory of
Troas. The abundance of its waters became the fource-
of many rivers, and particularly of the Simois, Sca-
mander, ZEfopus, Granicus, &c. It was covered with
green wood, and the elevation of its top opened a fine
extenfive view of the Hellefpont and the adjacent coun¬
tries j from which reafon it was frequented by the gods
during the Trojan war, according to Homer. The top
was called Gargara (Homer, Strabo) ; and celebrated
by the poets for the judgment of Paris on the beauty of
the three goddeffes, Minerva, Juno, and Venus ) to the
laft of whom he gave the preference.
IDALIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
on the eaft fide of Cyprus. Now Capo di Griego ■ with
a high rugged eminence rifing over it, in the form of a
table. It was facred to Venus j and hence the epithet
Idalia given her by the poets. The eminence was
covered by a grove ; and in the grove was a little
town, in Pliny’s time extinft. Idalia, according to
Bochart, denotes the place or fpot facred to the god-
tiefs.
Itofandfjg
Ide*.
IDEA, the reflex perception of objedfts, after the
original perception or impreffion ’ has been felt by
the mind. See METAPHYSICS, pa/Jim; and Logic,.
Part I.
IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is it-
felf, and not any thing elfe in which fenfe identity
differs from finiilitudey as well as diverjity. See Meta¬
physics.
IDES, in the ancient Roman kalendar, were eight
days in each month 5 the firft of which fell on the 13th
of March, May, July, and OUober j and on the 13th
day of the other months.—The origin of the word is
contefted. Some will have it formed from <£s<v, “ to
fee by reafon the full moon was commonly feen on
the days of the ides: others from alog, “ fpeeies, fi¬
gure,” on account of the image of the full moon then
vifible: others from idulium ox ovis iduiis, a name given
by the Hetrurians to a viftim offered on that clay to
Jupiter: others from the Hetrurian word iduo, i. e.
divide ; by reafon the ides divided the moon into two
nearly equal parts.
The ides came between the Kalends and the
Nones *, and were reckoned backwards. Thus they
called the 14th day of March, May, July, and ORo-
ber, and the I2th of the other months, the pridie idusy
or the day before the ides j the next preceding day they
called the tertia idus; and fo on, reckoning alvays
backwards till they came to the Nones. This method
of reckoning time is ftill retained in the chancery of
Rome,
1 d 1 [ m:
Idfi, Rome, end in ihe knlendar of the Breviary.-—The
Idiocy* ides of May were confeerated to Mercury : tne -ides
Qc ]VXarch were ever efteemed unhappy, after CaefarV
murder on that day : the time after the ides of June
was reckoned fortunate for thufe who entered into ma¬
trimony : the ides of Auguft were confecrated to Di¬
ana, and were obferved as a feaft day by the flaves.
On the ides of September, auguries were taken for
appointing the magistrates, who formerly entered into
their offices on the ides of May, afterwards on thofe of
March. . .
IDIOCY, a defeft of underfbnding. Both idiocy
and lunacy excufe from, the guilt of crimes j (fee
Grime, finr. ult.) For the rule of jaw as jo lunatics,
which may alfo be eafily adapted to idiots, is, that fu-
Wlacljlonc'sriofus furore folum punitur. In criminal cafes, there-
Commen- fore) idiots and lunatics are not chargeable for therr
taries. own’a£b, if committed when under thefe incapacities :
no, not even for treafon itfclf. Alfo, if a man in his
found memory commits a capital offence, and before
arraignment for it he becomes mad, he ought not to
be arraigned for it i becaufe he is not aole to plead to
it with that advice and caution that he ought. And
if, after he has pleaded, the prifoner becomes mad,
he (hall not be tried : for how can he make his de¬
fence ? If, after he be tried and found guilty, he lofes
his fenfes before judgment, judgment ffiall not be pro¬
nounced } and if, after judgment, he becomes of non¬
fane memory, execution lhall be Hayed . for perad-
venture, fays the humanity of the Engliffi law, had
the prifoner been of found memory, he might have al¬
leged fomething in ftay of judgment or execution. In¬
deed, in the bloody reign of Henry VIII. a ftatute
was made, which enafted, that if a perfon, being com-
pos mentis, Should commit high treafon, and after fall
into madnefs, he might be tried in his abfence, and
Should fuffer death, as if he were of perfeft memory.
But this favage and inhuman law was repealed by the
Statute l & 2 Ph. & M. c. 10. For, as is obferved by
Sir Edward Coke, “ the execution of an offender is
for example, ut poena ad paucos, metus ad omnes per-
vsniat; but fo it is not when a madman is executed j
but Should be a miferable fpe&acie, both againft law,
and of extreme inhumanity and cruelty, and can be no
example to others.” But if there be any doubt whe¬
ther the party be compos or not, this ffiall be tried by
a jury. And if he be fo found, a total idiocy, oi ab-
folute infanity, excufes from the guilt, and of courfe
from, the punishment, of any criminal a£tion commit¬
ted under fuch deprivation of the fenfes ^ but if a lu¬
natic hath lucid intervals of underftanding, he Shall an-
fsver for what he does in thofe intervals, as if he had
no deficiency. Yet, in the cafe of abfolute madmen,
as they are not anfwerable for their aftions, they Should
not be permitted the liberty of a&ing unlefs under pro¬
per controul j and, in particular, they ought not to be
fuffered to go loofe, to the terror of the king’s fubje&s.
It was the doftrine of our ancient law, that per Tons de¬
prived of their reafon might be confined till they re¬
covered their fenfes, without waiting for the forms of a
commiffion or other fpecial authority from the crown j
and now, by the vagrant a£ls, a method is chalked out
for imprifoning, chaining, and fending them to their
proper homes.
The matrimonial contrafl like wife cannot take place
7 ] I D I
in a Slate of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that ,_Idl°c^ ,
the iffiie of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage
valid. A Strange determination ! Since confent is ab¬
solutely requisite to matrimony, and neither idiots
nor lunatics are capable of confenting to any thing.
And therefore the civil law judged much more fen-
fibly, when it made fuch deprivations of reafon a pre¬
vious impediment, though not a caufe of divorce if-
they happened after marriage. And modern lefolu-
tions have adhered to the fenfe of the civil lawr, by de¬
termining that the marriage of a lunatic, not being in
a lucid interval, was abfolutely void. But as it might
be difficult to prove the exaft Slate of the party’s mind
at the adlual celebration of the nuptials, upon this ac¬
count (concurring with Some private family reafons *'), * See P/E
the Slatute 15 Geo. II. c. 30. has provided, that the^
marriage of lunatics and perfons under phieniies (ifc> ^
found lunatics under a eommiffion, or committed to
the care of truftees under any aft of parliament) before
they are declared of Sound mind by the lord chancel¬
lor, or the majority of fuch trullees, Shall be totally
void.
Idiots and perfons of nonfane memory, as well as in¬
fants and perlons under durefs, are not totally difabled
either to convey or purchafe, but fub mods only. For
their conveyances and purebafes are voidable, but not
aftually void. The king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot,
may avoid his grants or other afts. But it hath been
faid, that a non compos himfelf, though he be after¬
wards brought to a right mind, Shall not be permitted
to allege his own infanity in order to avoid fuch grant :
for that no man ffiall be allowed to Slultiiy himfelf, or
plead his own difability. The progrefs of this notion
is fomewhat curious. In the time ot Edward I. non
compos was a fufficient plea to void a man’s own
bond : and there is a writ in the regifter for the alie¬
nor himfelf to recover lands aliened by him during his
infanity 5 dum fuit non compos mentis Jure, ut dicit, &c.
But under Edward III. a fcruple began to arife, whe¬
ther a man Should be permitted to blemifh himfelf, by
pleading his own infanity $ and, afterwards, a defend¬
ant in affize having pleaded a releafe by the plaintiff
fince the lall continuance, to which the plaintiff re¬
plied {ore tenus, as the manner then was) that he was
out of his mind when he gave it, the court adjourned
the affize j doubting, whether as the plaintiff was fane
both then and at the commencement of the fuit,. he
Should be permitted to plead an intermediate depriva¬
tion of reafon j and the queftion was aSked, how he
came to remember to releafe, if out of his fenfes when
he gave it ? Under Henry VI. this way of reafoning
(that a man Shall not be allowed to dilable himfelf, by
pleading his own incapacity, becaufe he cannot know
what he did under fuch a Situation) was ferioufly adopt¬
ed by the judges in argument \ upon a queftion whe¬
ther the heir was barred of his right of entry by the
feoffment of his infane anceftor ? And from thefe Icofe
authorities, which Fitzherbert does not fcruple to re-
jeft as being contrary to reafon, the maxim that a man
ffiall not Stultify himfelf, hath been handed down as
fettled law : though later opinions, feeding the incon¬
venience of the rule, have in many points endeavouied
to reftrain it. And, clearly, the next heir or other
perfon interefted, may, after the death of the idiot or
non compos, take advantage of his incapacity and avoid
I B L [ i
itfiocy the grant. And fo, too, if he purchafes under this
Idlenefs. and does not afterwards upon recovering his
■»—'y-w.i..' hnfes agree to the purchafe, his heir may either wave
or accept the eftate at his option. In like manner, an
infant may wave fuch purchafe or conveyance, when
he comes to full age j or, if he does not then a&ually
agree to it, his heir may wave it after him. Perfons,
alfo, who purchafe or convey under durefs, may affirm
or avoid fuch tranfaftion, whenever the durefs is ceaf-
ed.^ For all thefe are under the proteftion of the law;
which will not fuffer them to be impofed upon through
the imbecility of their prefent condition fo that their
a£ls are only binding, in cafe they be afterwards agreed
to when fuch imbecility ceafes. Yet the guardians
or committees of a lunatic, by the ftatute 11 Geo. III.
c. 20..are empowered to renew in his right, under the
directions of the court of chancery, any leafe for lives
or years, and apply the profits of fuch renewal for the
benefit of fuch lunatic, his heirs, or executors. See
Lunacy.
IDIOM, among grammarians, properly fignifies
the peculiar genius of each language, but is often ufed
in a fynonymous fenfe with dialed:. The word is
Greek, “ propriety formed of “ proper,-
own.”
IDIOPATHY, in Phytic^ a diforder peculiar to a
certain part of the body, and not arifing from any pre¬
ceding difeafe ; in which fenfe it is oppofed to fym-
pathy. Thus, an epilepfy is idiopathic when it hap¬
pens merely through fome fault in the brain j and
fympathetic when it is the confequence of fome other
diforder.
IDIOSYNCRASY, among phyficians, denotes a
peculiar temperament of body, whereby it is rendered
more liable t© certain diforders than perfons of a dif¬
ferent conftitution ufually are.
IIMOI, or Ideot, in our laws, denotes a natural
fool, or a fool from his birth. See Idiocy.
T-he word is originally Greek, which prima¬
rily imports a private perfon^ or one who leads a pri¬
vate life, without any fliare or concern in the govern¬
ment of affairs.
A perfon who has underftanding enough to meafure
a yard of cloth, number twenty rightly, and tell the
days of the week, &c. is not an ideot in the eye of
the law. But a man who is born deaf, dumb, and
blind, is confidered by the law in the fame Hate as an
idiot.
Idiot is alfo ufed, by ancient writers, for a perfon
ignorant or unlearned $ anfwering to illiteratus, or im-
peritus. In this fenfe, Vidor tells us, in his Chroni-
con, that in the confuKhip of Meffala, the Holy Gof-
pels, by conamand of the emperor Anaftafius, were cor-
re&ed and amended, as having been written by ideot
evangelifts : Tanquam ab idiotis evangelijlu combo [it a.
IDLENESS, a reluClancy in people to be employed
in any kind of rvork.
Idlenefs in any perfon whatfoever is a high of-
ience againft the public economy. In China it is a
maxim, that if there be a man who does not work, or
a woman that is idle, in the empire, fomebody muff
luffet cold or hunger ; the produce of the lands not
being more than fufficient, with culture, to maintain the
inhabitants 5 and therefore, thougli the idle perlon
may fhift off the want from himfelf, yet it muft in the
8 ] IDO
end fall fomewhere. The court alfo of Areopagus at Hlenefa
Athens puniflied idlenefs, and exerted a right of examin- II
ing every citizen in what manner he fpent his time j.Idolatry'
the intention of which was, that the Athenians, know- * ^
ing they were to give an account of their occupations,
Ihould follow only fuch as were laudable, and that there
might be no room left for fuch as lived by unlawful
arts. . I he civil law expelled all fturdy vagrants from
the city 5 and, in our own law, all idle perfons or va¬
gabonds, whom our ancient ftatutes defcribe to be
“ fuch as wake on the night and fleep on the day,ElackJtone\
and haunt cuftomable taverns and ale-houfes, and routs ftw-’we*-
about 5 and no man wot from whence they come, netanef‘
whether they go $” or fuch as are more particularly
defcribed by ftatute iq Geo. II. c. 5. and divided into
three claffes, idle and diforderly perfons, rogues and
vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues ;—all thefe are of¬
fenders againft the good order, and blemilhes in the
government, of any kingdom. They are therefore all
punifhed, by the ftatute laft mentioned 5 that is to
lay, idle and diforderly perfons with one month’s im-
prifonment in the houle of correffion j rogues and va¬
gabonds with whipping, and imprifonment not exceed-
ing fix months 5 and incorrigible rogues with the like
difcipline, and confinement not exceeding two years j
the breach and efcape from which confinement in one
of an inferior clafs, ranks him among incorrigible
rogues $ and in a rogue (before incorrigible) makes
him a felon, and liable to be tranfported for feven
years. Perfons harbouring vagrants are liable to a fine
of forty (hillings, and to pay all expences brought up¬
on the parifii thereby : in the fame manner a?, by our
ancient laws, whoever harboured any ftranger for more
than two nights, was anfwerable to the public for any
offence that fuch his inmate might commit.
IDOL, in pagan theology, an image, or fancied
reprefentation of any of the heathen gods.—This
image, of whatever materials it confifted, was, by cer¬
tain ceremonies, called confecration, converted into a
god. While under the artificer’s hands, it was only a
mere ftatue. Three things were neceffary to turn it
into a god ; proper ornaments, confecration, and ora¬
tion. The ornaments were various, and wholly defign-
ed to blind the eyes of the ignorant and ftupid multi¬
tude, who are chiefly taken with (how and pageantry.
Then followed the confeeration and oration, which
were performed with great folemnity among the Ro¬
mans. See Image.
IDOLATRY, or the worftiip of idols, may be di-
ftinguilhed into two forts. By the firft, men adore the
works of God, the fun, the moon, the ftars, angels,
daemons, men, and animals : by the fecond, men wor¬
ftiip the work of their own hands, as ftatues, piftures,
and the like : and to thefe may be added a third, that
by which men have worftiipped the true God under
fenfible figures and reprefentations. This indeed may-
have been the cafe with refpeft to each of the above
kinds of idolatry ; and thus the Ifraelites adored God
under the figure of a calf.
I he ftars were the firft objefls of idolatrous wor¬
ftiip, on account of their beauty, their influence on
the. productions of the earth, and the regularity of
their motions, particularly the fun and moon, which are
confidered as the moft glorious and refplendent images
of the Deity : afterwards, as their fentiments became
more
IDO [n
Idolatry, more corrupted, they began to form images, and to en-
Idomeneus, Certain the opinion, that by virtue of confecration, the
'Y”—"'gods were called down to inhabit or dwell in their fta-
tues. Hence Arnobius takes occafion to rally the
Pagans for guarding fo carefully the ftatues of their
gods, who, if they were really prefent in their images,
might fave their worlhippers the trouble of fecuring
them from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient Pagans paid
to the ftatues of their gods, it is certain, that the wifer
and more fenfible heathens confidered them only as lim-
ple reprefentations or figures defigned to recal to their
minds the memory of their gods. This was the opinion
of Varro and Seneca : and the fame fentiment is clear-
* ly laid down in Plato, who maintains, that images are
inanimate, and that all the honour paid to them has
refpedt to the gods whom they reprefent. But as to
the vulgar, they were ftupid enough to believe the fta¬
tues themfelves to be gods, and to pay divine worfhip
to ftocks and ftones.
Soon after the flood, idolatry feems to have been the
prevailing religion of all the world : for wherever we
caft our eyes at the time of Abraham, we fcarcely fee
any thing but falfe worihip and idolatry. And it ap¬
pears from Scripture, that Abraham’s forefathers, and
even Abraham himfelf, were for a time idolaters.
The Hebrews were indeed exprefsly forbidden to
make any reprefentation of God : they were not fo
much as to look upon an idol: and from the time of
the Maccabees to the deftruflion of Jerufalem, the
Jews extended this precept to the making the figure
of any man : by the law of Mofes, they were obliged
to deftroy all the images they found, and were for¬
bidden to apply any of the gold or filver to their own
ufe, that no one might receive the leaft profit from
any thing belonging to an idol. Of this the Jews,
after they had fmarted for their idolatry, were fo fen¬
fible, that they thought it unlawful to ufe any veffel
that had been employed in facrificing. to a falfe god,
to warm themfelves with the wood of a grove after
it wras cut down, or to fhelter themfelves under its
fhade.
But the preaching of the Chriftian religion, where-
ever it prevailed, entirely rooted out idolatry ; as did
alfo that of Mahomet, which is built on the worftiip
of one God. It muft not, however, be forgotten,
that the Proteftant Chriftians charge thofe of the
church of Rome, with paying an idolatrous kind of
worfhip to the piftures or images of faints and mar¬
tyrs : before thefe they burn lamps and wax candles;
before thefe, they burn incenfe, and, kneeling, offer
up their vows and petitions ; they, like the Pagans,
believe that the faint to whom the image is dedi¬
cated, prefides in a particular manner about its fhrine,
and works miracles by the intervention of its image j
and that if the image vras deftroyed or taken away,
the faint would no longer perform any miracle in that
place.
IDOMENEUS, in fabulous hiftory, fucceeded his
father Deucalion on the throne of Crete. He accom-
. panied the Greeks to the Trojan war with a fleet of go
fhips. During this celebrated war he rendered himfelf
famous by hjs valour, and flaughtered many of the ene¬
my. At his return from the Trojan war, he made a
yow to Neptune in a dangerous tempeft, that if he
9 ] JED
efcaped from the fury of the Teas and ftorms, he would Idomeneus
offer to the god whatever living creature firft prefented Jg Jdo
itfelf to his eye on the Cretan fhore. This was no other j
than his fon, who came to congratulate his father upon
his fafe return. Idomeneus performed his promife to
the god j and the inhumanity and rafhnefs of this fa-
crifice rendered him fo odious in the eyes of his fub-
jefts, that he left Crete, and migrated in queft of a
fettlement. He came to Italy, and founded a city on
the coaft of Calabria, which he called Salentum. He
died in extreme old age, after he had had the fatis-
fadlion of feeing his new kingdom flouriih and his
fubjefts happy. According to the Greek fcholiaft of
Lycophron, v. 1217, Idomeneus, during his abfence in
the Trojan w ar, intrufted the management of his king¬
dom to Leucos, to whom he promifed his daughter
Clifithere in marriage at his return. Leucos at firft
governed with moderation, but he was perluaded by
Nauplius king of Eubcea to put to death Meda. the
wife of his mafter, with her daughter Clifithere, and
to feize the kingdom. After thefe violent meafures he
ftrengthened himfelf on the throne of Crete, and Ido¬
meneus at his return found it impoflible to expel the
ufurper.
IDUMiEA. See Edom.
JEALOUSY, in Ethics, is that peculiar uneafinels
which arifes from the fear that fome rival may rob us
of the affe&ion of one whom we greatly love, or fufpi-
cion that he has already done it. The firft iort of jea-
loufy is infeparable from love, before it is in poffeflion
of its objeft j the latter is often unjuft, generally mif-
chievous, always troublefome.
Waters of JEALOUSY. See WATERS.
IDYL LION, in ancient poetry, is only a diminutive
of the w'ord EIDOS, and properly fignifies any poem of
moderate extent, without confidering the fubjedt. But
as the colledlion of Theocritus’s poems were called
Idyllia, and the paftoral pieces being by far the beft in
that colleftion, the term Idy/iion feems to be now ap?
propriated to paftoral pieces.
JEARS, or Geers, in the fea language, an affem-
blage of tackles, by which the lower yards of a ftiip
are hoifted along the maft to their ufual Ration, or
lowered from thence as occafion requires: the former
of which operations is called fwaying, and the latter
Jiriking.
JEBUSiEI, one of the feven ancient peoples of Ca*
naan, defcendants of Jebufi, Canaan’s fon ; fo warlike
and brave, as to have flood their ground, efptcially in
Jehus, afterwards called Jerufaletn, down to the time of
David, Judges i. 2J. 1 Sam. v. 6.
JEDBURGH, a parliament town of Scotland, qa*
pital of Tiviotdale or Roxburghftiire, is fituated nearly
in the middle of the county, on the banks of the river
Jed, whence it derives its name. It is well built and
populous, and has a good market for corn and cattle.
On the weft fide of the river, near its junction with
the Teviot, ftand the beautiful ruins of an abbey found¬
ed by David I., a part of which ancient pile ferves for
a parilh church.—Jedburgh is the feat of the (heriff’s
court and of a prelbytery. The population of this towm
in 1 793 was eftimated at 2000.
JEDDO, the capital town or city of the iflands of
Japan, where the emperor refides. It is open on all
fides, having neither walls nor ramparts j and the
houfes3
J E F { 120 1 J E F
Jedclo lioufes are built with earth, and boarded on the out-
Jeffreys to Prevent ra^n ^rom deftroying the walls. In
~. every ftreet there is an iron gate, which is (hut up in
the night; and a kind of cuftomhoufe or magazine,
to put merchandife in. It is a large place, being
nine miles in length and fix in breadth, and contains
l,ooo,ooo of inhabitants. A fire happened in 1658,
which, in the fpace of 48 hours, burnt down 100,000
houfes, and in which a vaft number of inhabitants pe-
rifhed. The emperor’s palace and all the reft were re¬
duced to allies ; but they are all rebuilt again. The
royal palace is in the middle of the town ; and is defend¬
ed with walls, ditches, towers, and baftions. Where
• the emperor refides, there are three towers nine ffories
high, each covered with plates of gold j and the hall
of audience is faid to be fupported by pillars of mafly
gold. Near the palace are feveral others, where the
relations of the emperor live. The emprefs has a pa¬
lace of her own, and there are 20 fmall ones for the
concubines. Befides, all the vafial kings have each a
palace in the city, with a handfome garden, and {tables
for 2000 horfes. The houfes of the common fort are
nothing bat a ground floor, and the rooms are parted
by folding fkreens ; fo that they can make the rooms
larger or fmaller at pleafure. It is feated in an agree¬
able plain, at the bottom of a fine bay 5 and the river
which croffes it, is divided into feveral canals. E. Long.
140. o. N. Lat. 35. 32.
JEFFERSONIA, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandria, and order monogynia.
The calyx is compofed of five fhort oval imbricated
leaves $ the corolla is monophyllous and funnel-fhaped ;
the margin hypocrateriform ; the ftigma is quadrifid.
One fpecies only has been difcovered, fempervirens,
which is a fhrub with round, polifhed, fhining Items,
which climb on bullies and fmall trees. This fhrub is
very abundant in the woods of Georgia in North Ame¬
rica, where it was difcovered by Dr Brickel, and it is
covered with bloflcms for many months of the year.
JEFFERY. See Geoffrey.
JEFFREYS, Sir George, Baron Wem, common¬
ly called Judge Jeffreys, was the fixth fon of John Jef¬
freys, Efq. of Aiton in Denbighfhire 5 and was edu¬
cated at Weftminfter fchool, whence he removed to
the Inner Temple, where he applied hunfelf to the ftu-
tly of the law. Alderman Jeffreys, who was probably
related to him, introduced him among the citizens of
London, and he being a merry bottle companion,
foon came into great bufinefs, and was chofen their
recorder. He wras afterwards chofen folicitor to the
duke of York •, and in 1680 was knighted, and made
chief-juftice of Chelfer. At length, refigning the re-
corderfhip, he obtained the pofit of chief-juftice of the
king’s-bench, and, fson after the acceffion of James II.
the great feal. During the reign of King Charles II.
he fhowed himfelf a bitter enemy to thofe diffenting
minifters who, in that time of perfecution, were tried
by him : he was one of the gveateft: advifers and pro¬
moters of all the oppreflions and arbitrary meafures
carried on in the reign of James II. ; and his fangui-
nary and inhuman proceedings againft Monmouth’s un-
. happy adherents in the weft will ever render his name
infamous. Whenever the prifoner was of a different
party, or he could pleafe the court by condemning him,
i?
inftead of appearing, according to the duty of his office, Jeffreys,
as his council, he would fcarce allow him to fpeak for
himfelf \ but would load him with the grofleft and
moft vulgar abufes, browkeat, infult, and turn to ridi¬
cule the witnefles that fpoke in his behalf j and even
threaten the jury with fines and imprifonment, if they
made the leaft hefitation about bringing in the prifoner
guilty. Yet it is faid, that when he wras in temper,
and matters perfeftly indifferent came before him, no
one became a feat of juftice better. Nay, it even ap¬
pears, that when he was under no ftate influence, he
wras fometimes inclined to protect the natural and civil
rights of mankind, of which the following inftance
has been given :—The mayor and aldermen of Brif-
tol had been ufed to tranfport convifted criminals
to the American plantations, and fell them by w ay of
trade. This turning to good account, when any pilfer¬
ers or petty rogues W'ere brought before them, they
threatened them with hanging j and then fome offi¬
cers who attended, earneftly perfuaded the ignorant
intimidated creatures to beg for tranfportationj- as tha
only w ay tofave them j and in general their advice was
followed. Then, without more form, each alderman
in courfe took one, and fold him for his own benefit j
and fometimes warm difputes arofe between them a-
bout the next turn. This infamous trade, which had
been carried on many years, coming to the knowledge
of the lord chief juftice, he made the mayor defcend
from the bench and ftand at the bar, in his fcarlet and
fur, with his guilty brethren the aldermen, and plead
as common criminals. He then obliged them to give
fecurities to anfwer informations j but the proceedings
were flopped by the revolution.—However, the bru¬
tality Jeffreys commonly fhowed on the bench, where
his voice and vifage were equally terrible, at length
expofed him to a fevere mortification. A fcrivener of
Wapping having a caufe before him, one of the oppo¬
nent’s council faid he was a ftrange fellow, and fome¬
times went to church, and fometimes to conventicles j
and it was thought he was a trimmer. At this the
chancellor fired : “ A trimmer ? (faid he) j I have
heard much of that monfter, but never faw one. Come
forth Mr Trimmer, and let me fee your fhape.” He
then treated the poor fellow fo roughly, that, on his
leaving the hall, he declared he would not undergo the
terrors of that man’s face again to fave his life, and he
fhould certainly retain the frightful impreffions of it as
long as he lived. Soon after, the prince of Orange
coming, the lord chancellor, dreading the public re-
fentment, difguifed himfelf in a feaman’s drefs, in or¬
der to leave the kingdom j and was drinking in a cellar,
when this fcrivener coming into the cellar, and feeing
again the face which had filled him with fuch horror,
ftarted ; on which Jeffreys, fearing he was known, feign¬
ed a cough, and turned to the wall with his pot of
beer in his hand. But Mr Trimmer going out, gave
notice that he was there : and the mob rufhing in, feiz-
ed him, and carried him before the lord mayor, who
* lent him with a ftrong guard to the lords of the coun¬
cil, by whom he was committed to the Tower, where
he died in 1689.—-It is remarkable, that the late coun-
tefs of Pomfret met with very rude infults from the po¬
pulace on the weftern road, only becaufe fhe was grand¬
daughter to the inhuman Jeffreys.
JEHOVAH,
s
JEN f i
Jehovah JEHOVAH, one of the Scripture names of God,
U fignifying the Being who is felf-exiifent and gives exift-
ence to others.
IU” V So great a veneration had the Jews for this name,
that they left off the cuftom of pronouncing it, where¬
by its true pronunciation was forgotten. They call it
tetragrammaton, or “ the name with four letters j” and
believe, that whoever knows the true pronunciation of
it cannot fail to be heard by God.
JEJUNE style. See Style.
JEJUNUM, the fecond of the fmall guts j thus
called from the Latin jejunus, “ hungry j” becaufe al¬
ways found empty. See Anatomy, N° 93.
JELL AEGEAN, or Gelal^EAN Calendar, Epo¬
chs, and Tear. See Calendar, Epocha, and Year.
JELLY, a form of food, or medicine, prepared
from the juices of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper con¬
fidence with fugar j or the ftrong deco&ions of the
horns, bones, or extremities of animals, boiled to fuch
a height as to be ttiff and firm when cold, without the
addition of any fugar.—The jellies of fruits are cool¬
ing, faponaceous, and acefcent, and therefore are good
as medicines in all diforders of the primae vise, arifing
from alkalefcent juices, efpecially when not given alone,
but diluted with water. On the contrary, the jellies
made from animal fubftances are all alkalefcent, and
are therefore good in all cafes in which an acidity of
the humours prevails : the alkalefcent quality of thefe
is, however, in a great meafure taken off, by adding
lemon juice and iugar to them. There were formerly
a fort of jellies much in ufe, called compound jellies;
thefe had the reftorative medicinal drugs added to them,
but they are now fcarce ever heard of.
JELLT-Oat, a preparation of common oats, recom¬
mended by many of the German phyfieians in all hec¬
tic diforders, to be taken with broth of fnails or cray
fifii.—It is made by boiling a large quantity of oats,
with the hulk taken off, wdth fome hartlhorn lhavings,
and currants, together with a leg of veal cut to pieces,
and with the bones all broken ", thefe are to be fet over
the fire with a large quantity of water, till the whole is
reduced to a fort of jelly ; which w hen ftrained and cold
is firm and hard. A few fpoonfuls of this are to be
taken every morning, diluted with a bafon of either
of the above-mentioned broths, or any other warm li¬
quor.
JEMP FERLAND, a province of Sweden, bound¬
ed on the north by Angermania, on the eaft by Me-
dalpadia, on the fouth by Helfingia, and on the weft
by Norw'ay. It is full of mountains j which afford ores
of copper and iron, the latter of which is manufactur¬
ed, and forms part of the trade with the Norwegians.
JENA, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, with an univerfity.
It isfeated on the river Sala, in E. Long. 11. 30. N.
Lat. 50. 54.
JENCAPORE, a town of Afia, in Indoftan, and
in the dominions of the Great Mogul, capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name. It is feated on the river
Chaul, in E. Long. 76. 25. N. Lat. 30. 30.
JENCOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, feated on the fouth fide of the lake ^Ver¬
ier, with a ftrong citadel. The houfes are all built with
wood. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 57. 22.
JENISA, a river of the Ruffian empire that runs
Vol. XL Part I. ^
21 ] JEN
from north to fouth through Siberia, and falls into the Jenifa
Frozen ocean. fe
JENISKOI, a town of the Ruffian empire, iq Si-
beria, feated on the river Jenifa. It is large, populous,
and pretty ftrong j and there are villages for feveral
miles round it. It is fubjeft to the Tungufians, who
are Pagans, and live chiefly on the above river. They
pay a tribute to the emperor for every bow, reckoning
a man and a woman for one. The climate is extreme¬
ly cold $ and no other fruits grow there but black and
red currants, ftrawberries, and goofeberries. Corn,
{butchers meat, and wild fowls, are very cheap. E. Long.
92. 35. N. Lat. 57. 46.
JENKINS, Henry. See Longevity.
Jenkins, Sir Leoline, a learned civilian and able
ftatefman of the 17th century, born in Glamorganftiire
about the year 1623. Being rendered obnoxious to
the parliament during the civil war by adhering to the
king’s caufe, he confulted his fafety by flight $ but re¬
turning on the Reftoration, he was admitted an advo¬
cate in the court of arches, and fucceeded Dr Exton
as judge. When the queen mother Henrietta died in
1669 at Paris, her whole eftate, real and perfonal, was
claimed by her nephew Louis XIV. : upon which Dr
Jenkins’s opinion being called for and approved, he
went to Paris, with three others joined with him in a
commiffion, and recovered her effects •, for which he
received the honour of knighthood. He officiated as
one of the mediators at the treaty of Nimeguen, in
which tedious negociation he w'as engaged about four
years and a half j and was afterwards made a privy
counfellor and fecretary of ftate. He died in 1685;
and as he never married, bequeathed his whole eftate
to charitable ufes: he was fo great a benefa&or to Je-
fus College, Oxford, that he is generally looked on as
the feeond founder. All his letters and papers were
collected and printed in 1724, in two vols. folio.
JENNY WREN, a name given by writers on fong
birds to the wren. See Wren, Ornithology Index.
JENTACULUM was, among the Romans, a morn¬
ing refreffiment like our breakfaft. It was exceeding¬
ly Ample, confifting, for the moft part, of bread alone j
labouring people indeed had fomething more fubftan-
tial to enable them to fupport the fatigues of their em¬
ployment. What has been here faid may be obferved
of the Jews and Chriftians alfo. The Greeks diftin-
guiffied this morning meal by the feveral names of
xr-gdUirpts, or cm^d\itrf*et, though ei^irov is generally ap¬
plied to dinner. See Eating and Dinner.
JENYNS, Soame, a diftinguiflied Engliffi writer,
was born in Great Ormond-ftreet, London, in the year
1703-4. Sir Roger Jenyns, his father, was defcended
from the family of the Jenyns of Churchill in Somer-
fetlhire. The country refidence of Sir Roger w-as at
Ely, in the ifle of the fame name, where he turned his
attention to fuch kinds of bufinefs as rendered him moft
beneficial to his neighbours, for which amiable deport¬
ment in particular the honour of knighthood was con¬
ferred upon him by William III. Our author’s mo¬
ther, a lady of rank, learning and piety, fuperintended
his education till it w'as neceffary to place him under a
tutor, for which purpofe a Mr Hill was taken into the
family, by whom he was inftrufted in the firft rudi¬
ments of language, with fuch other branches of know¬
ledge as were fuited to his years. At this time Mr
* ^ Hil1
J E N [12
Jenyns. Hill was called to a fituation more advantageous, and
—~Y~— a Mr White fucceeded him in the othce of tutor to
you;"g Jenyns, a man eminent for his learning, tafte,
and ingenuity, by whom he was qualified for attending
the univerfity.
He was admitted into St John’s College, Cambridge,
in the year 1722, under Dr Edmondfon, who was at
that time one of the leading tutors of the college.
Here his diligence and regular deportment did him the
greateft honour, and the ftridt difcipline obferved in
the college w as perfectly agreeable to his natural incli¬
nations. After quitting the college, his winter rc -d
dence was in London, and he lived in the country du¬
ring the fummer feafon, being chiefly employed in the
profecution of fuch ftudies as wrere of a literary nature.
His firft publication, a poetical effay on the art of dan¬
cing, appeared without his name in 1727 j but he was
very foon difcovered, and it was confidered as a prefage
of his future eminence.
Soon after the death of his father, he was chofen in
1742 one of the members of parliament for the county
of Cambridge, and from this period he retained his
feat in the houfe of commons till the year 1780. The
high opinion entertained by his conftituents of his par¬
liamentary conduft, may be learned from the unanimi¬
ty of their choice ; for he never but once experienced
any oppofition. He was chofen one of the commiflion-
ers of the board of trade and plantations in 1755,
which office he retained till an alteration was made in
the conftitution of it by authority of parliament. He
was married, firft to the only daughter of Colonel
Soame, of Dereham in Norfolk, who died without iffue,
and afterwards to the daughter of Henry Gray, Efq.
of Hackney, who furvived him. He died himfelf of a
fever, after a few days illnefs, on the 18th of Decem¬
ber, 1787, leaving no iffue.
His temper was mild, fweet, and gentle, which he
manifefted indifcriminately to all. It wras his earneft
■wifh never to give offence to any j yet he made fuch
liberal allowances for diverfities of temper, that he w'as
very rarely offended with others. He was punctual in
the difcharge of the duties of religion both in public
and private, profefling to be better pleafed with the
government and difcipline of the church of England
than of any other in Chriflendom, which, however, he
confidered as capable of important alterations and
amendments, if it were previoufly and deliberately de¬
termined what thefe alterations Ihould be. He pofief-
fed an uncommon vein of the moft lively and genuine
wit, which he never made ufe of to wound the feelings
of others, but was rather very much offended with thofe
who did, being convinced that diftinguifhed endow'-
ments of the mind are as much intended to promote the
felicity of others, as of thofe who poffefs them.
No man was ever a more genuine philanthropiff, as
he felt moft; fenfibly for the miferies of others, and ufed
every mean in his power to render them as happy as
poflible. His indigent neighbours in the country he
viewed as a part of his family, in which light he con¬
fidered them as entitled to his care and prote&ion. As
an author, Soame Jenyns certainly deferves a place
among thofe who have excelled, whether we view' him as
a poet, or a writer of profe, in which latter capacity he
ranks with the pureft and moft correct writers of the
Englifh language. He reafons with clofenefs and pre-
2 ] J E P
cifion, and comes to the conclufion he means to efta- Jen;,ns
blifh by a regular chain of argument. His firft publi- It
cation, on account of which he was attacked, was his Jephtliai>‘
Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil j but " ~^
in a preface to the fecond edition he fully vindicated it
againft all the calumny, flander, and mifreprefentation
which had been thrown out againft it, with that tem¬
per and moderation which diftinguifhed him fo eminent¬
ly upon all occafions. His view of the Internal Evi¬
dences of the Chriftian Religion was publiftied without
his name in the year 1776, which gave delight and fa-
tisfaftion to many eminent judges, and made converts
of numbers who had been infidels before.
JEOFAILE, (compounded of three French words,
Fay faille, “ I have failed”), a term in law, ufed for
an overfight in pleading or other proceeding at law.
The {bowing of thefe defefts or overfights was For¬
merly often pra&ifed by the counfel *, and when the
jury came into court in order to try the iffue, they faid,
This inqueft you ought not to take ; and after ver-
di<ft they would fay to the court, To judgment you
ought not to go. But feveral ftatutes have been made
to avoid the delays occafioned by fuch fuggeftions j and
a judgment is not to be flayed after verdift ,for mifta-
king the Chriftian or furname of either of the parties,
or in a fum of money, or in the day, month, year, &c.
where the fame are rightly named in any preceding re¬
cord.
JEPHTHAH, judge of Ifrael, and fucceflbr to Jair
in the government of the people; was a native of Miz-
peh, and the fon of one Gilead by a harlot. This Gi¬
lead having married a lawful wife, and had children by
her, thefe children drove Jephthah from his father’s
houfe, faying that he fhould not be heir with them.
Jephthah retired into the land of Tob, and there he
became captain of a band of thieves and fuch other
people as he had picked up together. At that time,
the Ifraelites beyond Jordan, feeing themfelves preffed
by the Ammonites, came to defire afliftance from
Jephthah ; and that he would take upon him the com¬
mand of them. Jephthah at firft reproached them with
the injuftice which they had done him, or at leaft which
they had not prevented, when he was forced from his
father’s houfe. But as thefe people were very earneft in
their requeft, he told them, that he would fuccour them,
provided that at the end of the war they would ac¬
knowledge him for their prince. This they confented
to, and promifed wdth an oath.
Jephthah, in the year of the world 2817, having
beeU acknowledged prince of the Ifraelites in an alTem-
bly of the people, was filled with the fpirit of God,
and began to get his troops together ; to that end, he
w-ent over all the land which the children of Ifrael pof-
fefled beyond Jordan. At the fame time he made a
vow to the Lord, that if he were fuccefsful againft the
Ammonites, he would offer up for a burnt-offering
whatever fhould firft come out of his houfe to meet
him. The battle being fought, Jephthah remained
conqueror, and ravaged all the land of Ammon. But
as he returned to his houfe, his only daughter came
out to meet him with timbrels and with dances : where¬
upon Jephthah tore his clothes, and faid, “ Alas, my
daughter, thou haft brought me very low, for I have
made a vow unto the Lord, and cannot fail in the per¬
formance of it,” His daughter anfwered, “ My fa^
J E Pi [ 12? 1 -IE Pi
Jcphthfth tlier, i£ tliou haft made a vow unto the Lord, do with
li. me as thou haft promifed j grant me only the favour
Jeremia i. j may |j3e atiiberty to goHip to the mountains, and
there for two months bewail my virginity with my
companions.” Jephthah granted her this liberty, and
at the end of two months, he offered up his daughter,
who died a virgin, a burnt-offering, agreeable to his
Vow, according to the opinion of moft commentators.
In the mean time, the Ephraimites, jealous of the
victory obtained by Jephthah over the Ammonites,
paffed the river Jordan in a tumultuous manner, came
and complained to Jephthah that he had not invited
them to this war, and threatened to fet fire to his
houfe. Jephthah anfwered them, that he had fent to
defire their afliftance ) but obferving that they did not
come, he put his life iru-his hands and hazarded a battle.
The Ephraimites not being fatisfied with thefe reafons,
Jephthah affembled the people of Gilead, gave them
battle, and defeated them •, fo that there were two and
forty thoufand men of the tribe of Ephraim killed that
day. We know nothing more in particular concerning
the life of Jephthah, only that he judged Ifrael fix
years, and was buried in a city of Gilead.
St Paul (Heb. xi. 32.) places Jephthah among the
faints of the Old Teftament, the merit of whofe faith di-
ftinguifhed them. But it muft be obferved, that there
is fomething fo extraordinary in Jephthah’s vow, that
notwithftanding the Scripture fpeaksof it in very plain
and clear terms, yet fuch difficulties arife concerning
it as perplex commentators. Some maintain, that
this daughter of Jephthah was not facrificed, as that
would have been a violation of the law of Mofes j and
efpecially, when by the fame law he might have re¬
deemed his daughter for ten Ihekelsof filver : therefore
they contend, that it was fomething elfe Jephthah did
to his daughter, fuch as devoting her to a ftate of ce¬
libacy, or dedicating her to the fervice of God. On
the other hand, thofe who maintain the affirmative, or
that Jephthah’s daughter was actually facrificed, urge,
that the times wherein Jephthah lived were fadly ad¬
dicted to idolatry ; alfo the manner wherein he lived
before he was called to the affiftance of his country ; but
above all, the clear, evident, and exprefs meaning of the
text. They obferve, that vows of perpetual virginity
are inftitutions of a modern date 5 and had there been
no more in it, there would have been little oecafion for
rending his clothes, and bemoaning himfelf as he did •,
befides the bitter lamentations made by herfelf, and by
all the daughters of Ifrael in fucceeding times. But if
ffie was facrificed, we may fafely and confidently aver
with Jofephus, who fays that ffie was, that this facri-
fice was neither lawful nor acceptable to God ; but, on
the contrary, an abominable crime, that might, not¬
withftanding, have proceeded from a miftaken principle
of religion.
JERBOA, a fpecies of quadruped belonging to the
genus dipus, and refembling, in feme of its characters,
the mnufe tribe. See Dipus, Mammalia Index.
JEREMIAH {the Prophecy of), a canonical book
of the Old I eftament. This divine writer was of the
race of the priefts, the fon of Hilkiah of Anathoth, of
the tribe of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic
office when very young, about the 13th year of Jofiah,
and continued in the difeharge of it about 40 years.
He was not carried captive to Babylon with the other
Jews, but remained in Judea to lament the defolation Jeremiah,
of his country. He was afterwards a prifoner in E- £1IC i0‘
gypt with his difciple Baruch, wffiere it is fuppofed he
died in a very advanced age* Some of the Chriftian
fathers tell us he was ftoned to death by the Jew's, for
preaching againft their idolatry ; and fome fay he was
put to death by Pharaoh Hophrah, becaufe of his pro¬
phecy againft him. Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah
relates to the time after the captivity of Ifrael, and be¬
fore that of Judah, from the firft chapter to the 44th \
and part of it was in the time of the latter captivity,
from the 44th chapter to the end. The prophet lays
open the lins of Judah with great freedom and bold-
nefs, and reminds them of the feVere judgments which
had befallen the ten tribes for the fame offences. He
paffionately laments their misfortune, and recommends
a fpeedy reformation to them. Afterwards he predi&s
the grievous calamities that were approaching, parti¬
cularly the 70 years captivity in Chaldea. He like-
wife foretels their deliverance and happy return, and
the recompenfe which Babylon, Moab, and other
enemies of the Jews, ffiould meet with in due time.
There are likewife feveral intimations in this prophecy
concerning the kingdom of the Meffiah ; alfo leveral
remarkable vifions, and types, and hiftorical paffages
relating to thofe times. The y2d chapter does not
belong to the prophecy of Jeremiah, but probably
was added by Ezra, and contains a narrative of the tak¬
ing of Jerufalem, and of what happened during the
captivity of the Jews, to the death of Jechonias. St
Jerome has obferved upon this prophet, that his ftyle
is more eafy than that of Ifaiah and Hofea $ that he re¬
tains fomething of the rufticity of the village where he
was born-, but that he is very learned and majeftic,
and equal to thofe two prophets in the fenfe of his
prophecy.
JERICHO, or Hierichus, in Ancient Geography, a
city of Judea ; fituated between Jordan and Jerufalem*
at the diftance of tjo ftadia from the latter, and 60
from the former. Jofephus fays, “ the whole fpace from
Jerufalem is defert and rocky, and equally barren and
uncultivated from Jericho to the lake Afphaltites;
yet the places near the town and above it are extreme¬
ly fertile and delicious, fo that it may be juftly called a
divine plain, furpaffing the reft of the land of Canaan,
no unfruitful country, and furrounded by hills in the
manner of an amphitheatre. It produces opobalfa-
mum, myrobalans, and dates ^ from the laft of which it
is called the citij of palm trees, by Mofes. The place
is now called Raha ; and is fituated, M. Volney in¬
forms us, “ in a plain fix or feven leagues long, by
three wide, around which are a number of barren moun¬
tains, that render it extremely hot”. Here formerly
was cultivated the balm of Mecca. From the de¬
fer! ption of the Hadjes, this is a O’.rub fimilar to the
pomegranate tree, with leaves like thofe of rue : it
bears a pulpy nut, in which is contained a kernel that
yields the refinous juice we call balm or ba/fam. At
prefent there is not a plant of it remaining at Raha ,
but another fpec ies is to be found there, called xab-
koun, which produces a fweet oil, alfo celebrated for
healing wounds. This zakkoun refembles a plum-
tree ; it has thorns four inches long, with leaves like
thofe of the olive tree, but narrower and greener, and
prickly at the end 3 its fruit is a kind of acorn, with-
Q 3 v out
J E R
Jericho
II
Jerome.
[ 124 ]
J E R
out a calyx, under the bark of which is a pulp, and
then a nut, the kernel of which gives an oil that the
Arabs fell very dear ; this is the foie commerce of Ra-
ha, which is no more than a ruinous village.
JERIMOTH. See Jarimuth.
JEROME, St, in Latin Hieronymus, a famous
doftor of the church, and the moft learned of all the
Latin fathers, was the fon of Eufebius ; and was born
at Stridon, a city of the ancient Pannonia, about the
year 340. He ftudied at Rome under Donatus, the
learned grammarian. After having received baptifm,
he went into Gaul, and there tranfcribed St Hilary’s
book de Synodis. He then went into Aquileia, where
he contrafted a friendlhip with Heliodorus, who pre¬
vailed on him to travel with him into Thrace, Pontus,
Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. In 372 St Jerome
retired into a defert in Syria, where he was perfecuted
by the orthodox of Melitius’s party, for being a Sabel-
lian, becaufe he made ufe of the word Hypojiqfis, which
had been ufed by the council of Rome in 369. This
obliged him to go to Jerufalem j where he applied him-
felf to the ifudy of the Hebrew language, in order to
receive a more perfect knowledge of the Holy Scrip¬
tures j and about this time he confented to be ordained,
on condition that he fhould not be confined to any par¬
ticular church. In 381, he went to Conftantinople to
hear St Gregory ofNazianzen 5 and the follpwing year
returned to Rome, where he was made fecretary to Pope
Damafus. He then inftrufted many Roman ladies in
piety and the knowledge of the fciences, which expofed
him to the calumnies of thofe whom he zealoufly re¬
proved for their irregularities 5 and Pope Siricius not
having all the efteem for him which his learning and
virtue juftly entitled him to, this learned doftor left
Rome, and returned to the monaftery of Bethlehem,
where he employed himfelf in writing againft thofe
whom he called heretics, efpecially againft Vigilantius
and Jovinian. He had a quarrel with John of Jerufa¬
lem and Rufinus about the Origenifts. He was the
firft who wrote againft Pelagius ; and died on the 30th
of September 420, at about 80 years of age. There
have been feveral editions of his work**, the laft, which
is that of Verona, is in 11 vols. folio. His principal
vurks are, i.xA Latin verfion of the Holy Scriptures,
diftinguilhed by the name of the Vulgate. 2. Commen¬
taries on the Prophets, Ecclefiaftes, St Matthew’s Gof-
pel, and the Epiftles to the Galatians, Ephefians, Titus,
and Philemon. 3. Polemical treatifes againft Montanus,
Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilantius, and Pelagius. 4. Se¬
veral letters. 5. A treatife on the lives and writings of
the ecclefiaftical authors who had flourifhed before his
time.—St Jerome’s ftyle is lively and animated, and
fometimes fublime.
JEROME of Prague, fo called from the place of his
birth, in Bohemia. He was neither a monk nor
clergyman, but had a learned education. Having em¬
braced the opinions of John Hufs, he began to pro¬
pagate them in the year 1480. In the mean time the
council of Nice kept a watchful eye over him, and
confidering him as a dangerous perfon, cited him to
appear before them and give an account of his faith.
In obedience to this citation, he went to Conftance j
but on his arrival, in 1415, finding Hufs in prifon, he
fet out for his own country. Being feized, however,
on the way, imprifoned, and examined, he was fo in¬
timidated, that he retraced, and pretended to approve Jerome
of the condemnation of Wickliff’s and Hufs’s opinions j !i
but on the 26th of May 1416, he condemned that Jertey
recantation in thefe terms : “ I am not alhamed to
confefs here publicly my weaknefs. Yes, with horror
I confefs my bafe cowardice. It was only the dread
of the punifhment by fire wrhich drew* me to confent,
againft my confidence, to the condemnation of the doc¬
trine of Wickliff and Hufs.” Accordingly fentence
was palled on him $ in purfuance of which he was de¬
livered to the fecular arm, and burnt in 1416. He was
a perfon of great parts, learning, and elocution.
JERONYM1TES, or Hieronymites, a denomi¬
nation given to divers orders or congregations of reli¬
gious ; otherwife called Hermits of St Jerome.
JERSEY, an ifland in the Englifh channel, believed
to be the ifland called in the Itinerary Ccefarea, in
fucceeding times Augia, by us Gerfey, more frequent¬
ly/^?r/ey. It is fituated in the Englifh channel, 18
miles to the weft of Normandy, and 84 to the fouth
©f Portland in Dortfetftiire, and in the time of the
Romans was called Ccefarea. It is not above 12
miles in length, nor much above 6 where broadeft,
which is at the two extremities. It is defended by
rocks and dangerous quickfands. On the north fide
the cliffs rife 40 or 50 fathoms high, which render it
inacceflible on that fide $ but on the fouth the fhore is
almoft level with the water. In the weft part of the
ifland is a large traft of land once cultivated and very
fertile, but now a barren defert, caufed by the wefterly
winds throwing up fand from the bottom to the top
of the higheft cliffs. The higher lands are diverfified
by gritty, gravelly, ftony, and fine mould 5 the lower
by a deep, rich, and heavy foil. The middle part of
the ifland is fomewhat mountainous, and fo thick
planted with trees, that at a diftance it refembles one
entire foreft, though in walking through it there is
hardly a thicket or any other thing to be feen but
hedge-rows and orchards of apple-trees. The valleys
under the hills are finely watered by brooks, and have
plenty of cattle and fmall fheep, with very fine wool,
and very fweet meat, which is afcribed to the fhort-
nefs of the grafs. The horfes are good for draught;
but few fit for the faddle. The ifland produces variety
of trees, roots, and herbs j but not corn enough for the
inhabitants, who therefore fend for it to England and
France, and fometimes to Dantzic. The fields are
inclofed by great mounds of earth, raifed from 6 to 8
or 10 feet high, proportionably thick and folid, plant¬
ed with quickfets and trees. As the air of this ifland
is very healthy, thofe of the inhabitants who are tem¬
perate live to a great age : but the coaft is very fub-
jedft to ftorms by wefterly winds, from which they have
no land to ftielter them nearer than North America ;
and there is a vaft chain of rocks about the ifland,
among which the tides and currents are fo ftrong and
rapid, that the navigation is dangerous to thofe who
are not perfeddly acquainted with the coaft. The
buildings of this ifland are generally of rag ftone ; but
fome of the wealthy inhabitants have their houfes front¬
ed with a reddiflr white ftone, capable of being polllhed
like marble, and of which there is a rich quarry on a
hill called Montmado. The ordinary dwellings are
thatched. The churches are very plain buildings,
moft of them with fquare fteeples j and the com¬
munion
Ter fey.
J E R [ 125 ] 3
inunlon table is not at the eaft end, as in the Englifh or about every half flood^
churches, but placed juft under the pulpit. The
ftaple manufacture is knit ftockings and caps, many
thoufand pairs of which are weekly fold at St Helier to
the merchants : alfo cyder, of which 25,000 hogfheads
have been made here in one year. Their principal
foreign trade is to Newfoundland *, whither, particu¬
larly3 in 1732, they fent 24 {hips; thefe proceed
from thence to the Mediterranean to difpofe of their
fiftu
On the fouth of the ifland the fea feems to have en¬
croached upon the land (which, as we have before ob-
ferved, declines on that fide), and to have fwallowed
upwards of fix fquare miles, making a very beautiful
bay of about three miles long, and near the fame in
breadth. In the eaft corner of this bay ftands the town
of St Helier, very happily fituated. But the princi¬
pal haven is in the weftern corner of the bay, which
receives its name from it, being called St Ai/bin's.
There are, befides thefe, feveral other havens of lefs
note ; as, St Brelade’s bay, at the back of St Au-
bin’s : the great bay of St Ouen, which takes in the
greateft part of the weft fide of the ifland, where the
largeft ftiips may ride in 12 and 15 fathoms, fafe
from all but eaft winds. La Crevaffe is a port only for
boats j Greve de Lecq and Port St John are alfo fmall
havens on the north fide, where is likewife Bonnenuit.
On the eaft there is the bay of St Catharine, and the
harbour of Rofel. To the fouth-weft lies the haven
de la Chauffee. The laft we (hall mention is the
Port de Pas, a very little to the eaftward of St Aubin’s
bay.
The towns of St Helier and St Aubin, which, as al¬
ready mentioned, ftand both in the fame bay called
St Aitkin's bay, opening to the fouth, are about three
miles afunder. St Helier took its name from Elerius
or Helier, a holy man who lived in this ifland many
centuries ago, and -was flain by the Pagan Normans
at their coming hither. He is mentioned among the
martyrs in the martyrology of Coutance. His little
cell with the ftone bed is ftill ftrown among the rocks ;
and in'memory of him a noble abbey of canons regu¬
lar was founded in the little ifland in this bay, and
annexed to Cherburg abbey in Normandy in the reign
of Henry I. and fupprefled as an alien priory. The
town of St Helier ftands at the foot of a long and
high rocky hill at the eaft end. It is a well-built and
populous place 5 greatly improved and enlarged with¬
in the laft century 5 and contains about 400 houfes,
moftly {hops, and near 2000 inhabitants. The market¬
place in the centre is fpacious, furrounded with hand-
fome houfes, among which is the Cohue-Royale or court
of juftice. At the top of the market-place is a ftatue of
George II. of bronze gilt. The market is held on
Saturday, and much frequented.
St Aubin at the weft end of the bay is principally
inhabited by merchants and matters of {hips, whom
the neighbourhood of the port has invited hither. It
is not more than half the fize of the other town,
though greatly increafed within thefe 100 years j and
has a good ftone pier carried far into the fea, where
{trips of confiderable burden lie fafe under the guns of
the adjoining fort.
The ifle of St Helier, more to the eaft in the fame
bay, is in circuit near a mile, furrounded by the fea at
E R
On the fite of the abbey
before mentioned is now Elizabeth caftle, one of the
largeft and ftrongeft fortreffes in Britain. Queen
Elizabeth began it, and gave it her name. Charles I.
enlarged, and Charles II. who was twice here, com¬
pleted it. It was the laft fortrefs that held out for
the king. It is the refidence of the governor and gar-
rifon, and occupies the whole ifle, from whence .at
low water is a paflage called the bridge, half a mile
long, formed of fand and ftones. A citadel was begun
in the laft war on a hill, whence the caftle might be
bombarded, but fince the peace left off.
Mount Orgueil caftle, called alfo Gourray from the
neighbouring village of that name, lies to the fouth
of Rofel harbour in the bay of St Catharine. It was a
place\of ftrength before Henry V.’s time, and bid
defiance to the attempts of the French under the ton-
ftable De Guefclin 1374 at the end of the reign of
Edward III. It was repaired by Queen Elizabeth,
but is now negletted, yet preferves an air of grandeur
anfwering its name even in ruins. The afcent to its
top is by near 200 fteps ; and from thence by a tele-
fcope may be feen the two front towers of the cathedral
of Coutance. The famous William Prynne was con¬
fined in it three years.
The ifland is divided into 12 parilhes, which are fo
laid cut that each has a communication with the fea ,
thefe are fubdivided into 52 vintaines, fo called from
the number of 20 houfes, which each is fuppofed to have
formerly contained, juft as in England 1 o houfes ancient¬
ly made a tything. The whole number of inhabitants
is computed at about 20,000, of which 3000 are
Jerfey.
able to bear arms, and are formed into regiments.
Their general review is on the fandy bay between the
two towms, when they are attended with a train of
above 20 brafs field pieces, and two fmall bodies of
horfe in the wings.
The chief officer is the governor, who has the cu-
ftody of his majefty’s caftles, with the command of the
garrifons and militia. The civil government is admi-
niftered by a bailiff, affifted by 12 jurats. They have
here alfo what they call an affembly of the ftates.
Thefe are convened by the governor or his deputy j
the bailiff confifts of himfelf and the jurats, the dean
and clergy, and the 12 high conftables.
There were formerly many druidical temples and al¬
tars in Jerfey, fome remains of which are ftill to be
feen. The cromlichs are here called pouquelays, and
there are fome tumuli and keeps. Roman coins have
alfo been dug up in this ifland j and there are the re¬
mains of a Roman camp in the manor of Dilamant.
Chriftianity was firft planted here in the middle of
the 6th century, and the ifland made part of the fee
of Dol in Bretagne, and it is now governed by a dean.
Befides the abbey of St Helier, here were four priories,
Noirmonl, St Clement, Bonnenuit, and le Leek, and a-
bove 20 chapels, now moftly ruined. During the laft
war this ifland, together with that of Guernfey, became
an obje£l of defire to France, whofe vanity, no lefs
than her intereft, was concerned in depriving Britain of
thofe laft remains of her continental poffeffions. The
firft attempt to atchieve this conqueft took place in
the year 1779. A force of 5000 or 6000 men w'as
embarked in flat-bottomed boats, and endeavoured to
land in the bay of St Ouen, on the firft of May. In
this
JER' [126] JER
Ter^y- tins attempt they were fupported by five frigates and
vy .w otjier arme(j veflels 5 but met with fuch a vigorous
refiftance from the militia of the ifland, afiifted by a bo¬
dy of regulars, that they were compelled to retire
without having landed a fingle perfon. Much difcon-
tent and mutual recrimination took, place among the
French naval and military officers on this failure j and
though the expedition was reprefented by many as ill
concerted, and deftitute of every hope of fuccefs, ano¬
ther attempt was refolved on. Both the troops and
leamen that had been employed in the former expedi¬
tion were equally defirous of retrieving their honour j
but they were for fome time prevented from making
any attempt of this kind by bad weather j and, before
another opportunity offered, the fquadron which was
defigned to cover their defcent was attacked by Sir
James Wallace, who drove them affiore on the coaft of
Normandy, filenced a battery under whofe guns they
had taken Ihelter, captured a frigate of 34 guns, w ith
two rich prizes, burnt two other large frigates, and a
confiderable number of fmaller veffels.
Thus the fcheme of invading the ifland of Jerfey
was totally difconcerted, and laid afide for that time,
but was refumed in the year 1781. The conduct of
this fecond expedition was given to the baron de
Rullecourt, who had been fecond in command when
the former attempt was made. He was a man of cou¬
rage, but fierce and violent in his difpofition, and feems
to have been very deficient in the prudence and conduct
neceffary for bringing any military enterprife to a fuc-
cefsful iiTue. The force entrufied to him on the pre-
fent occafion confided of 2000 men j with whom he
embarked in very tempeftuous weather, hoping that
he might thus be able to furprife the garrifon. Many
of his tranfports, however, w ere thus difperfed, and he
himfelf, with the remainder, obliged to take fhelter in
fome iflands in the neighbourhood of Jerfey. As foon
as the weather grew calmer, he feized the opportunity
of a dark night to effect landing at a place called Grou-
yille, where he made prifoners of a party of militia.
Hence he proceeded wdth the utmoft expedition to
St Helier’s, the capital of the ifiand, about three miles
diftant. His arrival was fo unexpected, that he feized
on a party of men who guarded it, together with the
commanding officer, and the magiftrates of the idand.
Rullecourt then drew up a capitulation, the terms of
which were, that the illand ffiould be indantly furren-
dered to the French, and the garrifon be fent to Eng¬
land ; threatening the town with immediate deftru&ion
in cafe of non-compliance. It was in vain reprefented
io him that no aft of the deputy-governor and magi-
ilr^tes could be valid while they remained in his power j
but, as Rullecourt ftill infilled, they were obliged to
comply, left bis menaces ftiould have been carried into
execution. This point being gained, he advanced to
Elizabeth caftle in the neighbourhood of the town,
fummoning it to furrender in virtue of the capitulation
for the town and xfland juft concluded. To this a pe¬
remptory refufal was given, and followed by fuch a vi¬
gorous difcharge of artillery, that he was obliged to
retire into the town. In the mean time the Britilh
troops llationed in the ifland began to affemble from
-every quarter under the command of Major Pierfon j
who, on being required by the French commander to
fubmit, replied, that if the French therafelves^did not,
3
within 20 minutes, lay down their arms, fie would Jerfey,
attack them. This being refufed, an attack was in-NewJerfey
ftantly made with fuch impetuofity, that the French
wrere totally routed in lefs than half an hour, and dri¬
ven into the market-place, where they endeavoured to
make a ftand. Their commander, exafperated at this
unexpefted turn of affairs, endeavoured to wreak his
Vengeance on tbe captive governor, whom he obliged
to ftand by his fide during the w hole time of the con-
fiift. This, however, was quickly over ■, the French
W'ere broken on all fides, the baron himfelf mortally
wrounded, and the next in command obliged to furren¬
der himfelf and the whole party prifoners of war j while
the captive governor efcaped without a wound. This
fecond difafter put an end to all hopes of the French
miniftry of being able to reduce the ifiand of Jerfey,
and was indeed no fmall mortification to them ; 8oc5
troops having been landed at that time, of w hich not
one efcaped. A monument was erefted at the public
expence in the church of St Helier, to the memory of
Major Pierfon, to whom the deliverance of the ifland
was owing ; but who unhappily fell in the moment of
viftory, w hen only 24 years of age.
All the landing places and creeks round the ifland
are now fortified with batteries, and 17 or 18 watch-
houfes are erefted on the headlands. Thefe are round
towers with embrafures for fmall cannon and loop-holes
for mufketry •, the entrance by a door in the wall
out of the reach of man, and to be afeended by a lad¬
der afterwards drawn up. This ifland, with thofe of
Guernfey, Sark, Alderney, and their aj pendages, were
parcel of the duchy of Normandy, and were united to
the crown of England by the firft princes of the Nor¬
man line. The language of the pulpit, and the bar, is
the French, which is that generally fpoken by the
people at large. They are governed by their own
laws, which are for the moft part the ducal cuftoms of
Normandy, being collefted in an ancient book of cuf¬
toms intitled Zf coujlurnier. The king’s w rit,
or procefs from the courts of Weftminfter, is here of no
force 5 but his commiflion is. They are not bound by
any common afts of our parliaments, untefs particular¬
ly named. All caufes are originally determined by
their own officers, the bailiff and jurats of the iflands.
But an appeal lies from them to the king and council
in the laft refort.—Jerfey is an earldom in the Villiers
family.
New JERSE2~, or, as it is commonly called, the Jer-
feys, (being two provinces united into one government,)
one of the united ftates of North America, lying from
39 to 41 degrees of north latitude, and from 74 to 75
degrees 30 minutes longitude weft from London 5 in
length 160 miles, in breadth 52.
It is bounded on the eaft by Hudfon’s river and the
fea j on the fouth by the fea 5 on the weft by Dela¬
ware bay and river, which divide it from the ftates of
Delaware and Pennfylvania j and on the north, by a
line drawn from the mouth of Mahakkamak river, in
latitude 41° 24', to a point on Hudfon’s river, in lati¬
tude 410; containing about 8320 fquare miles, equal
to 5,324,800 acres. New Jerfey is divided into 13
counties, which are fubdivided into 94 townfhips or pre-
cinfts. In 1784, a cenfus of the inhabitants was made
by order of the legiflature, when they amounted to
140,435, of which 10,501 were blacks. Of thefe
blacks
J E H [ i
NewJerfey.blacks 1939 only were flaves j fo that the proportion of
 ■v—1 ' flaves to the whole of the inhabitants in the ftate is as
one to 76. The population for every fquare mile is 18.
As to the face of the country, foil, and productions,
the counties of Sufiex, Morris, and the northern part
Bergen, are mountainous. As much as five-eighths of
molt of the fouthern counties, or one-fourth of the whole
ftate, is fandy and barren, unfit for cultivation. The land
on the fea coaft in this, like that in the mofl: fouthern
ftates, has every appearance of made ground. The foil
is generally a light fand •, and by digging, on an ave¬
rage, about 50 feet below the furface (which can be
done, even at the diftance of 20 or 30 miles from the
fea, without any impediment from rocks or ftones),
you come to fait raarfh. This ft ate has all the va¬
rieties of foil from the worft to the befi kind. It has a
greater proportion of barrens than any of the ftates.
The barrens produce little elfe but thrub oaks and
white and yellow pines. In the hilly and mountai¬
nous parts of the ftate, which are not too rocky for cul¬
tivation, the foil is of a ftronger kind, and covered in
its natural ftate with {lately oaks, hickories, chefnuts,
&c. &c. and, when cultivated, produces wheat, rye,
Indian corn, buck wdieat, oats, barley, flax, and fruits
of all kinds common to the climate. The land in this
hilly country is good for grazing, and the farmers feed
great numbers of cattle for New York and Philadel¬
phia markets, and many of them keep large dairies.
The markets of New York and Philadelphia receive a
very confiderable proportion of their fupplies from the
contiguous parts of New Jerfey. And it is worthy of
remark that thefe contiguous parts are exceedingly well
calculated, as to the nature and fertility of their foils,
to afford thefe fupplies*, and the intervention of a great
number of navigable rivers and creeks renders it very
convenient to market their produce. Thefe fupplies
confifl: of vegetables of many kinds, apples, pears,
peaches, plums, ftrawberries, cherries, and other
fruits ; cyder in large quantities and of the beft qua¬
lity j butter, cheefe, beef, pork, mutton, and the lelfer
meats.
The trade of this ftate is carried on almoft: folely
with and from thofe two great commercial cities, New
York on one fide, and Philadelphia on the other ;
though it wants not good ports of its own. The
articles exported, befides thofe already mentioned, are
wheat, flour, horfes, live cattle, hams, which are cele¬
brated as being the beft; in the world, lumber, flax-
feed, leather, and iron in great quantities in pigs and
bars. Formerly copper ore was reckoned among their
mofl; valuable exports j but the mines have not been
worked fince the commencement of the late war.
The iron manufadture is the greatefl: fource of wealth
to the ftate. Iron works are eredted in Gloucefter,
Burlington, Morris, and other counties. The moun¬
tains in the county of Morris give rife to a number of
ftreams neceffary and convenient for thefe works, and
at the fame time furniih a copious fupply of wood and
ore of a fuperior quality. In this county alone are
no lefs than feven rich iron mines, from which might
be taken ore fufficient to fupply the United States 5
and to work it into iron are two furnaces, two rolling
and flitting mills, and about thirty forges, containing
from two to four fires each. Thefe works produce
annually about 540 tons of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs,
27 ] J E R
befides large quantities of hollow ware, flieet iron, and NewJerfej.
nail rods. In the whole ftate, it is fuppofed there is
yearly made about 1200 tons of bar iron, 1200 do. of
pigs, 80 do. of nail rods, exclufive of hollow v'are,
and various other caftings, of which vaft quantities are
made.
The charadler, manners, and cuftoms of the people
are various in different parts of the ftate. The inha¬
bitants are a colledtion of Low Dutch, German, Eng-
lifh, Scotch, Irifh, and New Englanders, or their de-
fcendants. National attachment and mutual conveni¬
ence have generally induced thefe feveral kinds of peo¬
ple to fettle together in a body j and in this way their
peculiar national manners, cuftoms, and charafler, are
{till preferved, efpecially among the lower clafs of peo¬
ple, who have little intercourfe with any but thofe of
their own nation. Religion, although its tendency is
to unite people in thofe things that are effential to hap-
pinefs, occafions wide differences as to manners, cuftoms,
and even charadler. The Prefbyterian, the Quaker,
the Epifcopalian, the Baptift, the German and Low
Dutch Calvinift, the Methodift, and the Moravian,
have each their diftinguifhing charadleriftics, either in
their worfliip, their difcipline, or their drefs. There is
ftill another very perceptible charadleriftical difference,
diftindl from either of the others, which arhes from the
intercourfe of the inhabitants with different ftates. The
people in Weft Jerfey trade to Philadelphia, and of
courfe imitate their fafliions, and imbibe their manners.
The inhabitants of Eaft Jerfey trade to New York, and
regulate their faftiions and manners according to thofe
of New York. So that the difference in regard to fa¬
ftiions and manners between Eaft; and Weft Jerfey, is
nearly as great as between New York and Philadelphia,
The people of New Jerfey are generally induftriousv
frugal, and hofpitable. There are, comparatively, but
few men of learning in the ftate, nor can it be faid that,
the people in general have a tafte for the fciences. The
lower clafs, in which may be included three-fifths of the
inhabitants of the whole ftate, are ignorant, and are
criminally negledlful in the education of their children.
There are, in this ftate, about 50 Prefbyterian congre¬
gations, fubje£t to the care of three prelbyteries, viz,
that of New York, of New Brunfwick, and Philadel¬
phia ; 40 congregations of the Friends j 30 of the Bap*
tifts, 25 of Epifcopalians 5 28 of the Dutch, befides a
few Moravians and Methodifts.
There are two colleges in New Jerfey; one at Prince¬
ton, called NaJJhu Hall $ the other at Brunfwick, call¬
ed dbiieerts-college. The college at Princeton was firft
founded about the year 1738, and enlarged by Gover¬
nor Belcher in 1747. It has an annual income of about
pool, currency j of which 20cl. arifes from funded pub¬
lic fecurities and lands, and the reft from the fees of the
ftudents. There is a grammar-fchool of about 30 fcho-
lars, connected with the college, under the fuperintend-
ance of the prefident, and taught by two mailers. Be¬
fore the late revolution this college was furniftied with
a philofophical apparatus worth 500I. which (except
the elegant orrery conftrudled by Mr Rittenhoufe) was
almoft; entirely deftroyed during the war, as was alfo
the library, which now confifts of between 2000 and
3000 volumes.—The charter for Queen’s-college at
Brunfwick was granted juft before the war, in confe-
quence of an application from a body of the Dutch
church,.
J E R
[ 128 ]
J E R
■NewJerfey.church. Its funds, raifed wholly by free donations,
1" f amounted foon after its eftabliilrment to 4000I. j but
they were confiderably diminifhed by the war. .The
ftudents are under the care of a prefident. This college
has lately increafed both in numbers and reputation.
There are alfo a number of fiourifhing academies in
this ftate j one at Trenton, another in Hakkenfak,
others at Orangedale, Freehold, Elizabeth-town, Bur¬
lington, Newark, Springfield, Morriftown, Borden-
town, and Amboy : but there are no regular eftablith-
xnents for common fchools. The ufual mode of educa¬
tion is for the inhabitants of a village or neighbourhood
to join in affording a temporary fupport for a fchool-
mafter, upon fuch terms as is mutually agreeable. But
the encouragement which thefe occalional teachers meet
with, is generally fuch as that no perfon of abilities
adequate to the bufinefs will undertake it, and of courfe
little advantage is derived from thefe fchools.
There are a number of towns in this ftate, nearly
of equal fize and importance, and none that has more
than 200 houfes, compaftly built.—Trenton is the
largeft town in New Jerfey. This town, with Lamber-
ton, which joins it on the fouth, contains 200 houfes,
and about 1500 inhabitants. Here the legiflature
meets, the fupreme court fits, and the public offices
are all kept, except the fecretary’s, which is at Bur¬
lington. On thefe accounts it is confidered as the ca¬
pital of the ftate.—Burlington ftands on the eaft fide of
the Delaware, 20 miles from Philadephia by water,
and 17 by land. The ifland, which is the rnoft popu¬
lous part of the city, is a mile and a quarter in length,
and three quarters of a mile in breadth. On the ifland
are 160 houfes, 900 white and 100 black inhabitants.
There are two houfes for public worffiip in the town,
one for the Friends and Quakers, who are the moft nu¬
merous, and one for the Epifcopalians. The other
public buildings are two market-houfes, a court-houfe,
and the beft gaol in the ftate. Befides thefe, there is an
academy, a free fchool, a nail manufaftory, and an ex¬
cellent diftillery, if that can be called excellent which
produces a poifon both of health and morals.—Berth.
j4t?iboy ftands on a neck of land included between Ra¬
ritan river and Arthur Kull found. It lies open to
■ Sandy Hook, and has one of the beft harbours on the
continent. Vefiels from fea may enter it in one tide,
in almoft any weather.—Brunfwick was incorporated
in 1784, and is fituated on the fouth-weft fide of Rari¬
tan river, 12 miles above Amboy. It contains about
200 houfes and 1600 inhabitants, one-half of which are
Dutch. Its fituation is low and unpleafant, being on
the bank of the river, and under a high hill which
rifes back of the town.—Princeton is a pleafant healthy
village, of about 80 houfes, 52 miles from New York,
and 43 from Philadelphia.—Elizabeth town and New¬
ark are pleafant towns j the former is 15, and the lat¬
ter nine miles from New York. Newark is famed for
its good cyder.
The government of this ftate is veiled in a governor,
legiflative council, and general affembly. The govern¬
or is chofen annually by the council and aflembly
jointly. The legillative council is compofed of one
member from each county, chofen annually by the
people. The general alfembly is compofed of three
members from each county, chofen by the freemen.
The council choofe one of their members to be vice-
prefident, who, when the governor is absent from the Jerfey,
ftate, poffefles the fupreme executive power. The Jerufalem,
council may originate any bills, excepting preparing
and altering any money bill, which is the foie preroga¬
tive of the affembly.
The firft fettlers of New Jerfey were a number of
Dutch emigrants from New York, who came over be¬
tween the years 1614 and 1620, and fettled in the
county of Bergen. Next after thefe, in 1627, came
over a colony of Swedes and Finns, and fettled on the
river Delaware. The Dutch and Swedes, though not
in harmony with each other, kept poffeffion of the
country many years. In March 1664, Charles II.
granted all the territory called by the Dutch New Ne¬
therlands, to his brother the duke of York. And in
June 1664, the duke granted that part now called New
Jerfey to Lord Berkeley of Stratton, and Sir George
Carteret, jointly j who, in 1665, agreed upon certain
conceffions with the people for the government of the
province, and appointed Philip Carteret, Efq. their
governor.—The Dutch reduced the country in 1672 j
but it was reftored by the peace of Weftminfter, Fe¬
bruary 9. 1674.
This ftate was the feat of war for feveral years, du¬
ring the bloody conteft between Great Britain and
America j and her Ioffes, both of men and property,
in proportion to the population and wealth of the
ftate, were greater than of any other of the thirteen
ftates.
Jersey, among woolcombers, denotes the fineft
wool, taken from the reft by dreffing it with a Jerfey
comb.
JERUSALEM, a very famous and ancient city,
capital of Judea or Paleftine, now a province of Turkey
in Afia. According to Manetho, an Egyptian hifto-
rian, it was founded by the ftiepherds who invaded
Egypt in an unknown period of antiquity *. Accord-*Seeley/
ing to Jofephus, it was the capital of Melchifedek’s^0 2*
kingdom, called Salem in the book of Genefis : and
the Arabians affert, that it was built in honour of
Melchifedek by 12 neighbouring kings $ which, when
they had done, he called it Jerufalem. We know no¬
thing of it with certainty, however, till the time of
King David, who took it from the Jebufites, and made
it the capital of his kingdom, which it ever after con¬
tinued to be. It was firft taken in the days of Je-
hoaffi, by Hazael the king of Syria, who flew all the
nobility, but did not deftroy their city. It was after¬
wards taken by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon,
who deftroyed it, and carried away the inhabitants.
Seventy years after, permiffion was granted by Cyrus
king of Perfia to the Jews to rebuild their city, which
w as done j and it continued the capital of Judea (though
frequently fuffering much from the Grecian monarchs
of Syria and, Egypt), till the time of Vefpafian emperor
of Rome, by whole fon Titus it was totally deftroyed f.f Seejta
It was, Imwever, rebuilt by Adrian j and feemed like¬
ly to have recovered its former grandeur, being fur-
rounded with walls, and adorned with feveral noble
buildings j the Chriftians alfo being permitted to fettle
in it. But this w'as a ftiort-lived change; fo that when
the emprefs Helena, mother of Conftantine the Great,
came to vifit this city, ffie found it in the moft forlorn
and ruinous filuation. Having formed a defign of re-
ftoring it to it* ancient luftre, the cauftd, with a great
deal
J E Ft [i
trufalem. deal of coft and labour, all the rubbi(h_ that had been
thrown upon thofe places where our Saviour had fuffer-
ed, been buried, &c. to be removed. In doing this,
they found the crofs on which he died, as well as thole
of the two malefactors who fuffered with him y and, as
the writers of thofe times relate, difcovered by a mira¬
cle that which had borne the Saviour of mankind. She
then caufed a magnificent church to be built, w-hichin-
clofed as many of the fcenes of our Saviour’s fufferings
as could conveniently be done, and adorned the city
with feveral other buildings. The emperor Julian is
faid to have formed a defign of rebuilding the temple of
Jerufalem, and of reftoring the Jewith worlhip. This
fcheme was contrived on purpofe to give the lie to our
Saviour’s prophecy concerning the temple and city of
Jerufalem 5 namely, that the firft Ihould be totally de-
ftroyed, without one Hone being left upon another j and
that Jerufalem Ihould be trodden down of the Gentiles
till the times of the Gentiles w ere fulfilled. In this at¬
tempt, however, according to the accounts of the Chri-
ftian writers of that age, the emperor was fruftrated by
an earthquake and fiery eruption from the earth, which
totally deftroyed the work, confumed the materials which
had been colle&ed, and killed a great number of the
workmen.
This event hath been the fubject of much difpute.
Mr Warburton, who hath publiihed a treatife exprefs-
ly on the truth of this fad, hath colleCIed the follow¬
ing teftimonies in favour of it. The firft is that of
Ammianus Mavcellinus, who tells us, “ Julian (hav¬
ing been already thrice conful), taking Salluft, pre¬
fect of the feveral Gauls, for his colleague, entered a
fourth time on this high magiftraey ; and although
his fenfibility of the many and great events which
this year was likely to produce made him very
anxious for the future, yet he both pufhed on the va¬
rious and complicated preparatives for this expedition
with the utmoft application, and, having an eye in
every quarter, and being deiirous to eternize his reign
by the greatnefs of his atchievements, he projeCted to
rebuild at an immenfe expence the proud and magni¬
ficent temple of Jerufalem ; which (after many com¬
bats, attended with much bloodlhed on both fides,
during the fiege by Vefpafian') was with great diffi¬
culty taken and deftroyed by Titus. He committed
the conduCt of this affair to Alypius of Antioch, who
had formerly been lieutenant in Britain. When there¬
fore this Alypius had fet himfelf to the vigorous exe¬
cution of his charge, in which he had ail the affiftance
that the governor of the province could afford him,
horrible balls of fire breaking out near the foundations,
with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place
from time to time inacceffible to the fcorched and blaft-
ed workmen ; and the victorious element continuing,
in this manner, obftinately and refolutely bent, as it
were, to drive them to a diftance, Alypius thought beft
to give over the enterprife.”
The next teftimony is that of Gregory Nazianzen.
Speaking of the emperor Julian, he fays, “ After
having run through a courfe of every other tyrannical
experiment againft the faith, and upon trial defpxiing
all of them as trifling and contemptible, he at laft
brought down the whole body of the Jews upon us $
whom, for their ancient turn to feditious novelties,
«nd an inveterate hatred of the Chriftian name, he
Vol. XI. Part I.
29 ] J E F
chofe as the fitteft inftrument for his machinations. Jernfafewa
Thefe, under a ffiow of great good-wull, which hid ;
his fecret purpofe, he endeavoured to convince from
their facred books and traditions, which he took upon
him to interpret, that now was come the time fore¬
told when they thould return to their own land, re¬
build their temple, and reftore the law to its ancient
force and fplendor. When thefe things had been
thoroughly infinuated, and heartily entertained (for
deceit finds eafy admittance when it flatters our paf*
fions), the Jews fet upon the work of rebuilding with
great attention, and puffied on the projeft with the
utmoft labour and application. But when, now driven
from their work by a violent whirlwind and a fudden
earthquake, they fled together for refuge to a certain
neighbouring church (fome to depreciate the impend¬
ing mifchief; others, as is natural in fuch cafes, to
catch at any help that prefents itfelf ; and others
again, enveloped in the crowd, were carried along
with the body of thofe who fled) 5 there are who fay,
the church refufed them entrance-, and that when they
came to the doors which were wide open but a mo¬
ment before, they found them on a fudden clofed by
a fecret and invifible hand j a hand accuftomed to
work thefe wonders by the terror and confufion of the
impious, and for the fecurity and comfort of godly
men. This, however, is now invariably affirmed and
believed by all, that as they ftrove to force their way
in by violence, the fire which burft from the founda¬
tions of the temple, met and flopped them. One
part it burnt and deftroyed, and another it defperate-
ly maimed, leaving them a living monument of God’s
commination and wrath againft finners. Thus the
affair paffed ; and let no man continue incredulous
concerning this or the other miraculous works of
God. But ftill the thing moft wonderful and illufi-
trious was, a light which appeared in the heavens, of
a crofs within a circle. That name and figure which
impious men before efteemed fo dithonourable upon
earth, was now raifed on high, and equally objected
to the common view of all men j advanced by God
himfelf as the trophy of his victory over unbelievers ;
of all trophies the moft exalted and fublime. Nay
further, they who were prefent, and partakers of the
miracle we are now about to fpeak of, ffiow to this
very day the fign or figure of the crofs which was then
marked or impreffed upon their garments. For at that
time, as thefe men (whether fuch as were of us or
ftrangers) were ftiowing thefe marks, or attending to
others who (bowed them, each prefently obferved the
wonder, either on himfelf or his neighbour ; having a
radiant mark on his body or on his garment, in which
there is fomething that, in art and elegance, exceeded
all painting or embroidery.”
Notwithftanding thefe teftimonies, however, this
fafl hath been ftrenuouily contefted by others 5 and
indeed it mull be owned that the teftimonies above
mentioned are by no means unexceptionable. In the
laft, particularly, the propenfity to the m&rvellous is fo
exceedingly great, that every one muft at firft fight
be (truck with it. It is true indeed, the moft mira¬
culous part of it, as it feemed to be to Gregory,
namely, the appearance of croffes upon the garments
and bodies of fome of the people who w-ere (truck,
may be explained upon a natural principle j fince we
ft ^ are
Jerufalein.
Lightning.
' J E B. ,[i3
are afflired that lightning will fometimes produce ef¬
fects of this kind * : but even this is no decifive proof
of the authenticity of the relation ; though it cannot by
any means difcredit it, as feme think. On the whole,
however, it is not a matter of any confequence whether
this event happened with the circmuftances1 above men¬
tioned or not. If Julian did make any attempt to re¬
build the temple, it is certain that fomething obtlrutted
the attempt, becaufe the temple was never actually re¬
built. If he made no fuch attempt, the prophecy of
our Saviour dill holds good ) and it furely cannot be
thought to detradl from the merit of a prophecy, that
no body ever attempted to elude it, or prove it to be a
falfehood. .
Jerufalem continued in the hands of the eaftern em¬
perors till the reign of the caliph Omar, who reduced
it under his fubje&ion. The Saracens continued in
poffeflion of it till the year 1099, '>vilen it 'va;> taken
by the Crufaders. They founded a new kingdom, of
which Jerufalem was the capital, which lafted 88 years
under nine kings. At laid this kingdom was utterly
ruined by Saladin j and though the Chriftians once
more got pofleffion of the city, they were again obliged
to relinquilh it. In 1217, the Saracens were expelled
by the Turks," who have ever fince continued in poflef¬
fion ofit.
The city of Jerufalem, in its moft flourifliing flate,
was divided into four parts, each inclofed with its own
walls; viz. 1. The old city of Jebus, which flood on"
Mount Zion, where the prophets dwelt, and where
David built a magnificent caftle and palace, which
became the refidence both of himfelf and fucceflbrs ;
on which account it was emphatically called the City
vf David. 2. The lower city, called alfo the Daugh¬
ter ofTiion, being built after it ; on which flood the two
magnificent palaces which Solomon built for himfelf
and his queen ; that of the Maccabean princes ; and
the ftately amphitheatre built by Herod, capable of
containing 80,000 fpeflators ; the ftrong citadel, built
by Antiochus, to command and overtop the temple, but
afterwards razed by Simon the Maccabee, who reco¬
vered the city from the Syrians ; and laftly, a fecond
citadel, built by Herod, upon a high and craggy rock,
and called by him /Zntonia. 3. The new city, moft-
ly inhabited by tradefmen, artificers, and merchants;
and, 4. Mount Moriah, on which was built the fo famed
temple of Solomon, deferibed in the fixth and feventh
chapters of the fecond book of Kings ; and, fince then,
that rebuilt by the Jews on their return from Babylon,
and afterwards built almoft anew and greatly adorned
and enriched by Herod.
Some idea of the magnificence of this temple may
be had from the following confiderations. 1. That
there were no lefs than 163,300 men employed in the
work. 2. That notwithflanding that prodigious num¬
ber of hands, it took up feven whole years in build¬
ing. 3. That the height of this building was 120
cubits, or 82 yards, rather more than lefs ; and the
courts round it about half as high. 4. That the
front on the eaft fide, was fuftained by ramparts of
fquare ftone, of vaft bulk, and built up from the val¬
ley below, which laft was 300 cubits high, and be¬
ing added to that of the edifice amounted to 420
cubits ; to which, if tve add, 5. The height of the
principal tower above all the refl, viz. 60, will bring
o ] J E R
it to 480 cubits, which reckoning at two feet to a Jcrufalem
cubit, will amount to 960 feet; but according to the' 
length of that meafure, as others reckon it, viz. at two
feet and a half, it will amount to 1200 feet ; a pro¬
digious height this from the ground, and fuch as
might well make Jofephus fay, that the very defign of
it was fuffieient to have turned the brain of any but
Solomon. 6. Thefe ramparts, which were railed in
this manner, to fill up tha prodigious chafm made by
the deep valley below, and to make the area of a fuf¬
fieient breadth and length for the edifice, were 1000
cubits in length at the bottom, and 8co at the top,
and the breadth of them 100 more. 7. The huge
buttrefles which fupported the ramparts were of the
fame height, fquare at the top, and 50 cubits broacl,
and jutted out 150 cubits at the bottom. 8. The
ftones, of which they were built, were, according to
Jofephus, 40 cubits long, 12 thick, and 8 high, all
of marble, and fo exquifitely joined, that they leemed
one continued piece, or rather polifhed rock. 9. Ac¬
cording to the fame Jewilh hiftorian, there were 1453
columns of Tarian marble, and twice that number of
pilaflers; and of fuch thicknefs, that three men could
hardly embtace them, and their height and capitals pro¬
portionable, and of the Corinthian order. But it is
likely Jofephus hath given us thefe two lafl articles from
the temple of Herod, there being nothing like them
mentioned by the facred hiftorians, but a great deal
about the prodigious cedars of Lebanon ufed in that no¬
ble edifice, the excellent workmanfliip of them adapted
to their feveral ends and defigns, together with their
gildings and other curious ornaments. The only thing
more we (hall venture to add is, what is affirmed in
Scripture, that all the materials of this ftupendous fabric
■were finiihed and adapted to their feveral ends before
they were brought to Jerufalem, that is, the Hones in
their quarries, and the cedars, in Lebanon ; fo that
there was no noife of axe, hammer, or any tool, heard
in the rearing ofit.
At prefent Jerufalem is called by the Turks Cud-
fembaric, and Coudjherijf; and is reduced to a poor
thinly inhabited town, about three miles in circumfe¬
rence, fituated on a rocky mountain, furrounded on
all fides, except the north, with fteep afeents and deep
valleys ; and thefe again environed with other hills
at fome difiance from them. In the neighbourhood
of the city there grew fome corn, vines, olives, &c.
The ftately church erefted by the empreis Helena, on
Mount Calvary, is Hill Handing. It is called the church
of the fepulchre; and is kept in good repair by the
generous offerings of a conftant concourfe of pil¬
grims, who annually refort to it, as well as by the
contributions of feveral Chriftian princes. The walls
of this church are of flone, and the roof of cedar ; the
eaft end inclofes Mount Calvary, and the weft the holy
fepulchre : the former is covered with a noble cupola,
open at top, and fupported by 16 maffive columns.
Over the high altar, at the eaft end, is another ftately
dome. The nave of the church conftitutes the choir ;
and in the infide aiile are ftiown the places where the
moft remarkable circumftances of our Saviour’s paf-
fion were tranfafted, together with the tombs of God¬
frey and Baldwin, the two firft Chriftian kings of Je¬
rufalem. In the chapel of the crucifixion is fhown
the very hole in the rock in which the crofs is faid to
have
J E R [ 131 ] J E S
Jcrufalem have been fixed. The altar in this chapel hath three
'•““■'Vcroffes on it; and is richly adorned, particularly with
four lamps of immenfe value that’hang before it, and
are kept conftantly burning. At the weft end is that
of the fepulchre, which is hewn in that form out of
the folid rock, and hath a fmall dome fupported by
pillars of porphyry. The cloifter round the fepulchre
is divided into fundry chapels, appropriated to the fe-
Veral forts of Chriftians who refide there j as Greeks,
Armenians, Maronites, Jacobites, Copts, Abyffines,
Georgians, &c. and on the north-well fide of it are
the apartments of the Latins, who have the care of
the church, and are forced to reiide conftantly in it j
the Turks keeping the keys of it, and not fuftering
any of them to go out, but obliging them to re¬
ceive their provisions in at a wicket. At Eafter
there are fome grand ceremonies performed in the
church, reprefenting our Lord’s paflion, crucifixion,
death, and refurreftion, at which a vaft concourle
of pilgrims commonly aflift. For a particular ac¬
count of them, we refer the reader to Do&ors Shaw
and Pococke.
On Mount Moriah, on the fouth-eaft part of the
city, is an edifice called Solomon's Temple, (landing
on or near the fame fpot^ as the ancient •, but when
or by whom erefted is uncertain. In the midft of
it is a Turkifh mofque, where the Jewilh famftum
fan&orum is fuppofed to have flood. The building,
> ^ which Dr Pococke thinks muft have been formerly
a Chriflian church, is held in the utmoft veneration
by the Turks.
The city is nowr under the government of a fangiac,
who refides in a houfe faid to have been that of Pon¬
tius Pilate, over-againft the cattle of Antonia built by
Herod the Great. Many of the churches eretled in
memory of fome remarkable gofpel tranfa&ion, have
been fince converted into mofques \ into fome of which
money will procure admittance, but not into others.
Both the friars and other Chriftians are kept fo poor
by the tyranny of the government, that the chief fup-
port and trade of the place confifts in providing ftran-
gers with food and other accommodations, and felling
them beads, relics, and other trinkets, for which they
are obliged to pay confiderable fums to the fangiac,
as well as to his officers j and thofe are feldom fo well
contented with their ufual duties, but they frequently
extort fome freih ones, efpecially from the Francifcans,
whofe convent is the common receptacle for all pil¬
grims, and for which they have confiderable allowan¬
ces from the pope, and other crowned heads, befides
the prefents which llrangers generally make them at
their departure. The moft remarkable antiquities in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem are, 1. The pools of
Bethelda and Gihon } the former 120 paces long, 40
broad, and at leaft eight deep, but now without wa¬
ter •, and the old arches, which it liill difcovers at the
weft end, are quite dammed up : the other, which is
about a quarter of a mile without Bethlehem gate, is
a very ftately relick, 106 paces long, and 60 broad,
lined wfith a wall and plafter, and ftill well ftored with
water. 2. The tomb of the Virgin Mary, in the val¬
ley of Jehoftiaphat, into which one defcends by a mag¬
nificent flight of 47 fteps. On the right hand, as one
goes down is alfo the fepulchre of St Ann, the mo¬
ther, and on the left that of Jofeph the hufband, of
the virgin-mother : fome add likewife that of Jehoia- Jenifaleim
kim her father. In all thefe are erected altars for ,
priefts of all forts to fay mafs, and the whole is cut in- '*
to the folid rock. 3. The tomb of King Jehoftiaphat,
cut likewife into the rock, and divided into feveral
apartments j in one of which is his tomb, which is a~
domed with a ftately portico and entablature over it.
4. That commonly called Abfaloin's pillar or place,
as being generally fuppofed to be that which he is faid
to have erefted in his lifetime to perpetuate his me¬
mory, as he had no male iflue. The place, however,
both within and without, hath more the refemblanee
of a fepulehre than any thing elfe : though we do not
read that he was buried there, neither do the people
here affirm that he was. There is a great heap of
ftones about it, which is continually increafing j the
fuperftitious Jews and Turks always throwing feme as
they pafs, in token of their abhorrence of Abfalom’s
unnatural rebellion againft fo good and holy a parent.
The itrufture itfelf is about 20 cubits fquare, and 60
high, rifing in a lofty fquare, adorned below with four
columns of the Ionic order, with their capitals, enta¬
blatures, &c. to each front. From the height of 20
to 40 cubits, it is fomewhat lefs, and quite plain, ex¬
cepting a finall fillet at the upper end ; and from 40
to the top it changes into a round, which grows gra¬
dually into a point, the whole cut out of the fulidrock.
There is a room within, confiderably higher than the
level of the ground without, on the fides of which are
niches, probably to receive coffins. 5. A little eaft-
ward of this is that called the tomb of Zechariah, the
fon of Barachiahj whom the Jews flew between the
temple and the altar, as is commonly fuppofed. This
fabric is all cut out of the natural rock, 18 feet high,
and as many fquare 5 and adorned with Ionic columns
on each front, cut likewife out of the fame rock, and
fupporting a cornice. The whole ends in a pointed
top, like a diamond. But the moft curious, grand,
and elaborate pieces, in this kindt are the grotts with¬
out the walls of Jerufalem, ftyled the royal fepulchres ;
but of what kings is not agreed on. They confift of
a great number of apartments, fome of them fpacious,
all cut out of the folid marble rock ; and may juft-
ly be pronounced a royal work, and one of the moft
noble, furprifing, and magnificent. For a particular
account of them we muft refer the reader, for want
of room, to Pococke’s Travels. In the neighbour¬
hood of Jerufalem is a fpot of ground, about 30 yards
long, and 15 broad, now the burying place of the
Armenians, which is ffiown as the Aceldama, or Field
of Blood, formerly the Potters Field, and fince ftyled
Campo Sanclo, or the Holy Field, purchafed with the
price of Judas’s treafon, for the burial of ftrangers*
It is walled round, to prevent the Turks abufing
the bones of Chriftians ; and one half of it is ta¬
ken up by a building in the nature of a charnel
houfe. Befides the above, a great many other an¬
tiquities in the city and its environs are fhown to
ftrangers; there being fcarce any place or tranfac-
tion mentioned either in the Old or New Teftainent,
but they fhow the very fpot of ground where the
one flood, and the other \vas done •, not only here,
but all over Judea.
JESI, an ancient town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the marca or march of Ancona,
R 2 with
J E S
[ 132 ]
J E S
Foundation
of the or¬
der.
2
Confirmed
by the
pope, and
from what
motives.
with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, near
a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12. 20. N. Lat.
43- 5°*
JESSO, Jedso, or Yadfo, a large ifland of Alia,
to flie north of Niphon, and faid to be governed by a
prince tributary to the empire of Japan j but is very
little known to the Europeans, fo that nothing can be
faid with certainty concerning it.
JESSES, ribbons that hang down from garlands or
crowns in falconry j alfo Ihort ftraps of leather faftened
to the hawk’s legs, and fo to vervels.
JESTING, or concife wit, as diftinguifhed from
continued wit or humour, lies either in the thought,
or the language, or both. In the fir ft cafe it does
not depend upon any particular words or turn of the
expreffion. But the greateft fund of jefts lies in the
language, i. e. in tropes or verbal figures 5 thofe
afforded by tropes confift in the metaphorical fenfe of
the words, and thofe of verbal figures principally turn
upon a double fenfe of the fame word, or a fimilitude of
found in different words. The third kind of jokes, which
lie both in the fenfe and language, arife from figures of
fentc nces, where the figure itfelf confifts in the fenfe,
but the wit turns upon the choice of the words.
JESUITS, or the Society of JESUS; a famous reli¬
gious order of the Romifh church, founded by Ignatius
Loyola. See Ignatius.— The plan which this fana¬
tic formed of its conftitution and laws was fuggefted,
as he gave out, and as his followers ftill teach, by the
immediate infpiratton of heaven. But notwithftand-
ing this high pretenfion, his defign met at firft with
violent oppofition. The pope, to whom Loyola had
applied for the fanftion of his authority to confirm the
inftitution, referred his petition to a committee of car¬
dinals. They reprefented the eftablifhment to be un-
neceffary as well as dangerous, and Paul refufed to
grant his approbation of it. At laft, Loyola removed
all his fcruples by an offer which it was impoffible for
any pope to refill. He propofed, that befides the
three vows of poverty, of chaftity, and of monadic
obedience, which are common to all the orders of re¬
gulars, the members of his fociety fliould take a fourth
vow of obedience to tbe pope, binding themfelves to
go whith'erfoever he fliould command for the fervice
of religion, arid without requiring any thing from the
holy fee for their fupport. At a time when the papal
authority had received fuch a (hock by the revolt of fd
many nations from the Romiffi church 5 at a time when
every part of the popilh fyftem was attacked with fo
much violence and fuccefs, the acquifition of a body
of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the fee of Rome,
and whom it might fet in oppofition to all its enemies,
was an objedft of the higheft confequence. Paul in-
ftantly perceiving this, confirmed the inilitution of the
Jefuits by his bull, granted the moil ample privileges
to the members of the fociety, and appointed Loyola
to be the firft general of the order. The event hath
fully juftified Paul’s difcernment, in expefling fuch be¬
neficial confequences to tbe fee of Rome from this in¬
ftitution. In lefs than half a century, the fociety ob¬
tained ellablifhments in every country that adhered to
the Roman Catholic church : its power and wealth in-
creafed amazingly ; the number of its members became
great j their character as well as accomplifhments
were ftill greater y and the Jefuits were celebrated by
the friends and dreaded by the enemies of the Romilh Jefuits.
faith as the moft able and enterprifing order in the ’‘■■“-'v—
church.
The conftitution and laws of the fociety were per-
fecfted by Laynez and Aquaviva, the two generals who
fucceeded Loyola •, men far fuperior to their mailer in
abilities and in the fcience of government. They
framed that fyftem of profound and artful policy which
diftinguifties the order. The large infufion of fanati-
cifrn mingled with its regulation Ihould be imputed to
Loyola its founder. Many circumftances concurred
in giving a peculiarity of charafter to the order of
Jefuits, and in forming the members of it not only to
take greater part in the affairs of the world than any
other body of monks, but to acquire fuperior influence
in the condmft of them.
The primary objedt of almoft all the monaftic orders The obkift
is to feparate men from the world, and from any con- of the or-
cern in its affairs. In the folitude and filence of the^er^nfiu"
cloifter, the monk is called to work out his own falva-*ar‘
tion by extraordinary a<fts of mortification and piety.
He is dead to the world, and ought not to mingle in
its tranfadlions. He can be of no benefit to man¬
kind but by his example and by his prayers. On the
contrary, the Jefuits are taught to confider themfelves
as formed for adlion. They are chofen foldiers, bound
to exert themfelves continually in the fervice of God,
and of the pope his vicar on earth. Whatever tends
to inftrudl the ignorant, whatever can be of ufe to re¬
claim or to oppofe the enemies of the holy fee, is their
proper objedl. That they may have full leifure for
this adlive fervice, they are totally exempted from
thofe fundi ion 3 the performance of which is the chief
bufinefs of other monks. They appear in no procef-
fions j they pradlife no rigorous aufterities *, they do
not confume one half of their time in the repetition
of tedious offices : but they are required to attend to
all the tranfadtions of the. world, on account of the
influence which thefe may have upon religion ; they
are diredled to ftudy the difpofitions of perfons in
high rank, and to cultivate their friendfliip •, and by
the very conftitution as well as genius of the order, a
fpirit of adlion and intrigue is infufed into all its
members. ^
As the objedl of the fociety of Jefuits differed from Peculia?!-
that of the other monaftic orders, the diverfity was ties in its
no lefs in the form of its government. The other or-P0^^'
ders are to be confidered as voluntary affociations, in
which whatever affedts the whole body is regulated by
the common fuffrage of all its members. The-execu¬
tive power is veiled in the perfons placed at the head
of each convent or of the whole fociety • the legifla-
tive authority refides in tbe community. Affairs of
moment, relating to particular convents, are determi¬
ned in conventual chapters 5 fuch as refpedl the whole
order are confidered in general congregations. But
Loyola, full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which
be had derived from his military profeffion, appointed
that the government of his order ffiould be purely mo¬
narchical. A general, chofen for life by deputies from
the. feveral provinces, poffeffed power that was fupreme
and independent, extending to every perfon and to-
every cafe. He, by his foie authority, nominated
provincials, redlors, and every other officer employed
in the government of the fociety, and could remove
them
s ,
power of
the gene¬
ral.
J E S [ i
them at pleafure. In him was vefted the fovereign
J adminiftration of the revenues and funds of the order.
Every member belonging to it was at his difpofal j
and by his uncontrollable mandate he could impofe on
them any talk, or employ them in what fervice foever
he pleafed. To his commands they were required to
yield not only outward obedience, but to refign up to
him the inclinations of their own wills and the fenti-
ments of their own underftandings. They were to
liften to his injunctions as if they had been uttered by
Chrift himfelf. Under his direction they were to be
mere paffive inltruments, like clay in the hands of the
potter, or like dead carcafes incapable of reliltance.
Such a lingular form of policy could not fail to imprefs
its character on all the members of the order, and to
give a peculiar force to all its operations. There is
not in the annals of mankind any example of fuch
a perfeCt defpotifm, exercifed not over monks {hut up
in the cells of a convent, but over men difperfed among
all the nations of the earth.
As the conftitutions of the order veil in the general
fuch abl’olute dominion over all its members, they care¬
fully provide for his being perfectly informed with re-
fpeCt to the character and abilities of his fubjeCts.
Every novice who offers himfelf as a candidate for en¬
tering into the order is obliged to manifelt his con-
fcience to the fuperior, or a perfon appointed by him \
and is required to confefs not only his lins and defeCtsr
but to difcover the inclinations, the paffions, and the
bent of his foul. This manifeltation mult be renewed
every fix months. The fociety, not fatisfied with pe¬
netrating in this manner into the innermoft receffes of
the heart, direCls each member to obferve the words
and aCtions of the novices: they are conftituted fpies
upon their conduCt, and are bound to difclofe every
thing of importance concerning them to the fuperior.
In order that this fcrutiny into their character may be
as complete as poffible, a long noviciate mult expire,
during which they pafs through the feveral gradations
of ranks in the fociety 5 and they mult have attained
the full age of thirty-three years before they can be
admitted to take the final vows, by which they become
profeffed members. By thefe various methods, the fupe-
riors, under whofe immediate infpeCtion the novices are
placed, acquire a thorough knowledge of their difpo-
litions and talents. In order that the general, who is
the foul that animates and moves the whole fociety,
may have under his eye every thing neceffary to inform
or direCl him, the provincials and heads of the feveral
houfes are obliged to tranfmit to him regular and fre¬
quent reports concerning the members under their in-
fpeCUon. In thefe they defcend into minute details
with refpfeft to the character of each perfon, his abi¬
lities natural or acquired, his temper, his experience
in affairs, and the particular department for which he
is belt fitted. Thefe reports, when digefied and ar¬
ranged, are entered into regilters kept of purpofe, that
the general may, at one comprehenfive view, furvey
the Hate of the fociety in every corner of the earth $
obferve the qualifications and talents of its members $
and thus choofe, with perfeCt information, the inftru-
ttients which his abfolute power can employ in any fer¬
vice for which he thinks meet to deftine them.
As it was the profeffed intention of the order of
Jefuits to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting
33 ] J E S
the lalvation of men, this engaged them of ccurfe in Jefuits:
many aCHve funClions. From their firft inftitution, *
they confidered the education of youth as their peculiar procrrefs 0£
province j4 they aimed at being fpiritual guides and the power
confefibrs j they preached frequently in order to in- and influ-
ftruCI the people j they fet out as miffionaries to Cen-ence oftn&
vert unbelieving nations. The novelty of the inftitu-orderi
tion, as well as the Angularity of his objefts,. procured
the order many admirers and patrons. The governors
of the fociety had the addrefs to avail themfelves of
every circumftance in its favour ; and in a Ihort time
the number as well as influence of its members in-
creafed wonderfully. Before the expiration of the
fixteenth century, the Jefuits had obtained the chief
direClion of the education of youth in every catholic
country in Europe. They had become the confeffors
of almolt all its monarchs j a funCtion of no fmall im¬
portance in any reign, but, under a weak prince, fu¬
perior even to that of minifter* They were the fpi¬
ritual guides of almofl: every perfon eminent for rank
or power. They polTeffed the highefl: degree of con¬
fidence and intereft with the papal court, as the molt
zealous and able champions for its authority. The
advantages which an a6tive and enterprifing body of*
men might derive fr»m all thefe circumfiances are ob¬
vious. They formed the minds of men in their youth..
They retained an afcendant over them in their advan¬
ced years. They poffeffed, at different periods, the
d'ireftion of the molt confiderable courts in Europe.
They mingled in all affairs. They took part in every
intrigue and revolution. The general, by means of
the extenfive intelligence which He received, could re¬
gulate the operations of the order with the molt per¬
fect difcernment j and, by means of his abfolute power,
could carry them on with the utmoft vigour and ef-
Together with the power of the order, its wealth Of itf
continued to increafe. Various expedients were devi-weakE-
fed for eluding the obligation of the vow of poverty.
The order acquired ample poffeffions in every catholic
country j and by the number as well as magnificence
of its public buildings, together wfith the value of its
property, moveable or real, it vied with the moll opu¬
lent of the monaftic fraternities. Befides the fources
of wealth common to all the regular clergy, the Je¬
fuits poffelfed one which was peculiar to themfelves.
Under pretext of promoting the fuccefs of their mif-
lions, and of facilitating the fupport of their miffiona¬
ries, they obtained a fpecial licence from the court of
Rome to trade with tllie nations which they laboured
to convert. In confequence of this, they engaged in
an extenfive and lucrative commerce both in the Eall
and Welt Indies. They opened warehoufes in differ¬
ent parts of Europe, in which they vended their com¬
modities. Not fatisfied with trade alone, they imi¬
tated the example of other commercial focieties, and
aimed at obtaining fettlements. They acquired poffef-
fion accordingly of a large and fertile province in the
fouthern continent of America, and reigned asfovereigns
over fome hundred thoufand fubje£ts. s
Unhappily for mankind, the valt influence which Pernicious-
the order of Jefuits acquired by all thefe differentof
means, has been often exerted with the molt pernicious*!?^ cn cl~
effefh Such was the tendency of that difcipline ob- vl1 fociety*
fervedffiy the fociety in forming, its members, and fuch
the
J E S [ 134 ] J E S
Remits, the fundamental maxims in its conftitution, that every
Jefuit was taught to regard the intereft of the order
as the capital objeft to which every confideration was
to be'facrifieed. This fpirit of attachment to their or¬
der, the molt ardent perhaps that ever influenced any
body of men, is the charafteriltic principle of the Je-
fuits, and ferves as a key to the genius of their policy
as well as the peculiarities in their fentiments and con-
du£t.
As it was for the honour and advantage of the fo-
ciety that its members Ihould poffefs an afcendant over
perfons in high rank or of great power j the defire of
acquiring and preferving fuch a direbtion of their con¬
duct with greater facility has led the Jefuits to pro¬
pagate a fyftera of relaxed and pliant morality, which
accommodates itfelf to the paffions of men, which
juftifies their vices, which tolerates their imperfec¬
tions, which authorifes almoft every aftion that the
moft audacious or crafty politician would wilh to per¬
petrate.
As the profperity of the order was intimately con-
ne£ted with the prefervation of the papal authority,
the Jefuits, influenced by the fame principle of at¬
tachment to the interells of their fociety, have been
the moft zealous patrons of thofe doftrines which
tend to exalt eccleliaftical power on the ruins of civil
government. They have attributed to the court of
Rome a jurifdiftion as extenfive and abfolute as was
claimed by the moft prefumptuous pontiffs in the dark
ages. I hey have contended for the entire indepen¬
dence of ecclefiaftics on the civil magiftrates. They
have publiflied fuch tenets concerning the duty of op-
pofing princes who were enemies of the Catholic faith,
as countenanced the moft atrocious crimes, and tended
to diflblve all the ties which connect fubjefts with their
rulers.
As the order derived both reputation and authority
from the zeal with which it flood forth in defence of
the Romith church againft the attacks of the reform¬
ers, its members, proud of this diftin&ion, have con-
lidered it as their peculiar function to combat the,
opinions and to check the progrefs of the Proteftants.
They have made ufe of every art, and have employed
every weapon againft them. They have fet them-
felves in oppofition to every gentle or tolerating mea-
fure'in their favour. They have incefiantly ftirred up
againft them all the rage of ecclefiaftical and civil per-
fecution.
Monks of other denominations have indeed ventu¬
red to teach the fame pernicious doftrines, and have
held opinions equally inconfiftent with the order and
happinefs of civil fociety. But they, from reafons
which are obvious, have either delivered fuch opinions
with greater referve, or have propagated them with
lefs fuccefs. Whoever recollebls the events which have
happened in Europe during two centuries, will find
that the Jefuits may juftly be confidered as refponfible
for moft of the pernicious effecls arifing from that
corrupt and dangerous cafuiftry, from thofe extrava¬
gant tenets concerning ecclefiaftical power, and from
that intolerant fpirit, which have been the difgrace of
the church of Rome throughout that period, and
which have brought fo many calamities upon civil fo¬
ciety.
But, amidft many bad confequences flowing from
3
the inftitution of this order, mankind, it muft be ac- Jefm'ts.
knowledged, have derived from it fome confiderable —v~—
advantages. As the Jel'uits made the education ofSom9d
youth one of their capital ohje&s, and as their firft varnL^s"
attempts to eftablilh colleges for the reception of flu-refulting
dents were violently oppofed by the univerfitifes in dif-fl'otn the
ferent countries, it became neceffary for them, as the inft‘tution
moft effeftual method of acquiring the public favour, ^ IS or*
to furpafs their rivals in icience and induftry. rJ his
prompted them to cultivate the ftudy of ancient lite¬
rature with extraordinary ardour. This put them up¬
on various methods for facilitating the inftruftion of
youth j and by the improvements w hich they made
in it, they have contributed fo much tow ards the‘pro¬
grefs of polite learning, that on this account they have
merited well of ibciety. Nor has the order of Jeiuits
been fuccefsful only in teaching the elements of lite¬
rature ; it has produced likew ife eminent mailers in
many branches of feienee, and can alone boait of a
greater number of ingenious authors than all the other
religious fraternities taken together.
But it is in the new world that the Jefuits have ex¬
hibited the moft wonderful difplay of their abilities,
and have contributed moll effeftually to the benefit of
the human fpecies. The conquerors of that unfortu¬
nate quarter of the globe had nothing in view but to
plunder, to enfiave, and to exterminate its inhabitants.
The Jeiuits alone have made humanity the objc£t of 10
their fettling there. About the beginning of the 1 yth Settlement
century, they obtained admiflion into the fertile pro-111 para“
vince of Paraguay, which ftretches acrofs the louth-fiUay*
ern continent of America, from the bottom of the
mountains of Potofi to the confines of the Spanilh
and Portuguefe fettlements on the banks of the river
I)e la Plata. They found the inhabitants in a ftate
little different from that which takes place among men
when they firft begin to unite together ; ftrangers to
the arts, lubfifting precarioufly by hunting or fiftiing,
and hardly acquainted with the firft principles of fub-
ordination and government. 1 he jefuits let them-
felves to inftruft and to civilize thefe favages. They
taught them to cultivate the ground, to rear tame ani¬
mals, and to build houfes. They brought them to
live together in villages. They trained them to arts
and manufactures. They made them tafte the fweets
of fociety, and accuftomed them to the bleflings of fe-
curity and order. Thele people became the fnbjedts
of their benefactors, who have governed them w ith a
tender attention, refembling that with which a father
direfts his children. Refpefled and beloved almort to
adoration, a few Jefuits prefided over fome hundred
thoufand Indians. They maintained a perfeft equa¬
lity among all the members of the community. Each
of them was obliged to labour, not for himfelf alone,
but for the public. The produce of their fields, to¬
gether with the fruits of their induftry of every fpe¬
cies, were depofited in common ftoiehoufes, from which
each individual received every thing neceflary for the
fupply of his wants. By this inftitution, almoft all
the paflions which difturb the peace of fociety, and
render the members of it unhappy, were extinguilhed.
A few magiftrates, chofen by the Indians themfelves,
watched over the public tranquillity, and fecured obe¬
dience to the law's. The fanguinary punifhments fre¬
quent under other governments were unknown. An
admonition
J E S
r 135 3
J E S
jefuits. admonition from a Jefuit, a flight mark of infamy, or
u—»v——' on {bme Angular occaidon, a few ladies with a whip,
were fuffieient to maintain good order among thefe in¬
nocent and happy people.
But even in this meritorious effort of the Jefuits
for the good of mankind, the genius and fpirit of
their order have mingled and are difcernible. They
plainly aimed at eflablifliing in Paraguay an indepen¬
dent empire, fubjeiff to the fociety alone, and which,
by the fuperior excellence of its conflitution and po¬
lice, could fcarcely have failed to extend its dominion
over all the fouthern continent of America. With
this view, in order io prevent the Spaniards or Portu-
guefe in the adjacent lettlements from acquiring any
dangerous influence over the people within the limits
of the province fubje£t to the lociety, the Jefuits en¬
deavoured to infpire the Indians with hatred and con¬
tempt of thefe nations. They cut off all intercourfe
between their fubje&s and the Spanith or Portuguefe
fettlements. They prohibited any private trader of
either nation from entering their territories. When
they were obliged to admit any perfon in a public cha-
rafter from the neighbouring governments, they did
not permit him to have any converfation with their
fubje&s j and no Indian was allowed even to enter the
houfe where thefe ftrangers reflded unlefs in the pre¬
fence of a Jefuit. In order to render any communi¬
cation between them as difficult as poffible, they in-
duftrioufly avoided giving the Indians any knowledge
of the Spanifli or of any other European language ;
but encouraged the different tribes which they had
civilized to acquire a certaitv dialect of the Indian
tongue, and laboured to make that the univerfal lan¬
guage throughout their dominions. As all thefe pre¬
cautions, without military force, would have been in-
fufffcient to have rendered their empire fecure and per¬
manent, they inftru&ed their fubjefts in the European
arts of war. They formed them into bodies of cavalry
and infantry, completely armed and regularly difcipli-
ned. They provided a great train of artillery, as well
as magazines ftored with all the implements of war.
Thus they eftabliflied an army fo numerous and wrell-
appointed, as to be formidable in a country where a
few fickly and ill-difciplined battalions compofed all
the military force kept on foot by the Spaniards or
Portuguefe.
Downfal were t^e ^aws» t^ie P0^ey> and the genius of
of the Older this formidable order; of which, however, a perfefr
in Europe, knowledge has only been attainable of late. Europe
had obferved, for two centuries, the ambition and
power of the order. But while it felt many fatal ef¬
fects of thefe, it could not fully difcern the caufes to
which they were to be imputed. It was unacquainted
with many of the Angular regulations in the political
conftitution or government of the Jefuits, which form¬
ed the enterpriAng fpirit of intrigue that diftinguifli-
ed its members, and elevated the body itfelf to fuch a
height of power.. It was a fundamental maxim with
the Jefuits, from their Arft inftitution, not to publifti
the rules of their order. Thefe they kept concealed
as an impenetrable myftery. They never communi¬
cated them to ftrangers, nor even to the greater part
of their own members. They refufed to produce them
when required by courts of juftice ; and, by a ftrange
ftfleciiin in policy, the civil power in different countries
authorized or connived at the eftabliflimenl of an order
of men, whofe conftitution and laws were concealed
with a folicitude which alone was a good reafon for _
having excluded them. During the profecutions late¬
ly carried on again!! them in Portugal and France,
the Jefuits have been fo inconAderate as to produce
the myfterious volumes of their inftitute. By the aid
of thefe authentic records, the principles of their go¬
vernment may be delineated, arid the fources of their
power inveftigated, with a degree of certainty and
precifion, which, previous to that event, it was impof-
Able to attain.
The pernicious effedts, however, of the fpirit and
conflitution of this order, rendered it early obnoxious
to fome of the principal powers in Europe, and gra¬
dually brought on its downfal. The emperor Charles V.
favv it expedient to check its progrefs in his domi¬
nions ; it was expelled England, by proclamation of
James I. in 1604; Venice, in 1606 j Portugal, in
1 7 ;9 ; France, in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767 ;
and totally fuppreffed and aboliflied by Pope Clement
XIV. in '1773.
JESUITS bark. See Cinchona, Botany Index;
and for its hiftory and properties, fee Cinchona and
Materia Medic a Index.
JESUS, the Son of SlRJCII, a native of Jerufalem,
compofed about 200 B. C. the Book of Eccleflafticus,
called by the Greeks “ replenilhed with vir¬
tue;” who alfo quote it under the title of the Wifdom
of Jefus the fan of Sirach. His grandfon, who was
alfo of the fame name, and a native of Jerufalem,
tranflated it from the Hebrew into Greek about 121
B. C. We have this Greek verAon, but the Hebrew
text is loft.
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and Saviour of
mankind, defcended from heaven, and took upon him
the human nature in Judaea, towards the concluAon of
the reign of Herod the Great, king of that country.
The place of his birth was Bethlehem, a flourifliing
city of Judah; but the year in which he was b(,rn is
not precifely afcertained. The moft general opinion is
that it happened about the year of Rome 748 or 749,
and about 18 months before the death of Herod. Four
infpired writers have tranfmitted to us an account of
the life of Jefus Chrift. They mention particularly
his birth, lineage, family, and parents ; but fay very
little concerning his infancy and earlier youth. Herod
being informed that the Meffiah, or king of the Jews,
fo much fpoken of by the prophets, was now born,
being afraid that his kingdom ftiould now be taken
away, contrived how to deftroy his fuppofed rival :
but Chrift, being carried, while very young, into
Egypt, efcaped the cruelty of the tyrant; who, being
determined to make fure work, made a general maf-
facre of the infants about Bethlehem, from the age of
two years and under.
After the death of Herod, our Saviour was brought
back to Judea ; but we are totally ignorant of what
his employment was during the interval between his
return thither and the time of his entering upon the
miniftry. We know only, that when he w^as but 12
years of age, he difputed in the temple with the moft
learned of the Jewifti doftors ; whom he furprifed with
his knowledge, and the anfwers he gave to their
queftions. After this, as the feripture tells us, he
continued*
Jefuits
11 .
Jefus Chrift.
\
J E S f i
Jefus Chrifhcontinued with his parents, and was fubject to theni,
till he entered upon his miniftryv It is faid, indeed,
though upon no hire foundation, that during this pe¬
riod he followed the trade of his father, who ivas a
carpenter. In the 30th year of his age, he began his
public miniftry ; to which the attention of the people
was drawn by the preaching of John, a prophet mira-
culoully infpired of God to proclaim the exiftence et
the Saviour, as now defeended upon earth, and vifible
to the eyes of all j and by this prophet Chrill hirafelf
was baptifed in the waters of Jordan, that he might
not, in any point, «egle£t to anfwer the demands of
the Jewilh law.
It is not neceffary here to enter into a particular
detail of the life and actions of Jefus Chrift. Every
/ one knows, that his life was one continued fcene of
the moft perfect fanftity, and the purell and moft ac¬
tive virtue ; not only without fpot, but alfo beyond
the reach of fufpicion. And it is alfo well known,
that by miracles of the moft ftupendous kind, and not
more ftupendous than falutary and beneficent, he dif-
played to the univerfe the truth of that religion which
he brought with him from above, and demonftrated
the reality of his divine commiffion in the moft illuf-
trious manner. For the propagation of his religion
through the country of Judaea, our Saviour chofe 12
apoftles ; whom, however, he fent out only once, and
after their return kept them conftantly about his per¬
son. But, befides thefe, he chofe other 70, whom he
difperfed throughout the country.
There have been many conjeftures concerning the
reafon why the number of apoftles was fixed at 12,
and that of the other teachers at 70. The firft, how¬
ever, was, according to our Saviour’s own wrords (Matt,
xix. 28.), an allufion to the 12 tribes of Ifrael, there¬
by intimating that he was the king of thefe 12 tribes j
and as the number of his other meflengers anfwers
evidently to that of the fenators who compofed the
Sanhedrim, there is a high degree of probability in
the conjectures of thofe who think that Chrift by this
1 number defigned to admonifh the Jews, that the au¬
thority of their Sanhedrim was now at an end, and
that all power with refpeft to religious matters was
veiled in him alone. His miniftry, however, was con¬
fined to the Jews j nor, while he remained upon earth,
did he pi rmit his apoftles or difciples to extend their
labours beyond this favoured nation. At the fame
time, if we confider the illuftrious adds of mercy and
benevolence that were performed by Chrift, it will be
natural to conclude, that his fame muft foon have
fpread abroad in other countries. Indeed this feems
, probable from a pafiage in fcriptufe, where we are
told that fome Greeks applied to the apoftle Philip in
order to fee Jefus. We learn alfo from authors of no
See Ai- fmall note, that Abgarus * king of Edefia, being feized
gurus. wit}j a fevere and dangerous illnefs, wrote to our Lord,
imploring his adiftance •, and that Jefus not only fent
him a gracious anfwer, but alfo accompanied it with
his piCiure, as a mark of his efteem for that pious
prir e< Thefe letters are ftill extant •, but by the ju¬
dicious part of mankind are univerfally looked upon
as fpurious ; and indeed the late Mr Jones, i . his
treatife ntitled A neend full method cf fettling the
canonkal out horny of the New Tefament ^ hath offered
36 1 JET
reafons which feem almoft unanfwerable againft the
authenticity of the whole tranfaCliom
The preaching of our Saviour, and the numberlefs
miracles he performed, made fuch an irapreflion on
the body of the Jewilh nation, that the chief priefts
and leading men, jealous of his authority, and pro¬
voked with his reproaching them with their wicked
lives, formed a confpiracy againft him. For a confi-
derable time their defigns proved abortive ; but at laft
Jefus, knowing that he had fulfilled every purpofe for
which he came into the world, fuffered. himfelf to be
taken through the treachery of one of his difciples,
named Judas Ifcariot, and was brought before the San¬
hedrim. In this affembly he was aceufed of blafphemy $
and being afterwards brought before Pilate the Ro¬
man governor, where he was accufed of fedition, Pi¬
late was no fooner fet down to judge in this caufe,
than he received a meffage from his wife, defiring him
to have nothing to do with the affair, having that very
day had a frightful dream on account of our Saviour,
whom {he called that jujl man. The governor, inti*,
midated by this meffage, and ftill more by the majefty
of our Saviour himfelf, and the evident falfehood of
the accufations brought againft him, was determined
if poflible to fave him. But the clamours of an en¬
raged populace, who at laft threatened to accufe Pi¬
late himfelf as a traitor to the Roman emperor, got
the better of his love of juftice, which indeed on other
occafions was not very fervent.
Our Saviour was now condemned by his judge,
though contrary to the plaineft diftates of reafon and
juftice *, was executed on a crofs between two thieves,
and very foon expired. Having continued three days
in a ftate of death, he rofe from the dead, and made
himfelf vifible to his difciples as formerly. He con-
verfed with them 40 days after his refurreftion, and
employed himfelf during that time in inftrufling them
more fully concerning the.nature of his kingdom 5
and having manifefted the certainty of his refurrec-
tion to as many witneffes as he thought proper, he was,
in the prefence of many of his difciples, taken up into
heaven, there to remain till the end of the world. See
Christianity.
JET, a black inflammable fubftance of the bitumi¬
nous kind, harder than afphaltum, and fufceptible of a
good polifti. It becomes eleftrical by rubbing, attraft-
ing light bodies like yellow amber. It fwims on water,
fo that its fpecific gravity muft be lefs than 1000 j
notwithftanding which it ha* been frequently con¬
founded with the lapis ohf dianus^ the fpecific gravity
of which, according to Kirwan, is no lefs than 1744.
It alfo refembles cannel-coal extremely in its hardnefs,
receiving a polifti, not foiling the fingers, &c. fo that
it has alfo been confounded with this. The diftindlion,
however, is eafily made betwixt the two ; for cannel-
coal wants the eleftrical properties of jet, and is like-
wife fo heavy as to fink in water $ its fpecific gravity
being no iefs than 1273 i whereas that of jet, as has
already been faid, is lefs than 1000.
M. Magellan is of opinion that jet is a true amber,
differing from ihe yellow kind only in the mere eir-
cumftance of rolour, and being lighter on account
of the great quantity of bituminous matter which
enters into its competition. When burning it emits
a
Jefus Clirift,
Jet.
JEW [ i
Jet a bituminous fmell. It is never found in ftrata or con-
J j tinned maffes like foflil Hones ; but always in feparate
>L, . and unconnected heaps like the true amber. Great
quantities of it have been dug up in +he Pyrenaean
mountains ; alfo near Bata/ia, a {mail town of Portu¬
gal ; and in Gallicia in Spain. It is found alfo in Ire¬
land, Sweden, Pruffia, Germany, and Italy. It is ufed
in making fmall boxes, buttons, bracelets, mourning
jewels, &c. Sometimes alfo it is employed in conjunc¬
tion with proper oils in making varnifhes. When mix¬
ed with lime in powder, it is faid to make very hard
and durable cement.
JET rJ'Ean, a French term, frequently alfo ufed with
us, for a fountain that calls up water to a conliderable
height in the air.
JETTE, the border made round the Hilts under a
pier, in certain old bridges, being the fame with flar-
ling.j eonfifling of a firong framing of timber filled
with Hones, chalk, &c. to preferve the foundations of
the piers from injury.
JETTY-HEAD, a name ufually given in the royal
dock-yards to that part of a wharf which projects be¬
yond the refl ; but more particularly the front of a
w harf, whofe Hde forms one of the cheeks of a dry or
wet dock.
JEWEL, any precious Hone, or ornament befet with
tWu. See Diamond, Ruby, &c.
Jewels made a part of the ornaments with which
the Jews, Greeks, aud Romans, efpecially their ladies
of diHindtion, adorned themfelves. So prodigious was
the extravagance of the Roman ladies, in particular,
that Pliny the elder fays he faw Lollio Paulina with an
equipage of this kind amounting, according to Dr
Arbuthnot’s calculation, to 322,916!. 13s. 4d. of our
money. It is worthy of obfervation, that precious
Hones among the Romans and all the ancients were
much fcarcer, and confequently in higher efleem, than
they are amongH us, finee a commerce has been opened
with the Indies.—The ancients did not know how to
cut and polifh them to much perfedtion ; but coloured
Hones were not fcarce, and they cut them very well
cither hollow or in relief.—When luxury had gained
ground amongH them, the Romans hung pendants and
pearls in their ears; and for this purpofe the ears of
both fexes were frequently bored. See Ears.
Jewel, Jo/tn, a learned Englifli writer and bifhop,
was born in 1522, and educated at Oxford. In 1340
lie proceeded A. B. became a noted tutor, and was
loon after chofen rhetoric lediurer in his college. In
February 1544, he commenced A. M. He had early
imbibed ProteHant principles, and inculcated the fame
to his pupils j but this was carried on privately till
the accefiion of King Edward VI. in 1546, when he
made a public declaration of his faith, and entered
into a clofe friendlhip with Peter Martyr, who was
made profelfor of divinity at Oxford. In 1550, he
took the degree of B. D. and frequently preached be¬
fore the univerfity with great applaufe. At the fame
time he preached and catechifed every other Sunday
at Sunningwell in Berklhire, of which church he was
redlor. Upon the acceflion of Oueen Mary to the
crown in 1533, he was one of the firH who felt the
yage of the florm then raifed againH the reformation *,
for before any law was made, or order given by the
queen, he was expelled Corpus Chrifti college by the
¥ql. XI. Part I.
37 ] J E W
fellows, by their own private authority ; but he con- Jewel,
tinued in Oxford till he was called upcn to fubfcrlbe
to fome of the Popilli doctrines, under the ievereft
penalties, which he iubniitted to. However, this did
not procure his fafety ; for he was obliged to fly, and
after encountering many difficulties, arrived at Frank¬
fort, in the 2d year of Queen Mary’s reign, where he
made a public recantation of his fubfcription to the
Popiffi doftrines. Thence he went to Strafburgh, and
afterwards to Zurich, where he attended Peter Mar¬
tyr, in whofe houfe he refided. He returned to Eng¬
land in 1338, after Queen Mary’s death j and in 13 59,
was confecrated bithop of Salifbury. This promotion
was given him as a reward for his great merit and
learning •, and another atteflation of thefe was given
him by the univerfity of Oxford, who, in 1363, con¬
ferred on him in his abfence the degree of D. D. In
this chara&er he attended the queen to Oxford the
following year, and prefided at the divinity deputa¬
tions held before her majefly on that occafion. Fie
had before greatly difiinguiffied himfelf by a fermon
preached at St Paul’s crofs, prefently after he was
made a biffiop, wherein he gave a public challenge to
all the Roman Catholics in the world, to produce but
one clear and evident teltimony out of any father or
famous writer, who flouriffied within 600 years after
Chrifl, for any one of the articles which the Roma-
nifis maintain againH the church of England 5 and
two years afterwards, he publiflied his famous apology
for this church. In the mean time, he gave a parti¬
cular attention to his diocefe j where he began in his
firH vifitation, and perfected in his lad, fuch a refor¬
mation, not only in his cathedral and parochial
churches, but in all the churches of his jurifdisSlion, as
procured him and the whole order of biffiops due re¬
verence and efleem. For he was a careful overlooker
and drift obferver, not only of all the flocks, but alfo
of the paflors, in his diocefe : and he watched fo nar¬
rowly upon the proceedings of his chancellor and arch¬
deacons, and of his ftewards and receivers, that they
had no opportunities of being guilty of opprefiion, in-
juflice, or extortion, nor of being a burden to the peo¬
ple, or a fcandal to himfelf. To prevent thefe and the
like abufes, for which the ecclefiaflical courts are often
too juflly cenfured, he fat often in his confiflory-court,
and faw that all things were carried rightly there :
he alfo fat often as affiflant on the bench of civil juf-
tice, being himfelf a juflice of the peace. Amidfl thefe
employments, however, the care of his health was too
much negle£led ; to which, indeed, his general courfe
of life was totally unfavourable. He rofe- at four
o’clock in the morning ; and, after prayers with his
family at five, and in the cathedral about fix, he was
fo fixed to his Hudies all the morning, that he could
not without great violence be drawn from them : After
dinner, his doors and ears were open to all fuitors $
and it was obferved of him, as of Titus, that he never
fent any fad from him. Suitors being thus difmiffed,
he heard, with great impartiality and patience, fuch
caufes debated before him, as either devolved to him
as a judge, or were referred to him as an arbitrator 5
and if he could fpare any time from thefe, he reckoned
it as clear gain to his Hudy. About nine at night he
called all his fervants to an account how they had (pent
the day, and he went to prayers with them. From
S the
-m)
JEW [ i33 J J E W
Jewel, the chapel he withdrew again to his ftudy till near chronological lift of their judges and kings down to the < Jews.
Jews. midnight, and from thence to his bed j in which* captivity. . . ... 'r"
jie was t]le gentleman of his bed-chamber The Ifraelites had no king of their nation till Saul,
read to him till he fell afleep. This watchful and la- Before him, they were governed, at firft by elders, as
borious life, without any recreation at all, except what in Egypt 5 then by princes of God’s appointment^ as
his neceflary refrefhment at meals and a very few hours Mofes and Jctfhua ; then by judges, fuch as Othniel,
of reft afforded him, wafted his life too fail. He died Ehud, Shamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, Samfon, Eli, Sa-
at Monkton-Farley, in 1571, in the 50th year of his muel * and laft of all by kings, as Saul, David, Solo-
age. He wrote, 1. A view of a feditious bull fent in- mon, Rehoboam, &c.
to England by Pope Pius V in 1569^ 2. A treatife A ^ 0j the Judges 0j yrael {n a chronological Order,
on the Holy Scriptures. 3. An expofitum of St Paul s "glunihei's prefixed denote the Tears of the World.
two epiftles to the Theffalonians. 4. A treatne on
the facrament. 5. An apology for the national church. 2570. The death of Joftma.
6. Several fermons, controverfial treatifes, and other 2385. The government of the elders for about 15
works. years.
“ This excellent prelate (fays the Rev. Mr Granger) 2592. An anarchy of about 7 years. The hiftory of
was one of the greateft champions of the reformed re- Micah, the conqueft of the city of Lailh by part
ligion, as he was to the church of England what Bel- of the tribe of Dan, and the war undertaken by
larmine was to that of Rome. His admirable Apology the 11 tribes againft Benjamin, are all referred
was tranftatcd from the Latin by Anne, the fecond of to this time.
the four learned daughters of Sir Anthony Coke, and 2591. The firft fervitude under Cuftian-rifhathaim king
mother of Sir Francis Bacon. It was publiftied, as it of Mefopotamia began in 2591, and lafted eight
came from her pen, in 1564, with the approbation of years to 2599.
the queen and the prelates. The fame Apology was 2599. Othniel delivered Ifrael in the 40th year after
printed in Greek at Conftantinople, under the direc- peace eftablilhed in the land by Jolhua.
tion of St Cyril the patriarch. His Defence of his 2662. A peace of about 62 years, from the deliverance
Apology, againft Harding and other Popilh divines, procured by Othniel, in 2599, to 2662, when the
was in fuch efteem, that Queen Elizabeth, King fecond fervitude under Eglon king of the Moa-
James I. King Charles I. and four fucceffive arch- bites happened. It lafted 18 years,
bilhops, ordered it to be kept chained in all parilh- 2679. Ehud delivers Ifrael.
churches for public ufe. After him Shamgar governed, and the land was
Jewel Blocks, in the fea language, a name given in peace till the 80th year after the firft deliver-
to two fmall blocks which are fufpended at the extre- ance procured by Othniel.
jnity of the main and fore top-fail yards, by means of 2699. The third fervitude under the Canaanxtes, which
an eye-bolt driven from without into the middle of the lafted 20 years, from 2699 to 27•I9•
yard-arm, parallel to its axis. The ufe of thefe blocks 2719. Deborah and Barak deliver the Ifraelites : from
is, to retain the upper part of the top-maft ftudding- the deliverance procured by Ehud to the end
fails beyond the fkirts of the top-fails, fo that each of Deborah and Barak’s government, were 40
of thofe fails may have its full force of adlion, which years.
would be diminifhed by the encroachment of the other 2768. Abimekch the natural fon of Gideon is acknow-
over its furface. The haliards, by which thofe ftud- ledged king by the Shechemites.
ding-fails are hoifted, are accordingly paffed through 2771. He died at the fiege of Thebez in Paleftine.
the jewel-blocks * whence, communicating with a block 2772. Tola after Abimelech governs for 23 years, from
on the top-maft head, thpy lead downwards to the top 2772 to 2795.^
or decks, where they may be conveniently hoifted. 2795. Jair fucceeds T ola, and governs 2 2 years, from
See Sail. 2795 t0 2816-
JEWS, a name derived from the patriarch Judah, 2799. The fifth fervitude under the Phihftmes, which
and given to the defendants of Abraham by his eldefl: lafted 18 years, from 2799 to 2817.
fon Ifaac, who for a long time poffeffed the land of Pa- 2817. I he death of Jair.
leftine in Afia, and are no\V difperfed through all na- 2817. Jephthah is chofen head of the Ifraelites beyond
tions in the world. Jordan j he defeated the Ammonites, who op-
The hiftory of this people, as it is the moft Angular, preffed them. Jephthah governed fix years, from
fo is it alfo the moft ancient in the world j and the 2817 to 2823.
greateft part being before the beginning of profane 2823. The death of Jephthah.
hiftory, depends entirely on the authenticity, of the 2830. Ibzan governs feven years, from 2823 to 2830.
Old Teftament, where it is only to be found.—To 2840. Elon fucceeds Ibzan. He governs from 2830 to
repeat here what is faid in the ftcred writings would 2840.
both be fuperfluous and tedious, as thofe writings are Abdon judges Ifrael eight years, from 2840 to
in every perfon’s hands, and may be confulted at plea- 2848.
fure. It feems moft proper therefore to commence the 2848. The fixth fervitude, under the Philiftines, which
hiftory of the Jews from their return to Jerufalem from lafted 40 years, from 2848 to 2888.
Babylon, and the rebuilding of their city and temple 2848. Eli the high-prieft, of the race of Ithamar, go-
under Ezra and Nehemiah, when the fcripture leaves off verned 40 years, the whole time of the fervitude
any farther accounts, and profane hiftorians begin to under the Philiftines.
take notice of them. We ihall, however, premife a 2849. The birth of Samfon.,
* 2887,
J E W [ 139 ] J ' E W
2887. The death of Samfon, who was judge of Ifrael
during the judicature of Eli the high-prieft.
2888. The death of Eli, and the beginning of Samuel’s
government, who fucceeded him.
2909. The election and anointing of Saul, firlt king of
the Hebrews.
>
A Chronological Lift of the Kings of the Hebrews.
Saul, the firft king of the Ifraelites, reigned 40
years, from the year of the world 2909 to 2949.
Ehboflieth the fon of Saul fueceeded him, and reigned
fix or feven years over part of Ifrael, from 2949 to 2956.
David was anointed king by Samuel in the year of
the world 2934 5 but did not enjoy the regal power till
the death of Saul in 2949, and was not acknowledged
king of all Ifrael till after the death of Ilhbolheth in
2956. He died in 2990 at the age of 70.
Solomon his fon fucceeded him ; he received the
royal unftion in the year 2989. He reigned alone af¬
ter the death of David in 2990. He died in 3029, af¬
ter a reign of 40 years.
After his death the kingdom was divided 5 and the
ten tribes having chofen Jeroboam for their king, Re-
hoboam, the fon of Solomon, reigned only over the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
The Kings of Judah.
Rehoboam, the fon and fuccefforof Solomon, reigned
17 years j from the year 3029 to 3046.
Abijam, three years, from 3046 to 3049.
Afa, 41 years, from 3049 to 3090.
Jehofhaphat, 25 years, from 3090 to 3115.
Jehoram, four years, from 3115 to 3119.
Ahaziah, one year, from 3119 to 3120.
Athaliah, his mother, reigned fix years, from 3120
to 3126.
Joafh was fet upon the throne by Jehoiada the high-
priell, in 3x26. He reigned 40 years, to the year 3165.
Amaziah, 29 years, from 3165 to 3194.
Uzziah, otherwife called Azariah, reigned 27 years,
to the year 3221. Then attempting to offer ineenfe
in the temple, he was ftruck with a leprofy, and obliged
to quit the government. He lived after this 26 years,
and died in 3246.
Jotham his fon took upon him the government in the
year of the world 3221. He reigned alone in 3246,
and died in 3262.
Ahaz fucceeded Jotham in the year of the world
3262. He reigned 16 years, to 3278.
Hezekiah, 28 years, from 3278 to 3306.
Manaffeh, 55 years, from the year of the world
3306 to 3361.
Amon 2. years, from 3361 to 3363.
Jofiah, 31 years, from 3363 to 3394.
Jehoahaz, three months.
Eliakim, or Jehoiakim, 11 years, from the year 3394
to 3405.
Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, reigned three months and
ten days, in the year 3405.
Mattaniah, or Zedekiah, reigned 11 years, from
3405 to 34x6. In the laft year of his reign Jerufa-
lem was taken, the temple burnt, and Judah carried
into captivity beyond the Euphrates.
Kings of Ifrael.
Jeroboam reigned 22 years, from 3029 to 3051.
Nadab, one year. He died in 3051.
Baafha, 22 years, from 3052 to 3074. Jew£,
Elah, two years. He died in 3075. ^
Zimri, feven days.
Omri, 11 years, from 3075 to 3086. He had a
competitor Tibni, who fucceeded, and died in what
year we know not.
Ahab, 21 years, from 3086 to 3107,
Ahaziah, two years, from 3106 to 3108.
Jehorara, the fon of Ahab, fucceeded him in 3IQ8,
He reigned 12 years, and died in 3120.
Jehu ufurped the kingdom in 3x20, reigned 28
years, and died in 3148.
Jehoahaz reigned 17 years, from 3148 to 3165.
Joafh reigned 14 years, from 3165 to 3179.
Jeroboam II. reigned 41 years, from 3179 to 3220.
Zachariah, 12 years, from 3220 to 3232.
Shallum reigned a month. He was killed in 3233.
Menahem, 10 years, from 3233 to 3243.
Pekahiah, two years, from 3243 to 3245.
Pekah 20 years, from 3245 to 3265.
Plofhea, 18 years, from 3265 to 3283. Here the
kingdom of Ifrael had an end after a duration of 253
years. %
Cyrus the Great, king of Perfia, having conquered Cyrus pub-
Babylon and almoft all the weftern parts of Afia, per-^es^^e'
ceiving the defolate and ruinous condition in which
the province of Paleftine lay, formed a defign of re- Jerufalem,
ftoring the Jews to their native country, and permit-
ing them to rebuild Jerufalem and re-eftablifh their
W'orfhip. For this purpofe he iffued out a decree in the
firit year of his reign, about 536 B. C. by which they
w'ere allowed not only to return and rebuild their city,
but to carry along with them all the facred veffels
which Nebuchadnezzar had carried off, and engaged
to defray the expence of building the temple himfelf.
This offer was gladly ombraced by the more zealous
Jews of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi j but
many more, being no doubt lefs fanguine about their
religion, chofe to flay where they were.
In 534. B. C. the foundations of the temple were
laid, and matters feemed to go on profperoufly, when
the undertaking was fuddenly obftrufted by the Sa¬
maritans. Thefe came at firft, expreffing an earneft
defire to afiift in the work, as they worlhipped the
fame God with the Jews : bdt the latter refufed thek*
* affiftance, as they knew they were not true Ifraelites,
but the defcendants of thofe heathens who had been
tranfplanted into the country of the ten tribes after
their captivity by Shalmanezer. This refufal proved
the fource of all that bitter enmity which afterwards
took place between the Jews and Samaritans j and
the immediate confequence was, that the latter made
all the oppofition in their power to the going on of 2
the work. At lall, however, all obftacles were fur- The temple
mounted, and the temple finiihed as related in the finiflH
books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The laft of thefe chiefs61*'
died about 409 B. C. after having reftored the Jewifh
worfhip to its original purity, and reformed a number
of abufes which took place immediately on its com¬
mencement.
But though the Jews were now reftored to the free
exercife of religion, they were neither a free nor a
powerful people as they had formerly been. They
were few in number, and their country only a pro¬
vince of Syria, fubjeft to the kings of Perfia. The
S 2 Syrian
t
J E W
[ 140 ]
W
Jews.
3 .
Admini-
flration of
affairs con-
fern d on
the high-
priefts.
4.
Interview
of thehigh
pric-it with
Alexander
the Great.
Syrian governors conferred the adminiitration of af¬
fairs upon the high-priefts 5 and their accepting this
office, and thus deviating from the law of Mofes, muft
be confidered as one of the chief caufes of the mif-
fortunes which immediately befel the people, becaufe
it made room for a fet of men, who afpired at this
high office merely through ambition or avarice, with¬
out either zeal for religion or love for their country.
It belides made the high-priefthood capable of being
difpofed of at the pleafure of the governors, whereas
the Mofaic inftitution had fixed it unalienably in the
family of Aaron.—Of the bad effedts of this pra&ice
a fatal inftanee happened in 373 B. C. Bagofes, go¬
vernor of Syria, having contrafted an intimate friend-
{hip with jeffiua the brother of Johanan the high-
prieft, premifed to raife him to the pontifical office
a few years after his brother had been invefted with
it. Jelhua came immediately to Jerufalem, and ac¬
quainted his brother with it. Their interview hap¬
pened in the inner court of the temple ; and a feuffle
enfuing, Jefhua was killed by his brother, and the
temple thus polluted in the moft fcandalous manner.
The confeque'nce to the Jews \vac, that a heavy fine
was laid on the temple, which was not taken off till
feven years after.
The firft public calamity which befel the Jewifh na¬
tion after their reftoration from Babylon, happened
in the year 351 B. C. ; for having fome how or other
difobliged Darius Ochus king of Perfia, he befieged
and took Jericho, and carried off all the inhabitants
captives. From this time they continued faithful to
the Perfians, infomuch that they had almoft drawn
upon themfelves the difpleafure of Alexander the Great.
That monarch having refolved upon the fiege of Tyre,
and being informed that the city was wholly fupplied
with provifions from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, fent
to Jaddua, then high-prieft, to demand of him that
fupply which he had been accufiomed to pay to the
Perfians. The Jewifh pontiff excufed himfelf on ac¬
count of his oath of fidelity to Darius 5 which fo pro¬
voked Alexander, that he had no fooner completed
the reduction of Tyre than he marched againft Jeru¬
falem. The inhabitants, then, being with good rea-
fon thrown into the utmoft confternation, had re-
courfe to prayers •, and Jaddua is faid, by a divine re¬
velation, to have been commanded to go and meet
Alexander. Fie obeyed accordingly, and fet out on
"his journey, dreffed in his pontifical robes, at the
head of all his priefts in their proper habits, and at¬
tended by the reft of the people dreffed in white gar¬
ments. Alexander is faid to have been feized with
fuch awful refpeft on feeing this venerable proceffion,
that he embraced the high-prieft, and paid a kind of
religious adoration to the name of God engraven on
the front of his mitre. His followers being furprifed
at this unexpended behaviour, the Macedonian mo¬
narch informed them, that he paid that refpe£l not to
the prieft, but to his God, as an acknowledgment
for a vifion which he had been favoured with at
Dia •, where he had been promifed the conqueft of
Perfia, and encouraged m his expedition, by a perfon
of much the fame afpeift and dreffed in the fame ha¬
bit with the pontiff before him. He afterwards ac¬
companied Jaddua into Jerufalem, where he offered
Sacrifices in the temple. The high prieft ftiowed him
alfo the prophecies of Daniel, wherein the deftru&ion Jews,
of the Perfian empire by himfelf is plainly fet forth ;
in confequence of which the king went away highly fa-
tisfied, and at his departure alked the high-prieft: if
there wras nothing in which he could gratify himfelf
or his people ? Jaddua then told him, that, according
to the Mofaic law, they neither fowed nor ploughed
on the feventh year; therefore would efteem it a high
favour if the king would be pleafed to remit their tri¬
bute in that year. To this requeft the king readily
yielded ; and having confirmed them in the enjoyment
of all their privileges, particularly that of living under
their own laws, he departed.
Whether this ftory deferves credit or not (for the
whole tranfadtion is not without reafon called in que-
ftion by fome), it is certain that the Jews were much
favoured by Alexander ; but with him their good ^
fortune feemed alfo to expire. The country of Judea Miferable
being fituated between Syria and Egypt, became fub- ftate of the
j eft to all the revolutions and wars which the ambx-Jeus aiter.,
tious fucceffors of Alexander waged againft each other, v |
At firft it was given, together with Syria and Phe-
nicia, to Leomedon the Mitylenian, one of Alexander’s
generals ; but he being foon after flripped of the other
two by Ptolemy, Judea was next fummoned to yield
to the conqueror. The Jews fcrupled to break their
oath of fidelity to Leomedon; and were of confe¬
quence invaded by Ptolemy at the head of a power¬
ful army. The open country was eafily reduced j but
the city being ftrongly fortified both by art and na¬
ture, threatened a ftrang refiftance. A fupefftitious
fear for breaking the fabbath, however, prevented the
befieged from making any defence on that day ; of
wffiich Ptolemy being informed, he caufed an affault
to be made on the fabbath, and eafily carried the
place. At firft he treated them with great feverity,
and carried 100,000. men of them into captivity 5 but
reflefting foon after on their known fidelity to their
conquerors, he reftored them to all the privileges
they had enjoyed under the Macedonians. Of the
captives he put fome into garrifons, and others he
fettled in the countries of Libya and Gyrene. From
thofe who fettled in the latter of thefe countries dt-
feended the Cyrenean Jews mentioned by the writers
of the New Teft ament.
Five years after Ptolemy had fubdued Judea, he
was forced to yield it to Antigonns, referving to him¬
felf only the cities of Ace, Samaria, Joppa, and Gaza j
and carrying off an immenfe booty, together with a
great number of captives, whom he fettled at Alexan¬
dria, and endowed with confiderable privileges and im¬
munities.—Antigonus behaved in fuch a tyrannical
manner, that great numbers of his Jewifh fubjefts tied
into Egypt, and others put themfelves under the pro-
teftion of Seleucus, who alfo granted them confider¬
able privileges. Hence this nation came gradually
to be fpread over Syria and Afia Minor •, while Ju¬
dea feemed to be in danger of being depopulated till
it was recovered by Ptolemy in 292. The affairs of
the Jews then took a more profperous turn, and con¬
tinued in a thriving way till the reign of Ptolemy Phi-
lopater, when they were grievoufiy oppreffed by the in-
curfions of the Samaritans, at the fame time that An-
tiochus Theos king of Syria invaded Galilee. Ptole¬
my, however, marched againft Antiochus, and defeated
him 5. . I
JEW [141
Jews, him : after which, having gone to Jerufalem. to offer
v—n,  facrifices, he ventured to profane the temple itfelf by
going into it. He penetrated through the two outer
courts j but as he was about to enter the fanftuary, he
■was ftruck with fuch dread and terror that he fell down
half dead. A dreadful perfeeution was then raifed
again ft the Jews, who had attempted to hinder him in
his impious attempt ; but this perfecution was flopped
by a ftill more extraordinary accident related under the
article Egypt, N° 30, and the Jews again received in-
6 to favour.
Subdued by' About the year 204 B. C. the country of Judea was
Antiochus fubdued by Antiochus the Great 5 and on this occa-
the Great. fIon the loyalty of the Jews to the Egyptians failed
them, the whole nation readily fubmitting to the king
of Syria. This attachment fo pleafed the Syrian mo¬
narch, that he fent a letter to his general, wherein he
acquainted him that he defigned to reftore Jerufalem
to its ancient fplendor, and to recal ail the Jews that
had been driven out of it ; that out of his Angular re-
fpect to the temple of God, he granted them 20,000
. pieces of filver, towards the charges of the viftims,
frankincenfe, wine, and oil ; 1400 meafures of fine
wheat, and 375 meafures of fait, towards their ufual
oblations : that the temple fiiould be thoroughly re¬
paired at his coft } that they fiiould enjoy the free ex-
ereife of their religion ; and reftore the public fervice
of the temple, and the priefts, Levites, fingers, &c. to
their ufual functions : that no ftranger, or Jew that was
unpurified, thould enter farther into the temple than
was allowed by their law ; and that no ftefh of unclean
beafts Ihould be brought into Jerufalem not even their
Ikins : and all thefe under the penalty of paying 3000
pieces of filver into the treafury of the temple. He
further granted an exemption of taxes for three years to
Jew'.
7
Dreadiul
commo-
Sions.
] JEW
Jafon’s next flop was to purchafe liberty, at the price 
of 150 talents more, to build a gymnafium at Jerufa-
lem, fimilar to thofe which were ufed in the Grecian
cities, and to make as many Jews as he pleafed free ci¬
tizens of Antioch. By means of thefe powers, he be¬
came very foon able to form a ftrong party in Judea ;
for his countrymen were exceedingly fond of the Gre¬
cian cuftoms, and the freedom of the city of Antioch 8
was a very valuable privilege. From this time there- A. general
fore a general apoftafy took place j the fervice of
temple was negledfted, and Jafon abandoned himfelf Y p
without remorfe to all the impieties and abfurdities of
Pagan! fro.
He did not, however, long enjoy his ill-acquired
dignity. Having fent his brother Menelaus with the
all the dil’perfed Jews that Ihould come within a limited
time to fettle in the metropolis 5 and that all who had
been fold for Haves within his dominions fhould be im¬
mediately fet free.
This fudden profperity proved of no long duration.
About the year 176, a quarrel happened between
Onias, at that time high prieft, and one Simon, gover¬
nor of the temple, which was attended with the moft
fatal confequences. The caufes of this quarrel are un¬
known. The event, however, was, that Simon finding
he could not get the better of Onias, informed Apol¬
lonius governor of Coelofyria and Paleftine, that there
was at that time in the temple an immenfe treafure,
which at his pleafure might be feized upon for the ufe
of the king of Syria. Of this the governor inftantly
fent intelligence to the king, who difpatched one He-
liodorus to take poffefiion of the fuppofed treafure.
This perfon, through a miraculous interpofition, as the
Jews pretend, failed in his attempt of entering the
temple 5 upon which Simon accufed the high-prieft to
the people, as the perfon who had invited Heliodorus
to Jerufalem. This produced a kind of civil war, in
which many fell on both fides. At laft Onias having
complained to the king, Simon was banifhed ; but foon
after, Antiochus Epiphanes having afcended the throne
of Syria, Jafon, the high-prieft’s brother, taking ad¬
vantage of the necefiities of Antiochus, purchafed from
him the high priefthood at the price of 350 talents, and
obtained an order that his brother fnould be fent to
Antioch, there to be confined for life.
ufual tribute to Antiochus, the former took the oppor¬
tunity of fupplanting Jafon in the fame manner that he
had fupplanted Onias. Having offered for the high-
priefthood 3C0 talents more than his brother had gi¬
ven, he eafily obtained it, and returned with his new
commiffion to Jerufalem. He foon got himfelf a ftrong
party : but Jafon proving too powerful, forced Mene¬
laus and his adherents to retire to Antioch. Here,
the better to gain their point, they acquainted Anti¬
ochus that they were determined to renounce their old
religion, and wholly conform themfelves to that of the
Greeks : which fo pleafed the tyrant, that he imme¬
diately gave them a force fufficient to drive Jafon out
of Jerufalem y who thereupon took refuge among the
Ammonites.
Menelaus being thus freed from his rival, took care
to fulfil his promife to the king with regard to the
apoftafy, but forgot to pay the money he had promi-
fed. At laft he was fummoned to Antioch ; and find¬
ing nothing but the payment of the promifed futn
would do, fent orders to his brother Lyfimaehus to con¬
vey to him as many of the facred utenfils belonging to
the temple as could be fpared. As thefe were all of
gold, the apoftate foon raifed a fufficient fura from them
not only to fatisfy the king, but alfo to bribe the cour¬
tiers in his favour. But his brother Onias, who had been
all this time confined at Antioch, getting intelligence
of the facrilege, made fuch bitter complaints, that an
infurreftion was ready to take place among the Jews at
Antioeh. Menelaus, in order to avoid the impending
danger, bribed Andronicus, governor of the city, to
murder Onias. This produced the moft vehement
complaints as foon as Antiochus returned to the capi¬
tal (he having been abfent for fome time in order to
quell an infurreftion in Cilicia) ; which at laft ended
in the death of Andronieus, who was executed by the
king’s order. By dint of money, however, Menelaus
ftill found means to keep up his credit; but was obli¬
ged to draw fuch large fums from Jerufalem, that the
inhabitants at laft maffacred his brother Lyfimachus,
whom he had left governor of tho city in his abfence.
Antiochus foon after took a journey to Tyre ; upon
which the Jews fent deputies to him, both to juftify
the death of Lyfimachus, and to accufe Men^laus of
being the author of all the troubles which had hap¬
pened. The apoftate, however, was never at a lofs while
he could procure money. By means of this powerful
argument, he pleaded his caufe fo effeflually, that the
deputies were not only caft, but put to death ; and this
unjuft lenience gave the traitor fuch a complete viftory
Jews.
9
Jerufalem
taken by
Antiodins
Epiphanes,
JEW [i
over all Ills enemies, that from thenceforth he com-
* menced a downright tyrant. Jerufalem was deftitute
of proteftors j and the fanhedrim, if there were any
zealous men left among them, were fo much terrified,
that they durft not oppofe him, though they evidently
faw that his defign was finally to eradicate the religion
and liberties of his country.
In the mean time, Antiochus was taken up with the
conqueft of Egypt, and a report was fomehow or other
fpread that he had been killed at the fiege of Alexan¬
dria. At this news the Jews imprudently ftiowed fome
figns of joy j and Jafon thinking this a proper oppor¬
tunity to regain his loft dignity, appeared before Je¬
rufalem at the head of about 1000 refolute men. The
gates were quickly opened to him by fome of his
friends in the city •, upon which Menelaus retired into
the citadel, and Jafon, minding nothing but his re-
fentment, committed the moft horrid butcheries. At
laft he was obliged to leave both the city and country,
on the news that Antiochus was coming with a power¬
ful army againft him ; for that prince, highly provoked
at this rebellion, and efpecially at the rejoicings the
4Jews had made on the report of his death, had aftually
refolved to punifti the city in the fevereft manner.
Accordingly, about 170 B. C. having made himfelf
mafter of the city, he behaved with fuch cruelty, that
within three days they reckoned no fewer than 40,000
killed, and as many fold for Haves. In the midft of
this dreadful calamity, the apoftate Menelaus found
means not only to preferve himfelf from the general
flaughter, but even to regain the good graces of the
king, who having by his means plundered the temple
of every thing valuable, returned to Antioch in a kind
of triumph. Before he departed, however, he put Ju¬
dea under the government of one Philip, a barbarous
Phrygian ; Samaria under that of Andronicus, a per-
fon of a fimilar difpofition , and left Menelaus, the moft
hateful of all the three, in poffeflion of the high-prieft-
hood.
Though the Jews fuffered exceedingly under thefe
tyrannical governors, they wrere ftill referved for greater
calamities. About 168 B. C. Antiochus having been
moft feverely mortified by the Romans, took it into
his head to wreak his vengeance on the unhappy Jews.
For this purpofe he difpatched Apollonius at the head
of 22,000 men, with orders to plunder all the cities of
Judea, to murder all the men, and fell the women and
children for flaves. Apollonius accordingly came with
his army, and to outward appearance with a peaceable
intention ; neither was he fufpefted by the Jews, as he
was fuperintendant of the tribute in Paleftine. He
kept himfelf inaftive till the next fabbath, when they
were all in a profound quiet; and then, on a fudden,
commanded his men to arms. Some of them he fent
to the temple and fynagogues, with orders to cut in
pieces all whom they found there 5 wbilft the reft go¬
ing through the ftreets of the city maftacred all that
came in their way •, the fuperftitious Jews not attempt¬
ing to make the leaft refiftance for fear of breaking
11 the fabbath. He next ordered the city to be plun-
The temple dered and fet on fire, pulled down all their {lately
buildings, caufed the walls to be demoliihed, and car-
Jewifh'm- r‘ec^ awa7 captive about x0,000 of thofe who had
ligion s.bo. efcaped the {laughter. From that time the fervice of
ihiied. the temple was totally abandoned j that place having
10
His mon
ftrous
-cruelty.
42 ] J E W
been quite polluted, both with the blood of multitudes Jew?/
who had been killed, and in various other ways. The ^
Syrian troops built a large fortrefs on an eminence in
the city of David ; fortified it with a ftrong wall and
{lately towers, and put a garrifon in it to command the
temple, over againft which it was built, fo that the
foldiers could eafily fee and fally out upon all thofe who
attempted to come into the temple 5 fo many of whom
were continually plundered and murdered by them,
that the reft, not daring to ftay any longer in Jerufalem,
fled for refuge to the neighbouring nations.
Antiochus, not yet fatiated with the blood of the
Jews, refolved either totally to abolifti their religion, or
deftroy their whole race. He therefore iffued out a de¬
cree that all nations within his dominions fliould for-
fake their old religion and gods, and worfnip thofe
of the king under the moft fevere penalties. To make
his orders more effectual, he fent overfeers into every
province to fee them ftriftly put in execution and as
he knew the Jews were the only people who would dif-
obey them, fpecial diredlions Were given to have them
treated with the utmoft feverity. Atheneas, an old
and cruel minifter, well verfed in all the pagan rites,
was fent into Judea. He began by dedicating the
temple to Jupiter Olympius, and fetting up his ftatue
on the altar of burnt-offerings. Another leffer altar was
raifed before it, on which they offered facrifices to that
falfe deity. All who refufed to come and worftiip this
idol were either maffacred or put to fome cruel tor¬
tures till they either complied or expired under the
hands of the executioners. At the fame time, altars,
groves, and ftatues, were raifed everywhere through
the country, and the inhabitants compelled to worftiip
them under the fame fevere penalties; while it was in-
ftant death to obferve the fabbath, ciroumcifion, or any
other inftitution of Mofes. J2
At laft, wh£n vaft numbers had been put to cruel Reftored by
deaths, and many more had faved their lives by their Mattathias.
apoftafy, an eminent prieft, named Mattat/iias, began
to fignalize himfelf by his bravery and zeal for reli¬
gion. He had for fome time been obliged to retire to
Mod in his native place, in order to avoid the perfecu-
tion which raged at Jerufalem. During his recefs there,
Apelles, one of the king’s officers, came to oblige the
inhabitants to comply with the above-mentioned orders.
By him Mattathias and his fons were addreffed in the
moft earneft manner, and had the moft ample promifes
made them of the king’s favour and prote&ion if they
would renounce their religion. But Mattathias anfwer-
ed, that though the whole Jewiffi nation, and the whole
world, were to conform to the king’s edift, yet both
he and his fons would continue faithful to their God
to the lafl: minute of their lives. At the fame time per¬
ceiving one of his countrymen juft going to offer facri¬
fices to an idol, he fell upon him and inftantly killed
him, agreeable to the law of Mofes in fuch cafes. Up¬
on this his fons, fired with the fame zeal, killed the
officer and his men ; overthrew the altar and idol j and
running abput the city, cried out, that thofe who were
zealous for the law of God ffiould follow them j by
which means they quickly faw themfelves at the head
of a numerous troop, -with whom they foon after with¬
drew into fome of the deferts of Judea. They Avere fol¬
lowed by many others, fo that in a ffiort time they
found themfelves in a condition to refill their enemies j
and
JEW
[ H3 ]
J E W
Jews.
13
Exploits cf
Judas Mac¬
cabeus.
H
Dreadful
death ©f
Antiochus
Epiphanes.
and having confidered the danger to which they were
expofed by their fcrupulous obfervance of the fabbath,
they refolved to defend themfelves, in cafe of an attack,
upon that day as well as upon any other.
In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias finding that his
followers daily increafed in number, began to try his
ftrength by attacking the Syrians and apoftate Jews.
As many of thefe as he took he put to death, but
forced a much greater number to fly for refuge into
foreign countries j and having foon ftruck his enemies
with terror, he marched from city to city, overturned
the idolatrous altars, opened the Jewiflr fynagogues,
made a diligent fearch after all the facred books, and
caufed frelh copies of them to be written } he alfo cauf-
ed the reading of the Scriptures to be refumed, and all
the males born fince the perfecution to be circumcifed.
In all this he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that he
had extended his reformation through a confiderable
part of Judea within the fpace of one year : and would
probably have completed it, had he not been prevented
by death.
Mattathias was fucceeded by his' fon Judas, furna-
med Maccabeus, the greateft uninfpired hero of whom
the Jews can boaft. His troops amounted to no more
than 6000 men •, yet with thefe he quickly made him-
felf mailer of fome of the ftrongeft fortreffes of Judea,
and became terrible to the Syrians, Samaritans, and
apoftate Jews. In one year he defeated the Syrians in
five pitched battles, and drove them quite out of the
country j after which he purified the temple, and re-
ftored the true worfhip, which had been interrupted
for three years and a half. Only one obflacle now re¬
mained, viz. the Syrian garrifon above-mentioned,
which had been "placed over againfl the temple, and
which Judas could not at prefent reduce. In order to
prevent them from interrupting the worfnip, however,
he fortified the mountain on which the temple flood,
with a high wall and flrong towers round about, leaving
a garrifon to defend it 5 making fome additional forti¬
fications at the fame time to Bethzura, a fortrefs at
about 20 miles diftance.
In the mean time Antiochus being on his return
from an unfuccefsful expedition into Perfia, received
the difagreeable news that the Jews had all to a man
revolted, defeated his generals, driven their armies out
of Judea, and reflored their ancient worfhip. This
threw him into fuch a fury, that he commanded his
charioteer to drive with the utmofl fpeed, threatening
utterly to extirpate the Jewifh race, without leaving a
fingle perfon alive. Thefe words were fcarce uttered,
when he was feized with a violent pain in his bowels,
which no remedy could cure or abate. But notwith-
flanding this violent fhock, fuffering himfelf to be hur¬
ried away by the tranfports of his fury, he gave orders
for proceeding with the fame precipitation in his jour¬
ney. But while he was thus haftening forward, he fell
from his chariot, and was fo bruifed by the fall, that
his attendants were forced to put him into a litter.
Not being able to bear even the motion of the litter,
he was forced to halt at a town called Tabce on the
confines of Perfia and Babylonia. Here he kept his
bed, fuffering inexpreflible torments, occafioned chief¬
ly by the vermin which bred in his body, and the
flench, which made him infupportable even to hirafelf.
But the torments of his mind, caufed by his reflecting
1 4
Jews.
on the former aClions of his life, furpaffed by many (
degrees thofe of his body. Polybius, who in his ac¬
count of this prince’s death agrees with the Jewifh hi-
ilorians, tells us, that the uneafinefs of his mind grew
at lafl to a conflant delirium or flate of madnefs, by
reafon of feveral fpeftres and apparitions of evil genii
or fpirits, which he imagined rvere continually re¬
proaching him with the many wicked afticns of w’hich
he had been guilty. At lail, having languifhed for
fome time in this miferable condition, he expired, and
by his death freed the Jews from the mofl inveterate
enemy they had ever known.
Notw'ithflanding the death of Antiochus, however,
the war was ftill carried on againfl the Jews j but
through the valour and good conduft of Judas, the
Syrians were conflantly defeated, and in 163 B. C. a
peace was concluded upon terms very advantageous to
the Jewiflr nation. This tranquillity, however, was
of no long continuance ; the Syrian generals renewed
their hollilities, and were attended with the fame ill
fuccefs as before. Judas defeated them in five engage¬
ments ; but in the fixth was abandoned by all his men
except 800, who, together with their chief, were flain
in the year 161 B. C. 15
The new s of the death of Judas threw his country-Exploits of
men into the utmofl conflernation, and feemed to give Jonatll2n>
new life to all their enemies. He was fucceeded, how-jj™°"^an
ever, by his brother Jonathan 5 who conduCled mat¬
ters with no lefs prudence and fuccefs than Judas had
done, till he wras treacheroufly .feized and put to death
by Tryphon, a Syrian ufurper, who fliortly after mur¬
dered his own fovereign. The traitor immediately
prepared to invade Judea ^ but found all his projeCls
fruftrated by Simon, Jonathan’s brother. This pontiff
repaired all the fortreffes of Judea, and furnifhed them
with frefh garrifons, took Joppa and Gaza, and drove
out the Syrian garrifon from the fortrefs of Jerufalem j
but was at lafl treacheroufly murdered by a fon-in-law
named Ptolemy, about 135 B. C.
Simon was fucceeded by his fon Hyrcan; who not
only fhook off the yoke of Syria, but conquered the
Samaritans, demolifhed their capital city, and became
mailer of all Palefline, to which he added the provinces
of Samaria and Galilee j all which he enjoyed till w ith-
in a year of his death, without the leafl diflurbance
from without, or any internal difeord. His reign was
no lefs remarkable on the account of his great wifdom
and piety at home than his conquefts abroad. Pie
was the firfl fince the captivity who had affumed the
royal title •, and he raifed the Jew'ifh nation to a greater
degree of fplendor than it had ever enjoyed fince that
time. The author of the fourth book of the Macca¬
bees alfo informs us, that in him three dignities were
centered which never met in any other perfon, name¬
ly, the royal dignity, the high-prieflhood, and the gift
of prophecy. But the inllances given of this lafl are
very equivocal and fufpicious. The lall year of his
reign, however, was embittered by a quarrel with the
Pharifees 5 and which proceeded fuch a length as was
thought to have fhortened his days. Hyrcan had al¬
ways been a great friend to that fe£l, and they had
hitherto enjoyed the mofl honourable employments
in the flate *, but at length one of them, named Elea-
tsar, took it into his head to queflion Hyrcan’s legiti¬
macy, alleging, that his mother had formerly been a
Have,
Jews.
16
great con¬
queror.
JEW [i
flave, and confequently that he M as incapable of en¬
joying the high-priefthood. This report was credited,
or pretended to be fo, by the whole fe£l ; which irri¬
tated the high-prieft to fuch a degree, that he joined
the Sadducees, and could never afterwards be recon¬
ciled to the Pharifees, who therefore raifed all the
troubles and feditions they could during the fhort time
he lived.
Hyrcan died in 107 B. C. and was fucceeded by
his eldeft fon AriftobuLus, who conquered Iturea, but
proved a moll cruel and barbarous tyrant, polluting
his hands with the blood even of his mother and one
of his brothers, keeping the reft clofely confined du-
Alexander ring his reign, which, however, was but Ihort. He
Jannseus, a was fucceeded in 105 by Alexander Jannseus, the
greateft conqueror, next to King David, that ever fat
on the Jewilh throne. He was hated, however, by
the Pharifees, and once in danger of being killed in a
tumult excited by them 5 but having caufed his guards
to fall upon the mutinous mob, they killed 6000 of
them, and difperfed the reft. After this, finding it
impolfible to remain in quiet in his own kingdom, he
left Jerufalem, with a defign to apply himfelf wholly
to the extending of his conquefts ; but while he was
bufied in fubduing his foreign enemies, the Pharxfees
raifed a rebellion at home. This -was qua Hied in the
year 86 B. C. and the rebels were treated in the moft
inhuman manner. The fa£txon, however, was by this
means fo thoroughly quelled, that they never dared to
lift up their heads as long as he lived : and Alexan¬
der having made feveral conquefts in Syria, died about
79 B. C.
The king left two fons, Hyrcanus and Ariftobulus 5
but bequeathed the government to his wife Alexandra
as long as fhe lived : but as he faw her greatly afraid,
Contefts be-an<^ not without reafon, of the refentment of the Pha-
tween his rifees, he defxred his queen, juft before his death, to
fend for the principal leaders of that party, and pre¬
tend to be entirely devoted to them ; in which cafe, he
affixred her, that they would fupport her and her fons
after her in the peaceable poffeflion of the government.
With this advice the queen complied 5 but found her-
felf much embarraffed by the turbulent Pharifees, who,
after feveral exorbitant demands, would at laft be con¬
tented with nothing lefs than the total extermination
of their adverfaries the Sadducees. As the queen was
unable to refift the ftrength of the pharifaic faftion, a
snoft cruel perfecution immediately took place againft
the Sadducees, which continued for four years ; until
at laft. upon their earneft petition, they were difper¬
fed among the feveral garrifons of the kingdom, in
order to fecure them from the violence of their ene¬
mies. A few years after this, being feized with a
dangerous ficknefs, her youngeft fon Ariftobulus col-
le&ed a ftrong party in order to fecure the crown to
himfelf j but the queen being difpleafed with his con-
dufr, appointed her other ion Hyrcanus, whom {he
Ixad before made high-prieft, to fucceed her alfo in the
royal dignity. Soon after this fixe expired, and left
her two fons competitors for the crown. The Phari¬
fees raifed an army againft Ariftobulus, which almoft
inftantly deferted to him, io that Hyrcanus found
himfelf obliged to accept of peace upon any terms ;
which, however, was not granted, till the latter had
abandoned all title both to the royal and pontifical
4+ 1
J E W
fons Hyr¬
canus and
Ariltobu-
his.
dignity, and contented himfelf with the enjoyment of Jews,
his peculiar patrimony as a private perfon. ' * u—
But this depofition did not extinguilh the party of
Hyrcanus. A new cabal was raifed by Antipater an
Idumean profelyte, and father of Herod the Great 5
who carried oft Plyrcanus into Arabia, under pretence
that his life tvas in danger if he remained in Judea.
Here he applied to Aretas king of that country, who
undertook to reftore the depofed monarch ; and for
that purpofe invaded Judea, defeated Ariftobulus, and
kept him clofely befieged in Jerufalem. The latterxheRo-
had recourfe to the Romans 5 and having bribed Scau-mans calbi
rus, one of their generals, he defeated Aretas within by Ari-
the lofs of 7000 of his men, and drove him quite outftobu*us‘
of the country. The two brothers next fent prefents •
to Pompey, at that time commander in chief of all
the Roman forces in the eaft, and whom they made
the arbitrator of their differences. But he, fearing
that Ariftobulus, againft whom he intended to declare,
might obftrmft his intended expedition againft the Na-
batheans, difmiffed them with a promife, that as foon
as he had fubdued Aretas, he would come into Judea
and decide their controverfy.
This delay gave fuch offence to Ariftobulus, that he
fuddenly departed for Judea without even taking leave
of the Roman general, v'ho on his part w'as no lefs
•offended at this want of refpe£i. The confequence
was, that Pompey entered Judea with thofe troops
with which he had defxgned to aft againft the Naba-
theans, and fummoned Ariftobulus to appear before
him. The Jewifti prince would gladly have been ex-
cufed } but was forced by his own people to comply
W'ith Pompey’s fummons, to avoid a war with that ge¬
neral. He came accordingly more than once or twice
to him, and was difmiffed with great promifes and
marks of friendflxip. But at laft Pompey infifted, that
he ftxould deliver into his hands all the fortified places
he poffeffed j which let Ariftobulus plainly fee that he
was in the intereft of his brother, and upon this he
fled to Jerufalem with a defign to oppofe the Romans
to the utmoft of his power. He was quickly followed
by Pompey •, and to prevent hoftilities was at laft for¬
ced to go and throw himfelf at the feet of the haugh¬
ty Roman, and to promife him a eonfiderable fum of
money as the reward of his forbearance. This fub-
miflion was accepted •, but Gabinius, being fent with
foine troops to receive the ftipulated fum, was repul-
fed by the garrifon of Jerufalem, who fhut the gates
againft him, and refufed to fulfil the agreement. This
difappointment fo exafperated Pompey, that he im¬
mediately marched with his whole army againft the
city.
Ihe Roman general firft fent prnpofals of peace jjerui'aleta
but finding the Jews refolved to ftand out to the laft,taken by
he began the liege in form. As the place was ftrong-
ly fortified both by nature and art, he might have
found it very difficult to accomplilh his defign, had not
the Jews been fuddenly feized with a qualm of con*
fcience refpefting the obfervance of the fabbath-day.
From the time of the Maccabees they had made no
fcruple of raking up arms againft an offending enemy
on the fabbath : but now they difcovered, that though
it was lawful on that day to ftand on their defence in
cafe they were aftually attacked, yet it was unlawful
to do any thing towards the preventing of thofe pre¬
paratives
J E W [ i
Jaws, paratives which the enemy made towards fuch future
* ^ “ aflaults. As therefore they never moved an hand to
hinder the erection of mounds and batteries, or the
making of breaches in the walls, on the fabbath, the
befiegers at laft made fuch a confiderable breach on
that day, that the garrifon could no longer refill them.
The city was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C.
12,000 of the inhabitants were flaughtered, and many
more died by their own hands; while the priefts, who
were offering up the ufual prayers and facrifices in the
temple, chofe rather to be butchered along w ith their
brethren, than fuffer divine fervice to be one moment
interrupted. At lalt, after the Romans had fatiated
their cruelty w'ith the death of a vail number of the in*
habitants, Hyrcanus w'as reffored to the pontifical dig*
nity with the title of prince ; but forbid to affume the
title of king, to wear a diadem, or to extend his terri¬
tories beyond the limits of Judea. To prevent future
revolts, the walls were pulled down ; and Scaurus was
left governor with a fufficient force. But before he de¬
parted, the Roman general gave the Jews a Hill greater
offence than almoft any thing he had hitherto done j and
that was by entering into the moll facred receffes of the
temple, where he took a view of the golden table, can-
dleftick, cenfers, lamps, and all the other facred veffels j
but, out of refpedff to the Deity, forbore to touch any
of them, and when he came out commanded the
priefts immediately to purify the temple according to
cuftom.
Pompey having thus fubdued the Jewifti nation, fet
out for Rome, carrying along with him Ariftobulus
and his two fons Alexander and Antigonus, as cap¬
tives, to adorn his future triumph. Ariftobulus hitnfelf
and his fon Antigonus were led in triumph j but A-
lexander found means to efcape into Judea, where he
raifed an army of 10,000 foot and 1300 horfe, and
began to fortify feveral ftrong-holds, from whence he
made incurfions into the neighbouring country. As
for Hyrcanus, he had no fooner found himfelf freed
from his rival brother, than he relapfed into his former
indolence, leaving the care of all his affairs to Anti¬
pater, who, like a true politician, failed not to turn
the weaknefs of the prince to his own advantage and
the aggrandizing of his family. Pie forefaw, how'ever,
that he could not eafily compafs his ends, uniefs he in¬
gratiated himfelf with the Romans j and therefore
Ipared neither pains nor coft to gain their favour.
Scaurus foon after received from him a fupply of corn
and other provifions, without which his army, which
lie had led againft the metropolis of Arabia, would
have been in danger of periihing •, and after this, he
prevailed on the king to pay 300 talents to the Ro¬
mans, to prevent them from ravaging his country.
Hyrcanus was now in no condition to face his enemy
Alexander j and therefore again had recourfe to the
Romans, Antipater at the fame time fending as many
troops as he could fpare to join them. Alexander ven¬
tured a battle j but was defeated with coniiderable lofs,
and befieged in a ftrong fortrefs named Alexandrian.
Here he would have been forced to furrender •, but his
mother, partly by her addrefs, and partly by the fer-
vices (lie found means to do the Roman general, pre¬
vailed upon him to grant her fon a pardon for what
was paft. The fortreffes were then demolilhed, that
they might not give occafion to freih revolts ; Ilyrca-
Vol. XI. Part I.
45 ] JEW
nus was again reftored to the pontifical dignity $ and Jc’vs
the province was divided into five feveral diftriflsj in
each of which a feparate court of judicature was erect¬
ed. The firit of thefe w as at Jerufalem, the fecond ^ VS2C>0
at Gadara, the third at Amath, the fourth at Jeri-
cho, and the fifth at Sephoris in Galilee. Thus was the changed
government changed from a monarchy to an ariftocra-into an
cy, and the Jews now fell under a fet of domineering ariftocracy.
lords.
' Soon after this, Ariftobulus found means to efcape
from his confinement at Rome, and raifed new' troubles
in Judea, but was again defeated and taken prifoner :
his fon alfo renewed his attempts $ but w;as in like man¬
ner defeated, with the lofs of near 10,000 of his follow'-
er.s; after which Gabinius, having fettled the affairs of
Judea to Antipater’s mind, refigned the government of
his province to Crafius. The only tranfadlion during
his government was his plundering the temple of all its
money and facred utenfils, amounting in the w hole to
10,000 Attic talents, i. e. above two millions of our
money. After this facrilege, Craffus fet out on his ex¬
pedition againft Parthia, where he periftied ; and his
death was by the Jews interpreted as a divine judgment
for his impiety. 2r
The w ar between Caefar and Pompey afforded the Jews ta-
Jews feme refpite, and likewife an opportunity of in-voure<*
gratiating themfelves with the former, which the art-^2^1
ful Antipater readily embraced. His fervices were re¬
warded by the emperor. Pie confirmed Hyrcanus in
his priefthood, added to it the principality of Judea, to
be entailed on his pofterity for ever, and reftored the
Jewifti nation to their ancient rights and privileges j
ordering at the fame time a pillar to be erefted, where¬
on all thefe grants, and his own decree, fhould be en¬
graved, which was accordingly done j and foon after,
when Caefar himfelf came into Judea, he granted liber¬
ty alfo to fortify the city, and rebuild the wall which
had been demolilhed by Pompey.
During the lifetime of Ceefar, the-Jews were lb
highly favoured, that they could fcarcely be laid to feel
the Roman yoke. After his death, however, the na¬
tion fell into great diforders j which w'ere not finally
quelled till Herod, who was created king of Judea by ^
Mark Antony in 40 B. C. was fully ellablilhed on the
throne by the taking of Jerufalem by his allies the
Romans in 37 B. C. The immediate eonfequence ofHerod
this was another cruel pillage and maffacre : then fol-rai1™ t0
lowed the death of Antigonus the fon of Ariftobulus,
who had for three years maintained his ground againft;
Herod, put to death his brother Phafael, and cut off
Hyrcanus’s ears, in order the more effeGually to inca¬
pacitate him for the high-prieftbood. 23
The Jews gained but little by this change of maf-P|S tVrarinX
ters. The new king proved one of the greateft: tyrants ant^ crueM*
mentioned in hiftory. He began his reign w ith a cruel
perfecution of thofe who had fidtd with his rival An¬
tigonus j great numbers ef whom he put to death, fei-
zing and confifcating their tffe£ls for his own ufe.
Nay, fuch was his jealoufy in this laft refpeft, that he
caufed guards to be placed at the city gates, in order
to watch the bodies of thofe of the Antigonian fac¬
tion who were carried out to be buried, left feme.
of their riches Humid be carried along with them.
H is jealouly next prompted him to decoy Hyrcanus,
the baniftied pontiff, from Parthia, where he had taken
T refuge*
N
JEW r 146 ] JEW
Jews. refuge, that he might put him to death, though con-
■W"""'’ trary to his moft folemn promifes. His cruelty then
fell upon his own family. He had married Mariamne,
the daughter of Hyrcanus j whofe brother, Ariftobulus,
a young prince of great hopes, was made high prieft at
the interceffion of his mother Alexandra. But the ty¬
rant, confcious that Ariftobulus had a better right to
the kingdom than himfelf, caufed him foon after to be
drowned in a bath. The next viftim was his beloved
queen Mariamne herfelf. Herod had been fummoned
to appear firft before Mark Antony, and then before
Auguftus, in order to clear himfelf from fome crimes
laid to his charge. As he was, however, doubtful of
the event, he left orders that in cafe he was condemn¬
ed, Mariamne fhould be put to death. This, together
■with the death of her father and brother, gave her fuch
an averfion for him, that flie fhowed it on all occafions.
By this conduft the tyrant’s refentment was at laft fo
much inflamed, that having got her falfely accufed of
infidelity, (lie was condemned to die, and executed ac¬
cordingly. She fuffered with great refolution ; but
with her ended all the happinefs of her hufband. His
love for Mariamne increafed fo much after her death,
that for fome time he appeared like one quite diftradt-
ed. His remorfe, however, did not get the better of
his cruelty. The death of Mariamne was foon follow¬
ed by that of her mother Alexandra, and this by the
execution of feveral other perfons who had joined with
her in an attempt to fecure the kingdom to the fons of
the deceafed queen.
Herod, having now freed himfelf from the greateft
part of his fuppofed enemies, began to fhow a greater
contempt for the Jewifh ceremonies than formerly, and
introduced a number of heathenifh games, which made
him odious to his fubjedls. Ten bold fellows at laft
took it into their heads to ent^r the theatre where the
tyrant was celebrating fome games, with daggers con-
eeafed under their clothes, in order to ftab him or fome
of his retinue. In cafe they fhould mifearry in the
attempt, they had the defperate fatisfadfion to think,
that, if they perifhed, the tyrant would be rendered
ft ill more odious by the punifhment inflidted on them.
They were not miftaken : for Herod being informed
of their defign by one of his fpies, and caufing the
affailins to be put to a moft excruciating death, the
people were fo much exafperated againft the informer,
that they cut and tore him to pieces, and caft his flefh
to the dogs. Herod tried in vain to difeover the au¬
thors of this affront 5 but at laft having caufed fome
women to be put to the rack, he extorted from them
the names of the principal perfons concerned, whom
he caufed immediately to be put to death, with their
families. This produced fuch difturbances, that, ap¬
prehending nothing lefs than a general revolt, he fet
about fortifying Jerufalem with feveral additional
works, rebuilding Samaria, and putting garrifons in¬
to feveral fortreffes in Judea. Notwithftanding this,
however, Herod had fhortly after an opportunity of re¬
gaining the affedftions of his fubje&s in fome mea-
fure, by his generofity to them during a famine; but
as he foon relapfed into his former cruelty, their love
was again turned into hatred, which continued till
his death.
Rebuilds Herod now, about 23 B. C. began to adorn his
temple, cities with many ftately buildings. The moft re¬
markable and magnificent of them all, however, was Jtws.
the temple at Jerufalem, which he is faid to have v-"
raifed to a higher pitch of grandeur than even Solo¬
mon himfelf had done. Ten thoufand artificers were
immediately fet to work, under the direftion of 1000
priefts, the beft (killed in carving, mafonry, &c. all of
whom were kept in conftant pay. A thoufand carts
were employed in fetching materials j and fuch a num¬
ber of other hands wrere employed, that every thing
was got ready within the fpace of two years. After
this, they fet about pulling down the old building,
and rearing up the new one with the fame expedition :
fo that the holy place, or temple properly fo called,
was finilhed in a year and a half, during which we
are told that it never rained in the day time, but only
in the night. The remainder ivas finilhed in fome-
what more than eight years. The temple, properly
fo called, or holy place, was but 60 cubits high, and
as many in breadth 5 but in the front he added two
wings or ftioulders, which projefted 20 cubits more on
each fide, and which in all made a front of 120 cu¬
bits in length, and as many in height 5 with a gate 70
cubits high and 20 in breadth, but open and without
any doors. The (tones were white marble, 25 cubits
in length, 12 in height, and 9 in breadth, all wrought
and polfthed with exquifite beauty ; the whole refem-
bling a ftately palace, whofe middle being eonfidera-
bly raifed above the extremities of each face, made it
afford a beautiful vifta at a great diftance, to thofe
■who came to the metropolis. Inftead of doors, the
gates clofed with very coftly veils, enriched with a
variety of (lowering of gold, filver, purple, and every
thing that was rich and curious} and on each fide of
the gates were planted two ftately columns, from
whofe cornices hung golden feftoons and vines, with
their clufters of grapes, leaves, &c. curioufly wrought.
The fuperftru&ure, however, which was properly rear¬
ed on the old foundation, without fufficient additions,
proved too heavy, and funk down about 20 cubits j
fo that its height was reduced to 100. This founda¬
tion was of an aftonifhing ftrength and height, of which
an account is given under the article vjERUSALEivi.
The platform was a regular fquare of a ftadium or
furlong on each fide. Each front of the fquare had a
fpacious gate or entrance, enriched with (uitable or¬
naments ; but that on the weft had four gates, one of
which led to the palace, another to the city, and the
two others to the fuburbs and fields. 1 his inclofure
was furrounded on the outfide with a ftrong and high
wall of large (tones, well cemented, and on the infide
had on each front a ftately piazza or gallery, fupported
by columns of fuch a bignefs, that three men could but
juft embrace them, their circumference being about 17
feet. There were in all 162 of them, which fupport¬
ed a cedar cieling of excellent workmanlhip, and form¬
ed three galleries, the middlemoft of which was the
largeft and higheft, it being 45 feet in breadth and
100 in height, whereas thofe on each fide were but 30
feet wide, and 50 in height.
The piazzas and court were paved with marble of
various colours 5 and at a fmall diftance from the gal¬
leries was a fecond inclofure, furrounded with a flight
of beautiful marble rails, with ftately columns at pro¬
per diftances, on which were engraven certain admo¬
nitions in Greek and Latin, to forbid ftrangers, and
thofe
JEW [ 147 ] JEW
Jews, tliofe lews that were not purified, to proceed farther
u—'V'""”'' under pain of death. This inclofure had but one gate
on the eaft fide j none on the weft; but on the north
and fouth it had three, placed at equal diftances from
each other.
A third enclofure furrounded the temple, properly
fo called, and the altar of burnt offerings j and made
what they called the court of the Hebrews or Ifraehtes.
It was fquare like the reft *, but the wall on the outfide
was furrounded by a flight of 14 fteps, which hid a
confiderable part of itj and on the^top w as a terrace,
of about 1 2 cubits in breadth, which went quite round
•the whole cindlure. The eaft fide had but one gate j
the weft none; and the north and fouth four, at equal
diftances. Each gate wras afeended by five fteps more
before one could reach the level of the inward court j
fo that the wall w'hich enclofed it appeared within to
be but 25 cubits high, though confiderably higher
on the outfide. On the infide of each of thefe gates
wrere raifed a couple of fpacious fquare chambers,
in form of a pavilion, 30 cubits wide, and 40 in
height, each fupported by columns of 12 cubits in
circumference.
This inclofure had likewTife a double flight of gal¬
leries on the infide, fupporled by a double row of
columns j but the weftern fide w'as only one conti¬
nued wall, without gates or galleries. The women
likew ife had their particular court feparate from that
of the men, and one of the gates on the north and
fouth leading to it.
The altar of burnt-offerings was likewife high and
fpacious, being 40 cubits in breadth, and 15 in height.
The afeent to it was, according to the Mofaic law,
fmooth, and without fteps; and the altar of unhewn
ftones. It was furrounded at a convenient diftance,
nvith a low wall or rail, which divided the court of
the priefts from that of the lay Ifraelites j fo that thefe
laft were allowed to come thus far to bring their offer¬
ings and facrifices $ though none but the priefts were
allowed to come within that inclofure.
Herod caufed a new dedication of this temple to be
performed with the utmoft magnificence, and prefent-
ed to it many rich trophies of his former victories, af¬
ter the cuftom of the Jewilh monarchs.
This, and many other magnificent works, however,
did not divert the king’s attention from his ufual jea-
loufies and cruelty. His filler Salome, and one of his
fons named Antipater, taking advantage of this difpo-
fition, prompted him to murder his two fons by Ma-
riamne, named Alexander and Ari/lobu/us, whfe had
been educated at the court of Auguftus in Italy, and
were juftly admired by all who faw them. His cruelty
foon after broke out in an impotent attempt to deftroy
the Saviour of the world, but which was attended with
no other confequence than the deftru&ion of 2000 in¬
nocent children of his own fubjefts. His raifery was
almoft brought to its fummit by the difeovery of An¬
tipater’s defigns againft himfelf*, who was accord¬
ingly tried and condemned for treafon. Something
ftill more dreadful, however, yet awaited him he was
feized with a moft loathfome and incurable difeafe, in
His death, 'which he was tormented with intolerable pains, fo that
his life became a burden. At laft he died to the great
joy of the Jews, five days after he had put Antipater to
death, and after having divided his kingdom among his
fons in the following manner.—Archelaus had Judea •, Jews.
Antipas, or Herod, was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea j
and Philip had the regions of Trachonitis, Gaulon, Ba-
tanea, and Panias, which he erefted likewife into a te-
trarchy. To his After Salome he gave 50,000 pieces
of money, together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus,
and Phafaelis; befides fome confiderable legacies to his
other relations.
The cruelty of this monfter accompanied him -to
his grave } nay, he in a manner carried it beyond the
grave. Being well apprifed that the Jews would re¬
joice at being freed from fuch a tyrant, he bethought
himfelf of the following infernal ftra^igem to damp
their mirth. A few days before his death, he fum-
moned all the heads of the Jews to repair to Jericho
under pain of death *, and, on their arrival, ordered
them all to be Ihut up in the circus, giving at the
fame time ftriift orders to his lifter Salome and her
hulband to have all the prifoners butchered as foon as
his breath was gone out. “ By this means (faid he),
I lhall not only damp the people’s joy, butfecure a real
mourning at my death.” Thefe cruel orders, how¬
ever, were not put in execution. Immediately after
the king’s death, Salome went to the Hippodrome,
where the heads of the Jews were detained, caufed the
gates to be flung open, and declared to them, that
now the king had no further occafion for their attend¬
ance, and that they might depart to their refpe£tive
homes} after which, and not till then, the news of the
king’s death was publilhed. Tumults, feditions, and
infurreftions, quickly followed. Archelaus was °p-
pofed by his brethren, and obliged to appear at Borne fljn ^
before Auguftus, to whom many complaints werekingdom
brought againft him. After hearing both parties,by Auguf-
the emperor made the following divifion of the king-tus-
dom : Archelaus had one half, under the title of
ethnarch, or governor of a nation ; together with a
promife that he Ihould have the title of h/np-, as fooi}
as he Ihowed himfelf worthy of it. This ethnarchy
contained Judea Propria, Idumea, and Samaria : but
this laft was exempted from one-fourth of the taxes
paid by the reft, on account of the peaceable beha¬
viour of the inhabitants during the late tumults. The
remainder was divided between Philip and Herod;
the former of whom had Trachonitis, Batanea, and
Auranitis, together w ith a fmall part of Galilee ; the
latter had the reft of Galilee and the countries be¬
yond the Jordan. Salome had half a million of filver,
together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus, Phafaelis,
and Afcalon.
For fome years Archelaus enjoyed his government
in peace ; but at laft, both Jews and Samaritans, tired
out with his tyrannical behaviour, joined in a petition
to Auguftus againft him. The emperor immediately
fummoned him to Rome, where, having heard his ac- ^
cufation and defence, he baniihed him to the city of Ardielaus
Vienne in Dauphiny, and confifcated all his effects, bani/hed,
Judea being by this fentence reduced to a Romanai!<^ a R-°"
province, w'as ordered to be taxed : and Gyrenius the ^.na^over“
governor of Syria, a man of confular dignity, waSpoi^gd
fent thither to fee it put in execution ; w hich having over Judea,
done, and fold the palaces of Archelaus, and feized
upon all his treafure, he returned to Antioch, lea¬
ving the Jews in ne fmall ferment on account of this
new tax.
T 2
Thus
28
Agrippa
jnacje king.
29
The king¬
dom again
reduced to
a Roman
province.
J E W [ 148 ]
Thus were the feeds of difienfxon Town between the
Jews and Romans, which ended in the molt lamentable
catallrophe of the former. The Jews, always impatient
of a foreign yoke, knew from their prophecies, that the
time was now come when the Mefliah fliould appear.
Of coniequence, as they expected him to be a great and
powerful warrior, their rebellious and feditious Ipirit
was heightened to the greatelt degree 5 and they ima¬
gined they had nothing to do but take up arms, and
vi&ory would immediately declare on their fide. From
this time, therefore, the country was never quiet 3 and
the infatuated people, while they rejected the true Mef-
fiah, gave thc/nfelves up to the direftion of every im¬
porter who chofe to lead them to their own deftruclion.
The governors appointed by the Romans were alfo fre¬
quently changed, but feldom for the better. About the
16th year of Chrilt, Pontius Pilate was appointed gover¬
nor j the whole of whofe adminiftration, according to
Jofephus, was one continued feene of venality, rapine,
tyranny, and every wicked action ; of racking and put¬
ting.innocent men to death, untried and uncondemned 5
and of every kind of favage cruelty. Such a governor
was but ill calculated to appeafe the ferments occafion-
ed by the late tax. Indeed Pilate was fo far from at¬
tempting this, that he greatly inflamed them by taking
every occafion of introducing his ftandards with images
and piftures, confecrated fhields, &c. into their city ;
and at laft attempting to drain the treafury of the tem¬
ple, under pretence of bringing an aqueduft into Jeru-
falem. The moft remarkable tranfa&ion of his govern¬
ment, however, was his condemnation of Jesus Christ j
feven years after which he was removed from Judea •,
and in a rtiort time Agrippa, the grandfon of Herod the
.Great, was promoted by Cains to the regal dignity.
He did not, however, long enjoy this honour ; for, on
his coming into Judea, having raifed a perfecution
againft the Chriftians, and blafphemoufly fuffering him-
felf to be rtyled a God by fome deputies from Tyre and
Sidon, he was miraculoufly ftruck with a difeafe, which
foon put an end to his life. The facred hiftorian tells
us, that he was eaten of worms ; and Jofephus, that he
was feized with moft violent pains in his heart and bow-
elsq fo that he could not but re fie 61 on the bafenefs of
thofe flatterers, who had but lately complimented him
with a kind of divine immortality, that was now about
to expire in all the torments and agonies of ,a miferable
mortal.
On the death of Agrippa, Judea was once more
reduced to a province of the Roman empire, and had
new governors appointed over it. Thefe were Venti-
dius, Felix, Feftus Albinus, and Geflius Floras.—
Under their government the Jewifh affairs went on
from bad to worfe; the country fwarmed with robbers
and aifaflins j the latter committing everywhere the
molt unheard-of cruelties under the pretence of reli¬
gion *, and about 64 A. C. were joined by 18,000
workmen, who had been employed in further repair¬
ing and beautifying the temple. About this time
alfo, Geflius Florus, the laft and worft governor the
Jews ever had, was fent into the country. Jofephus
feems at a lofs for words to deferibe him by, or a
monfter to compare him to. His rapines, cruelties,
conniving for large fums with the banditti, and in a
word, his whole behaviour, was fo open and bare¬
faced, that he was looked upon by the Jews more like,
3
J E W
a bloody executioner, fent to butcher, than a magi- Jews,
ft rate to govern them. In this diftrafted ftate of the '-“-‘"■v—
country, many of the inhabitants forfook it to feek
for an afyfum fomewhere elie *, while thofe who re¬
mained applied themfelves to Ceftius Callus, governor
of Syria, who was at jerufalem at the paffover ; be-
feeching him to pity their unhappy ftate, and fete
them from the tyranny of a man who had totally
ruined their country. Florus, who was prelent when
thefe complaints were brought againft him, made a
mere jeft of them 5 and Ceilius, inftead of making a
ftrifl inquiry into his eondu6t, difmiffed the Jews with
a general promife that the governor fhould behave
better for the future j and fet himfelf about computing
the number of Jews at that time in Jerufalem, by the
number of lambs offered at that feftival, that he
might fend an account of the whole to Nero. By his
computation, there were at that time in Jerufalem
2,556,coo} though Jofephus thinks they rather amount¬
ed to 3,ooo,oco.
In the year 67 began the fatal war with the Romans, Caufe cf
which was ended only by the deftru61ion of Jerufalem. the
The immediate caufe was the decifion of a conteft ^ ar^vit^
with the Syrians concerning the city of Caefarea. Them;irs
Jews maintained that this city belonged to them, be-
caufe it had been built by Herod 5 and the Syrians
pretended that it had always been reckoned a Greek
city, fmee even that monarch had reared temples and
ftatues in it. The conteft at laft came to fuch an
height, that both-parties took up arms Sgainft each
other. Felix put an end to it for a time, by fending
fome of the chiefs of each nation to Rome, to plead
their caufe before the emperor, where it hung in fuf-
penfe till this time, when Nero decided it againft the
Jews. No fooner was this decifion made public, than
the Jews in all parts of the country flew to arms \
and though they were everywhere the fufferers, yet,
from this fatal period, their rage never abated. No¬
thing was now to be heard ©f but robberies, murders,
and every kind of cruelty. Cities and villages were
filled with dead bodies of all ages, even fucking babes.
The Jews, on their part, fpared neither Syrians r,or |-]ie^gWS
Romans, where they got the better of them ; and thisterr/'^jy
proved the deftnnftion of great numbers of their peace-maflacred'.
ful brethren ; 20,000 were maftacred at Caefarea,
50,000 at Alexandria, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 3500
at Jerufalem.
A great number of afTaffins, in the mean time, ha¬
ving ]oined the fa6tious Jews in Jerufalem, they beat
the Romans out of Antonia, a fortrefs adjoining to
the temple, and another called Majfada ; and likewife
out of the towers called Phafael and Manamne, kill¬
ing all who oppofed them. The Romans were at
laft reduced to fuch ftraits, that they capitulated on
the fingle condition that their lives fhould be fpared 5,
notwithilanding which, they were all maffacred by
the furious zealots; and this treachery was foon re¬
venged on the faithful Jews of Scythopolis. Fhefe
had offered to aflilt in reducing their faffious bre¬
thren j but their fincerity being fufpe61ed by the
townfmen, they obliged them to retire into a neigh¬
bouring wood, where, on the third night, they were
maffacred to the number of 13,000, and all their
'wealth carried off. The rebels, in the mean time,
croffed the Jordan, and took the fortreffes of Maclueron
and
Jew.
J E W
and Cyprus*, which laft ihey razed
after having put all the Romans to the fword.— 1 his
brought Celtius Gallus, the Syrian governor, into
Ceftius Judea with all his forces *, but the Jews, partly by
Gallus. treachery and partly by force, got tne better of him,
and drove him out of the country with the lofs ot JjOOO
men.
All this time fuch dreadful diffenfions reigned^ a-
mong the Jews, that great numbers of the latter lort,
forefeeing the fad effe&s of the refentment of the Ro¬
mans, left the city as men do a finking velfel^ and
the Chriftians, mindful of their Saviour’s prediclion,
retired to Pella, a city on the other fide of Jordan,
whither the war did not reach. Milerable was the
fate of fuch as either could not, or would not, leave
Vefplfian that devoted city. Vefpafian was now ordered to
fent againft leave Greece, where he was at that time, and to march
them. with all fpeed into Judea. He did fo accordingly at
the head of a powerful army, ordering his fon Titus
in the mean time to bring two more legions from A-
lexandria *, but before he could reach that country, the
Jews had twice attempted to take the city of Afcalon,
and were each time repulfed with the lofs of 10,000
of their number. In the beginning of the year 68.,
Vefpafian entered Galilee at the head of an army of
60,000 men, all completely armed and excellently
difciplined. He firft took and burnt Gadara : then he
laid fiege to Jotapa, and took it after a flout refiflance ;
at which he was fo provoked, that he eaufed every one
of the Jews to be maffacred or carried into captivity,
not one being left to carry the dreadful news to their
brethren. Forty thoufand -perithed on this occafion :
only 120O were made prifoners, among whom was
Jofephus the Jewifli hiftorian. Japha next fliared the
fame fate, after an obftinate fiege *, all the men being
'»maflacred, and the women and children carried into
captivity. A week after this, the Samaritans, who
had affembled on Mount Gerizzim, were almoft all
put to the fword, or perifhed. Joppa fell the next
viftim to the Roman vengeance. It had been for¬
merly laid wafte by Ceflius °, but was now repeopled
and fortified by the feditious Jews who infefied the
country. It was taken by ftorm, and fhared the fame
fate with the reft. Four thoufand Jews attempted to
efcape by taking to their fhips ; but were driven back
by a hidden tempeft, and all of them were drowned or
put to the fword. Tarichea and Tiberias were next
taken, but part of their inhabitants were fpared on ac¬
count of their peaceable difpofitions. Then followed
the fieges of Gamala, Gifchala, and Itabyr. The firft
was taken by ftorm, with a dreadful {laughter of the
Jews 5 the laft by ftratagem. The inhabitants of Gif¬
chala were inclinable to furrender : but a feditious
Jew of that town, named Jo/tn, the fon of Levi, head of
the faftion, and a vile fellow, oppofed it j and, having
the mob at his back, overawed the whole city. On the
fabbath he begged of Titus to forbear hoftilities till
to-morrow*, and then he vmuld accept his offer ; but
inftead of that, he fled to Jerufalem with as many as
would follow him. The Romans, as foon as they
were informed of his flight, purfued, and killed
6000 of his followers on the road, and brought back
near 3000 women and children prifoners. The inha¬
bitants then iurrendered to Titus *, and only the fa&ious
the-
[ 149 3 J E \v
to the ground, were puniflied j and this completed the reduclion of
Galilee. _ _ _
The Jewifli nation by this time was divided
two very oppofite parties: the one foreieeing that factions
this war, if continued, muft end in the total ruin among
of their country, were for putting an end to it by fub-Jew's*
mitting to the Romans j the other, which w as the
remains of the faction of Judas Gaulonites, breathed
nothing but war and confulion, and oppofed all peace¬
able meafares with invincible obftinacy, This laft,
which was by far the moil numerous and powerful,,
confifted of men of the vileft and moft profligate eha-
rafters that can be paralleled in hiftory. They were
proud, ambitious, cruel, rapacious, and committed
the moft horrid and unnatural crimes under the mafk
of religion. They affirmed everywhere, that it was
offering the greateft difhonour to God to fubmit to
any eartjily potentate *, much lefs to Romans and to
heathens. This, they faid, was the only motive that
induced them to take up arms, and to bind themfelves
under the ftridleft obligations not to lay them down
till they had either totally extirpated all foreign au¬
thority, or perithed in the attempt.—This dreadful
diffenfion was not confined to Jerufalem, but had in-
fefted all the cities, towns, and villages, of Paleftine.
Even houfes and families were fo divided againft each
other, that, as our Saviour had exprefsly foretold, a
man’s greateft enemies were often thofe of his own
family and houfehold. In ffiort, if we may believe
Jofephus, the zealots a&ed more like incarnate devils
than like men who had any fenfe of humanity left
them.—This obliged the contrary party likewife to
rife up in arms in their own defence againft thofe mif-
creants ; from whom, however, they fuffered much
more than they did even from the exafperated Ro¬
mans.—The zealots began their outrages by murder-Cruelty of
ing all that oppofed them in the countries round about. ft-e zealots.
Then they entered Jerufalem j but met with a ftout
oppofition from the other party headed by Ananus,
who had lately been high-prieft. A fierce engage¬
ment enfued between them j and the zealots were dri¬
ven into the inner cincture of the temple, where they
were clofely befieged. John of Gifchala above-men¬
tioned, who had pretended to fide with the peaceable
party, was then fent with terms of accommodation ;
but, inftead of advifing the befieged to accept of them,
he perfuaded them ftill to hold out, and call the Idu-
means to their affiftance. They did fo, and procured
20,000 of them to come to their relief j but thefe new
allies were refufgd admittance into the city. On that
night, however, there happened fuch a violent ftorm,
accompanied with thunder, lightning, and an earth¬
quake, that the zealots from within the inner court
flawed the bolts and hinges of the temple-gates with¬
out being heard, forced the guards of the beflegers,
fallied into the city, and led in the Idumeans. The
city w*as inftantly filled with butcheries of the moft
horrid kind. Barely to put any of the oppofite party
to death was thought too mild a puniffiment j they
muft have the pleafure of murdering them by inches :
fo that they made it now their diverfion to put them
to the moft exquifite tortures that could be invented j
nor could they be prevailed upon to difpatch them till
the violence of their torments had rendered them
quite.
35
JEW [ 150 ] JEW
Jetvs. quite Incapable of feeling them. In tins manner pe-
w—-y—12,000 perfons of noble extradtion, and in the
flower of their age 5 till at laft the Iduroeans com¬
plained fo much againft the putting fuch numbers to
death, that the zealots thought proper to eredl a kind
of tribunal, which, however, was intended not for
judgment but condemnation : for the judges having
once acquitted a perfon who was manifeftly innocent,
the zealots not only murdered him in the temple, but
depofed the new-created judges as perfons unfit for
their office.
The zealots, after having exterminated all thofe of
any charadter or diftindtion, began next to wreak their
vengeance on the common people. This obliged many
of the Jew's to forfake Jerufalem, and take refuge with
the Romans, though the attempt was very hazardous ;
for the zealots had all the avenues V'ell guarded, and
failed not to put to death fuch as fell into their hands.
Vefpafian in the mean time ftaid at Coefarea an idle fpec-
tator of their outrages j well knowing that the zealots
were fighting for him, and that the ftrength of the
They turn Jewifh nation was gradually wafting away. Every thing
their arms fucceeded to his wilh. The zealots, after having maf-
agamfteach facred or driven away the oppofite party, turned their
arms againft each other. A party was formed againft
John, under one Simon who had his head-quarters at the
fortrefs of Maffada. This new mifereant plundered,
burned, and maffiicred, wherever he came, carrying the
fpoil into the fortrefs above-mentioned. To increafe
his party, hecaufed a proclamation to be publiflied, by
"which he promifed liberty to the flaves, and propor¬
tionable encouragement to the freemen who joined
him. This ftratagem had the defined effeft, and he
foon faw himfelf at the head of a confiderable army.
Not thinking himfelf, however, as yet matter of force
fufficient to befiege Jerufalem, he invaded Idumea wdth
20,000 men. The Idumeans oppofed him with 25,000 j
and a ffiarp engagement enfued, in which neither party
was vi&orious. But Simon, foen after, having corrupted
the Idumean general, got their army delivered up to
him. By this means he eafily became matter of the
country ; where he committed fuch cruelties, that the
miferable inhabitants abandoned it to feek for ffielter in
Jerufalem.
In the city, matters went in the fame w'ay. John
tyrannized in fuch a manner, that the Idumeans re¬
volted, killed a great number of his men, plundered
his palace, and forced him to retire into the temple.
In the mean time the people, having taken a notion
that he would felly out in the night and fet fire to
the city, called a council, in which it was refolved to
admit Simon with his troops, in order to oppofe John
and his zealots. Simon’s firft attempt againft his rival,
however, was ineffeftual, and he was obliged to con¬
tent himfelf with befieging the zealots in the temple.
In the mean time, the miferies of the city were in-
creafed by the ftarting up of a third party headed by
one Eleazar, who feized on the court of the priefts,
and kept John confined within that of the Ifraelites.
Eleazar kept the avenues fo w’ell guarded, that none
were admitted to come into that part of the temple
but thofe who came thither to offer facrifices j and it
was by thefe offerings chiefly that he maintained him¬
felf and his men. John by this means found himfelf
kemmed in between two powerful enemies, Simon be.
low, and Eleazar above. He defended himfelf, how- Jews,
ever, againft them both with great refolution ; and -y-—
when the city was invefted by the Romans, having
pretended to come to an agreement with his rivals,
he found means totally to cut off or force Eleazar’s men
to fubmit to him, fo that the faftions were again redu¬
ced to two. ^
The Romans, in the year 72, began to advance to-The'Re¬
wards the capital. In their way they deftroyed many n‘aris a<*"
thoufends, wafting the country as they went along $
and in the year 73 arrived before the walls of Jerufa-^
lem, under Titus afterwards emperor. As he was a
man of an exceedingly merciful difpofition, and greatly
defired to fpare the city, he immediately fent offers of
peace ; but thefe were rejefted w ith contempt, and he
himfelf put in great danger of his life, fo that he re¬
folved to begin the fiege in form. In the mean time,
Simon and John renewed their hoftilities with greater
fury than ever. John now held the whole temple,
fome of the out-parts of it, and the valley of Cedron.
Simon had the whole city to range in $ in fome parts
of which John had made fuch devaftations, that they
ferved them for a field of battle, from which they
fellied unanimoufly againft the common enemy when¬
ever occafion ferved ; after which they returned to
their ufual hoftilities, turning their arms againft each
other, as if they had fworn to make their ruin more
eafy to the Romans. Thefe diew' ftill nearer to the
w'alls, having with great labour and pains levelled all
the ground between Scopas and them, by pulling down
all the houfes and hedges, cutting down the trees,
and even cleaving the rocks that flood in their way,
from Scopas to the tomb of Herod, and Bethara
or the pool of ferpents j in which work fo many
hands were employed, that they finiffied it in four
days.
Whilft this was doing, Titus fent the befieged fome^)^erso^
offers of peace j and Jofephus was pitched upon to bePeiice,rc*
the meffenger of them : but they were rejected with^ C
indignation. He fent a fecond time Nieanor and Jo¬
fephus with frefti offers, and the former received a
wound in his ffioulder •, upon which Titus refelved to
begin the affault in good earneft, and ordered his men
to raze the fuburbs, cut down all the trees, and ufe
the materials to raife platforms againft the wall. Every 39
thing was now carried on w ith invincible ardour j the The liege
Romans began to play their engines againft the city ca.r,7ed.011
with all their might. The Jews had likewife their
machines upon the walls, which they plied with un¬
common fury : they had taken them lately from Ce-
flius j but were fo ignorant in their ufe, that they did
little execution with them, till they were better in-
ftrufted by fome Roman deferters : till then, their
chief fuccefs was rather owing to their frequent fellies;
but the Roman legions, who had all their towers and
machines before them, made terrible havock. The Icaft
ftones they threw were near 100 weighty and thefe
they could throw the length of a quarter of a mile
againft the city, and with fuch a force, that they could
do mifehief on rhofe that flood at fome diftance be¬
hind them. Titus had reared three towers 50 cubits
high j one of which happening to fall in the middle of
the night, greatly alarmed the Roman camp, who im¬
mediately ran to arms at the noife of it j but Titus,
upon knowing the caufe, difmiffed them, and caufed
it
JEW . £
Jews, it to be fet up again. Thefe towers, being plated
—-v—J with iron, the Jews tried in vain to fet fire to them,
but were at length forced to retire out of the reach of
their (hot: by which the battering-rams were now at
full liberty to play againft the wall. A breach was
foon made in it, at which the Romans entered : and
the Jews, abandoning this laft inclofure, retired
behind the next. This happened about the 28th
of April, a fortnight after the beginning, of the
fiege.
John defended the temple and the caftle of Antonia,
and Simon the reft of the city. Titus marched clofe
to the fecond wall, and plied his battering-rams fo fu-
rioufly, that one of the towers, which looked towards
the north, gave a prodigious (hake. The men who
were in it, made a fignal to the Romans, as if they
would furrender 5 and at the fame time, fent Simon
word to be ready to give them a warm reception.
Titus, having difcovered their ftratagem, plied his
work more furioufly, whilft the Jews that were in the
tower fet it on fire, and flung themfelves into the
flames. The tower being fallen, gave them an en¬
trance into the fecond enclofure, five days after gain¬
ing the firft j and Titus, who was bent on faving the
city, would not fuflfer any part of the wall or ftreets to
be demoliftied j which left the breach and lanes fo
narrow, that when his men v^ere furioufly repulfed .by
Simon, they had not room enough to make a quick
retreat, fo that there was a number of them killed in
it. This overfight wus quickly redlified ; and the at¬
tack renewed with fuch vigour, that the place was car-
40 ried four days after their firft repulfe.
Famine and The famine, raging in a terrible manner in the city,
peftileace was foon followed by a peftilence ; and as thefe two
sn the City. dreacjfuj judgments increafed, fo did the rage of the
fadtious, who by their inteftine feuds, had deftroyed
fuch quantities of provifion, that they were forced to
prey upon the people with the moft unheard-of cruelty.
They forced their houfes; and, if they found any
vidluals in them, they butchered them for not appri-
fing them of it; and, if they found nothing but bare
walls, which was almoft everywhere the cafe, they put
them to the moft fevere tortures, under pretence that
they had fome provifion concealed. “ I fhould (fays
Jofephus) undertake an impoflible talk, were I to en¬
ter into a detail of all the cruelties of thofe impious
wretches } it will be fufficient to fay, that I do not
think, that fince the creation any city ever fuffered
fuch dreadful calamities, or abounded with men fo
fertile in all kinds of wickednefs.”
Titus, who knew their miferable condition, and was
ftill willing to fpare them, gave them four days to
cool j during which he caufed his army to be mufter-
ed, and provifions to be diftributed to them in fight
of the Jews, who flocked upon the walls to fee it. Jo¬
fephus was fent to fpeak to them afrefn, and to exhort
them not to run themfelves into an inevitable ruin by
©bftinately perfifting in the defence of a place which
could hold out but a very little while, and which the
Romans looked upon already as their own. But this
ftubborn people, after many bitter inveftives, began
to dart their arrows at him ; at which, not at all dif-
couraged, he went on with greater vehemence : but
all the effeft it wrought on them was, that it pre¬
vailed on great numbers to fteal away privately to the
4
1 ]
JEW
Jews.
4i
Offers of
peace re¬
jected.
Romans, whilft the reft became only the more defpe-
rate and refolute to hold out to the laft, in fpite of *
Titus’s merciful offers.
To haften therefore their deftined ruin, he caufed
the city to be furrounded with a ftrong wall, to pre¬
vent either their receiving any fuccours or provifion
from abroad, or their efcaping his refentment by flight.
This wall, which was near 40 ftadia or five miles in
circuit, was yet carried on with fuch fpeed, and by fo
many hands, that it was finilhed in three days j by
which one may guefs at the ardour of the befiegers to
make themfclves mailers of the city.
There was now nothing to be feen through the ftreets
of Jerufalem but heaps of dead bodies rotting above
ground, walking ikeletons, and dying wretches. As-
many as were caught by the Romans in their failles,
Titus caufed to be facrificed in fight of the town, to
ftrike terror among the reft : but the zealots gave it
out, that they were thofe who fled to him for protec¬
tion j which when Titus underftood, he fent a prifoner
with his hands cut off to undeceive, and affure them,
that he fpared all that voluntarily came over to him j
which encouraged great numbers to accept his offers,
though the avenues were clofely guarded by the faftious,.
who put all to death w'ho were caught going on that
errand. A greater mifchief than that was, that even
thofe who efcaped fafe to the Roman camp were mi-
ferably butchered by the foldiers, from a notion which
thefe had taken that they had fwallowed great quan¬
tities of gold 5 fo that two thoufand of them were rip¬
ped up in one night, to come at their fuppofed treafure.
When Titus was apprifed of this barbarity, he would
have condemned all thofe butchering wretches to
death ; but they proved fo numerous, that he was forced
to fpare them, and contented himfelf with fending a
proclamation through his camp, that as many as (hould
be fufpe&ed thenceforward of that horrid villany {hould
be put to immediate death : yet did this not deter
many of them from it, only they did it more privately
than before 5 fo greedy were they of that bewitching
metal. All this while the defeftion increafed. ftill
more through the inhumanity of the faction within,
who made the miferies and dying groans of their ftar-
ving brethren the fubjedt of their cruel mirth, and
carried their barbarity even to the fheathing of their
fwords in fport in thofe poor wretches, under pretence
of trying their (harpnefs.
When they found therefore that neither their guards
nor feverities could prevent the people’s flight, they
had recourfe to another ftratagem equally impious and
cruel : which was, to hire a pack of vile pretenders to
prophecy, to go about and encourage the defpairing
remains of the people to expedl a fpeedy and miracu¬
lous deliverance } and this impofture proved a greater
expedient with that infatuated nation than their other,
precautions. _ 4,1
Nothing could be more dreadful than the familhed Miferable
condition to which they were now reduced. The poor,c,u-n _m
having nothing to truft to but the Roman’s mercy oroftheJewSa
a fpeedy death, ran all hazards to get out of the city ;
and if in their flight, and wandering out for herbs or
any other fuftenance, they fell into the hands of any of
Titus’s parties fent about to guard the avenues, they
were unmercifully fcourged, and crucified if they made
the leaft refiftance. The rich within the walls were
now,
J E W
[
Jews.
43
A mother
eats her
own child.
44
Titus
fwears the
total ruin
of the city.
, 45
John plun¬
ders the
temple.
now forced, though in the molt private manner, to give
^ half, or all they were worth, for a meafure of wheat,
and the middling fort for one of barley. This they
were forced to convey into feme private place in their
houfes, and to feed upon it as it was, without daring
to pound or grind it, much lefs to boil or bake it, lelt
the noife or fmell fhould draw the rapacious zealots to
come and tear it from them. Not that thefe were re¬
duced to any real wrant of provifions : but they had a
double end in this barbarous plunder ; to wit, the Hal¬
ving .what they cruelly Hyled all ufelefs perfons, and
the keeping their own ftores in referve. It was upon,
this fad and pinching juncture, that an unhappy mo¬
ther was reduced to the extremity of butchering and
eating her own child.
When this news was fpread through the city, the hor¬
ror and confternation were as univerfal as they were
inexpreffible. It was then that they began to think
themfelves forfaken by the Divine Providence, and to
expeft the mell terrible effects of his anger again!! the
poor remains of their nation j infomuch that they be¬
gan to envy thofe that had perifhed before them, and
to with their turn might come before the fad expected
catallrophe. Their fears were but too juft j iince Ti¬
tus, at the very firft hearing of this inhuman deed,
fw'ore the total extirpation of city and people. “ Since
(faid he) they have fo often refufed my proffers of
pardon, and have preferred war to peace, rebellion to
obedience, and famine, fuch a dreadful one efpecially,
to plenty, I am determined to bury that accurfed me¬
tropolis under its ruins, that the fun may never Ihoot
his beams on a city where the mothers feed on the flefti
of their children, and the fathers, no lefs guilty than
they, choofe to drive them to fuch extremities, rather
than lay down their arms.”
The dreadful action happened about the end of July,
by which time the Romans, having purfued their at¬
tacks with frefli vigour, made themfelves mafters of
the fortrefs Antonia ; which obliged the Jews to fet
fire to thofe ftately galleries which joined it to the
temple, left they Ihould afford an eafy paffage to the
befiegers into this laft. About the fame time Titus,
•with much difficulty, got materials for railing new
mounds and terraces, in order to haften the liege, and
fave, if poffible, the fad remains of that once glorious
itru&ure ; but his pity proved ftill worfe and worle
bellowed on thofe obftinate wretches, who only be¬
came the more furious and defperate by it. Titus at
length caufed fire to be let to the gates, after having
had a very bloody encounter, in which his men were
repul fed with lofs. The Jews wei-e fo terrified at it,
that they fullered themfelves to be devoured by the
flames, without attempting either to extinguilh them
or fave themfelves. All this while Jofephus did not
ceafe exhorting the infatuated people to furrender, to
xeprelent to them the dreadful confequences of an ob¬
ftinate refinance, and to affure them that it was out of
mere cempaffion to them that he thus hazarded his
own life to fave theirs : he received one day fuch a
wound in his head by a ftone from the battlements, as
laid him for dead on the ground. The Jews fallied
out immediately, to have feized on his body : but the
Romans proved too quick and ftrong for them, and car¬
ried him off. ,
By this time the two fa&ions within, but efpecially
52 -] J E W
that of John, having plundered rich and poor of all Jews,
they had, fell alf© on the treafury of the temple, “ v—~
whence John took a great quantity of golden uten-
lils, together with thofe magnificent gifts which had
been prefented to thatfaered place by the Jewilh kings,
by Auguftus, Livia, and many other foreign princes,
and melted them all to his own ufe. The rtpofitories
of the facred oil which w as to maintain the lamps, and
of the wine which was referved to accompany the ufual
facrifices, were likewife feized upon, and turned into
common ufe ; and the laft of this to fuch excefs, as
to make himfelf and his party drunk with it. All
this while, not only the zealots, but many of the
people, were ftill under fuch an infatuation, that though
the fortrefs Antonia was loft, and nothing left but
the temple, which the Romans were preparing to bat¬
ter down, yet they could not perfuade themfdves that
God would fuffer that holy place to be taken by hea¬
thens, and were ftiil expending fume hidden and mira¬
culous deliverance. Even that vile monfter John,
who commanded there, either feemed confident of it,
or elfe endeavoured to make them think him fo. For,
when Jofephus was fent for the laft time to upbraid
his obftinately expofing that facred building, and the
miferable remains of God’s people, to fudden and
fure deftruelion, he only anfwered him with the bit-
tertft inve&ives; adding, that he was defending the
Lord’s vineyard, which he was fure could not be taken
by any human force. Jofephus in vain reminded him
of the many ways by which he had polluted both city
and temple ; and in particular of the leas of blood
which he caufed to be Ihed in both thole facred places,
and which, he affured him from the old prophecies,
were a certain fign and forerunner of their fpeedy fur-
render and deftrmftion. John remained as inflexible
as if all the prophets had affured him of a deliverance,
till at length Titus, forefeeing the inevitable ruin of
that ftately edifice, which he was ftill extremely de-
firous to fave, vouchfafed even himfelf to fpeak to
them, and to perfuade them to furrender. But the
factious, looking upon this condefcenfion as the ef¬
fects of his fear rather than generofity, only grew the
more furious upon it, and forced him at laft to come
to thole extremities which he had hitherto endeavour¬
ed to avoid. That his army, which was to attack the
temple, might have the freer paffage towards it through
the caftle Antonia, he caufed a confiderable part of
the wall to be pulled down and levelled j which proved
fo very llrong, that it took him up feven whole days,
by which lime they were far advanced in the month of
July.
It was on the 17th day of that month, as all Jofe-The daily
phus’s-copies have it, that the daily facrifice ceafed forfacrifice in*
the firft time fince its reftoration by the brave Judas terrupte(*‘
Maccabeus, there being no proper perfon left in the
temple to offer it up. Titus caufed the faftious to be
feverely upbraided for it j exhorted John to fet up
whom he would to perform that office, rather than fuf¬
fer the fervicb of God to be fet afide j and then chal¬
lenged him and his party to come out of the temple,
and fight on a more proper ground, and thereby lave
that facred edifice from the fury of the Roman troops.
When nothing could prevail on them, they began to
fet fire again to the gallery which formed a communi¬
cation between the temple and the caftle Antonia. The
Jews
*
JEW r 153 1 j E W
Jews, Jews had already burnt about 20 cubits of it in length ;
  v   but this fecond blaze, which was likewife encouraged
by the befieged, confumed about 14 more j after
which, they beat down what remained (landing. On
the 27th of July, the Jews, having filled part of the
weftern portico with combufiible matter, made a kind
of flight ; upon which, feme of the forwarded of the
Romans having foaled up to the top, the Jews fet fire
to it, which flamed with fuch bidden fury, that many
of the former were confumed in it, and the red, ven¬
turing to jump clown from the battlements, were, all
but one, crufhed to death.
On the very next day, Titus having fet fire to the
north gallery, which inclofed the outer court of the
temple, from Fort Antonia to the valley of Cedron, got
an eafy admittance into it, and forced the befieged in¬
to that of the prieds. He tried in vain fix days to bat¬
ter down one of the galleries of that precindl with an
helepolis : he was forced to mount his battering-rams
on the terrace, which was raifed by this time ; and yet
the drength of this wall was fuch, that it eluded the
force of thefe alfo, though others of his troops were
bufy in fapping it. When they found that neither
rams nor fapping could gain ground, they bethought
themfelves of foaling ; but were vigoroufly repulfed in
the attempt, with the lob of feme dandards, and a
Thelites number of men. When Titus therefore found that his
of the defire of laving that building was like to cod fo many
temple fet lives, be fet fire to the gates, which, being plated
entire. Vvith filver, burnt all that night, whild the metal dropt
down in the melting. The flame foon communicated
itfelf to the porticoes and galleries j which the befleged
beheld without offering to dop it, but contented them¬
felves with fending whole volleys of impotent curfts
againd the Romans, This was done on the 8th of
Augud ; and, on the next day, Titus, having given
orders to extinguifli the fire, called a council, to de¬
termine whether the remainder of the temple (hould
be faved or demolifned. That general was dill for
the former, and mod of the red declared for the lat¬
ter j alleging, that it was no longer a temple, but a
feene of war and daughter, and that the Jews would
never be at red as long as any part of it was left
(landing : but when they found Titus diffly bent ®n
preferving fo noble an edifice, againd which he told
them he could have no quarrel, they all came over to
his mind. The next day, Augud the icth, was
therefore determined for a general affault : and the
night before the Jews made two defperate fallies on
the Romans ; in the lad of which, thefe, being time¬
ly fuccoured by Titus, beat them back into their inclo-
fure.
But whether this lad Jewifh effort exafperated the
befiegers, or, which is more likely, as Jofephus thinks,
pudied by the hand of Providence, one of the Roman
foldiers, of his own accord, took up a blazing fire¬
brand, and, getting on his comrade’s (boulders, threw
it into one of the apartments that furrounded the fanc-
tuary, through a window. This immediately fet the
whole north fide in a flame up to the third dory, on
the fame fatal day and month in which it had been
formerly burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. Titus, who was
gone to red himfelf a while in his pavilion, was awaked
at the nolle, and ran immediately to give orders to
have the fire extinguidied. He called, prayed, threat-
Vol. XI. Part I.
ened, and even caned his men, but in vain 5 the con- -<-w$,
full on was fo great, and the foldiers fo obdJnately bent '““""v"- *
upon dedroying all that was left, that he was neither-
heard nor minded. Thofe that flocked thither from
the camp, indead of obeying his orders, were bufy,
either in killing the Jews, or in increaling the flames.
When Titus obferved that all his endeavours were
vain, he entered into the famduftry and the mod ho¬
ly place, in which he found dill fuch fumptuous uten-
fils and other riches as even exceeded all that had
been told him of it. Out of the former he faved the
golden candleftick, the table of (hew-bread, the altar
of perfumes, all of pure gold, and the book or volume
of the law, wrapped up in a rich gold tiffue : but in
the latter he found no utenfils, becaufe, in all proba¬
bility, they had not made a frefh ark fince that of So¬
lomon had been led. Upon his coming out of that
facred place, Tome other foldiers fet fire to it, and obli¬
ged tbofe that had flaid behind to come out $ they all
fell foul on the plunder of it, tearing even the gold
plating off the gates and timber work, and carried off
all the codly utenfils, robes, &c. they found, infomuch
that there was not one of them who did not enrich
himfelf by it. 4S
An horrid maffacre followed foon after, in which a A- dreadful
great many theufands perifhed j fome by the flames, nia"iACre‘
others by the fall from the battlements, and a great¬
er number by the enemy’s fword, which dedroyed
all it met with, without didinftion of age, fex, or
quality. Among them were upwards of 6000 per-
fons who had been feduced thither by a falfe pro¬
phet, who promifed them that they (hordd find a
fpeedy and miraculous relief there on that very day.
Some of them remained five whole days on the top of
the walls, and afterwards threw themfelves on the ge¬
neral’s mercy j but were anfwered that they had out-
daid the time, and were led to execution. The Romans
carried their fury to the burning of all the treafure-
houfes of the place, though they were full of the rich-
ed furniture, plate, vedments, and other things of va¬
lue, which had been laid up in thofe places for fecurxty.
In a word, they did not ceafe burning and butchering,
till they had dedroyed all, except two of the temple-
gates, and that part of the court which was dedined
for the women.
In the mean time the feditious made fuch a vigor¬
ous pufh, that they efcaped the fury of the Romans,
at lead for the prefent, and retired into the city. But
here they found all the avenues fo well guarded, that
there was no podibility left for them to get out j which
obliged them to fecure themfelves as well as they
could on the fouth fide of it, from whence Simon, and
John of Gifchala, fent to defire a parley with Titus.
They were anfwered, that though they had been the
caufe of all this bloodflied and ruin, yet they {hould
have their lives fpared, if they laid down their arms
and furrendered themfelves prifoners. To this they
replied, that they had engaged themfelves, by jhe
mod folemn oaths, never to furrender; and, therefore,
only begged leave to retire into the mountains with
their wives and children : which infolence fo exafpe¬
rated the Roman general, that he caufed an herald to
bid them dand to their defence 5 for that not one of
them (hould be fpared, fince they had reje&ed his lad
offers of pardon. Immediately after this, he aban-
U doned
J E W [ i54 ] J E Z
Jews, donee] tlie city to the fury of the foldiers, who fell
v~~' forthwith on plundering, felting firo everywhere, and
murdering all that fell into their hands j whilft the
faftious, who were left, went and fortified themfelves
in the royal palace, where they killed 8000 Jews who
had taken refuge there.
In the mean time, great preparations were making
for a vigorous attack on the upper city, efpecially on
the royal palace ; and this took them up from the
20th of Auguft to the 7th of September, during
which time great numbers came and made their fub-
miffion to Titus. The warlike engines then played fo
furioufly on the fa&ious, that they were taken with a
fudden panic *, and inftead of fleeing to the towers
of Hippicos, Phafael, or Mariamne, which were yet
untaken, and fo ftrong that nothing but famine could
have reduced them, they ran like madmen towards
Siloah, with a defign to have attacked the wall of cir-
cumvallation, and to have efcaped out of the city j
but, being there repulfed, they were forced to go and
hide themfelves in the public finks and common few-
ers, fome one way and fome another. All whom the
Romans could find were put to the fword, and the ci¬
ty was fet on fire. This was on the eighth of Sep¬
tember, when the city was taken and entered by Ti¬
tus. He would have put an end to the maflacre j but
his men killed all, except the molt vigorous, whom
they ihut up in the porch of the women juft mention¬
ed. Fronto, who had the care of them, referved the
youngeft and moft beautiful for Titus’s triumph j
and fent all that were above feventeen years of age in¬
to Egypt, to be employed in fome public works there ;
and a great number of others were fent into feveral ci¬
ties of Syria, and other provinces, to be expofed on the
public theatre, to exhibit fights, or be devoured by
wild beafts. The number of thofe prifoners amounted
to 97,000, befides about 11,000 more, who were either
ftarved through negleft, or ftarved themfelves through
fullennefs and defpair.—The whole number of Jews
who periftied in this war is computed at upwards of
1,400,000.
Befides thefe, however, a vaft number perilhed in
caves, woods, wilderneffes, common-fewers, &c. of
whom no computation could be made. Whilft the
foldiers were ftill bufy in burning the remains of the
49 city, and vifiting all the hiding-places, where they
Simon and kme(l numbers of poor creatures who had endeavoured
unta en. to eva(je their cruelty, the two grand rebels Simon
and John were found, and referved for the triumph of
the conqueror. John, being pinched with hunger,
foon came out j and having begged his life, obtained
it j but was condemned to perpetual imprifonment.
Simon, whofe retreat had been better ftored, held out
till the end of October. The two chiefs, with 700
of the handfomeft Jewilh captives, were made to at¬
tend the triumphal chariot; after which Simon was
dragged through the ftreets with a rope about his
neck, feverely fcourged, and then put to death j and
John was fent into perpetual imprifoument.—Three
caftles ftill remained untaken, namely, Herodion,
5° Machseron, and Maffada. The two former capitulated j
enVofJhe ^ut- Mafifiicla held out. The place was exceedingly
garrifon of ftrong both by nature and art, well ftored with all
Mafiada.. kinds of provifions, and defended by a numerous gar-
rifon of zealots, at the head of whom was one Elea- Jews,
zar, the grandfon of Judas Gaulonites, formerly men- Jez'des.
tioned. The Roman general having in vain tried his
engines and battering-rams againft it, bethought him-
felf of furrounding it with a high and ftrong wall, and
then ordered the gates to be fet on fire. The wind
puftted the flames fo fiercely againft the Jews, that
Eleazar in defpair perfuaded them firft to kill their
wives and children, and then to choofe ten men by lot,
who fiiould kill all the reft j and laftly one out of the
furviving ten to difpatch them and himielf; only this
laft man was ordered to fet fire to the place before he
put an end to his own life. All this was accordingly
done j and on the morrow, wrhen the Romans w’ere pre¬
paring to feale the walls, they were greatly furprifed
neither to fee nor hear any thing move. On this they
made fuch an hideous outcry, that two women, who
had concealed themfelves in an aqueduft, came forth
and acquainted them with the defperate cataftrophe of
the befieged.
Thus ended the Jewilh nation and worlhip ; norst.at/of ^
have they ever fince been able to regain the fmalleft jews fince
footing in the country of Judea, nor indeed in any the deftruc-:
other country on earth, though there is fearce any part^0” °f.
of the globe where they are not to be found. They t^eir cltJ* i
continue their vain expectations of a Mefliah to deli¬
ver them from the low eftate into which they are fal¬
len j and, notwithftanding their repeated difappoint-
ments, there are few who can ever be perfuaded to
embrace Chriftianity. Their ceremonies and religious
worfhip ought to be taken from the law of Mofes $
but they have added a multitude of abfurdities not
worth the inquiring after. In many countries, and in
different ages, they have been terribly maffacred, and
in general have been better treated by the Mahome¬
tans and Pagans than by Chriftians, Since the revi¬
val of arts and learning, however, they have felt the
benefit of that increafe of humanity which has diffu-
fed itfelf almoft over the globe. It is faid, that in this
country the life of a Jew was formerly at the difpofal
of the chief lord where he lived, and likewife all his
goods. So ftrong alfo Mere popular prejudices and fuf-
picions againft them, that in the year 1348, a fatal
endemic diftemper raging in a great part of Europe,
it was faid that they had poifoned the fprings and
■wells , in confequence of which a million and a half
of them were cruelly maffacred. In 1492, half a mil¬
lion of them were driven out of Spain, and 150,000
from Portugal. Edward I. did the fame. In ftiort,
they were everywhere perfecuted, oppreffed, and moft
rigoroufly treated.
In this enlightened period a more generous fyftem is
followed. France has allowed them the rights of ci¬
tizens, which induces numbers of the moft wealthy
Jews to fix their refidence in that country. Poland
granted them very great privileges and immunities 5
England, Holland, and Pruflia tolerate and protefi
them > and the emperor has revoked fome reftriftions,
for which an ediCl was paffed : Spain, Portugal, and
fome of the Italian ftates, are ftill, however, it is laid,
averfe to their dwelling among them.
JEZIDES, among the Mahometans*, a term of fi-
milar import vith heretics among Chriftians.
The Jezides are a numerous fed inhabiting Turkey
and
I G L
Jezules and Perfia, fo called from their head^ Jezid,
11 bian prince, M’ho flew the fons of Ali, Mahomet’s fa-
Ig'a- ther in law j for which reafon he is reckoned a parri-
c;(jej ancj ]u*s followers heretics. There are about
2o,ooo lezides in Turkey and Perfia ; who are of
two forts, black and white. The white are clad like
Turks; and diftinguilhed only by their fliirts, which
are not flit at the neck like thofe of others, but have
only a round hole to thruft their heads through. This
is in memory of a golden ring, or circle of light, which
defcended from heaven upon the neok of their cheq,
the head of their religion, after his undergoing a fall
of forty days. The black Jezides, though married,
are the monks or religious of the order ; and thefe are
called Fakirs.
The Turks exadl excefflve taxes from the Jezides,
who hate the Turks as their mortal enemies } and when,
in their wrath, they curfe any creature, they call it
mujjulman : but they are great lovers of the Chriftians,
being more fond of Jefus Chrift than ofTVIahomet, and
are never circumcifed but when they are forced to it.
They are extremely Ignorant, and believe both the
bible and the koran without reading either of them :
they make vows and pilgrimages, but have no places of
religious worfliip.
All the adoration they pay to God confifts of feme
fongs in honour of Jefus Chrift, the virgin, Mofes,
and fometimes Mahomet ; and it is a principal point
of their religion never to fpeak ill of the devil, left he
Ihould refent the injury, if ever he (hould come to be in
favour with God again, which they think poflible $
whenever they fpeak of him, they call him the angel
Peacock. They bury their dead in the firft place they
come at, rejoicing as at a feftival, and celebrating the
■entry of the deceafed into heaven. They go in com¬
panies like the Arabians, and change their habitations
every 15 days. When they get wine, they drink it
to excefs; and it is faid, that they fometimes do this
“with a religious purpofe, calling it the blood of Chrift.
They buy their wives and the market-price is 200
Crowns for all women, handfome or not, without dif-
tinftron. -
JEZRAEL, or Jezreel, a town in the north of
Samaria, towards Mount Carmel, where flood a palace
of the kings of Ifrael, (1 Kings xxi. 18.). On the
borders of Galilee (Jofliua xix.) faid to be one of
the towns of Ilfachar.—The valley of Jezreel (Judges
vi. 17.) was fituated to the north of the town, run¬
ning from weft to eaft for ten miles, between two
mountains j the one to the north, commonly called
Herman, near Mount Tabor j the other Gi/boa: in
breadth two miles.
IF, an ifland of France, in Provence, and the moft
eaftern of the three before the harbour of Marfeilles.
It is very well fortified, and its port one of the beft in
the Mediterranean.
IGIS, a town of the country of the Grifons, in
Caddea, with a magnificent caftle, in which is a cabi¬
net of curiofities, and a handfome library j 23 miles
fouth-w-eft of Choira, and 23 fouth of Claris. E. Long.
9. o. N. Lat. 49. 10.
IGLAW, a confiderable and populous town of
Germany, in Moravia, where they have a manufactory
of good cloth, and excellent beer. It is feated on the
[ 155 ] 1 G N
an Ara- river Igla, 40 miles weft of Brin, and 62 fouth-eaft of
Prague. E. Long. 15. 42. N. Lat. 47. 8.
IGNATIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the ,
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
IGNATIUS Loyola, (canonized), the founder
of the well-known order of the Jesuits, was born at
the caftle of Loyola, in Bifeay, 1491 j and became
firft page to Ferdinand V. king of Spain, and then an
officer in his army. In thislaft capacity, he fignalized
himfelf by his valour j and was wounded in both legs
at the fiege of Pampeluna, in 1521. To this circum-
ftance the Jefuits owe their origin ; for, while he was
under cure of his wound, a Life of the Saints was put
into his hands, which determined him to forfaks the
military for the ecclefiaftical profeffion. His firft de¬
vout exercife was to dedicate himfelf to the blefled vir¬
gin as her knight : he then went a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land; and on his return to Europe, he conti¬
nued his theological ftudies in the univerfities of Spain,
though he was then 33 years of age. After this he
wrent to Paris j and in France laid the foundation ef
this newr order, the inftitutes of which he prefented
to Pope Paul III. who made many objections to them,
but at laft in 1540 confirmed the inftitution. The
founder died in 1555, and left his difciples two famous
books; 1. Spiritual exercifes 3 2. Conftitutions or rules
of the order. But it muft be remembered, that though
thefe avowed inftitutes contain many privileges ob¬
noxious to the welfare of fociety, the moft diabolical
are contained in the private rules, intitled Monita fecre-
ta, which were not difeovered till towards the clofe of
the laft century ; and moft writers attribute thefe, and
even the Conftitutions, to Laynez, the fecond general
of the order.
Ignatius, St, furnamed Theophrajlus, one of the
apoftolical fathers of the church, was born in Syria,
and educated under the apoftle and evangelift St John,
and intimately acquainted with feme other of the
apoftles, efpecially St Peter and St Paul. Being fully
inftrufted in the doClrines of Chxiftianity, he was, for
his eminent parts and piety, ordained by St John, and
confirmed about the year 67 biffiop of Antioch, by
thefe two apoftles, who firft planted Chriftianity in that
city, where the difciples alfo were firft: called Chrijlians.
Antioch was then not ouly the metropolis of Syria,
but a city the moft famous and renowned of any in the
eaft, and the ancient feat of the Roman emperors, as
well as of the viceroys and governors. In this impor¬
tant feat he continued to fit fomewhat above 40 years,
both an honour and fafeguard of the Chriftian reli¬
gion, till the year 107, when Trajan the emperor,
flulhed with a viclory which he had lately obtained
over the Scythians and Daci, about the ninth year of
his reign, came to Antioch to make preparations for
a war againft the Parthians and Armenians. He en¬
tered the city with the pomp and folemnities of a tri¬
umph ; and, as his firft care ufually was about the con¬
cernments of religion, he began prefently to inquire
into that affair. Chriftianity had by this time made
fuch a progrefs, that the Romans grew jealous and
uneafy at it. This prince, therefore, had already-
commenced a perfecution againft the Chriftians in
other parts of the empire, wffiich he now refolved to
carry on here. However, as he was naturally of a
U 2 mild
Iglaw
il
Ignatius.
I G N [ 156 ] ' I G N
Ignatius, mild difpofltion, though he ordered the laws to be put
in force againft them if convifted, yet he forbade them
to be fought after.
In this ftate of affairs, Ignatius, thinking it more
prudent to go himfelf than flay to be fent for, of his
own accord prefented himfelf to the emperor ; and, it
is faid, there paffed a long and particular difcourfe be¬
tween them, wherein the emperor exprefling a furprife
how he dared to tranfgrefs the laws, the bifhop took
the opportunity to affert his own innocency, and to
explain and vindicate his faith and freedom. The if-
fue of this was, that he was caff into prifon, and this
fentence paffed upon him, That, being incurably over¬
run with fuperffition, he fhould be carried bound by
foldiers to Rome, and there thrown as a prey to wild
beads.
He was firff conduced to Seleucia, a port of Syria,
at about 16 miles diftance, the place where Paul and
Barnabas fet fail for Cyprus. Arriving at Smyrna in
Ionia, he went to vifft Polycarp bifhop of that place,
and was himfelf viflted by the clergy of the Allan
churches round the country. In return for that kind-
nefs, he wrote letters to feveral churches, as the Ephe-
fians, Magnefians, and Trallians, befides the Romans,
for their inftrufb’on and eftablifhment in the faith j one
of thefe was addreiTed to the Chriffians at Rome, to
acquaint them with his prefent ftate, and pailionate de-
ffre not to be hindered in the courfe of martyrdom
which he was how haftening to accomplifh.
H is guard, a little impatient of their ftay, fet fail
with him for Troas, a noted city of the leffer Phry¬
gia, not far from the ruins of old Troy 5 where, at
» his arrival, he was much refrefhed with the news he
received of the perfecution ceafing in the church of
Antioch : hither alfo feveral churches fent their mef-
fengers to pay their refpecfs to him 5 and hence too he
dsfpatched two epiftles, one to the church of Phila¬
delphia, and the other to that of Smyrna,- and, to¬
gether with this laft, as Eufebius relates, he wrote pri¬
vately to Polycarp, recommending to him the care and
infpedion of the church of Antioch.
From Troas they failed to Neapolis, a maritime
town in Macedonia j thence to Philippi, a Roman co¬
lony, where they were entertained with all imaginable
kindnefs and courtefy, and conduced forwards on their
journey, pafting on foot through Macedonia and Epi¬
rus, till they came to Epidamnium, a city of Dalma¬
tia : where again taking (hipping, they failed through
the Adriatic, and arrived at Rhegium, a port-town in
Italy dire&ing their courfe thence through the Tyr¬
rhenian fea to Puteoli, whence Ignatius deftred to
proceed by land, ambitious to trace the fame way by
which St Paul went to Rome : but this wi(h was not
complied with ; and, after a ftay of 24 hours, a prof-
perous wind quickly carried them to the Roman port,
the great harbour and ftation for their navy, built
near Oftia, at the mouth of the Tyber, about 16 miles
(rom Rome whither the martyr longed to come, as
much defirous to be at the end of his race, as his
keepers, weary of their voyage, were to be at the end
„ of their journey.
The Chriftians at Rome, daily expelling his arrival,
were come out to meet and entertain him, and accor¬
dingly received him with a mixture of joy and forrow;
but when fome of them intimated, that poflibly the
2 '
populace might be taken off from defiring his death, Ignatiu*,
he expreffed a pious indignation, intreating them to I?nis'
caft no rubs in his way, nor do any thing that might fatuu<:'
hinder him, now he was haftening to his crown. There
are many fuch expreflions as this in his epiftle to the
Romans, which plainly (how that he was highly am¬
bitious of the crown of martyrdom. Yet it does not
appear that he rafhly fought or provoked danger. A-
mong other expreffions of his ardour for fuffering, he
faid, that the wild beads bad feared and refufed to
touch forae that had been thrown to them, which ha
hoped would not happen to him. Being conduced,
to Rome, he was prefented to the praefefl, and the
emperor’s letters probably delivered concerning him.
The interval before his martyrdom was fpent in pray¬
ers for the peace and profperity of the church. That
his punifhment might be the more pompous and pub¬
lic, one of their folemn feftivals, the time of their Sa¬
turnalia, and that part of it when they celebrated their
Sigillaria, was pitched on for his execution 5 at which
time it was their cuftom to entertain the people with
the bloody conflifls of gladiators, and the hunting and
fighting with wild beads. Acccordingly, on the 13th
kal. January, i. e. December 20. he was brought out
into the amphitheatre, and the lions being let loofe
upon him, quickly difpatched their meal, leaving no¬
thing but a few of the hardeft of his bones. Thefe
remains were gathered up by two deacons who had
been, the companions of his journey ; and being tranf-
ported to Antioch, were interred in the cemetery,
without the gate that leads to Daphne j whence, by
the command of the emperor Theodofius, they were
removed with great pomp and folemnity to the Ty-
cheon, a temple within the city, dedicated to the pub¬
lic genius of it, but now confecrated to the memory of
the martyr.
St Ignatius (lands at the head of thofe Antinicenc
fathers, who have occafionally delivered their opinions
in defence of the true divinity of Chrift, whom he calls N
the Son of God, and his eternal word. He is alfo reck¬
oned the great champion of the doflrine of the epif-
copal order, as diftincl and fuperior to that of pried
and deacon. And one, the moft important, ufe of his
writings refpefts the authenticity of the Holy Scrip¬
tures, which he frequently alludes to, in the very ex-
preffions as they (land at this day.—Archbilhop Ufti-
er’s edition of his works, printed in 1647, thought
the heft : yet there is a freftier edition extant at Am-
fterdam, where, befide the beft notes, there are the
differtations of Uftier and Pearfon.
St Ignatius's Bean, the fruit of a plant. See Igka-
TiA, Botany Index.
IGNIS-Fatuus, a kind of light, fuppofed to be of
an ele&ric nature, appearing frequently in mines,
marftiy places, and near ftagnating waters. It was
formerly thought, and is (till by the fuperftitious
believed, to have fomething ominous in its nature,
and to prefage death and other misfortunes. There
have been inftances of people being decoyed by thefe
lights into marfliy places, where they have periftied £
whence the names of Ignis-fatuus, IVill-with-a-wifp,
and Jach-%vith-a lanthorn, as if this appearance were
an evil fpirit which took delight in doing mifchief
of that kind. The general opinion is, that this light is
owing to the decompofition of animal or vegetable mat¬
ters.
Tgms-
fatuus
n
I G N [i5
ters, or to the evolulion of gafes which fpontaneoufly
inflame in the atmofphere.
IGNITION, properly fignifies the fetting fire to
Ignorance. ^ fubftance *, the fenfe is fometimes limited to that
l^brd of burning which is not accompanied with flame,
fuch as that of charcoal, cinders, metals, ftones, and
other folid fubftances. The effeas of ignition, according
to the old chemical doarine, are firfl: to diffipate what is
called the phlogijion of the ignited fubftance, after
which it is reduced to allies. Vitrification next fol¬
lows ; and laftly the fubftance is totally diflipated in
vapour. All thefe effeas, however, depend on the
prefence of the air 5 for in vacuo the phlogifton of any
fubftance cannot be diflipated. Neither can a body
which is totally deftitute of phlogifton be. ignited in
fuch a manner as thofe which are not deprived of it:
for as long as the phlogifton remains, the heat is kept
up in the body by the aaion of the external air upon
it; but when the phlogifton is totally gone, the air
always deftroys, inftead of augmenting, thb heat. But
for the explanation of the phenomena of ignition, ac¬
cording to the views of modern chemiftry, fee Combus¬
tion, Chemistry Index.
IGNOBILES, amongft the Romans, was the defig-
nation of fuch perfons as had no right of ufing piftures
and ftatues. See JdS Imagmis.
IGNOMINIA, a fpecies ofpunifhment amongft the
Romans, whereby the offender fuffered public ftiame,
either by virtue of the praetor’s edidl, or by order of
the cenfor. This punUhment, befides the fcandal, de¬
prived the party of the privilege of bearing any offices,
and almoft all other liberties of a Roman citizen.
IGNORAMUS, in Zotu, is a word properly ufed
by the grand inqueft empannelled in the inquifition
of caufes criminal and public, and written upon the
bill, whereby any crime is offered to their confideration,
when, as they miflike their evidence as defeftive or too
weak to make good the prefentment j the effeft of
which word fo written is, that all farther inquiry upon
that party for that fault is thereby flopped, and he
delivered without farther anfwer. It hath a refem-
blance with tl;at cuftom of the ancient Romans, where
the judges, when they abfolved a perfon accufed, did
write A. upon a little table provided for that pur-
pofe, i. e. abfohimus; if they judged him guilty,
they wrote C. i. e. condemnamus ; if they found the
caufe difficult and doubtful, they wrote N. L. i. e. no?i
liquet.
IGNORANCE, the privation or abfence of knovr-
ledge. The caufes of ignorance, according to Locke,
are chiefly thefe three. 1. Want of ideas. 2. Want
of a difcoverable connexion between the ideas we have.
3. Want of tracing and examining our ideas. See Me¬
taphysics.
Ignorance, in a more particular fenfe, is ufed to
denote illiteracy. Previous to the taking of Rome by
the Gauls, fuch grofs ignorance prevailed among the
Romans that few of the citizens could read or write, aud
the alphabet was almoft unknown. During three ages
there were no public fchools, but the little learning their
children had was taught them by their parents; and how
little that was may be partly concluded from this circum-
flance, that a nail was annually driven into the wall of
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinas, on the 15th of Sep¬
tember, to aflift the ignorance of the people in reckon-
7 1 JIB
ing the years, becaufe they were unacquainted with Ignorance
letters or figures. The driving of the nail was after-
wards converted into a religious ceremony, and perform¬
ed by the diBator, to avert public calamities.
IGNORANCE, or miftake, in Law, a defeat of will,
whereby a perfon is excufed from the guilt of a crime,
when, intending to do a lawful a£l, he does that which
is unlawful. For here the deed and the will afting
feparately, there is not that conjundftion between them
which is neceffary to form a criminal aft. But this
muft be an ignorance or miftake of faft, and not an
error in point of law. As if a man intending to kill
a thief or houfe-breaker in his own houfe, by miftake
kills one of his own family, this is no criminal aftion :
but if a man thinks he has a right to kill a perfon
excommunicated or outlawed wherever he meets him,
and does fo; this is w ilful murder. For a miftake in
point of law, which every perfon of diicretion not
only may, but is bound and prefumed to know, is, in
criminal cafes, no fort of defence. Ignorantia juris
quod quifque lenetur fare, neminem excufat, is as well
the maxim of our own law as it was of the Roman.
IGUANA, a fpecies of Lacerta. See Erpeto-
1.0gy Index.
Mud IGUANA, a fpecies of fiffi. See Mur/ena,
Ichthyology Index.
IHOR, Johor, or Jor, a town of Afia, in Ma¬
lacca, and capital of a province of the fame name in
the peninfula beyond the Ganges. It was taken by
the Portuguefe in 1603, who deftroyed it, and car¬
ried eft' the cannon ; but it has fince been rebuilt, and
was afterwards in poffeffion of the Dutch. E. Long.
93. 55. N. Lat. 1. 15.
JIB, theforemoft fail of a ftiip, being a large flay-
fail extended from the outer end of the bowfprit pro¬
longed by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top mail
head. See Sail.
The jib is a fail of great command with any fide-
wind, but efpecially when the fliip is clofe hauled, or
has the wind upon her beam ; and its effort in cajling
the fliip, or turning her head to leeward, is very
powerful and of great utility, particularly when the
ffiip is working through a narrow channel.
JlB-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of
the bowfprit, parallel to its length, and ferving to ex¬
tend the bottom of the jib, and the ftay of the fore-
top-gallant maft. This boom, which is nothing more
than a continuation of the bowfprit forward, to which
it may be confidered as a top-maft, is ufually attached
to the bowfprit, by means of two large boom-irons, or
by one boom-iron, and a cap on the outer end of the
bowfprit; or, finally, by the cap without and a ftrong
laftiing within, inftead of a boom-iron, which is gene¬
rally the method of fecuring it in fmall merchant
ffiips. It may therefore be drawm in upon the bow¬
fprit as occafion requires; which is ufually praftifed
when the fliip enters a harbour, where it might very
foon be broken or carried away, by the veffels which
are moored therein, or paffing by under fail.
JIBBEL or Gebbel Aurey, the Mons Aurafius
of the middle age, an afi'emblage of many very rocky
mountains in Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers. Here
Mr BrUce met with a race of people much fairer in the
complexion than any of the nations to the fouthwardof
Britain: their hair was red, and their eyes blue : they
maintain
JIB [ 158 ] JIG
Jibbel maintain their independence, and are of a favage dif-
’ pofition, fo that our traveller found it difficult to ap-
— 1-1,; proach them with fafety. They are called Neardia j
and each of them has a Greek crofs in the middle be-
'tween the eyes, marked with antimony. They are
divided into tribes, but, unlike, the other Arabs, have
huts in the mountains built of mud and draw 5 and
are, by our author, fuppofed to be a remnant of the
Vandals. He even thinks that they may be defcended
from the remainder of an army of Vandals mentioned
by Procopius, which was defeated among thefe moun¬
tains. They live in perpetual war with the Moors,
and boait that their anceitors were Chriftians. They
pay no taxes.
JIDDA, a town of Arabia, lituated, according to
Mr Bruce, in N. Lat. 28° o' l", E. Long. 390 16' 55",
while others make it 21® 28', and E. Long. 39° 22'.
It is lituated in a very unwholelome, barren, and
defert part of the country. Immediately without the
gate to the eaftward is a defert plain filled with the
huts of the Bedoweens or country Arabs, built of long
bundles of fpartum or bent-grafs put together like
fafeines. Thefe people fupply the town with milk and
butter. “ There is no ftirring out of the town (fays
Mr Bruce) even for a walk, unlefs for about half a mile
on the fouth fide by the fea, where there is a number
of {linking pools of ilagnant water, which contributes
to make the town very unwholefome.”
From the difagreeable and inconvenient fituation of
this port, it is probable, that it would have been long
ago abandoned, had it not been for its vicinity to
Mecca, and the vafi: annual influx of wealth occafioned
by the India trade ; which, however, does not continue,
but paffes on to Mecca, whence it is difperfed all over
the eaft. The town of Jidda itfelf receives but little
advantage, for all the cuftoms are immediately fent to
the needy and rapacious ffieriflf of Mecca and his de¬
pendents. “ The gold (fays Mr Bruce) is returned
in bags and boxes, and pafies on as rapidly to the
Ihips as the goods do to the market, and leaves as
little profit behind. In the mean time provifions rife
to a prodigious price, and this falls upon the townf-
men, while all the profit of the traffic is in the hands
of ftrangers; moll of whom, after the market is over
(which does not lafl fix weeks) retire to Yemen and
other neighbouring countries, which abound in every
■fort of provifion.”
From this fcarcity, Mr Bruce fuppsfes it is, that
polygamy is lefs common here than in any other part
of Arabia. “ Few of the inhabitants of jidda (fays
our author) can avail themfelves of the privilege grant¬
ed by Mahomet. He cannot marry more than one
■wife, becaufe he cannot maintain more; and from this
caufe arifes the want of people and the number of un¬
married women.”
The trade at Jidda is carried on in a manner which
appeared very ftrange to our traveller. . “ Nine {hips
(fays he) were there from India ; fome of them worth
I fuppofe 200,000!. One merchant, a Turk, living
at Mecca, 30 hours journey off, where no Chritlian
dares go, whilft the continent is open to the Turk for
efcape, offers to purchafe the cargoes of four out of
thefe nine fliips himfelf; another of the fame caff
comes and fays he will buy none unlefs he has them
all. The famples are ffiown, and the cargoes of the
> 4
whole nine {hips are carried into the wildefl: parts of Jidda,
Arabia, by men with whom one would not with to Jig*
truft himfelf alone in the field. This is not all j twe ■
India brokers come into the room to fettle the price j
one on the part of the India captain, the other on
that of the buyer the Turk. They are neither Ma¬
hometans nor Chriftians, but have credit with both.
They fit down on the carpet, and take an India {hawl
which they carry on their ftioulder like a napkin, and
fpread it over their hands. They talk in the mean time
indifferent converfation, as if they w'ere employed in
no ferious bufinefs whatever. After about 20 minutes
fpent in handling each others fingers below the ftiawl,
the bargain is concluded, fay for nine Ihips, without
one word ever having been fpoken on the fubjedt, or
pen or ink ufed in any ffiape whatever. There never
was one inftance of a difpute happening in thefe fales.
But this is not all ; the money is yet to be paid. A
private Moor, who has nothing to fupport him but
his charadler, becomes refponfible for the payment of
thefe cargoes. This man delivers a number of coarfe
hempen bags full of what is fuppofed to be money.
He masks the contents upon the bag, and puts his
feal upon the firing that ties the mouth of it. This is
received for what is marked upon it without any one
ever having opened one of the bags ; and in India it is
current for the value marked upon it as long as the
bag lafts.
The port of Jidda is very extenfive, and contains
numberlefs Ihoals, fmall iflands, and funk rocks, with
deep channels, however, between them ; but in the
harbour itfelf ffiips may ride fecure, whatever wind
blows. The only danger is in the coming in or goinp-
out; but as the pilots are very Ikilful, accidents are ne¬
ver known to happen. The charts of this harbour,
as Mr Bruce informs us, are exceedingly erroneous.
While he {laid here, he was defired by Captain
Thornhill to make a new chart of the harbour; but
finding that it had been undertaken by another gentle¬
man, Captain Newland, he dropped it. He argues in the
ftrongeft terms againft the old maps, which he fays
can be of no ufe, but the contrary; and he gives it as
a charatteriftie of the Red fea, “ fcarce to have
foundings in any part of the channel, and often on
both fides ; whilft afhore, foundings are hardly found
a boat length from the main. To this, fays he, I will
add, that there is fcarce one ifland on which I ever
was, where the bowfprit was not over the land, while
there were no foundings by a line heaved over the
ftern. Of all the veffels in Jidda, only two had
their log-lines properly divided, and yet all were
fo fond of their fuppofed accuracy, as to aver they
had kept their courfe within five leagues between In¬
dia and Babelmandel. Yet they had made no eftima-
tion of the currents without the ftraits, nor the different
very ftrong ones foon after pa fling Socotra ; their half¬
minute glaffes, upon a medium, ran 57 feconds; they
had made no obfervations on the tides or currents in
the Red fea, either in the channel or in the inward
paffage; yet there is delineated in this map a courfe of
Captain Newland’s, which he kept in the middle of
the channel, full of {harp angles and ffiort ftretches ;
you would think every yard was meafured and found¬
ed 1”
JIG. See Music, N° 252.
JILLIFREE,
ILA [159] ILA
Jilluree JILLIFREE, a town on the northern bank of the
(I river Gambia, oppofite to James’s ifland, "where the
Englith had formerly a fmall port. The kingdom of
l"”’’v Barra, in which it is fituated, produces abundance of
the neceffaries of life 5 but the chief trade of the inha¬
bitants is in fait, which they carry up the river in ca¬
noes j and, in return, bring down Indian, corn, cotton-
cloths, elephants teeth, fmall quantities of gold dull,
&c. The number of canoes and people continually
employed in this trade, make the king of Barra, ac¬
cording to Mr Park, more formidable to Europeans,
than any other chieftain on the river, and have encou¬
raged him to eftablifh thofe extravagant duties, which
traders of all nations are obliged to pay at entry, a-
mounting almoft to 20I. on each veffel, great and fmall.
Thefe duties are commonly collefted in perfon by the
governor of Jillifree, who is attended by a troublefome
train of dependants, who have fome knowledge of the
Englith language, in confequence of their intercourfe
with them, and beg with fuch importunity, that traders
are often under the neceffity of complying with their
demands, in order to get rid of them. N. Lat. 13. 16.
W. Long. 16. 10. from Greenwich.
JIN. See Genii.
IKEN1LD STREET, one of the four famous ways
which the Romans made in England, called Stratum
Icenvrum, becaufe it began in the country of the Iccni,
who inhabited Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgefhire.
ILA, Ilay, or Ijla, one of the chief of the Hebrides
or Weftern ifles of Scotland, lying to the weft of Jura,
from which it is feparated by a narrow channel. It ex¬
tends 24 miles in length from north to fouth, and is
18 in breadth from eaft to weft. On the eaft fide there
are many lofty fterile mountains j but in the interior,
and to the fouthward and weftward, the land is in good
cultivation. A great body of limeftone of a bluilh co¬
lour, lying in the middle part of the ifland, ftretches al¬
moft through its whole length, and is now extenfively
employed for the purpofes of manure. Marl, which
is alfo abundant, is applied to the fame ufe. Lead-ore
has been dug out in feveral places, and at fo early a
period as the time of the Danes. The principal har¬
bour in Ifla is at Lochindaal, but there are feveral
others which are fafe and commodious. Here are feve¬
ral rivers and lakes well ftored with trout, eels, and
falmon. In the centre is Loch Finlagan, about three
miles in circuit, wfith the little ifle of that name in the
middle. Here the great lord of the Ifles once refided
in all the pomp of royalty •, but his palaces and offices
are now in ruins. Inftead of a throne, Macdonald
Hood on a ftone feven feet fquare, in which there was
an impreffion made to receive his feet j here he was
crowned and anointed by the biffiop of Argyle and
feven inferior priefts, in prefence of the chieftains.
This ftone ftill exifts. The ceremony (after the new
lord had collefted his kindred and vaffals) was truly
patriarchal. After putting on his armour, his helmet,
and his fword, he took an oath to rule as his anceftors
had done ; that is, to govern as a father would his
children : his people in return fwore that they would
pay the fame obedience to him as children would to
their parent. The dominions of this potentate, about
the year 1586, confifted only of Hay, Jura, Knap-
dale, and Cantyre : fo reduced were they from what
they had been before the deprivation of the great earl
of Rofs in the reign of James III. Near this is
another little ifle, where he affembied his council, Han
na Corlle, or “ the ifland of council where 13
judges conftantly fat to decide differences among his
fubjefts ; and received for their trouble the nth part
of the value of the affair tried before them. In the
firft ifland were buried the wives and children of the
lords of the Ifles 5 but their own perfons were depofited
in the more facred ground of Iona. On the fhores of
the lake are fome marks of the quarters of his Carnauch
and Gilli-glajfes, “ the military of the ifles” ; the firft;
fignifying a ftrong man, the laft a grim-looking fellow.
The firft were light-armed, and fought with darts
and daggers 3 the laft with ffiarp hatchets. Thefe are
the troops that Shakefpeare alludes to, when he fpeaks
of a Donald, who
- - —- — From the Weftern ifles
Of Kernes and Gallow-glaffes was fupplicd.
Befides thofe already mentioned, the lords had a houfe
and chapel at Lagan, on the fouth fide of Lochin¬
daal ; a ftrong caftle on a rock in the fea, at Duno-
waik, at the fouth-eaft end of the country 3 for they
made this ifland their refidence after their expulfion
from that of Man in 1304.—There is a tradition, that
while the ifle of Man was part of the kingdom of the
Ifles, the rents were for a time paid in this country :
thofe in filver were paid on a rock, ftill called Creig-
a-mone, or (( the rock of the filver rent 3” the other,
Creg-a-nairgid, or “ the rock of rents in kind.” Thefe
lie oppofite to each other, at the mouth of a harbour,
on the fouth fide of this ifland. There are feveral
forts built on the ifles in freffi water lakes, and divers
caverns in dift'erent parts of the ifland, which have
been ufed occafionally as places of ftrength. The
ifland is divided into four parilhes, viz. Kildalton,
Killarow, Kilchoman, and Kilmenie. The produce is
corn of different kinds ; fuch as bear, which fometimes
yields eleven fold 3 and oats fix fold. Much flax is
raifed here, and about 2000I. worth fold out of the
ifland in yarn, which might better be manufadlured
on the fpot, to give employ to the poor natives.. Not-
withftanding the excellence of the land, above iocoL.
worth of meal, is annually imported (a). Ale is fre¬
quently made in this ifland of the young tops of heath,
mixing two-thirds of that plant with one of malt,
fometimes adding hops. Boethius relates, that this
liquor was much ufed among the Pifts 3 but when that,
nation was extirpated by the Scots, the fecret of ma¬
king it periffied with them. Numbers uf cattle are
bred here, and about 1700 are annually exported at
the
(a) This might have been the cafe in the time of Pennant, from whom the above account is taken. It is not
fo now, although the population has inereafed to nearly 12,000. Ifla indeed enjoys the peculiar advantages of
being not only a grazing but a corn country, and can thus afford a very confiderable exportation of both fpecies*
of produce. The number of cattle now exported far exceeds that ftated above by Pennant.
iW
the He¬
brides, ii.
363.
I L A [1
the price of 50 (hillings each. The illand is often
v'"’“w over flocked, and numbers die in March for want of
fodder. None but milch-cows are houfed : cattle of
all other kinds, except the faddle-horfes, run out du¬
ring winter.
The number of inhabitants, when Hlay was vifited by
Pennant, is computed to have been between feven and
eight thoufand. About 700, fays he, are employed in
the mines and in the fifhery: the reft are gentleman-
farmers, and fubtenants or fervants. The women fpin.
The fervants are paid in kind ; the fixth part of the
crop. They have houfes gratis j the mafter gives
them the feed for the firft year, and lends them horfes
to plough annually the land annexed.
The quadrupeds of this ifland, as enumerated by
* Voyage to Mr Pennant*, are (lots, weefels, otters, and hares:
the laft fmall, dark-coloured, and bad runners. The
birds are eagles, peregrine falcons, black and red game,
and a very few ptarmigans. Red-breafted goofanders
breed on the (hore among the loofe ftones, wild geefe
in the moors, and herons in the illand in Loch-guirm.
The fifti are plaife, fmeardab, large dabs, mullets, bal-
lan, lump-fifh, black goby, greater dragonet, and that
rare iilh the lepadogafter of M. Gouan. Vipers fwarm
in the heath : the natives retain the vulgar error of
their flinging with their forked tongues (b) *, that a
fword on which the poifon has fallen will hifs in wrater
like a red-hot iron ; and that a poultice of human or¬
dure is an infallible cure for the bite.
In this illand, Mr Pennant informs us, feveral an¬
cient diverfions and fuperftitions are ftill preferved: the
laft indeed are almoft extindf, or at moft lurk only a-
mongft the very meaneft of the people. The late-
wakes or funerals, like thofe of the Romans, were at¬
tended with fports, and dramatic entertainments com-
pofed of many parts, and the aftors often changed their
drelTes fuitably to their charafters. The fubjeft of the
drama was hiftorical, and preferved by memory.—The
power of fafcmation is as ftrongly believed here as it
was by the Ihepherds of Italy in times of old.
/
J Ncfcio quis teneros oculis tnihi fafcinat agnos ?
But here the power of the evil eye a (lefts more the
milch-cows than lambs. If the good houfewife per¬
ceives the effect of the malicious on any of her kine,
(lie takes as much milk as (lie can drain from the en¬
chanted herd (for the witch commonly leaves very
little). She then boils it with certain herbs, and adds
to them flints and untempered fteel ; after that (lie
fecures the door, and invokes the three facred perfons.
This puts the witch into fuch an agony, that (he comes
nilling-willing to the houfe, begs to be admitted, to
obtain relief by touching the powerful pot: the good
woman then makes her terms ; the witch reftores the
milk to the cattle, and in return is freed from her
pains. But fometimes, to fave the trouble of thofe
charms (for it may happen that the diforder may arife
from ether caufes than an evil-eye), the trial is made
by immerging in milk a certain herb, and if the cows
ere fupematurally affeded, it inftantly diftils blood.
The unfuccefsful lover revenges himfelf on his happy
60 ] X L C
rival by charms potent as thofe of the fliepherd Al-
pheflbaeus, and exadly ftrnilar :
'bleBe tribus nodis ternos, Amanjlli, colores :
Nefile, Amcrijlli, niodo.
Donald takes three threads of different hues, and
tics three knots on each, three times imprecating the
moft cruel difappointments on the nuptial bed : but
the bridegroom, to avert the harm, ftands at the altar
with an untied fhoe, and puts a iixpence beneath his
foot.
Hiftory furnifties very fewr materials for the great
events or revolutions of Hay. It feems to have been
long a feat of empire, probably jointly with the ifle of
Man, as being moft conveniently fltuated for the go¬
vernment of the reft of the Hebrides \ for Crovan the
Norwegian, after his conqueft of that ifland in 1066,
retired and finifhed his days in Hay. There are more
Danifli or Norwegian names of places in this ifland
than any other : almoft all the prefent farms derive
their titles from them j fuch as Perfibus, Torridale,
Torribolfe, and the like. On the retreat of the Danes
it became the feat of their fucceffors the lords of the
ifles j and continued, after their power rvas broken, in
the reign of James III. in their defeendants the Mac¬
donalds, who held or ought to have •held it from the
crowm. It was in the poffeffion of a Sir James Mac¬
donald, in the year 1598, the fame who won the
battle of Traii-dhruinard. His power gave umbrage
to James VI. who direfled the lord of Macleod,
Cameron of Lochiel, and the Macneiles of Barra,
to fupport the Macleans in another invafion. The ri¬
val parties met near the hill of Benbigger, eaft of Kil-
larow •, a fierce engagement enfued, and the Macdo¬
nalds were defeated and almoft entirely cut oft'. Sir
James efcaped to Spain ; but returned in 1620, w as
pardoned, received a penfion, and died the fame year
at Glafgow ; and in him expired the laft of the great
Macdonalds. But the king, irritated by the diftur-
bances raifed by private wars waged betw een thefe and
other clans, refumed the grant made by his predecef-
for, and transferred it to Sir John Campbell of Calder,
who held it on paying an annual feu-duty of five hun¬
dred pounds fterling, which is paid to this day. The
ifland was granted to Sir John as a reward for his
undertaking the conqueft : but the family conftdered
it as a dear aequifition, by the lofs of many gallant
followers, and by the expences incurred in fupport
of it.
ILCHESTER, a town of Somerfetfhire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Yeovil, 129 miles from London,
is fo called, becaufe it once had a caftle, and ftands on
the river Ivel. It is a place of great antiquity, as ap¬
pears by the Roman coins which are fometimes dug
up. It is likewife evident, from the ruins and from
two towers on the bridge, that it was once a large place,
■and encompaffed with a double vrall. It alfo had feve¬
ral parilh-churches, though now but one.1 It is governed
by two bailiffs, who with the twelve burgeffes are lords
of the manor. In the reign of Edward III, the afiizes
for the county w ere fixed here, which have fince been
held
I!i,
Ilclieftpo
(b) I his vulgar error is by no means limited to the natives of May.
I L D [ 161 ] I L D
fkhefler, held alternntely at Wells, Taunton, and Bridgewater.
Udefonfo. rj['he knights of the (hire are always chofen here, and it
— jg pjace £or thecounty courts and jail. On the lat¬
ter is its chief dependence, and therefore it cannot be
very polite. It is noted for being the birth-place of Ro¬
ger the famous Friar Bacon. Ilchefter is an earldom
in the Fox family.
ILDEFONSO, St, a celebrated royal refldence of
Spain, diftant about two miles from Segovia. It was
ere£Ied by Philip V. in the midlt of a folitary wood,
and in the bofom of Iteep mountains. It is chiefly re¬
markable for its gardens. There is nothing magnifi¬
cent in the palace, particularly in its exterior appear¬
ance. The front on the fide of the garden is of the
Corinthian order, and notdeftitute of elegance. Here
are the king’s apartments, which look upon a parterre lur-
rounded with vafes and marble ftatues, and a cafcade
which, for the richnefs of its decorations, may be coiii-
pared with the fineft of the kind.
The purity and clearnefs of the water is indeed in¬
comparable. Philip V. could not, in this refpedf, be
better ferved by nature. From the mountains which
(hade the palace defeend feveral rivulets, which fupply
the refervoirs. Thefe waters anfwer the double pur-
pofe of fupplying numerous fountains, and of diffufing
life and verdure through the magnificent gardens, the
fight of which alone is a fufficient recompenfe for a
journey into Spain. They are on the infide a league
in circumference. The inequality of the ground af¬
fords every moment new points of view. The princi¬
pal alleys anfwer to different fummits of neighbouring
mountains •, and one in particular produces the moil
agreeable effe£l. It is terminated at one end by the
grand front of the palace. From this point are feen,
at one view, five fountains, ornamented with elegant
groups, rifing into an amphitheatre, above which ap¬
pear the fummits of lofty mountains. The mod ele¬
vated of thefe groups is that of Andromeda faflened
io a rock. When feen at a little diitance it is perhaps
defective, becaufe the rock appears too diminutive by
the fide of the monfter which threatens Andromeda,
and of Per feus, by whom it is attacked } but the whole
contributes to the beauty of the view. The mod re¬
markable of the five groups is that of Neptune,
f Travels “ Genius (fays M. Bourgoanne f) prefided at the
Tb%ain' C0rnP0fit*0ri and in the choice of the fituation ; the
deity of the ocean appears ere£l, furrounded by the
marine court. His attitude, his threatening counte¬
nance, and the manner of holding his trident, announce
that he has jud impofed filence on the mutinous waves;
and the calm which reigns in the bafon, defended
from every wind by the triple wall of verdure by
which it is furrounded, feems to indicate that he has not
iflued his commands in vain. Often have I feated
myfelf, with Virgil in my hand, by the fide of this
filent water, under the (hade of the verdant foliage, nor
ever did I fail to recolleft the famous ^uos Ego !
“ There are other fountains worthy of the attention
of the curious; fuch as that of Latona, where the
limpid (heaves, fome perpendicularly, and others in
every dire&ion, fall from the hoarfe throats of the
Lycian peafants, half transformed into frogs, and
(pouting them forth in fuch abundance, that the (latue
of the goddefs difappears under the wide mantle of
liquid cryftal ; that alfo of Diana in the bath, fur-
You XI. Part I.
rounded by her nymphs ; in the twinkling of an eye
all the chafle court is hidden beneath the waters; the''"‘"’'V
fpe&ator imagines he hears the whittling of aquatic
birds, and the roaring of lions, from the place whence
this momentary deluge efcapes by a hundred canals.
The fountain of Fame is formed by a (ingle jet-d’eau,
which rifes 130 feet, exhibiting to the diitance of feve¬
ral leagues round the triumph of art over nature, and
falls in a gentle (hower upon the gazing fpeftators.
There are fome fituations in the gardens of St Ildefonfo,
whence the eye takes in the whole or the greater part
of thefe fountains, and where the ear is delighted with
the harmony of their murmurs. The traveller who
witties to charm all his fenfes at once, mutt take his
ttation on the high flat ground in front of the king’s
apartment. In the thick part of the foliage are con¬
trived tw'o large arbours, from the top of which are
feen twenty cryftal columns rifing into the air to the
height of the furrounding trees, mixing their refplen-
dent w hitenefs with the verdure of the foliage, uniting
their confufed noife to the ruftlingof the branches, and
refreftiing and embalming the air: if the traveller here
experience no pleafing fenfations, let him return home ;
he is utterly incapable of feeling either the beauties of
art or nature.
“ The reader may here imagine (continues our au¬
thor) my %nthufiafm too extravagant. He is mifta-
ken; let him follow me to the great refervoir of abun¬
dant and limpid waters. He will have to climb for
feme minutes, but will not regret the trouble he has
taken. Let us fuppofe ourfelves arrived at the long
and narrow alley which takes up the whole of the up¬
per part of the gardens ; proceed to the middle, and
turn your face towards the cattle. To the vaft horizon
around you, no other boundaries are difeovered but
thofe which limit the human fight; thefe alone pre¬
vent you from difeovering the Pyrenees. Obferve the
fteeple, which feems but a point in the immenfe ex¬
tent : you will perhaps imagine it to be that of the
parifti-church of St Ildefonfo; but, in reality, it is the
cathedral of Segovia, at two leagues diflance. The
gardens, through which you have palled, become nar¬
rower to the eye. You fuppofe yourfelf dole to the
royal habitation ; the alleys, fountains, and parterres,
have all difappeared ; you fee but one road, which, in
the form of a veflel, upon the prow of which you feetft
to (land, has its ftern on the top of the palace. Af¬
terward turn and take a view of the little lake behind
you, of which the irregular borders do not, like what
we call our Englifh gardens, merely ape the diforder
of nature. Nature herfelf has traced them, except on
the fide where you (land. This ftraight alley is united
at each end to the curve which furrounds the refervoir,
J he waters, which ftream in abundance from the (ides
of the mountain in front, meet in this refervoir, and
thence defeend by a thoufand invifible tubes to other re¬
fervoirs, whence they are fpouted in columns or (heets
upon the flowery foil to which they were ftrahgers.
The birds, drawn by their clearnefs, come to (kim and
agitate their cryftal. The image of the tufted woods
which furreund them is refle&ed from their immove¬
able furface, as is alfo that of fome Ample and rural
houfes, thrown as by accident, into this delightful pic¬
ture, which Lorrain would have imitated, but perhaps
could not have imagined. The oppofite bank is oly-
X feured
I L D r 162 ] I L E
JMefonfo. {cured by thick fliade. Some hollows, ©verfliadowed
’■"“"V"1 by arching trees, feem to be the afylums of the Naiades.
Difturb them not by indifcreet loquacity, but filently
admire and meditate.
“ It is impoffible, however, not to go to the fource
of thefe waters $ let us follow the meandering of their
courfe, and obferve the winding paths which there ter¬
minate, after appearing and diiappearing at intervals
through the copfe. Let us liften to the bubbling of
the rivulets which from time to time efcape from our
fight, and haften to the rendezvous affigned thena by
the defcendants of Louis XIV. They formerly loft
themfelves in the valleys, where they quenched the
thirft of their humble inhabitants, but are now confe-
crated to the pleafures of kings. Afcending the back
of the pyramidical mountain, behind which their fource
is concealed, we arrive at the wall which confines a part
of them in the garden, and which was hidden by the
trees ; nothing, however, ought here to recal to mind
exclufive property and flavery. Woods, waters, and
the majeftic folitude of mountains, which are at a di-
ftance from the tumult of courts and cities, are the
property of every man.—Beyond this wall, which
forms the exterior enclofure of the gardens, is an emp¬
ty and flat ground, where the infant Don Louis, bro¬
ther to the king, chofe a place which he confecrated to
cultivation. Farther on, the mountain becomes more
fteep, and is covered with trees to its fummit. Let us
now return ; as we feek amufement and not fatigue.
We will follow the courfe of the waters ; they defcend
in bubbling ftreams from one level of the gardens to
the other. In their courfe, in one place they water
the feet of the trees, in others they crofs an alley to
nourifh more flowly the plants of a parterre. From
the bafon of Andromeda they run between two rows
of trees in the form of a canal, the too fudden incli¬
nation of which is taken off by cafcades and windings.
They receive and carry with them from the gardens
the rivulets •, which after having played amongft the
,gods and nymphs, and moiftened the throats of the
.fwans, tritons, and lions, humbly defcend under ground,
and run on into the bofom of the neighbouring mea¬
dows, where they fulfil purpofes lefs brilliant but more
ufeful.
“ We muft not quit thefe magnificent gardens with¬
out flopping at a place which appears to promife much,
but produces not any very great effect. This is the
fquare of the eight alleys, P/afa de las ocho calles. In
the centre is the group of Pandora, the only one which
is of whitened ftone, all the others are of white marble
or lead painted of a bronze colour. Eight alleys an-
fwer to this centre, and each is terminated by a foun¬
tain. Plats of verdure fill up the intervals between the
alleys, and each has an altar under a portico of white
marble by the fide of a bafon facred to feme god or
goddefs. Thefe eight altars, placed at equal diftances,
and decorated, among other jets-d’eau, have two which
rife in the form of tapers on each fide of their divini¬
ties. This cold regularity difpleafed Philip V. who
a little before bis death, when vifiting the gardens,
made feme fevere reproaches to the inventor upon tha
fubjeft. Philip had not the pleafure of completely en¬
joying what he had created ; death furorTH him when
the works he had begun were but half finifhed. The
undertaking was however the moft expenfive one of his
reign. The finances of Spain, fo deranged under the Ildefonfo
princes of the houfe of Auftria, (thanks to the wife cal- fl
culations of Orry, to the fubfidies of France, and ftill, 1 ex*
more to the courageous efforts of the faithful Caftili-
ans) would have been fufficient for three long and
ruinous wars, and for all the operations of a monarchy
which Philip V. had conquered and formed anew, as
well as to have refifted the fhocks of ambition and poli¬
tical intrigue ; but they funk beneath the expenfive ef¬
forts of magnificence.”
It is fingular that the caftle and gardens of St Ilde¬
fonfo Ihould have coft about 45,000,000 of piaftres, pre-
cii’ely the fum in which Philip died indebted. This enor¬
mous expence will appear credible, when it is known
that the fituation of the royal palace was at the begin¬
ning of this century the Hoping top of a pile of rocks ;
that it was neceffary to dig and hew out the ftones,
and in feveral places to level the rock j to cut out of
its fides a paffage for a hundred different canaL, to carry
vegetative earth to every place in which it was intended
to fubftitute cultivation for fterility, and to work a mine
to clear a paffage to the roots of the numerous trees
which are there planted. All thefe efforts were crown¬
ed with fuccefs. In the orchards, kitchen-gardens,
and parterres, there are but few flowers, efpaliers, or
plants, which do not thrive j but the tretts, naturally of
a lofty growth, and which consequently muft ftrike
their roots deep into the earth, already prove the in-
fufficiency of art when it attempts to ftruggle againft
nature. Many of them languish with withered trunks,
and with difficulty keep life in their almoft naked
branches. Every year it is neceffavy to call in the aid
of gunpowder to make new beds for thofe which are to
Supply their place 5 and none of them are covered with
that tufted foliage which belongs only to thofe that
grow in a natural foil. In a word, there are in the
groves of St Ilclefonfo, marble ftatues, bafons, cafcades,
limpid waters, verdure, and delightful profpefts, every
thing but that which w ould be more charming than all
the reft, thick fhades.
The court of Spain comes hither annually during
the heat of the dog days. It arrives towards ;the end
of July, and returns at the beginning of 061ober.
The fituation of St Ildefonfo, upon the declivity of
the mountains which feparate the two Caftiles, and
fronting a vaft plain where there is no obftacle to the
paffage of the north wind, renders this abode delight¬
ful in fummer. The mornings and evenings of the
hotteft.days are agreeably cool. Yet as this palace
is upwards of 20 leagues from Madrid, and half of
the road which leads to it croffes the broad tops of
mountains, extremely fteep in many places, it is much
more agreeable to the lovers of the chafe and folitude
than to others.
ILERDA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the
Iligertes j fituated on an eminence between the rivers
Sicoris and Cinga : An unhappy city, often befieged,.
and often taken, becaufe lying expofed to the incur-
fions from Gaul; and under Gallienus it was deftroy-
ed by the Germans. Now Lerida, in Catalonia, on
the river Segra.
ILEX, the Holm or HOLLT-Tree; a genus of
plants belonging to the tetrandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 43d order, Duwofee,
See Botany Index.
XLFRACOMB,
I L K [ 163 ] I L L
iifnromb ILFRACOMB, a town of Devondilre, feated on
.1! the Severn fea, almoft oppofite to Swanfea, in Glamor-
ganihire, 181 miles from London. It is a populous,
rich, trading fea-port, efpecially with herrings in the
Briftol-channel j noted for maintaining conilant lights
to direfl the lailors j for its convenience of building and
repairing drips ; and for the fafe ftielter fliips from Ire¬
land find here, when it is extremely dangerous for them
to run into the mouth of the Taw, which they call
Barnftaple-water j and this is one reafon why the Barn-
ftaple merchants do fo much of their bufinefs at this
port. The harbour, with its quay, warphoufe, light-
houfe, pilot-boats, and tow-boats, was formerly main¬
tained at the expence of the anceftorsof the lord of the
manor ; and then it had a quay or pier 850 feet long j
but by time and the violence of the fea all went to de¬
cay 5 to remedy which, the parliament pafled an aft in
1731, for both repairing and enlarging the piers, har¬
bour, &.c. It is governed by a mayor, bailiffs, &c.
and confitls chiefly of one ftreet of fcattered houfes al-
moft a mile long. The number of inhabitants in 1801
is ftated at 1838. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 51. II.
ILIAC Passion, a violent and dangerous kind of
colic; called alfo volvulus, mferere mei, and chordap-
fus. It takes its name from the inteftine ilion, on ac¬
count of its being ufually affefted in this diftemper ; or
perhaps from the Greek verb uXuv, u to wind or twill j”
whence alfo it is the Latins call it volvulus. See Me¬
dicine Index.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem, the firft
and fined; of thofe compofed by Homer.
The poet’s defi^n in the Iliad was to (how the Greeks,
who were divided into feveral little Hates, how much it
was their interefl: to preferve a harmony and good un-
derftanding among themfelves} for which emd he fets
before them the calamities that befel their anceflors from
the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunderftanding with
Agamemnon $ and the advantages that afterwards ac¬
crued to them from their union. The Iliad is divided
into 24 books or rhapfodies, which are marked with the
letters of the alphabet.
ILISSUS, a river running to the eaff of Athens ;
which, with the Eridanus running on the weft fide,
falls below the city into the fea. Sacred to the mufes,
called Iliajjides •, on whofe bank their altar flood, and
where the luftration in the lefs myfteries was ufually
performed,
ILIUM, Ilion, or Ilios, in Ancient Geography, a
name for the city of Troy, but moll commonly ufed by
the poets, and diftinguifhed by the epithet Vetus; at a
greater diftance from the fea than what was afterwards
called Ilium Novum, and thought to be the Ilienjtum
Pagus of Strabo. New or modern Ilium was a village
nearer the fea, with a temple of Minerva j where Alex¬
ander, after the battle of Granicus, offered gifts, and
called it a city, which he ordered to be enlarged. His
orders were executed by Lyfimachus, who encompaffed
it with a wall of 40 ftadia. It was afterwards adorned
by the Romans, who granted it immunities as to their
mother-city. From this city the Ilias of Homer takes
its name, containing an account of the war carried on
between the Greeks and Trojans on account of the rape
of Helen ; a variety of difafters being the confequence,
gave rife to the proverb Ihas Malarum.
ILKUCH, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Cracow, remarkable for its mines of filver and lead. It
is feated in a barren and mountainous country, in E.
Long. 20. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.
ILLECEBHUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria clals j and in the natural method ranking
under the 1 2th order, Holoracea. See Botany Index.
ILLINOIS, a people of North America, inhabit¬
ing a country lying near a large lake of the fame name
(called alfo Michigan), formed by the river St Law¬
rence. The country is fertile : and the people plant
Indian corn, on which they chiefly fubfift. They are
civil, aftive, lively, and robuft ; and are much lefs
cruel in their difpofitions than the other Indian nations.
They are, however, faid to be great libertines, and to
marry a number of wives j but ibme of their villages
have embraced Chriftianity.
ILLICIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the do-
decandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ILLUMINATI, the name of a fecret fociety, or or¬
der, in Germany and other countries of Europe, whofe
profeffed objeft, it is faid, was to propagate the pureit
principles of virtue j but whofe real views were to fub?
vert every eftabliftied government and religion, and
delivering mankind from the neceffary and falutary re-
ftraints of civil fociety, to bring them to an imaginary
ftate of freedom and independence. Of this order much
has been faid, and much has been written; but that a
fociety has exifted, regularly organized in the way this
has been reprefented, working in fecret, and, at the
fame time, poffefling fuch extenfive power and influ¬
ence, no proof whatever has been adduced. The thing
indeed feems impoflible. See Masonry, Free.
ILLUMINATING, a kind of miniature painting,
anciently much praftifed for illuftrating and adorning
books. Befides the writers of books, there were ar-
tifts whofe profeflion was to ornament and paint manu-
feripts, who were called illuminators; the writers of
books firft finiihed their part, and the illuminators em-
belliihed them with ornamented letters and paintings.
We frequently find blanks left in manuferipts for the
illuminators, which were never filled up. Some of the
ancient manuferipts are gilt and burniftied in a ftyle
fuperior to later times. Their colours were excellent,
and their {kill in preparing them muft have been very-
great.
The praftice of introducing ornaments, drawings,
emblematical figures, and even portraits, into manu¬
feripts, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of
700 illuftrious Romans, which he enriched with their
portraits, as Pliny attefts in his Natural Hiftory (lib.
xxxv. chap. 2.). Pomponius Atticus, the friend of Ci¬
cero, was the author of a work on the aftions of the
great men amongft the Romans, which lie ornamented
with their portraits, as appears in his life by Cornelius
Nepos (chap. 18.). But thefe works have not been
tranfinitted to pofterity. There are, however, many
precious documents remaining, which exhibit the ad¬
vancement and decline of the arts in different ages and
countries. Thefe ineftimable paintings and illumina¬
tions difplay the manners, cuftoms, habits ecclefiaftical,
civil, and military, weapons and inftruments of war,
utenfils and ar.chitefture of the ancients 5 they are of
the greateft ufe in illuftrating many important fafts. re-
X 2 lative
Ilkuck
II
Illutninaf-
ILL f 164 ] I L L
tlkiminat- lative to tlie hiftory of the times in which they were
t in^‘ executed. Iji thefe treafures of antiquity are prelerved
a great number of fpecimens of Grecian and' Roman art,
•which were executed before the arts and fciences fell
into negleft and contempt. The manufcripts contain¬
ing thele fpecimens form a valuable part of the riches
preferved in the principal libraries of Europe. The
Royal, Cottonian, and Harleian libraries, as alio thofe
in the two univerfities in England, the Vatican at
Rome, the imperial at Vienna, the royal at Paris, St
Mark’s at Venice, and many others.
A very ancient MS. of Genefis, which was in the
Cottonian library, and almoft dettroyed by a fire in
1731, contained 250 curious paintings in water colours.
Twenty-one fragments, which efcaped the fire, are en¬
graven by the fociety of antiquarians of London. Se¬
veral fpecimens of curious paintings alfo appear in Lam-
becius’s catalogue of the imperial library at Vienna, par-
ticularly in vol. iii. where 48 drawings of nearly equal
antiquity with thofe in the Cottonian library are engra¬
ven j and feveral others may be found in various cata¬
logues of the Italian libraries. The drawings in the
Vatican Virgil, made in the fourth century, before the
arts were entirely negle&ed, illuftrate the different fub-
jedfs treated of by the Roman poet. A minature draw¬
ing is prefixed to each of the gofpels brought over to
England by St Auguftin in the 6th century, which is
preferved in the library of Corpus Chrilti college, Cam¬
bridge : in the compartments of thofe drawings are de-
pifted reprefentations of feveral tranfadfions in each go-
fpel. The curious drawings, and elaborate ornaments
in St Cuthbert’s gofpols, made by St Ethelwald, and
now in the Cottonian library, exhibit a linking fpeci-
men of the Hate of the arts in England in the 7th cen¬
tury. The fame may be observed with refpedl to the
drawings in the ancient copy of the four gofpels prefer¬
ved in the cathedral church of Litchfield, and thofe in
the Codex Rufhworthianus in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. The life of St Paul the hermit, now remain¬
ing in Corpus Chrilli college, Cambridge, (G. ?.), af¬
fords an example of the flyle of drawing and ornament¬
ing letters in England in the 8th century 5 and the co¬
py of Prudentius’s Pfycomachia in the Cottonian library
(Cleop. c. 8.) exhibits the ftyle of drawing in Italy in
the 9th century. Of the 10th century there are Ro¬
man drawings of a fingular kind in the Harleian libra¬
ry (N° 2820.). N°s 5280, 1802, and 432, in the fame
library, contain fpecimens of ornamented letters, which
are to be found in Irifh MSS. from the 1 2th to the
14th century, Caedmon’s Poetical Paraphrafe of the
book of Genefis, written in the 1 i th century, which is
preferved among!! F. Junius’s MSS. in the Bodleian li¬
brary, exhibits many fpecimens of utenfils, weapons, in-
flruments of mufic, and implements of hufbandry uled
by the Anglo Saxons. The like may be feen in ex-
trafts from the Pentateuch of the fame age in the Cot¬
tonian library (Claud. B. 4.). The manufeript copy
of Terence in the Bodleian library (D. 17.) difpiays
the dreffes, malks, &c. worn by comedians in the j 2th
century, if not earlier. The very elegant Pfaller in
the library of Trinity college, Cambridge, exhibits fpe¬
cimens of the art of drawing in England in the fame
century. The Virgil in the Lambeth library of the
13th century (N° 471.), written in Italy, (hows both
by the drawings^and writing, that the Italians produced
works much inferior to ours at that period. The copy Illuminst-
of the Apocaiypfe in the fame library (N° 209.), con- ing-
tains a curious example of the manner of painting in the 'Tm~J
14th century.—The beautiful paintings in the hiflory of
the latter part of the reign of King Richard II. in the
Harleian library (N° 1319.), afford curious fpecimens
of manners and culfoms, both civil and military, at the
clofe of the 14th and in the beginning of the 15th cen¬
tury j as does N° 2278. in the fame library.—Many
other inflances might be produced •, but thofe who de-
fire farther information may confult Strutt’s Regal and
Ecclefiafiical Antiquities, qto, and his Horda Ai.gel-
cynnan lately publilhed in 3 vols.
This art. was much practifed by the clergy, and
even by fome in the highelt ftations in the church.
“ The famous Ofmur.d (lays Bromton), who was confe-
crated bilhop of Salifbury, A. D. 1076, did not difdain
to fpend fome part of his time in writing, binding, and
illuminating books.” Mr Strutt, as already noticed,
has given the public an opportunity of forming fome
judgment of the degree of delicacy and art with which
thele illuminations were executed, by publiftiing prints
of a prodigious number of them, in his “ Regal and
Ecclefiaffical Antiquities of England,” and “ View of
the Cuftoms, &c. of England.” In the firft of thefe
works we are prefented with the genuine portraits, in
miniature, of all the kings, and feveral of the queens
of England, from Edward the ConftiTor to Henry VII.
molfly in their crowns and royal robes, together with
the portraits of many other eminent perfons of both
fexes.
The illuminators and painters of this period feem to
have been in poffeffion of a confiderable number of co¬
louring materials, and to have known the arts of pres
paring and mixing them, fo as to form a great variety
of colours : for in the fpecimens of their miniature-
paintings that are llill extant, we perceive not only
the five primary colours, but alfo various combinations
of them. Though Strutt’s prints do not exhibit the
bright and vivid colours of the originals, they give us
equally a view, not only of the perfons and dreffes of
our anceftors, but alfo of their cuiloms, manners, arts,
and employments, their arms, Ihips, houfes, furniture,
&c. and enable us to judge of their (kill in drawing.
The figures in thofe paintings are often fiiff and formal ;
but the ornaments are in general fine and delicate, and
the colours clear and bright, particularly the gold and
azure. In lome of thele illuminations the paflions are
firongly painted. How ilrongly, for example, is ter¬
ror painted in the faces of the earl of Warwick’s failors,
when they were threatened with a fhipwreck, and grief
in the countenances of thole w ho w ere prefent at the
death of that hero* ? After the introduftion of print- *gce <;trut£
ing, this elegant art of illuminating gradually declined, vol. ii.
and at length was quite neglected. p ates 36,
Before concluding, it may not be improper to ob- 58*
ferve, that from the 5th to the 10th century, the minia¬
ture paintings which we meet with in Greek manu-
feripts are generally good, as are fome which we find
among thofe of Italy, England, and France. From
the 10th to the middle of the 14th century the) are
commonly very bad, and may be confidered as fo many
monuments of the barbarity of thofe ages ; towards the
latter end of the 14th, the paintings in manufcripts
were much improved 3 and in the tw o fucceeding cen-
turies^
ing
II.
Illyrius.
ILL [3
liluminat- turies, many excellent performances were produced,
efpecialiy after the happy period of the reftoration of
the arts, when great attention was paid to the works of
i the ancients, and the iludy of antiquity became faihion-
able.
ILLUMINATORS. See Illuminating.
ILLUMINED, Illuminati, a church term, an¬
ciently applied to fuch perl'ons as had received baptifm.
This name was occaiioned by a ceremony in the bap¬
tifm of adults-, which confided in putting a lighted
taper in the hand of the perfon baptized, as a fymbol
of the faith and grace he had received in the lacra-
ment.
Illumined, Illuminati, is alfo the name of a fe£t of
heretics, who fprang up in Spain about the year 1575^
and were called by the Spaniards A/ambraclos. Their
principal doftrines were, that by means of a fublime
manner of prayer, which they had attained to, they
entered into fe perfect a date, that they had no occafion
for ordinances, facraments, nor good works ; and that
they could give way even to the viled actions, without
fin. The fedt of Illumined was revived in France in
the year 1634, and were foon after joined by the Gue-
rinets, or difciples of Peter Guerin, who together made
but one body, called alfo Illumined; but they were fo
hotly purfued by Louis XI1L that they were foon de-
jdroyed. The brothers of the Rofy Crofs are fometimes
alfo called Illumined. See Rosycrusian.
ILLUSTRIOUS, Illustris, was heretofore, in the
Roman empire, a title of honour peculiar to people of
a certain rank. It was fird given to the mod didin-
guithed among the knights, who had a right to bear the
latus clavus : afterwards, thofe were intitled illujlrious
who held the fird rank among thofe called honorati;
that is, the prsefedti prtetorii, prsefecli urbis, treafurers,
comites, &tc.
There were, however, different degrees among the il¬
lujlrious ; as in Spain they have grandees of the fird and
fecond clafs, fo in Rome they had their illujlres, whom
they called great, majores; and others lefs, called illu-
Jlres minores.—For indance 5 the praefedlus praetorii w as
a degree below the mader of the offices, though they
were both illujlres.
The Novels of Valentinian didinguiffi as far as five
kinds of illujlres; among whom, the illujlres admim-
Jlratores bear the fird rank.
ILLYRICUM, (Solum perhaps underdood) Livy,
Herodian, St Paul j called lllyns by the Greeks, and
fometimes Illyria; the country extending from the
Adriatic to Pannonia thus called. Its boundaries are
varioufly adigned. Pliny makes it extend in length
from the river Arfia to the Drinius, thus including Li-
burnia to the wed, and Dalmatia to the ead : which is
alfo the opinion of Ptolemy -, who fettles its limits from
Mount Scardus and the Upper Moefia on the ead, to
Idria in the wed. A Roman province, divided by
Augudus into the Superior and Inferior, but of which
the limits are left undetermined both by ancient hb
dorians and geographers. Illyrii the people -, called
lllyres by the Greeks. The country is now called
Sclavonia.
ILLYRIUS, MatthiaSjFlaccus, or Francowitz,
line of the mod learned divines of the Augfburg con-
feffion, born in Idria, anciently called Illyrica, in 1520.
He is faid to have been a man of vad genius, extenfive
a.
65 7 IMA
learning, of great zeal againd Popery 5 but of fuch a
redlefs and padionate temper, as overbalanced all his
good qualities, and occafioned much diflurbance in the
Protedant church. He publifhed a great number of
books, and died in 1 575.
IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial repre-
fentation or fimilitude of fome perfon or thing, ufed ei¬
ther by way of decoration and ornament, or as an object
of religious worlhip and adoration : in which lad fenfe
it is ufed indifferently with the word Idol.
The noble Romans preferved the images of their
anceftors with a great deal of care and concern, and
had them carried in procedion at their funerals and
triumphs: thefe w'ere commonly made of w ax, or
wood, though fometimes of marble or brafs. They
placed them in the veltibules of their houfes and they
were to day there, even if the huufes happened to be
fold, it being accounted impious to difplace them.
Appius Claudius was the drd who brought them into
the temples, in the year of Rome 259, and he added,
inferiptions to them, fhowing the origin of the perfons
reprefented, and their brave and virtuous atchieve-
ments.—It was not, however, allowed for all, who had
the images of their anceftors in their houfes, to have
them carried at their funerals j this was a thing only
granted to fuch as had honourably difeharged them-
felves of their offices j for thofe who failed in this re-
fpe6I forfeited that privilege and in cafe they had
been guilty of any great crime, their images were
broken in pieces. See Ignobiles and Jus.
The Jews abfolutely condemn all images,.znA do not
fo much as fuffer any ftatues or figures in their
houfes, much lefs in their fynagogues- or places of
vorftiip.
The ufe and adoration of images are things that
have been a long time controverted in the world.
It is plain, from the pra£f ice of the primitive church,,
recorded by the earlier fathers, that Chriftians, for the
firft three centuries after Chrift, and the greater part
of the fourth, neither worffiipped images nor ufed
them in their worffiip. However, the greater part of
the Popiffi divines maintain, that the ule and worffiip
of images were as ancient as- the Chriftian religion
itfelf: to prove this, they allege a decree, faid to have
been made in a council held by the Apoftles at An¬
tioch, commanding the faithful that they may not err
about the obje<ft of their worlhip, to make images of
Chrift and worfhip them. Baron, ad ann. 102. But
no notice is taken of this decree, till 700 years after
the Apoftolic times, after the difpute about images had
commenced. The firft inltance that occurs in any
credible author of images among Chriftians, is that re¬
corded by Tertullian de Pudicit. c. 10. of certain cups,
or chalices, as Bellarmine pretends, on which was re¬
prefented the parable of the good ffiepherd carrying the
loft flieep on his ffioulders : but this inftance only
proves, that the church, at that time, did not think em¬
blematical figures unlawful ornaments of cups or chali¬
ces. Another inftance is taken from Eufebius, Hift.
Eccl. lib. vii; cap. 18. who fays, that in his time there
were to be feen two brafs ftatues in the city of Paneas
or Caefarea Philippi j the one of a woman on her kntesj
with her arms ftretched out, the other of a man ever
againft her, with his hand extended to receive her :
thefe ftatues were faid to be the images of our Saviour
and:
IMA f i66 ] IMA
and tae woman whom he cured of an hTue of blood.
From the foot of the ftatue reprefenting our Saviour,
fays the hiitorian, fprung up an exotic plant, which, as
foon as it grew to touch the border of his garment, was
faid to cure all forts of dillempers. Eufebius, however,
vouches none of thefe things: nay, he fuppofes that the
woman who eredted this ftatue of our Saviour was a
pagan, and afcribes it to a pagan cuftom. Farther,
Philoitorgius, Eccl. Hid. lib. vii. c. 3. exprefsly fays, that
this ftatue was carefully preferved by the Chriftians,
but that they paid no kind of worfhip to it, becaufe it
is not lawful for Chriftians to worflnp brafs, or any
other matter. The primitive Chriftians abftained from
the worfttip of images, not, as the Papifts pretend, from
tendernefs to heathen idolaters,but becaufe they thought
it unlawful in itfelf to make any images of the Deity.
Juftin Mart. Apol. ii. p. 44. Clem. Alex. Strom. 5.
Strom. 1. and Protr. p. 46. Aug. de Civit. Dei. lib. vii.
c. 5. and lib. iv. c. 32. Id. de Fide et Symb. c. 7. Lac-
tant. lib. ii. c. 3. Tertull. Apol. c. 12. Arnob. lib. vi.
p. 202. Some of the fathers, as Tertullian, Clemens
Alexandrinus, and Origen, vrere of opinion, that by
the fecond commandment, the arts of painting and
engraving were rendered unlawful to a Chriftian,ftyling
them evil and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol. cap. 3. Clem.
Alex. Admon. ad. Gent. p. 41. Orig. contra Celfum.
lib. vi. p. 182. The vS.&oiimages in churches, as orna¬
ments, was firft introduced by fome Chriftians in Spain,
in the beginning of the fourth century j but the praftice
was condemned as a dangerous innovation, in a coun¬
cil held at Eliberis in 305. Epiphanius, in a letter
preferved by Jerome, tom. ii. ep. 6. bears ftrong tefti-
mony againft images, and may be conftdered as one of
the firft Iconoclasts. The cuftom of admitting
pictures of faints and martyrs into the churches (for
this was the firft fource of image-woxftup) was rare in
the latter end of the fourth century j but became
common in the fifth : however, they were ftill confider-
ed only as ornaments; and even in this view, they met
with very confiderable oppofition. In the following
century the cuftom of thus adorning churches became
almoft univerfal, both in the eaft and weft. Petavius
exprefsly fays (de Incar. lib. xv. cap. 14.), that no
ftatues were yet allowed in the churches ; becaufe
they bore too near a refemblance to the idols of the
Gentiles. Towards the clofe of the fourth or begin¬
ning of the fifth century, images, which were introduced
by way of ornament, and then ufed as an aid to devo¬
tion, began to be aftually worfhipped. However, it
continued to be the doflrine of the church in the fixth
and in the beginning of the feventh century, that
images were to be ufed only as helps to devotion, and
not as objefts of worlhip. The worfhip of them was
condemned in the ftrongeft terms by Pope Gregory the
Great; as appears by two letters of his written in 601.
From this time to the beginning of the eighth century,
there occurs no fingle inftance of any worfliip given or
allowed to be given to images by any council or aflem-
bly of bilhops whatever. But they were commonly wor¬
fhipped by the monks and populace in the beginning of
the eighth century, infomuch, that in the year 726,
when Leo publilhed his famous edi£t, it had already
fpread into all the provinces fubjeft to the empire.
The Lutherans condemn the Calvinifts for break¬
ing the images in the churches of the Catholics, look¬
ing on it as a kind of facrilege ; and yet they condemn
the Romaniits (who are profeffed image-ivorfhipeers')
as idolaters : nor can thefe lafi: keep pace with the
Greeks, who go far beyond them in this point; which
has occafioned abundance of dilputes among them.
See Iconoclasts.
The Mahometans have a perfect averfion to images;
which was what led them to deftroy moil of the beauti¬
ful monuments of antiquity, both facred and profane,
at Conftantinople.
Image, in Rhetoric, alfo fignifies a lively defeription
of any thing in difeourfe.
Images, in difeourfe are defined by Longinus, to be,
in general, any thoughts proper to produce exprefhons,
and which prefent a kind of picture to the mind.
But, in the more limited fenfe, he lays, images are
fuch difeourfes as come from us, when, by a kind of
enthufiafm, or an extraordinary emotion of the foul,
we feem to fee the things whereof we fpeak, and pre-
fen t them before the eyes of thofe who hear us.
Images, in Rhetoric, have a very different ufe from
what they have among the poets: the end principally
propofed in poetry is, aftonilhment and furprife ;
whereas the thing chiefly aimed at in prole, is to paint
things naturally, and to ihow them clearly. They
have this, however, in common, that they both tend
to move, each in its kind.
Thefe images, or piEhires, are of vaft ufe, to give
weight, magnificence, and ftrength, to a difeourfe.
They warm and animate it ; and when managed with
art, according to Longinus, feem, as it were, to tame
and fubdue the hearer, and put him in the power of the
fpeaker.
Image, in optics, a figure in the form of any ob«
jefl, made by the rays of light iffuing from the feveral
points of it, and meeting in fo many other points, ei¬
ther at the bottom of the eye, or on any other ground,
or on any tranfparent medium, where there is no fur-
face to refleft them. Thus we are faid to fee all ob¬
jects by means of their images formed in the eye.
IMAGINARY Quantities, or ImpoJJibie Quanti¬
ties, in Algebra, are the even roots of negative quan-
ties ; which expreflions are imaginary, or impoflible, or
oppofed to real quantities; as \f—an, or 4^/—a4,
&c. For as every even power of any quantity what¬
ever, whether pofitive or negative, is neceffarily pofitive,
or having the fign becaufe + by +, or — by —,
give equally -f-? hence it follows that every even power,
as the fquare for inftance, which is negative, or having
the fign —, has no poffible root; and therefore the
even roots of fuch powers or quantities are faid to
be impoflible or imaginary. The mixt expreflions ari-
fing from imaginary quantities joined to real ones, are
alfo imaginary ; as a —— a a, ox b —a a.
IMAGINARY Roots of an equation, are thofe roots or
values of the unknown quantity, which contain fome
imaginary quantity. Thus, the roots of the equation
xx-\-a a—o, are the two imaginary quantities -f-v/—aa
and —\f—a a, or —1 and —'7y'—1.
IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things
communicated to it by the outward organs of fenle.
See Metaphysics.
Force of Imagination. See Monster.
IMAGO, in Natural Hi/lory, is a name given by
Linnseus
I M E [ 167 ] I M I
Imago Linnscus to the third ftate of infers, when they ap- The capital, where Prince David refides, is called
i) pear in their proper ihape and colours, and undergo no Curtays. The remains of a church announce that Cur-, tot1'
Imeretia. £urther transformation. tays was formerly a large city 5 but at prefent it can
IMAM, or Iman, a minifter in the Mahometan
church, anfwering to a parifh pried: among us. The
word properly fignifies what we call a prelate, antijles,
one who prelides over others j but the Muffulmans fre¬
quently apply it to a perfon who has the care and in¬
tendency of a mofque, who is always there at firft, and
reads prayers to the people, which they repeat after
him.
Imam is alfo applied, by way of excellence, to the
four chiefs or founders of the four principal fefrs in the
Mahometan religion. Thus Ali is the imam of the
Perfians, or of the feft of the Schiaites*; Abu-beker
the imam of the Sunnites, which is the feft followed
by the Turks; Saphii, or Safi-y, the imam of another
feft, &c.
'The Mahometans do not agree among themfelves
about this imamate or dignity of the imam. Some
think it of divine right and attached to a Angle fami¬
ly, as the pontificate of Aaron.—Others hold, that it
is indeed of divine right, but deny it to be fo at¬
tached to any fingle family, as that it may not be
transferred to another. They add, that the imam is
to be clear of all grofs fins j and that otherwife he
may be depofed, and his dignity may be conferred on
another. However this be, it is certain, that after an
imam has once been owned as fuch by the Muffulmans,
he who denies that his authority comes immediately
from God is accounted impious; he who does not
obey him is a rebel ; and he who pretends to contra-
di£t what he fays is efteemed a fool, among the ortho¬
dox of that religion. The imams have no outward
mark of difiinflion •, their habit is the fame with that
of the Turks in common, except that the turban is a
little larger, and folded fomewhat differently.
IMAUS, in Ancient Geography, the largeft moun¬
tain of Afia (Strabo) •, and a part of Taurus (Pliny) 5
from which the whole of India runs off into a vaft
plain, refembling Egypt. It extends far and wide
through Scythia, as far as to the Mare Glaciale, divid¬
ing it into the Hither or Scythia intra Imaum, and into
the Farther, or Scythia extra Imaum (Ptolemy) •, and
alfo ftretching out along the north of India to the
eaflern ocean, feparates it from Scythia. It had va¬
rious names according to the different countries it run
through : Poftellus thinks it is the Sephar of Scrip¬
ture.
IMBECILITY, a languid infirm ftate of body,
which, being greatly impaired, is not able to perform
its ufual exercifes and funftions.
IMBIBING, the action of a dry porous body, that
abforbs or takes up a moift or fluid one : thus, fu-
gar imbibes water $ a fponge, the moifture of the
air, &c.
IMBRICATED, is ufed by fome botanifts, to ex-
prefs the figure of the leaves of fome plants, which
are hollowed like an imbrex, or gutter-tile, or are
laid in clofe feries over one another like the tiles of a
houfe.
IMERETIA, or Imeretta, the name of a king¬
dom, or rather principality, of Georgia, confifting of
four provinces, is under the dominion of a prince
ftamed David. See Georgia. .
fcarcely be accounted a village.
Solomon, the father of the prefent fovereign, order¬
ed the city to be deftroyed, as well as the ramparts
of the city j for he thought, and very wifely, that
Caucafus was the only fortification capable of being
defended by an army of 6000 men undifeiplined and
deftitute of artillery.
The number of the inhabitants of Imeretta is rec¬
koned to be 20,000 families ; but the greater part
of them live neither in towns nor villages, but are dif-
perfed throughout the level country, each of them
poffefling a fmall hut or cottage. Thefe people have
fewer ftrangers among them, and they are more enga¬
ging in their appearance, than the Georgians. They
are of a milder and lefs pufillanimous charafter *, and
the principal branch of their commerce confifts in
wines, a confiderable quantity of which they export in
fkins as far as the confines of Georgia. They are ac¬
quainted with no other trade •, for they are poor and
miferable, and greatly oppreffed by their lords.
The ordinary revenues of Imeretta, like thofe of
Georgia, arife from a tythe which vaffals are obliged
to pay in wines, cattle, and corn, and fome fubfidies
furnilhed annually by neighbouring princes. The ex¬
traordinary revenues for the moft part arife from con-
fifcations of every kind j but notwithftanding this,
the finances of the prince are fo limited, that he is
often under the neceffity of going from houfe to houfe,
to live at the expence of his vaffals, never quitting their
habitations until the prefling wants of his hofts abfo-
lutely compel him. It is therefore probable, that the
court of the fovereign of Imeretta is as deficient in-
brilliancy as his table is in fplendour when he dines at
home. His principal dirties confift of a certain food
called gom, which is a kind of millet boiled, and a
piece of roaft meat, with fome high-feafoned fauce.
He never eats but with his fingers, for forks and fpoons
are unknown in Imeretta. At table he generally gives
audiences refpe&ing affairs of the firft confequence,
which he determines as he thinks proper} for in every
coymtry fubjeift to his dominions there is no other law
but his will. «
On Friday, which is the market day, all his new
edidls are publirtied by a kind of herald, who climbs up >
into fome tree, in order to proclaim the will of his
fovereign. The Imerettans profefs the religion of the
Greek church. Their patriarch muft be of the royal
family 5 but it is feldom that he can either read or
write ; the priefts who compofe the reft of the clergy
are not much more enlightened. The greater part of
their churches are pitiful edifices, which can fcarcely
be diftinguirtied from the common huts of the inhabi¬
tants but by a parteboard crucifix, and a few coarfe
paintings of the Virgin, which are feen in them.
IMITATION, derived from the Latin imitare, to
“ reprefent or repeat,” a found or adlion, either exaftly
or nearly in the fame manner as they were originally
exhibited.
Imitation, in Mufic, admits of two different fenfes.
Sound and motion are either capable of imitating them¬
felves by a repetition of their own particular modes,
or of imitating other objedts of a nobler and more ab-
2 ftradled
I M I [ 168 ] I M I
Imitation.^ ftra&ed nature. Nothing perhaps is To purely mental,
* nothing fo remote from external fenfe, as not to be
imitable by mufic. But as the defcription of this in M.
Rouffeau, article Imitation, is nobly animated, and com¬
prehends all that is necefiary to be faid on the fubje£t,
we tranflate it as follows.
“ Dramatic or theatrical mufic (fays he) contri¬
butes to imitation no lefs than painting or poetry : it
is in this common principle that we muft invelligate
both the origin and the final caufe of all the fine arts j
*See Beaux as M. le Batteaux has fliown *. But this imitation is
Arts red/at not equally extenfive in all the imitative arts. What-
lriruiPemeeVeT tllC imagination can reprefent to itfelf is in the
pnnope. department 0f poetry. Painting, which does not pre-
fent its pi&ures to the imagination immediately, but
to external fenfe, and to one tenfe alone, paints only
fuch objects as are difcoverable by fight. Mufic might
appear fubje&ed to the fame limits with refpedl to the
ear j yet it is capable of painting every thing, even
fuch images as are objefts of ocular perception alone :
by a magic almoil: inconceivable, it feems to transform
the ears into eyes, and endow them with the double
function of perceiving vifible obje&s by the mediums
of their own j and it is the greateft miracle of an art,
which can only aft by motion, that it can make that
'very motion reprefent abfolute quiefcence. Night,
lleep, filence, folitude, are the noble efforts, the grand
images, reprefented by a pi£lurefque mufic. We know
that noife can produce the fame effeft with filence,
and filence the fame effeft with noife j as when one
fleeps at a lefture infipidly and monotonically de¬
livered, but wakes the inftant when it ends. But
raufic acts more intimately upon our fpirit?, in exci¬
ting by one ienfe difpofitions fimilar to thofe which
we find excited by another ; and, as the relation be¬
tween thefe images cannot be fenfible unlefs the im-
prefiion be ftrong, painting, when dive fled of this en-
ergy, cannot reftore to mufic that afliftance in imita¬
tions which file borrows from it. Though all nature
fhould be afieep, he who contemplates her does not
fleep 5 and the art of the mufician confifts in fubftitu-
txng, for this image of infenfibility in the objett, thofe
emotions which its prefence excites in the heart of
the contemplator. He not only ferments and agitates
tne ocean,'animates the flame to conflagration, makes
the fountain murmur in his harmony, calls the rattling
fhower from heaven, and fwells the torrent to refiftlefs
rage ; but he paints the horrors of a boundlefs and
-frightful defert, involves the fubterraneous dungeon in
tenfold gloom, foothes the tempeft, tranquillizes the
difturbed elements, and from the orcheftra diffufes a
recent fragrance through imaginary groves *, nay, he
excites in the foul the fame emotions which we feel
from the immediate perception and full influence of
thefe objefts.”
Under the word Harmony, Roufleau has faid, that no
afliftance can be drawn from thence, no original prin¬
ciple which leads to mufical imitation ; fince there can¬
not' be any relation between chords and the objefls
which the compofer would paint, or the pafiions which
be would exprefs. In the article Melody, he imagines
he has difcovered that principle of imitation which
harmony cannot yield, and what refources of nature are
employed by mufic in reprefenting thefe objeas and
thefe palfions.
It is hoped, however, that in our article of MfXOfcY, Imitation.,
we have fhown upon what principle mufical imitation
may be compatible with harmony ; though we admit,
that from melody it derives its moft powerful energy,
and its moft attradive graces. Yet we muft either be
deceived beyond all poflibility of cure, or we have felt
the power of imitative harmony in a high degree. We
are certain that the fury, the impetuofity, the rapid
viciflitudes, of a battle, may be fuccefsfully and vividlv
reprefented in harmony. We have participated the
exultation and triumph of a conqueft, infpired by the
found of a full chorus. We have felt all the folemnity
and grandeur of devotion from the floTv movement, the
deep chords, the fwelling harmony, of a fentimental
compofition played upon the organ. Nor do we ima¬
gine harmony lefs capable of prefenting the tender
depreflion, the fluduating and tremulous agitation, of
grief. As this kind of imitation is the nobltft effort
of mufic, it is alloniftiing that it ftrould have been over¬
looked by M. d’Alembert. He has indeed apologi¬
zed, by informing us, that his treatife is merely ele¬
mentary : but we are uncertain how far this apology
ought to be regarded as fufficient, when it is at the
fame time confidered, that he has given an account of
imitation in its mechanical, or what Roufleau calls its
technical, fenfe ; which, however, to prevent ambiguity,
we Ihould rather choofe to call mymefis, or anacephalio-
Jis. To Rouffeau’s account of the word in this accepta¬
tion, we return.
“ Imitation (fays he) in its technical fenfe, is a
reiteration of the lame air, or of one which is fimilar,
in feveral parts where it is repeated by one after the
other, either in unifon, or at the diftance of a fourth,
a fifth, a third, or any other interval whatever. The
imitation may be happily enough purfued even though
feveral notes fliould be changed ; provided the fame air
may always be recognifed, and that the compofer does
not deviate from the laws of proper modulation. Fre¬
quently, in order to render the imitation more fenfible,
it is preceded by a general reft, or by long notes which
feem to obliterate the impreflion formerly made by the
air till it is renewed with greater force and vivacity by
the commencement of the imitation. The imitation
may be treated as the compofer chqofes j it may be
abandoned, refumed, or another begun, at pleafure j
in a word, its rules are as much relaxed as thofe of the
fugue are fevere ; for this reafon, it is defpifed by the
moft eminent mafters ; and every imitation of this kind
too much affefted, almoft always betrays a novice in
compofition.”
Imitation, in Oratory, is an endeavour to referable
a fpeaker or writer in thofe qualities with regard to
which we propofe them to ourfelves as patterns. The
firft hiftorians among the Romans, fays Cicero, were
very dry and jejune, till they began to imitate the
Greeks, and then they became their rivals. It is well
known how clofely Virgil has imitated Homer in his
yEneid, Hefiod in his Georgies, and Theocritus in
his Eclogues. Terence copied after Menander; and
Plautus after Epicarmus, as we learn from Horace,
lib. ii. ep. ad Auguft. who himfelf owes many of his
beauties to the Greek lyric poets. Cicero appears,
from many paflages in his writings, to have imitated
the Greek orators. Thus Quintilian fays of him, that
he has expreffed the ftrength and fublimity of De»
niofthenes.
I M P
t 169 1
I M P
Imitation mofthenes, the copioufnefs of Plato, and the delicacy
of Ifocrates.
IMMACULATE, fomethxng without ftain, chief¬
ly applied to the conception of the holy Virgin. See
^Conception, Immaculate.
IMMATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or
that is pure fpirit. See Metaphysics.
IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing
an efte£t without the intervention of external means j
thus we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a me¬
diate or remote one.
IMMEMORIAL, an epithet given to the time or
duration of any thing whofe beginning we know no¬
thing of.
In a legal fenfe, a thing is faid to be of time imme¬
morial, or time out of mind, that was before the reign
of our king Edward II.
IMMENSITY, an unlimited extenfion, or which
no finite and determinate fpace, repeated ever fo often,
can equal.
IMMER, the moll eafterly ifland of all the New
Hebrides in the South fea. It lies about four leagues
from Tanna, and feems to be about five leagues in cir¬
cumference j it is of a confiderable height, with a flat
top.
IMMERETTA, or Imereti a. See Imereti a.
IMMERSION, that aft by which any thing is plun¬
ged into water or other fluid.
It is ufed in chemiftry for a fpecies of calcination,
when any body is immerfed in a fluid to be corroded:
or it is a fpecies of lotion *, as when a fubftance is plun¬
ged into any fluid, in order to deprive it of a bad qua¬
lity, or communicate to it a good one.
Immersion, in vdfronomy, is when a ftar or planet
is fo near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that
we cannot fee it j being, as it were, enveloped and hid
in the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes the be¬
ginning of an eclipfe of the moon, or that moment when
the moon begins to be darkened, and to enter into the
Ihadow of the earth.
IMMOLATION, a ceremony ufed in the Roman
facrifices ; it confifted in throwing upon the head of
the viftim fome fort of corn and frankincenfe, together
with the mola or fait cake, and a little wine.
IMMORTAL, that which will laft to all eter¬
nity, as having in it no principle of alteration or cor¬
ruption.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from fome
office, duty, or impofition $ as an exemption from tolls,
&.C.
Immunity is more particularly underftood of the li¬
berties granted to cities and communities.
IMMUTABILITY, the condition of a thing that
cannot change. Immutability is one of the divine at¬
tributes. See God.
IMOLA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
church, and in Romagna, with a bilhop’s fee. It
is a very handfome populous place $ and is feated on
the river Santerno, in E, Long. ji. 43. N. Lat. 44.
28.
IMPACT, the Ample or Angle aftion of one body
upon another to put it in motion. Point of impaft is
the place or point where a body afts.
IMPALE, in Heraldry, is to conjoin two coats of
XI. Part I.
arms pale-wife. Women impale their coats of arms Impalt
with thofe of their hufbands. See Heraldry. im 3--bi
To impale cities, camps, fortiAcations, &c. is to in- 1
clofe them with pallifadoes. y—U*
To Impale, or Empale, Agnifies alfo to put to death
by fpitting on a flake fixed upright.
IMPALPABLE, that whofe parts are fo extremely
minute, that they cannot be diftinguiftied by the fenfes,
particularly by that of feeling.
IMPANATION, a term ufed by divines to fignify
the opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eucha-
rift, who believe that the fpecies of bread and wine re¬
main together with the body of our Saviour after con-
fecration.
IMPANNELLING, in Law, fignifies the writing
down or entering into a parchment, lift, or fchedule,
the names of a jury fummoned by the flieriit to appear
for fuch public fervices as juries are employed in.
IMPARLANCE, in Law, a petition in court for a
day to confider or advife what anfwer the defendant
ftiall make to the plaintiff’s aftion $ and is the continu¬
ance of the caufe till another day, or a longer time gi¬
ven by the court.
IMPASSIBLE, that which is exempt from fuffer-
ing } or which cannot undergo pain or alteration. The
Stoics place the foul of their wife men in an impaflible,
imperturbable ftate. See Apathy.
IMPASTATTON, the mixture of various materials
of different colours and confiftencies, baked or bound
together with fome cement, and hardened either by the
air or by fire.
IMPATIENS, Touch-me-not, and Bafamine ; a
genus of plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs j and
in the natural method ranking under the 24th order,
corydales. See Botany Index.
IMPEACHMENT, an accufation and profecutioa
for treafon and other crimes and mifdemeanours. Any
member of the lower houfe of parliament may impeach
any one belonging either to that body, er to the houfe
of lords. The method of proceeding is to exhibit ar¬
ticles on the behalf of the commons, by whom mana¬
gers are appointed to make good their charge. Thefe
articles are carried to the lords, by whom every per-
fon impeached by the commons is always tried j and
if they find him guilty, no pardon under the great feal
can be pleaded to fuch an impeachment. 12 Will. III.
cap. ii.
IMPECCABILES, in church hiftory, a name gi¬
ven to thofe heretics who boafted that they were impec¬
cable, and that there was no need of repentance : iuch
were the Gnoftics, Prifcillianifls, &.c.
IMPECCABILITY, the ftate of a perfon who can¬
not fin $ or a grace, privilege, or principle, which puts
him out of a poflibiiity of finning.
The fchoolmen diftinguifli feveral kinds and degrees
of impeccability : that of God belongs to him by na¬
ture : that of Jefus Chrift, confidered as man, belongs
to him by the hypoftatical union : that of the bleffed
is a confequence of their condition : that of men is
the effeft of a confirmation in grace, and is rather
called impeccanceCtiiaa impeccability; accordingly divines
diftinguifh between thefe two: this diftinftion is found
neceffary in the difputes againft the Pelagians, in or¬
der to explain certain terms in the Greek and Latin
Y fathers,
IMP [ 170 ] I M P
lity
II .
Imperial
Cities.
Impeecabi- fathers, which without this diftin&Ion are eauly con¬
founded.
IMPEDIMENTS, in Law, are fuch hinderances
as put a flop or ftay to a perfon’s feeking for his right
’ by a due courfe of law. Perfons under impediments
are thofe under age or coverture, non compos mentis,
in prifon, beyond fea, &c. who, by a faving in our
laws, have time to claim and profecute their rights,
after the impediments are removed, in cafe of fines
levied, &c.
IMPENETRABILITY, in Philofophy, that pro¬
perty of body, whereby it cannot be pierced by an¬
other : Thus, a body which fo fills a fpace as to ex¬
clude all others, is faid to be impenetrable-
IMPERATIVE, one of the moods of a verb, ufed
when we would command, intreat, or advife : thus, ^0
reacJ, take pity, be advifed, are imperatives in our lan¬
guage. But in the learned languages, this mood has
a peculiar termination to diflinguifli it from others, as
i, or ito, “ go jn lege, or legito, “ read,” &c. and not
only fo, but the termination varies, according as you
addrefs one or more perfons, as audi, and audite; umsHu,
xxxflav, UKvilarci-t, &c.
IMPERATOR, in Roman antiquity, a title of ho¬
nour conferred on vidtorious generals by their armies,
and afterwards confirmed by the fenate.
Imperator was alfo the title adopted by the Roman
emperors.
IMPERATORIA, Masterwort, a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbella¬
te. See Botany Index.
IMPERFECT, fomething that is defective, or
that wants fome of the properties found in other beings
®f the fame kind.
IMPERFECT Number, is that whofe aliquot parts,
taken all together, do not make a fum that is equal to
the number itfelf, but either exceed it, or fall fhort of
it 5 being an abundant number in the former cafe, and
a defeftive number in the latter. Thus 12 is an a-
bundant imperfedt number, becaufe the fum of all its
aliquot parts, I, 2, 3, 4, 6, makes 16, which exceeds
the number 12. And 10 is a defedlive imperfedt num¬
ber, becaufe its aliquot parts 1,2, 5, taken all together,
make only 8, which is lefs than the number 10 itfelf.
IMPERFECT Tenfe, in Grammar, atenfethat denotes
fome preterite cafe, or denotes the thing to be at that
time prefent, and not quite finifhed } zs feribebam, “ I
was writing.” See Grammar.
IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor,
or empire. See Emperor and Empire.—Thus we
fay, his imperial majefty, the imperial crown, imperial
arms, &c.
Imperial Crown. See Heraldry.
IMPERIAL Chamber, is a fovereign court, eftablifh-
ed for the affairs of the immediate Rates of the empire.
See Chamber, and Germany.
IMPERIAL Cities, in Germany, are thofe which own
no other head but the emperor.
Thefe are a kind of little commonwealths ; the chief
magiflrate whereof does homage to the emperor •, but
in other refpedts, and in the adminiflration of juftice,
is fovereign. .
Imperial cities have a right of coining money, and
®f keeping forces and fortified places, Their deputies
aflift at the imperial diets,, where they are divided in- Imperial
to two branches, that of the Rhine and that of Suabia. C'1^cs
There were formerly 22 in the former and 37 in the lat- xmp0iiti0n
ter ; but there are now only 48 in all, ^—L ' ^
IMPERIAL Diet, is an affembly or convention of all
the Rates of the empire. See Diet and Germany.
IMPERSONAL verb, in Grammar, a verb to
which the nominative of any certain perfon cannot be
prefixed 5 or, as others define it, a verb deflitute of
the two firR and primary perfons, as decet, oportet, &c.
the imperfonal verbs of the adtive voice end in t, and
thofe of the paflive in tur ; they are conjugated through
the third perfon Rngular of almofl all the tenfes and
moods : they want the imperative, inflead of which wre
ufe the prefent of the fubjundlive 5 aspceniteat, pugnetur,
&d. nor, but a few excepted, are they to be met with
in the fupines, participles or gerunds.
IMPERVIOUS, a thing not to be pervaded or
pafled through, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its
pores, or the particular configuration of its parts.
IMPETIGO, in Medicine, an extreme roughnefs
and foulnefs of the fkin, attended with an itching and
plentiful feurf.
The impetigo is a fpecies of dry pruriginous itch,
wherein feales or feurf fucceed apace j arifing from fa-
line corrofive humours thrown out upon the exterior
parts of the body, by which means the internal parts
are ufually relieved.
IMPETRATION, the adt of obtaining any thing
by requefl or prayer.
Impetration was more particularly ufed in our fla-
tutes for the pre-obtaining of benefices and church-o£V
fices in England from the court of Rome, which did be¬
long to the difpofal of the king and other lay patrons of
the realm ; the penalty whereof is the fame with that
of provifors, 25 Ed. III.
IMPETUS, in Mechanics, the force with which
one body Rrikes or impels another.
IMPLICATION, in Law, is where fomething is
implied that is not exprefled by the parties themfelves
in their deeds, contradls, or agreements.
To IMPLY, or Carry, in Mufic. Thefe we have
ufed as fynenymous terms in that article. They are
intended to fignify thofe founds which ought to be
the proper concomitants of any note, whether by its
owm nature, or by its pofition in artificial harmony.
Thus every note, confidered as an independent found,
may be faid to carry or imply its natural harmonics,
that is to fay, its odfave, its twelfth, and its feven-
teenth j or, when reduced, its eighth, its fifth, and its
third. But the fame found, when confidered as conRi-
tuting any part of harmony, is fubjedled to other laws
and different limitations. It can then only be faid to
carry or imply fuch fimple founds, or complications of
found, as the preceding and fubfequent chords admit
or require. For thefe the laws of melody and har¬
mony mufl be conlulted. See Melody and Har¬
mony.
IMPORTATION, in Commerce, the bringing
merchandife into a kingdom from foreign countries j
in contradiflindlion to exportation. See Exporta¬
tion.
For the principal laws relating to importation, fee
Cvjlomhoufe Laivs.
IMPOSITION of hands, an ecclefiaflical adlion by
which
I M P
Imposition -which a bifliop lays his hand on the head of a perfon,
il in ordination, confirmation, or in uttering a blefling.
t!ni!°e praftice is alfo frequently obferved by the diflen-
■ ters at the ordination of their minifters, when all the
minifters prefent place their hands on the head of him
whom they are ordaining, while one of them prays for
a blefling on him and his future labours. This fome
of them retain as an ancient practice, juftified by the
example of the apoftles, when no extraordinary gifts
are conveyed. However, they are not agreed as to the
propriety of this ceremony j nor do they confider it as
an eflential part of ordination.
Impolition of hands was a Jewifh ceremony, intro¬
duced not by any divine authority, but by cuftom *, it
'being the pra£tice among thofe people whenever they
prayed to God for any perfon to lay their hands on his
head.
Our Saviour obferved the fame cullom, both when
he conferred his blefling on children, and when he
cured the fick; adding prayer to the ceremony. The
apoftles likewife laid hands on thofe upon whom they
bellowed the Holy Ghoft.—The priefts ohferved the
fame cuftom when any one was received into their
body.—And the apoftles themfelves underwent the
impofition of hands afrefh every time they entered
upon any new defign. In the ancient church impo¬
fition of hands was even praclifed on perfons when
they married, which cuflom the Abyflinians ftill ob-
ferve.
IMPOSSIBLE, that which is notpoflible, or which
cannot be done or effetfted. A propofition is faid to
be impoflible, when it contains two ideas which mutu¬
ally deftroy each other, and which can neither be con¬
ceived nor united together. Thus it is impoflible
that a circle Ihould be a fquare } becaufe we conceive
clearly that fquarenefs and roundnefs deftroy each other
by the contrariety of their figure.
There are two kinds of impoffibilities, phyfical and
moral.
Phyfical impoflibility is that \Vhich is contrary to
the law of nature. /
A thing is morally impoflible, when of its own na¬
ture it is poflible, but yet is attended with fuch diffi¬
culties, as that, all things confidered, it appears im¬
poflible. Thus it is morally impoflible that all men
fhould be virtuous ; or that a man ftiould throw the
fame number with three dice a hundred times fuc-
ceflively.
A thing which is impoflible in lawq ig the fame with
a thing impoflible in nature: and if any thing in a bond
or deed be impoflible to be done, fuch deed, &c. is void.
21 Car. I.
IMPOST, in Archite&ure, a capital or plinth, to a
pillar or pilafter, or pier that fupports an arch, &c.
Impost, in Law, fignifies in general a tribute or
cuftom, but is more particularly applied to fignify that
tax which the crown receives for merchandifes import¬
ed into any port or haven.
IMPOSTHUME, or abfcefs, a colleflion of mat¬
ter or pus in any part of the body, either owing to
an obftru&ion of the fluids in that part, which makes
them change into fuch matter, or to a tranflation of
it from fome other part where it was generated. See
Surgery Index.
I M P
IMPOSTOR, in a general fenfe, denotes a perfon Impoftor
who cheats by a fi&itious charafter. H
Religious IMPOSTORS, are fuch as falfely pretend to mP0^e_nu>',t
an extraordinary commiflion from heaven j and who
terrify and abufe the people with falfe denunciations
of judgments. Thefe are punifhable in the temporal
courts with fine, imprifonment, and infamous corporal
punilhment.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, de¬
notes w-ant of ftrength, power, or means, to perform
any thing.
Divines and philofophers diftinguifh two forts of
impotency ; natural and moral. The firft is a want of
fome phyfical principle, neceflary to an aftion; or where
a being is abfolutely defeftive, or not free and at liber¬
ty to a6l : The fecond only imports a great difficulty $
as a ftrong habit te the contrary, a violent paflion, or
the like.
Impotency is a term more particularly ufed for a na¬
tural inability to coition. Impotence with refpefl to
men is the fame as fterility in women 5 that is, an ina¬
bility of propagating the fpecies. There are many caufes
of impotence ; as, a natural defeat in the organs of
generation, which feldom admits of a cure : accidents
or difeafes; and in fuch cafes the impotence may or
may not be remedied, according as thete are curable or
otherwife.—The moft common caufes are, early and
immoderate venery, or the venereal difeafe. We have
inftances, however, of unfitnefs for generation in men,
by an impediment to the ejection of the femen in coi¬
tion, from a wrong direction which the orifice at the
verumontanum got, whereby the feed was thrown up
into the bladder. M. Petit cured one patient under
fuch a difficulty of emiflion, by making an incifion
like to that commonly made in the great operation for
the ftone.
On this fubjeft we have fome curious and original
obfervations by the late Mr John Hunter in his Trea-
tife on the Venereal Difeafe *. He confiders impoten- * p. 20i.
cy as depending upon two caufes. One he refers to the See. sd edit.,
mind j the other to the organs.
1. As to impotency depending upon the mind, he ob-
ferves, that as the “ parts of generation are not necef-
fary for the exiftence or fupport of the individual, but
have a reference to fomething elfe in w'hich the mind
has a principal concern; fo a complete a£1 ion in thofe
parts cannot took place without a perfeft harmony of
body and of mind ; that is, there mull be both a power
of body and difpofition of mind ; for the mind is fubjeft
to a thoufand caprices, which affeft the aftions of thefe
parts.
“ Copulation is an aft of the body, the fpring of
which is in the mind j but it is not volition : and ac¬
cording to the ftate of the mind, fo is the aft per¬
formed. To perform this aft well, the body flrould
be in health, and the mind Humid be perfeftly confi¬
dent of the powers of the body *, the mind Ihould be
in a ftate entirely difengaged from every thing elfe :
it ftiould have no difficulties, no fears, no apprefien-
fions, not even an anxiety to perform the aft well :
for even this anxiety is a ftate of mind different from
what fhould prevail; there fhould not be even a fear
that the mind itfelf may find a difficulty at the time
the aft fhould be performed. Perhaps no funftion of
Y 2 the
[ i?1 1
1 M P
t i?2 1
I M P
Impoteocy the machine depends fo much upon the fiate of the
v— ' mind as this.
“ The will and reafoning faculty have nothing to
do with this power j they are only employed in the
aft, fo far as voluntary parts are made ufe of: and if
they ever interfere, which they fometimes do, it often
produces another date of mind which deftroys that
which is proper for the performance of the aft 5 it
produces a delire, a with, a hope, which are all only
diffidence and uncertainty, and create in the mind the
idea of a poffibility of the want of fuecefs, which de-
itroys the proper ftate of mind or neceflary confidence.
“ There is perhaps no aft in which a man feels
himfelf more interelted, or is more anxious to perform
well; his pride being engaged in fome degree, which
if within certain bounds would produce a degree of
perfeftion in an aft depending upon the will, or an
aft in voluntary parts ; but when it produces a ftate of
mind contrary to that ftate on which the perfeftion
of the aft depends, a failure muft be the confequence.
“ The body is not only rendered incapable of per¬
forming this aft by the mind being under the above in¬
fluence, but alfo by the mind being, though perfeftly
confident of its power, yet confcious of an impropriety
in performing it } this, in many cafes, produces a ftate
of mind wffiich (hall take away all power. The ftate of
a man’s mind refpefting his After takes away all power.
A confcientious man has been known to lofe his powers
on finding the woman he was going to be connefted
with unexpeftedly a virgin.
“ Shedding tears arifes entirely from the ftate of
the mind, although not fo much a compound aft ion as
the aft in queftion; for none are fo weak in body that
they cannot Hied tears; it is not fo much a compound
aftion of the mind and ftrength of body joined, as the
other aft is 5 yet if we are afraid of ffiedding tears, or
are defirous of doing it, and that anxiety is kept up
through the whole of an affefting fcene, we certainly
fhall not Hied tears, or at leaf! not fo freely as would
have happened from our natural feelings.
“ From this account of the neceffity of having the
mind independent refpefting the aft, we muft fee that
it may very often happen that the ftate of mind wdll be
fuch as not to allow the animal to exert its natural
powers; and every failure increafes the evil. We muft
alfo fee from this ftate of the cafe, that this aft muft be
often interrupted ; and the true caufe of this interrup¬
tion not being known, it will be laid to the charge of
the body or want of powers. As thefe cafes do not
anfe from real inability, they are to be carefully diftin-
guiffied from fuch as do ; and perhaps the only way to
diftinguifh them is, to examine into the ftate of mind
refpefting this aft. So trifling oftenis the circumftance
which {hall produce this inability depending on the
mind, that the very defire to pleafe fhall have that ef-
feft, as in making the woman the foie objeft to be gra¬
tified.
“ Cafes of this kind we fee every day; one of which
I (hall relate as an illuftration of this fubjeft, and alfo
of the method of cure.—A gentleman told me, that he
had loft his virility. After above an hour’s inveftiga-
tion of the cafe, I made out the following fafts : that
he had at unneceffary times ftrong ereftions, which
f ho wed that he had naturally this power ; that the
ereftions were accompanied with defire, which are all
the natural powers wanted; but that there was ftlll a Impoteney,
defeft fomewhere, which I fuppofed to be from the 1 —v—
mind. I inquired if all women were alike to him ? his
anfwer was, No; fome women he could have connec¬
tion with as well as ever. This brought the defeft,
whatever it was, into a fmaller compafs: and it appear¬
ed that there was but one woman that produced this in¬
ability, and that it arofe from a defire to perform the
aft with this woman well;. which defire produced in
the mind a doubt or fear of the want of fuccefs, which
was the caufe of the inability of performing the aft.
As this arofe entirely from the ftate of the mind produ¬
ced by a particular circumftance, the mind was to be
applied to for the cure; and I told him that he might
be cured, if he could perfeftly rely on his own power of
felf-denial. When I explained what I meant, he told
me that he could depend upon every aft of his will or
refolution. I then told him, that, if he had a perfeft
confidence in himfelf in that refpeft, he was to go ta
bed to this woman, but firft promife to himfelf that
he would not have any conneftion with her for fix
.nights, let his inclinations and powers be what they
would ; which he engaged to do, and alfo to let me
know the refult. About a fortnight after, he told me,
that his refolution had produced fuch a total alteration
in the ftate of his mind, that the power foon took,
place ; for inftead of going to bed with the fear of ina¬
bility, he went with fears that he fhould be poffefled
with too much defire, too much power, fo as to become
uneafy to him; which really happened; for he would
have been happy to have fhortened the time ; and when
he had once broke the fpell, the mind and powers went
on together, and his mind never returned to its former
ftate.”
2. Of impotency from a want of proper corrcfpondence
between the aclions of the different organs. Our author,
in a former part of his Treatife, when confidering the
difeafes of the urethra and bladder, had remarked, that
every organ in an animal body, without exception, was
made of different parts, whofe funftions or aftions were
totally different from one another, although all tending
to produce one ultimate effeft. In all fuch organs,
when perfeft (he obferves), there is a fucceffion of mo¬
tions, one naturally arifing out of the other, which in
the end produces the ultimate effeft ; and an irregula¬
rity alone in thefe aftions will con ft i lute difeafe, at
leaf! will produce very difagreeable effefts, and often
totally fruftrate the intention of the organ. This prin¬
ciple Mr Kunter, cn the prefent occafion, applies to
the “ aftions of the tefticles and penis : for we find that
an irregularity in the aftions of thefe parts fometimes
happens in men, producing impotence; and fomething
fimilar probably may be one caufe of barrennefs in wo¬
men.
“ In men, the parts fubfervient to generation may be
divided into two; the effential and the accefibry. The
tefticles are the effential ; the penis, &c. the acceffory.
As this divifion arifes from their ufes or aftions in
health, which exactly correfpond with one another, a
want of exaftnefs in the correfpondence or fufeeptibility
of thofe aftions may alfo be divided into two : where
the aftions are reverfed, the acceffory taking place
without the firft or effential, as in ereftions of the penis,
where neither the mind nor the tefticles are ftimulated
to aftion; and the fecond is where the tefticles perform
the
I M P [ 173 3 IMP
|fKpotency, the a£Uon of fecretion too readily for the pen!?, which
has not a correfponding ereftion. The firft is called
priapifm ; and the fecond is what ought to be called fe-
minal weahnefs.
“ The mind has conhderable effe& on the correfpon-
dence of the actions of thefe two parts : but it would
appear in many inftances, that erections of the penis
depend more on the date of the mind than the fecretion
of the femen does j for many have the fecretion, but
not the eredtion ; but in fuch, the want of eredlion ap¬
pears to be owing to the mind only.
“ Priapifm often arifes fpontaneoufly ; and often
from vifible irritation of the penis, as in the venereal
gonorrhoea, efpecially when violent. The fenfation
of fuch ere&ions is rather uneafy than pleafant'j nor is
the fenfation of the glans at the time fimilar to that ari-
fing from the ere&ions of defire, but more like to the
fenfation of the parts immediately after coition. Such
as arife fpontaneoufly are of more ferious confequence
than thofe from inflammation, as they proceed probably
from caufes not curable in themfelves or by any known
methods. The priapifm arifing from inflammation of
the parts, as in a gonorrhoea, is attended with nearly
the fame fymptoms $ but generally the fenfation is that
of pain, proceeding from the inflammation of the parts.
It may be obferved, that what is faid of priapifm is
only applicable to it when a difeafe in itfelf, and not
when a fymptom of other difeafes* which is frequently
the cafe.
“ The common practice in the cure of this complaint
is to order all the nervous and ftrengthening medicines j
fuch as bark, valerian, mufk, camphor, and alfo the
cold bath. I have feen good effedls from the cold
bath j but fometimes it does not agree with the confti-
tution, in which cafe I have found the warm bath of
fervice. Opium appears to be a fpecific in many cafes;
from which cireumftance I fliould be apt, upon the
whole, to try a Toothing plan.
“ Seminal weaknefs, or a fecretion and emiffion of
the femen without eredlions, is the reverfe of a priapifm,
and is by much the worfe difeafe of the two. There is
great variety in the degrees of this difeafe, there being
all the gradations from the exa£l correfpondeuce of the
adlions of all the parts to the tefticles adting alone j in
every cafe of the difeafe, there is too quick a fecretion'
and evacuation of the femen. Like to the priapifm, it
does not arife from defires and abilities j although when1
mild it is attended with both, but not in a due propor¬
tion $ a very flight defire often producing the full ef-
fedl. The fecretion of the femen (hall be fo quick,
that Ample thought, or even toying, {hall make it
flow.
“ Dreams have produced this evacuation repeatedly
in the fame night j and even when the dreams have been
fo flight, that there has been no confcioufnefs of them
when the fleep has been broken by the adl; of emiflion.
I have known cafes where the tefticles have been fo
ready to fecrete, that the leaft fridlion on the glans has
produced an emiflion : I have known the Ample aftlon Impoteney.
of walking or riding produce this effedl, and that re- '—--v—
peatedly, in a very fliort fpace of time.
“ A young man, about four or five and twenty years
of age, not fo much given to venery as moft young
men, had thefe laft mentioned complaints upon him.
Three or four times in the night he would emit; and
if he walked faft, or rode on horfeback, the fame thing
would happen. He could fcarcely have connexion
with a woman before he emitted, and in the emiflioii
there was hardly any fpafm. He tried every fuppofed
ftrengthening medicine, as alfo the cold bath and fea-
bathing, but with no effeft. By taking 20 drops of
laudanum on going to bed, he prevented the night
emiffions 5 and by taking the fame quantity in the
morning, he could w'alk or ride without the before-
mentioned inconvenience. I direfted this pra&ice to
be continued for fome time, although the difeafe did
not return, that the parts might be accuftomed to this
healthy ftate of aftion 5 and 1 have reafon to believe
the gentleman is now well. It was found neceffary, as
the conftitution became more habituated to the opiate,
to increafe the dofe of it.
“ The fpafms, upon the evacuation of the femen in
fuch cafes are extremely flight, and a repetition of
them foon takes place ; the firft emiflion not preventing
a fecond 5 the conftitution being all the time but little'
affefted (a). When the tefticles a<5l alone, without
the acceffory parts taking up the neceffary and naturaf
confequent aftion, it is ftill a more melancholy difeafe y
for the fecreiion arifes from no vifible or fenfible caufe,.
and does not give any vifible or fenfible eflfeft, but runs
off fimilar to involuntary ftools or urine. It has beea
obferved that the femen is more fluid than natural in
fome of thefe cafes.
“ There is great variety in the difeaffed a&ions of
thefe parts j of which the following cafe may be confi-
dered as an example. A gentleman has had a ftrifture*
in the urethra for many years, for which he has fre¬
quently ufed a bougie, but has of late negle&ed it. He
has had no connexion with women for a confiderable
time, being afraid of the confequences. He has often
in his fleep involuntary emiflions, which generally
awake him at the paroxyfm j but what furprifes him
moft is, that often he has fuch without any femen
pafling forwards through the penis, which makes him
think that at thofe times it goes backward into the
bladder. This is not always the cafe, for at other
times the femen paffes forwards. At the time the
femen feems to pafs into the bladder, he has the erec¬
tion, the dream $ and is awaked with the fame mode
of aftion, the fame fenfation, and the fame pleafure^
as when it paffes through the urethra, whether dream¬
ing or waking. My opinion is, that the fame irritation
takes place in the bulb of the urethra without the fe¬
men that takes place there when the femen enters, in
Confequence of all the natural preparatory fteps, where¬
by the very fame adtions are excited as if it came into
the
(a) “ It is to be confidered, that the conftitution is commonly affe£led by the fpafms only, and in pro¬
portion to their violence, independent of the fecretion and evacuation of the femen. But in fome safes even
the eredtion going off without the fpafms on the emiffion, ftiall produce the fame debility as if they had taken
place.”
IMP Ci
Impotency the paffage,: from whjch one would fuppofe, that either
t JL ^ femen is not fecreted j or if it be, that a retrograde mo-
f tion takes place in the aflions of the acceleratores uri-
nae. But if the firfl: be the cafe, then we may 'fuppofe,
that in the natural date the actions of thofe mufcles do
not arife limply from the llimulus of the femen in the
part, but from their aftion being a termination of a
preceding one, making part of a feries of actions. Thus
they may depend upon the friftion, or the imagination
of a friftion, on the penis 5 the tefticles not doing their
part, and the fpafm in fuch cafes ariling from the
friflion and not from the fecretion. In many of thofe
cafes of irregularity, when the ereftion is not ftrong, it
lhall go off without the emiffion 5 and at other times
an emilfion lhall happen almoft without an ere&ion ;
but thefe arife not from debility, but affe&ions of the
mind. v
“ In many of the preceding cafes, walking the
penis, fcrotum, and perineeum, with cold water, is of¬
ten of fervice $ and to render it colder than it is in
fome feafons of the year, common fait may be added to
it, and the parts walked when the fait is almoft diflbl-
ved.”
Impotency is a canonical difability, to avoid mar¬
riage in the fpiritual court. The marriage is not void
wittb, but voidable only by fentence of feparation
during the life of the parties.
IMPRECATION, (derived from z'«, and precor,
“ I pray •,”) a curfe or wilh that fome evil may befal
any one.
The ancients had their goddelfes called Imprecations,
in Latin, Dirce, i. e. Deorurn tree, who were fuppofed
to be the executioners of evil confciences. They were
called Dirce in heaven, Furies on earth, and Eumenides
in hell. The Romans owned but three of thele Im¬
precations, and the Greeks only two. They invoked
them with prayers and pieces of verfes to deftroy their
enemies.
IMPREGNATION, the getting a female with
child. See Conception.
The term, impregnation is alfo ufed, in pharmacy, for
communicating the virtues of one medicine to another,
whether by mixture, co&ion, digeftion, &c.
IMPRESSING seamen. The power of imprefling
fea-faring men for the fea-fervice by the king’s com-
mifllon, has been a matter of fome difpute, and fubmit-
ted to with great reluflance 5 though it hath very
clearly and learnedly been fliown by Sir Michael For-
fter, that the praftice of imprefling, and granting
powers to the admiralty for that purpofe, is of a very
ancient date, and hath been uniformly continued by a
regular feries of precedents to the prefent time : whence
he concludes it to be part of the common law. The
difficulty arifes from hence, that no ftatute has exprefs-
ly declared this power to be in the crown, though many
of them very ftrongly imply it. The ftatute 2 Rich. II.
c. 4. (peaks of .mariners being arrefted and retained for
the king’s fervice, as of a thing well known, and prac-
tifed without difpute j and provides a remedy againft
their running away. By a later ftatute, if any water¬
man, who ufes the river Thames, ffiall hide himfelf
during the execution of any commiffion of prefling for
the king’s fervice, he is liable to heavy penalties. By
anotner (5 Eliz. c. 5*) no fiflierman {hall be taken by
the queen’s commiflion to ferve as a mariner j but the
4
74 1 IMP
commiflion fhall be firft brought to two juftices of the Impreffing
peace, inhabiting near the fea coaft where the mariners II
are to be taken, to the intent that the juftices may ImPrifon"
choofe out and return fuch a number of able-bodied meRt’ j
men, as in the commiflion are contained, to ferve her
majefty. And by others, efpecial protections are al¬
lowed to feamen in particular circumftances, to prevent
them from being impreffed. Ferrymen are alfo {aid to
be privileged from being impreffed, at common law.
All which do moft evidently imply a power of impref-
fmg to refide. fomewhere; and if anywhere, it muff,
from the fpirit of our conftitution, as well as from the
frequent mention of the king’s commiflion, refide in tha
crown alone.—After all, however, this method of man¬
ning the navy is to be confidered as only defenfible
from public neceffity, to which all private confldera-
tions muft give way.
The following perfons are exempted from being im¬
preffed : Apprentices for three years j the mafter,
mate, and carpenter, and one man for every 100 tons,
of veffels employed in the coal trade j all under 18
years of age, and above 55 ; foreigners in merchant-
fliips and privateers ; landmen betaking themfelves to
fea for two years ; feamen in the Greenland fiffiery, and
harpooners, employed, during the interval of the fifhing
feafon, in the coal-trade, and giving fecurity to go to
the fiftiing next feafon.
IMPRESSION is applied to the fpecies of objects
which are fuppofed to make fortre mark or impreflion on
the fenfes, the miad, and the memory. The Peripate¬
tics affert, that bodies emit fpecies refembling them,
which are conveyed to the common fenforium. and they
are rendered intelligible by the aftive intellect j and,
when thus fpiritualized, are called expreJions, ox exprefs
fpecies, as being expreffed from the others.
Impression alfo denotes the edition of a book, re¬
garding the mechanical part only ; whereas edition, be-
fides this, takes in the care of the editor, who corrected
or augmented the copy, adding notes, &c. to render
the work more ufeful.
IMPRISONMENT, the ftate of a perfon reftrain-
ed of his liberty, and detained under the cuftody of an¬
other.
. No perfon is to be imprifoned but as the law direfts,
either by the command or order of a court of record,
or by lawful warrant ; or the king’s procefs, on which
one may be lawfully detained. And at common law,
a perfon could not be imprifoned unlefs he were guilty
of fome force and violence, for which his body was
fubjeft to imprifonment, as one of the higheft execu¬
tions. Where the law gives power to imprifon, in
fuch cafe it is juftifiable, provided he that does it in
purfuance of a ftatute exaftly purfues the ftatute in
the manner of doing it; for otherwife it will be deem¬
ed falfe imprifonment, and of confequence it is unjufti-
fiable. Every warrant of commitment for imprifoning
a perfon, ought to run, “ till delivered by due courfe
of law,” and “ not until farther orderwhich has
been held ill: and thus it alfo is, where one is impri¬
foned on a warrant not mentioning any caufe for
which he is committed. See Arrest and Commit¬
ment.
Falfe IMPRISONMENT. Every confinement of the
perfon is an imprifonment, whether it be in a common
prifon, or in a private houfe, or in the ftocks, or even
IMP [ *75 J I N A
Imprifon. by forcibly detaining one in tbe public ftreets. Un-
mcnt lawful or falfe imprifonment confifts in fuch confinement
_ or detention without fufficient authoritywhich autho-
rity may arife either from fome procefs from the courts
of juftice; or from fome warrant from a legal power to
commit, under his hand and feal, and expreffing the
caufe of fuch commitment \ or from fome other fpecial
caufe warranted, for the neceffity of the thing, either
by common law or ait of parliament *, fuch as the ar-
refting of a felon by a private perfon without warrant,
the impreffing of mariners for the public ferviee, or th^
apprehending of waggoners for mifbehaviour in the
public highways. Falfe imprifonment alfo may arife
by executing a lawful warrant or procefs at an unlawful
time, as on a Sunday j or in a place privileged from
arrefts, as in the verge of the king’s court. This
is the injury. The remedy is of two forts ; the one
removing the injury7, the other making fatisfaBion for
it.
The means of removing the aftual injury of falfe im¬
prifonment are fourfold: x. By writ of Maikprize,
2. By writ De Odio et Atia. 3. By writ Z)<?Homine
Replegiando. 4. By writ of Habeas Corpus. See
thofe articles.
The fatisfaBory remedy for this injury of falfe impri¬
fonment, is by an action of trefpafs viet armis, ufually
called an aBion of falfe imprifonment; which is gene¬
rally, and almoft; unavoidably, accompanied with a
charge of afifault and battery alfo; and therein the party
fhall recover damages for the injuries he has received j
and alfo the defendant is, as for all other injuries com¬
mitted with force, or vi et armis, liable to pay a fine
to the king for the violation of the public peace.
IMPROMPTU, or Inpromptu, a Latin word fre¬
quently ufed among the French, and fometimes in Eng-
lifh, to fignify a piece made off-hand, or extempore,
without any previous meditation, by mere force and vi¬
vacity of imagination.
IMPROBATION, in Scots Law, the name of any
aftion brought for fetting any deed or writing afide up¬
on the head of forgery.
IMPROPRIATION, in ecclefiaftical law. See
Appropri ation.
IMPULSION, in Mechanical Philofophy, a term
employed for expreffing a fuppofed peculiar exertion of
the powers of body, by which a moving body changes
the motion of another body by hitting or ftriking it.
The plainefl cafe of this a6tion is when a body in mo¬
tion hits another body at reft, and puts it in motion by
the ftroke. The body thus put in motion is faid to be
IMPELLED by the other; and this way of producing
motion is called impulsion, to diftinguifh it from pres-
SION, THRUSTING, or protrusion, by which we pufh
a body from its place without linking it. The term
has been gradually extended to every change of motion
occafioned by the collifion of bodies. See Mecha¬
nics.
IMPURITY, in the law of Mofes, is any legal de¬
filement. Of thefe there were feveral forts. Some
were voluntary, as the touching a dead body, or any
animal that died of itfelf, or any creature that was
efteemed unclean ; or the touching things holy, by one
who was not clean, or was not a prieft ; the touching
one who had a leprofy, one who had a gonorrhoea, or
who was polluted by a dead carcafe, Sic, Sometimes
thefe impurities were involuntary ; as when any one Impurity
inadvertently touched bones, or a fepulchre, or any II. ^
thing polluted ; or fell into fuch difeafes as pollute, as . na111 y‘
the leprofy, &zc.
The beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touch¬
ed any thing unclean, contrafted alfo a kind of impuri¬
ty, and in lome cafes communicated it to others.
Thefe legal pollutions were generally removed by
bathing, and lafted no longer than the evening. The
perfon polluted plunged over head in the w ater, and
either had his clothes on when he did fo, or waffied
himfelf and his clothes feparately. Other pollutions
continued feven days, as that which was contra£Ied by
touching a dead body. That of women in their month¬
ly courfes lafted till this was over with thorn. Other
impurities lafted 40 or 50 days ; as that of women who
wrere lately delivered, who were unclean 40 days after
the birth of a boy, and 50 after the birth of a girl.
Others again lafted till the perfon was cured.
Many of thefe pollutions were expiated by facrifices ;
and others by a certain water or ley made with the
allies of a red heifer, facrificed on the great day of ex¬
piation. When the leper was cured, he went to the
temple, and offered a facrifice of two birds, one of
which was killed and the other fet at liberty. He who
had touched a dead body, or had been prefent at a fu¬
neral, was to be purified with the water of expiation,
and this upon pain of death. The woman who had
been delivered, offered a turtle and a lamb for her ex¬
piation ; or if flie was poor, two turtles or two young
pigeons.
Thefe impurities, which the law of Mofes has ex-
prefled with the greateft accuracy and care, were only
figures of other more important impurities, fuch as the
fins and iniquities committed againft God, or faults
committed againft our neighbour. The faints and pro¬
phets of the Old Teftament were fenfible of this; and
our Saviour, in the gofpel, has ftrongly inculcated, that
they are not outward and corporeal pollutions which
render us unacceptable to God, but fuch inward pollu¬
tions as infeift the foul, and are violations of juftice,
truth, and charity.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging fome-
thing to the account of one which belonged to another:
thus, the aflertors of original fin maintain, that Adam’s
fin is imputed to all his pofterity.
In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of
Chrift are imputed to true believers.
INACCESSIBLE, fomething that cannot be ap¬
proached, by reafon of intervening obftacles, as a river,
rock, &c. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of heights and
diftances. See Mensuration.
INACHUS, founder of the kingdom of Argos,
1856 B. C. See Argos.
INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally
alienated or made over to another: thus the dominions
of the king, the revenues of the church, the eftates of
a minor, &c. are inalienable, othexwife than with a re-,
ferve of the right of redemption.
INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul,
or that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the ftate
of the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to reple¬
tion.
INANITY; the fchool term for emptinefs or ab-
folute
"Inanity
INC [ 176 1
folute vacuity, and implies the abfcnce of all body and 1431.
matter whatfoever, fo that nothing remains but mere
fpace.
INARCHING, in Gardening, a method of graft¬
ing, commonly grafting by approach. See Gar¬
dening Index.
INAUGURATION, the coronation of an empe¬
ror or king, or the confecration of a prelate : fo called
from the ceremonies ufed by the Romans, when they
where received into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given by the natives of
Peru to their kings and the princes of the blood. Pe¬
dro de Cieca, in his Chronicles of Peru, gives the ori-
I N C
Incenfe.
gin of the incas $ and fays, that that country was, for
a long time, the theatre of all manner of crimes, of
war, diffenfion, and the moil dreadful diforders, till at
lalt two brothers appeared, one of whom w'as called
Mangocapa ; of this perfon the Peruvians relate many
wonderful {lories. He built the city of Cufco, made
laws, eftabliihed order and harmony by his wife regu¬
lations ; and he and his defendants took the name
of inca, which fignifies king or great lord. Thefe in-
cas became fo powerful, that they rendered themfelves
mailers of all the country from Pafto to Chili, and from
the river Maule on the fouth to the river Augafmago
on the north ; thefe two rivers forming the bounds
of their empire, which extended above thirteen hun¬
dred leagues in length. This they enjoyed till the di-
vilions between Inca Guafcar and Atabalipa: which
the Spaniards laying hold of, made themfelves mailers
of the country, and deltroyed the empire of the incas.
See Peru.
INCAM ER AT ION, a term ufed in the chancery
of Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other
rights, to the pope’s domain.
INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, ac-»
companied with a formula of words, and fuppofed to
be capable of raifwg devils, fpirits, &c. See Charm,
&c.
INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two
kinds: 1. The want of a difpenfation for age in a mi¬
nor, for legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this
renders the provifion of a benefice void in its original.
2. Crimes and heinous offences, which annul provxfxons
at firft valid.
INCARNATION, in Theology, fignifies the a£l
whereby the Son of God affumed the human na¬
ture; or the myftery by which Jefus Chrifl, the eter¬
nal word, w'as made man, in order to accomplifh the
work of our falvation. The era ufed among Chrif-
•tians, whence they number their years, is the time of
the incarnation, that is, of Chrift’s conception in the
virgin’s womb.
This era was firff effabliffxed by Dxonyfitxs Exiguus,
about the beginning of the fixth century, till which time
the era of Dioclefian had been in ufe.
Some time after this, it was confxdered, that the
years of a man’s life were not numbered from the time
of his conception, but from that of his birth : which
©ccaffoned them to poffpone the beginning of this era
for the fpace of one year, retaining the cycle of Dio-
nyfius entire in every thing elfe.
At Rome they reckon their years from the incar¬
nation or birth of Chrift, that is, from the 25th of
December, which culiom has obtained from the year
In France, and feveral other countries, they alfo Incarna.
reckon from the incarnation: but then they differ tiori
from each other in the day of the incarnation, fixing
it, after the primitive manner, not to the day of the
birth, but conception of our Saviour; though the
Florentines retain the day of the birth, and begin their
year from Chriftmas.
Incarnation (formed from in and caro “ flelh,”)
in Surgery, fignifies the healing and filling up of ulcers
and wounds with new flefh. See Surgery.
INCARNATIVES, in Surgery,. medicines which
were fuppofed to affxft nature in filling up wounds or
ulcers with flefh.
INCENDIARY, in Law, is applied to one who
is guilty of malicioufly fetting fire to another’s dwell-
ing-houfe, and all outhoufes that are parcel thereof,
though not contiguous to it, or under the fame roof,
as barns and llables. A bare intent or attempt to do
this, by actually fetting fire to a houfe, unlefs it ab-
folutely burns, does not fall within the defeription of
incendit et combujjit. But the burning and confuming of
any part is fufficient; though the fire be afterwards
extinguilhed. It muff alfo be a malicious burning;
other wife it is only a trefpafs. This offence is called
arfon in our law.
Among the ancients, criminals of this kind were to
be burnt. ^111 cedes, acervumque frumenti juxta domum
fiojitum feiens, prrudenfque dolo mala combujferit, vinftus
igni necatur.
The punilhment of arfon was death by our ancient
Saxon laws and by the Gothic conftitutions : and in
the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. The flat. 8 Hen. VI. c. 6. made the wilful
burning of houfes, under fpecial cireumftances, high
treafon ; but it was reduced to felony by the general
a£ts of Edward VI. and Queen Mary. This offence
was denied the benefit of clergy by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 1.
which flatute was repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12.: and
arfon was held to be oufted of clergy, with refpefl to
the principal, by inference from the flat. 4 and 5 P.
and M. c. 4. which exprefsly denied it to the acceffory;
though now it is expreisly denied to the principal alfo
by 9 Geo. I. c. 22.
INCENSE, or Frankincense, in the Materia Me¬
dico, &c. a dry refinous fubftance, known among au¬
thors by the names thus and olibanum.
Incenfe is a rich perfume, with which the Pagans
and the Roman Catholics {till perfume their temples,
altars, &c.—-The word comes from the Latin incen-
fum, q. d. burnt} as taking the effccl for the thing it-
felf.
The burning of incenfe made part of the daily fer-
vice of the ancient Jewifh church. The priefts drew
lots to know w'ho fnould offer it: the deftined perfon
took a large filver difli, in which was a cenfer full of
incenfe; and being accompanied by another priefi;
carrying fome live coals from the altar, went into the
temple. There, in order to give notice to the peo¬
ple, they^flruck upon an inftrument of brafs placed
between the temple and the altar; and being returned
to the altar, he who brought the fire left it there, and
went away. Then the offerer of incenfe having laid
a prayer to two, waited the fignal, which was the
burning of the holocauff ; immediately upon which ha-
let fire to the incenfi?j the whole multitude continuing
all
INC [ 177 ] INC
Incenfe
II ,
Inch Colm
all the time in prayer. The quantity of incenfe offer¬
ed each day was half a pound in the morning and as
much at night.
One reafon of this continual burning of incenfe might
be, that the multitude of victims that were continually
offered up, would have made the temple fmell like a
flaughter-houfe, and confequently have infpired the
coiners rather with difguft and averfion, than awe and
reverence, had it not been overpowered by the agree¬
able fragrance of thofe perfumes.
INCEPTIVE, a word ufed by Dr Wallis to ex-
prefs fuch moments, or firft principles, which, though
of no magnitude themfelves, are yet capable of produ¬
cing fuch as are. Thus a point has no magnitude it-
felf, but is inceptive of a line which it produces by its
motion. So a line, though it have no breadth, is yet
inceptive of breadth •, that is, it is capable, by its mo¬
tion, of producing a furface which has breadth, &c.
INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between
perfons who are related in a degree wherein marriage
is prohibited by the laws of the country.
Some are of opinion, that marriage ought to be
permitted between kinsfolks, to the end that the af¬
fection fo neceffary in marriage might be heightened
by this double tie : yet the rules of this church have
formerly extended this prohibition even to the feventh
degree; but time has now brought it down to the third
or fourth degree.
Moft nations look on incefl with horror, Perfla and
Egypt alone excepted. In the hiftory of the ancient
kings of thofe countries we meet with inftances of the
brother’s marrying the lifter ; the reafon was, becaufe
they thought it tao mean to join in alliance with their
own fubje&s, and ftill more fo to have married into
any foreign family.
Incest, spiritual, a crime committed in likeVnanner
between perfons who have a fpiritual alliance by means
of baptifm or confirmation.
Spiritual inceft is alfo underftood of a vicar, or other
beneficiary, who enjoys both the mother and daughter )
that is, holds two benefices, the one whereof depends
upon the collation of the other.
Such a fpiritual inceft renders both the one and the
other of thefe benefices vacant.
INCH, a well-known meafure of length ; being the
twelfth part of a foot, and equal to three barley-corns in
length.
INCH of Candle, (fale by). See Candle.
INCH (contracted from the Gaelic innis, “ an
illand”), a word prefixed to the names of different
places in Scotland and Ireland.
INCH Colm, or Columba, the ifle of Columba, an ifland
fituated in the frith of Forth in Scotland, and famous
for its monaftery. See Forth.
This monaftery was founded about 1123, by Alex¬
ander I. on the following occafion. In palling the frith
of Forth he was overtaken with a violent ftorm, which
drove him to this illand, where he met with the moft
hofpitable reception from a poor hermit, then refiding
here in the chapel of St Columba, who, for the three
days that the king remained there tempeft-bound, en¬
tertained him with the milk of his cow, and a few
Ihell-filh. His majefty, from the fenfe of the danger
he had efcaped, and in gratitude to the faint to whom
Vol. XI. Part I.
he attributed his fafety, vowed fome token of refpeft ; Inch Colm
and accordingly founded here a monaftery of Auguf- ,11.
tines, and dedicated it to St Columba. Allan de Mor- n^e°^lVe
timer, lord of Aberdour, who attended Edward III. in w—y——j
his Scotch expedition, bellowed half of thofe lands on
the monks of this illand, for the privilege of a family
burial-place in their church. The buildings made in
confequence ©f the piety of Alexander were very con-
fiderable. There are ftill to be feen a large fquare
tower belonging to the church, the ruins of the church,
and of feVeral other buildings. The wealth of this
place in the time of Edward III. proved fo ftrong a
temptation to his fleet, then lying in the Forth, as to
fupprefs all the horror of facrilege and refpedl to the
fanftity of the inhabitants. The Englilh landed, and
fpared not even the furniture more immediately confe-
crated to divine worftiip. But due vengeance overtook
them ; for in a ftorm which inftantly followed, many of
them perilhed; thofe who efcaped, ftruck with the
juftice of the judgment, vowed to make ample recom-
penfe to the injured faint. The tempeft ceafed ; and
they made the promifed atonement.—The Danilh mo¬
nument, figured by Sir Robert Sibbald, lies on the
fouth-eaft fide of the building, on a riling ground. It
is of a rigid form, and the furface ornamented with
fcale-like figures. At each end is the reprefentation of
a human head.
INCH Keith, a fmall illand fituated in the fame frith,
midway between the port of Leith and Kinghorn on
the oppofite Ihore, See Forth.
This illand is faid to derive its name from the gal¬
lant Keith, who fo greatly fignalized himfelf by his
valour in 1010, in the battle of Barry, in Angus,
againft the Danes ; after which he received in reward
the barony of Keith, in Lothian, and this little
ifte. In 1549 the Englilh fleet, fent by Edward VI.
to aflift the lords of the congregation againft the
queen-dowager, landed, and began to fortify this
ifland, of the importance of which they grew fen-
fible after their neglett of fecuring the port of Leith,
fo lately in their power. They left here five com¬
panies to cover the workmen under the command of
Cotterel 5 but their operations were foon interrupted
by M. Deffe, general of the French auxiliaries, who
took the place, after a gallant defence on the part of
the Englilh. The Scots kept poffellion for ferae years’,
but at laft the fortifications were deftroyed by aft of
parliament, to prevent it from being of any ufe to the
former. The French gave it the name of Idifle des
chevattx, from its property of foon fattening horfes.
—In 1497, by order of council, all venereal paiients
in the neighbourhood of the capital were tranlported
there, to prevent their difeafe from fpreading, ne quid
detrimenti refpublica caperet, A lighthoufe, which mull
prove highly beneficial to the Ihipping which frequent
the Forth, was erefled in 1805.
INCH Garvie, a fmall illand, alfo lying in the frith
of Forth, near Queensferry. See Forth.
INCHANTMENT. See Witchcraft.
INCHOATIVE, a term fignifying the beginning
of a thing or aflion ; the fame with what is otherwife
called inceptive.
INCHOATIVE verbs, denote, according to Prifcian and
other grammarians, verbs that are characderifed by the
Z termination
INC [ 178 1 INC
Inchoative termination fco or fcor, added to their primitives : as
N augefco from augeo, calefco from caleo, dulcefco from dul-
ble cloth. Cls,> iraJcor irom ira->
INCIDENCE, denotes the diredlion in which one
body ftrifces on another. See Optics and Mechanics.
Jingle of Incidence. See Angle.
INCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes an event,
or a particular circumftance of fome event.
Incident, in Law, is a thing appertaining to, or
following another that is more worthy or principal,
A court baron is infeparably incident to a manor j and
a court of pie powders to a fair.
INCIDENT Diligence, in Scots Law, a warrant grant¬
ed by a lord ordinary in the court of feflion for citing
witneffes for proving any point, or for produftion of
any writing neceffary for preparing the caufe for a
final determination, or before it goes to a general
proof.
Incident, in a poem, is an epifode, or particular
aft ion, joined to the principal aftion, or depending
on it.
A good comedy is to be full of agreeable incidents,
which divert the fpeftators, and form the intrigue.
The poet ought always to make choice of fuch inci¬
dents as are fuceptible of ornament fuitable to the
nature of his poem. The variety of incidents well con-
dufted makes the beauty of an heroic poem, which
ought always to take in a certain number of incidents
to fufpend the cataftrophe, that would otherwife break
out too loon,
INCINERATION, (derived from in, and cinis,
“ alhes,1’) in chemiftry, the reduftion of any fubftance
into alhes by burning.
INCISIVE, an appellation given to Avhatever cuts
or divides : thus, the fore teeth are called dentes incifivi,
or cutters ; and medicines of an attenuating nature, in¬
cidents, or incilive medicines.
INCLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, is a word frequently ufed by
mathematicians, and fignifies the mutual approach,
tendency, or leaning of two lines or two planes to¬
wards each other, fo as to make an angle.
Inclination, in a moral fenfe. See Appetite.
INCLINED plane, in Mechanics, one that makes
an oblique angle with the horizon. See Mechanics.
INCOGNITO, or incog, is applied to a perfon
who is in any place where he would not be known :
but is more particularly applied to princes, or great
men, who enter towms, or walk the ftreets, without
their ordinary train or the ufual marks of their diftinc-
tion and quality.
INCOMBUSTIBLE cloth. See Asbestos, Mi¬
neralogy Index. On this Cronlledt obferves, that
the natural ftore of the afbefti is in proportion to their
economical ufe, both being very inconfiderable. “ It
is an old tradition (fays he), that in former ages they
made clothes of the fibrous afibefti, which is faid to be
compofed of the word hi/Jfus ; but it is not very pro¬
bable, fince if one may conclude from fome trifles now
made of it, as bags, ribbons, and other things, fuch a
drefs could neither have an agreeable appearance, nor
be of any conveniency or advantage. It is more pro¬
bable that the Scythians dreifed their dead bodies which
were to be burned, in a cloth manufaftured of this
ftone $ and this perhaps has ©ccafioned the above
fable.” M. Magellan confirms this opinion of Cron-bwombfth’.
ftedt’s, and informs us that fome of the Romans alfo
inclofed dead bodies in cloth of this kind. In the year t r ^ .
1756 or 1757 he tells us, that he faw' a large piece of ijieSi
afbeflos cloth found in a ftone tomb, with the afhes of1——y—-J
a Roman, as appeared by the epitaph. It was kept,
with the tomb alfo, if our author remembers rightly^,
in the right hand wing of the Vatican library at Rome.
The under-librarian, in order to Ihow that it was in-
combuftible, lighted a candle, and let fome drops of
wax fall on the cloth, which he fet on fire with a candle
in his prefence without any detriment to the cloth. Its
texture was coarfe, but much fofter than he could have
expefted.
Incombustible, fomething that cannot be burnt or
confumed by fire. See Asbestos.
INCOMMENSURABLE, a term in Geometryf
ufed where two lines, when compared to each other,
have no common meafure, how fmall foever, that will
exaftly meafure them both. And in general, twa
quantities are faid to be incommenfurable, when no
third quantity can be found that is an aliquot part of
both.
INCOMMENSURABLE Numbers, are fuch as have no
common divifor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMPATIBLE, that which cannot fubfift with,
another without deftroying it : thus cold and heat are
incompatible in the fame fubjeft, the ftrongeft over¬
coming and expelling the weakeft.
INCONTINENCE, inordinacy of the fexual ap¬
petite ; lull. It is the oppofite of chaftity. See Chas¬
tity and Continence.
Incontinence, in the eye of the law, is of divers
kinds j as in cafes of bigamy, rapes, fodomy, or buggery,
getting baftards ; all which are puniftied by ftatute.
See 25 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. 18 Eliz. cap. 7. 1 Jac. I.
cap. 11. Incontinency of priefts is punilhable by the
ordinary, by imprifonment, &c. I Hen. VII. cap. 4.
Incontinence, in Medicine, fignifies an inability
in any of the organs to retain what Ihould not be dif-
charged without the concurrence of the will. It is
moft frequently applied to an involuntary difcharge of
urine. See Medicine Index.
INCORPORATION, in Pharmacy, is the reduc¬
tion of dry fubftances to the confidence of a pafte, by
the admixture of fome fluid : thus pills, boles,
are made by incorporation.
Incorporation, ox Body-Corporate. See Corpora¬
tion,
INCORPOREAL, fpiritual; a thing, or fubftance,
which has no body. Thus the foul of man is incor¬
poreal, and may fubfift independent of the body. See
Metaphysics.
INCORRUPTIBLE, that which cannot be cor¬
rupted. Thus fpiritual fubftances, as angels, human
fouls, &c. and thus alfo, glafs, gold, mercury, &c. may
be called incorruptible.
INCORRUPTIBLES, Incoruptibiles, the name
of a feft which fprung out of the Eutychians.—Their
diftinguiftiing tenet was, that the body of Jefus Chrift
was incorruptible j by which they meant, that after
and from the time wherein he was formed in the
womb of his holy mother, he was not fufceptible of
any change or alteration j not even of any natural and
innocent paflibns, as of hunger, thirft, &c. fo that he
ate
I N D
Incorrupt!- ate tvithout any occafion, before his death, as well as
ble after his refurreftion. And hence it was that they
_ M took their name.
An enture., |]\JCR ASS AXING, in Pharmacy, &c. the ren¬
dering of fluids thicker by the mixture of other fub-
flances lefs fluid, or by the evaporation of the thinner
parts.
INCUBATION, the aflion of a hen, or other
fowl, brooding on her eggs. See Hatching.
INCUBUS, Night-mare, a difeafe confifting in
an oppreflion of the breaft, fo very violont, that the
patient cannot fpeak or even breathe. The word is
derived from the Latin incuhare, to lie down” on
any thing and prefs it: the Greeks call it
tp d.fa/tatcr, “ leaper,” or one that ruiheth on a per-
' fon.
In this difeafe the fenfes are not quite loft, but
drowned and aftoniftied, as is the underftanding and
imagination j fo that the patient feems to think fome
huge weight thrown on him, ready to ftrangle him.
Children are very liable to this diftemper j fo are fat
people, and men of much ftudy and application of
mind : by reafon the ftomach in all thefe finds fome
difficulty in digeftion.
INCUMBENT, a clerk or minifter who is refident
cn his benefice 5 he is called incumbent, becaufe he
does, or at leaft ought to, bend his whole ftudy to dif-
charge the cure of his church.
INCURVATION of the Rays of Light, their
bending out of a reftilinear ftraight courfe, occafioned
by refrafftion. See Optics.
INCUS, in Anatomy, a bone of the internal ear,
fome what refembling one of the anterior dentes molares.
See Anatomy, N° 141.
INDEFEASIBLE, a term inlaiv for what cannot
be defeated or made void j as an indefeafible eftate of
inheritance, &c.
Indefeasible Right to the Throne. See Hebe-
DITAR T Right.
INDEFINITE, that which has no certain bounds,
or to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Indefinite, in Grammar, is underftood of nouns,
pronouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are
left in an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed
to any particular time, thing, or other circumftance.
INDELIBLE, fomething that cannot be cancelled
or effaced.
INDEMNITY, in Law, the faving harmlefs 5 or a
writing to fecure one from all damage and danger that
may enfue from any aft.
INDENTED, in Heraldry, is when the outline of
an ordinary is notched like the teeth of a faw. "
INDENTURE, in Law, a writing which com-
prifes fome contraft betw-een two at leaft ; being in¬
dented at top, anfwerable to another part which has
the fame content#. See Deed.
I N D
INDEPENDENTS, a feft of Proteftants, fo called Indepen-
from their maintaining that each congregation of Chrif- t*ent5‘
tians, which meets in one houfe for public v'orfhip, v
is a complete church, has fufficient power to aft and
perform every thing relating to religious government
within itfelf, and is in no refpeft fubjeft or accountable
to other churches. 1
The Independents, like every other Chriftlan feft, Their ori~
derive their owm origin from the praftice of the Sin-
apoftles in planting the firft churches j but they w ere
unknown in modern times till they arofe in England
during the reign of Elizabeth. The hierarchy efta-
blifhed by that princefs in the churches of her domi¬
nions, the veftments worn by the clergy in the cele¬
bration of divine worfhip, the book of common prayer,
and above all the fign of the crofs ufed in the admini-
ftration of baptifm, were very offenfive to many of her
fubjefts, who during the perfecution of the former
reign had taken refuge among the Proteftants of Ger¬
many and Geneva. Thofe men thought that the
church of England refembled, in too many particulars,
the antichriftian church of Rome 5 and they called
perpetually for a more thorough reformation and a
purer worftiip. From this circumftance they were ftig-
matized by their adverfaries with the general name of
Puritans, as the followrers of Novatian (a) had been in
the ancient church. Elizabeth was not difpofed to
comply with their demands j and it is difficult to fay
what might have been the iffue of the conteft, had the
Puritans been united among themfelves in fentiments,
views, and meafures. But the cafe was quite other-
wife. That large body, compofed of perfons of dif¬
ferent ranks, charafters, opinions, and intentions, and
unanimous in nothing but in their antipathy to the
forms of doftrine and difcipline that were eftablilhed
by law, was all of a hidden divided into a variety of
fefts. Of thefe the moft famous was that which w?as
formed about the year 1581 by Robert Brown, a man
infinuating in his manners, but unfteady and inconfift-
ent in his views and notions of men and things. See
Brown.
This innovator differed not in point of doftrine ei¬
ther from the church of England, or from the reft of
the Puritans ; but he had formed notions then new
and Angular concerning the nature of the church and
the rules of ecclefiaftical government. He was for
dividing the whole body of the faithful into feparate
focieties or congregations j and maintained, that fuch
a number of perfons as could be contained in an or¬
dinary place of worftiip ought to be confidered as a
church, and enjoy all the rights and privileges that are
competent to an ecclefiaftical community. Thefe fmall
focieties he pronounced independent jure divino, and en¬
tirely exempt from the jurifdiftion of the bifliops, in
whofe hands the court had placed the reins of fpi-
ritual government j and alfo from that of prelbyteries
Z 2 and
[ 179 1
(a) The followers of Novatian were called Puritans, becaufe they would not communicate with the Catho¬
lic church, under pretence that her communion was polluted by admitting thofe to the facred myfteries who
through infirmity had facrificed to idols in times of perfecution. Thefe unhappy men were not received by
the church till after a long courfe of penance. The Novatians would not receive them at all, however long
their penance, or however fincere their forrow, for their fin. In other refpefts, the ancient Puritans were, like
the Englilh, orthodox in the faith, and of irreproachable morals.
I N D [i
Independ- and fvnods, which the Puritans regarded as the fupreme
, €lli^s• viftble fources of ecclefiallical authority. He alfo main-
tained, that the power of governing each congrega¬
tion refided in the people ; and that each member
had an equal {hare in this government, and an equal
right to order matters for the good of the whole 1b-
eiety. Hence all points both of doftrine and d^fcipline
were fubmitted to the difcuffion of the whole congre¬
gation 5 and whatever was fupported by a majority of
voices pailed into a law. It was the congregation
alfo that elefted certain of the brethren to the of¬
fice of pallors, to perform the duty of public inftruc-
tion, and the feveral branches of divine worihip; re-
ferving, however, to themfelves the power of difmiffing
thefe minifters, and reducing them to the condition of
private members, whenever they diould think fuch a
change conducive to the fpiritual advantage of the com¬
munity. It is likewife to be obferved, that the right
of the paftors to preach was by no means of an exclu-
live nature, or peculiar to them alone ; fince any mem¬
ber that thought proper to exhort or inftrudt the bre¬
thren, was abundantly indulged in the liberty of prophe-
fyittg to the whole affembly. Accordingly, when the
ordinary teacher or pallor had fmilhed his difcourfe, all
the other brethren were permitted to communicate in
public their fentiments and illufirations upon any ufeful
or edifying fubjeft.
The zeal with which Brown and his aflociates
maintained and propagated thefe notions was in a high
degree intemperate and extravagant. He affirmed,
that all communion was to be broken off with thofe
religious focieties that were founded upon a different
plan from his 5 and treated, more efpecially, the church
of England, as a fpurious church, whofe minifters were
unlawfully ordained, whofe difcipline was popilh and
antichriftian, and whofe facraments and inftitutions
were deftitute of all efficacy and virtue. The fedt of
this hot-headed innovator, not being able to endure the
fevere treatment which their own violence had brought
upon them from an adminiftration that was not diftin-
guilhed by its mildnefs and indulgence, retired into
the Netherlands, and founded churches at Middlebourg
in Zealand, and at Amfterdam and Leyden in the pro¬
vince of Holland •, but their eftablilhments were nei¬
ther folid nor lafting. Their founder returned into
England; and having renounced his principles of repa¬
ration, took orders in the eftabliflied church, and ob¬
tained a benefice. The Puritan exiles, whom he thus
abandoned, difagreed among themfelves, were fplit into
parties, and their affairs declined from day to day. This
engaged the wiler part of them to mitigate the feverity
of their founder’s plan, and to foften the rigour of his
uncharitable deciffons.
And pro- The perfon who had the chief merit of bringing
greis. about this reformation was one of their paftors called
John Robinfon, a man who had much of the folemn
piety of the times, and no inconliderable portion of
learning. This well-meaning reformer, perceiving the
defefts that reigned in the difcipline of Brown, and in
the fpirit and temper of his followers, employed his
zeal and diligence in correcting them, and in new-
modelling the fociety in fuch a manner as to render it
lels odious to its adverfaries, and lefs liable to the juft
cenfure of thofe true Chriftians, who looked upon cha¬
rity as the end of the commandments. Hitherto the
80 ] IN D
fed had been called Broivnijls ; but Piobinfon having, Independ-
in his Apology, affirmed, Ccetum quemlibet particularem, ents.
ejfe totam, integrum, et pcrfeBarn ecclejiam ex fuis parti- ' 'J
bus conjlantem immediate et INDEPENDENTER (quoad
alias eccle/iasjfib ipfo Chrifo,—the feed was henceforth
called hid’.pendents, of which the apologift was conli-
dered as the founder.
The Independents were much more commendable
than the Brownifts. They furpaffed them both in the
moderation of their fentiments, and in the order of
their difcipline. They did not, like Brown, pour forth
bitter and uncharitable inveftives againft the churches
which were governed by rules entirely different from
theirs, nor pronounce them on that account unworthy
of the Chriltian name. On the contrary, though they
confidered their own form of ecclefiaftical government
as of divine inftitution, and as originally introduced by
the authority of the apoftles, nay by the apoftles them¬
felves *, they had yet candour and charity enough to
acknowledge, that true religion and folid piety might
flourilh in thofe communities which were under the
jurildidtion of bilhops or the government of fynods
and prelhyteries. This is put beyond all doubt by Ro¬
binfon himfelf, who exprefles his own private fenti-
ments and thofe of his community in the following
clear and precife words : “ Prof lemur coram Deo et
hominibus, adeo nobis ccnvenire cum ecclefis reforma~
tis Belgicis in re religionis, ut omnibus et Jingulis earun¬
de m ecclefarum fidei articulis, prout habentur in har-
monia confefjionum fidei, parati fimus fubfenbere. Ec-
clefias reformatas pro veris et genuinis habemus, cum
iifidem in fiacris Dei communionem profitemur, et, quan¬
tum in nobis efi, colimus. They were alio much more
attentive than the Brownifts, in keeping on foot a
regular miniftry in their communities : for while the
latter allowed promifcuoully all ranks and orders of
men to teach in public, the Independents had, and ftill
have, a certain number of minifters, chofen refpebtively
by the congregations where they are fixed 5 nor is any
perfon among them permitted tofpeak in public, before
he has fubmitted to a proper examination of his capaci¬
ty and talents, and been approved of by the heads of
the congregation.
This religious fociety Hill fubfifts, and has produced
divines as eminent for learning, piety, and virtue, as
any church in Chriftendom. It is now diftinguilhed
from the other Proteftant communities chiefly by the
two following circumftances.
1. The Independents rejedl the ufe of all creeds andIn w£at
confefficns drawn up by fallible men, requiring of their they are
teachers no other tell of orthodoxy than a declaration now diftiiv
of their belief in the gofpel of Jefus, and their adhe- ^l ^ie<t^er
rence to the Scriptures as the foie ftandard of faith protc^aBtfe
and practice.
2. They attribute no virtue whatever to the rite of
ordination, upon which fome other churches lay fo
much ftrefs j for the Independents declare, that the
qualifications which conftitute a regular minifter of the
New Teftament, are, a firm belief in the gofpel, a
principle of fincere and unaffedled piety, a competent
flock of knowledge, a capacity for leading devotion
and communicating inftrudtion, a ferious inclination to
engage in the important employment of promoting the
everlafting falvation of mankind, and ordinarily an in¬
vitation to the paftoral office from fome particular fo-
I N D
Wepend- ciety of Chrirtians. Where thefe things concur, they
ents. confider a perfon as fitted and authorifed for the dif-
cliarrre of every duty which belongs to the minifterial
fun£tion j and they believe that the irapofition of the
hands of bithops or prelbyters would convey to him no
powers or prerogatives of which he was not before
poffeiTed.
When the reformers feparated from the church of
Rome, they drew up public confeffions of faith or ar¬
ticles of religion, to which they demanded fubfcription
from their refpeflive followers. Their purpofe in this
was to guard againft dangerous herefies, to afeertain
the meaning of Scripture-language, and, we doubt not,
to promote the unity of the fpirit in the bond of
peace. Thefe were laudable ends ; but of the means
chofen for attaining them, the late Dr Taylor of Nor¬
wich, the glory of the Independent churches, and
whole learning would have done honour to any church,
expreffes his opinion in the following indignant lan-
Ttieir ar- guage : u How much fo ever the Chriftian world va-
guments lueth thefe creeds and confeffions, I confefs, for my
again ft the own part, that I have no opinion of them. But we
creeds are t^at t^ey were generally drawn up by the
ablefl divines. But what evidence is there of this ?
are divines in vogue and power commonly the moil
knowing and upright ? But granting that the refor¬
mers were in thofe days the ablefl: divines ; the ableft
divines educated in popifh fchools, notwithftanding
any pretended learning, might comparatively be very
weak and defeftive in fcripture knowledge, which w'as
a thing in a manner new to them. In times of great
ignorance they might be men of eminence; and yet
far Ihort of being qualified to draw up and decide the
true and precife rules of faith for all Chriflians. Yea,
their very attempting to draw up, decide, and eftablifh,
fuch rules of faith, is an inconteftable evidence of their
furprifing ignorance and weaknefs. How could they
be able divines, when they impofed upon the confidences
of Chriftians their own decifions concerning gofpel-
faith and doftrine ? Was not this in fadl to teach and
conftrain Chriftians to depart from the moft fundamen¬
tal principle of their religion, fubjeEiion and allegiance to
Chri/l, the only teacher and lawgiver ? But if they were
able men, were they infallible ? No : they publicly af¬
firmed their own fallibility ; and yet they afted as if
they had been infallible, and could not be miftaken in
prefcribing faith and do£lrine.
“ But even if they were infallible, who gave them
commiflion to do what the Spirit of God had done al¬
ready ? Could the firft reformers hope to deliver the
truths of religion more fully and more clearly than the
Spirit of God ? Had they found cut more apt expref-
_ lions than had occurred to the Holy Spirit ? The Son
of God ‘ fpake not of himfelf; but as the Father faid
unto him, fo he fpake,’ (John xii. 50.). ‘ The Spirit
of truth fpake not of himfelf ; but whatfoever he heard,
that he fpake,’ John xvi. 13.). ‘ The things of God
the apoftles fpake, not in the words which man’s wif-
dom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghoft teacheth.’
. (1 Gor. ii. 13.). If the Chriftian revelation was thus
handed down to us from the Fountain of Light with
fo much care and exaftnefs, both as to matter and
words, by the Son of God, by the Spirit, and by the
apq/lles ; who w’ere the ancient doftors and biftiops ? or
who ware the firft reformers ? or who were any fynods
I
I N D
or affemblies of divines, that they dared to model Chri- IndepencL
ftian faith into their own invented forms, and impofe it, e‘;o' ,
upon the minds of men in their own devifed terms and
expreflions ?
“ Hath Chrift given authority to all his minifters to
the end of the world, to new-mould his do£ln’nes by the
rules of human learning whenever they think fit ? or
hath he delegated his power to any particular perfons ?
Neither the one nor the other. His doctrines are not
of fuch a du£lile nature 5 but ftand fixed, both as to
matter and words, in the Scripture. And it is at any
man’s peril, who pretends to put them, as they are rules
of faith, into any new drefs or ftiape. I conclude,
therefore, that the firft reformers, and all councils, fy-
nods, and aflemblies, who have met together to cclieG,
determine, and decide, to prefcribe and impofe matters
pertaining to Chriftian faith, have afted without any
warrant from Chrift, and therefore have invaded the
prerogative of him who is the foie Prophet and Lawgi¬
ver to the church. Peace and unity, I know, is the
pretended good defign of thofe creeds and confeffions.
But as God never famftified them for thofe ends, lo all
the world knows they have produced the contrary ef¬
fects ; difcord, divifion, and the fpilling of whole feas
of Chriftian blood for 1400 years together.”
Such fentiments as thefe are now maintained by
Chriftians of various denominations ; but they were
firft avowed by the Independents, to whom therefore
the merit or demerit of bringing them to light pro- .
perly belongs. Our readers will think differently of
them according to their preconceived opinions 5 but
it is not our province either to confirm or to confute
them. They rife almoft neceffarily out of the inde¬
pendent fcheme of congregational churches j and we
could not fupprefs them without deviating from our
fixed refolution of doing juftice to all religious parties,,
as well thofe from whom we differ as thofe with whom
we agree. It ought not, however, to be ralhly con¬
cluded, that the Independents of the prefent age,
merely becaufe they rejedf the ufe of all creeds of hu¬
man compofition, doubt or difbelieve the do&rines
deemed orthodox in other churches. Their predecef-
fors in the laft century were thought to be more rigid
Calvinifts than the Prefbyterians themfelves j as many
of thofe may likewife be who in the prefent century
admit not the confeffions and formulas of the Calviniftic ^
churches. They acknowledge as divine truth every Not there*
doftrine contained in the Scriptures j but they think fore necet-
that fcripture-doftrines are moft properly expreffed in far|'y hete-
fcripture-language ; and the fame fpirit of religiousroc ox'
liberty, which makes them rejedl the authority of bi¬
ftiops and fynods in matters of difcipline, makes them
rejeft the fame authority in matters of faith. In ei¬
ther cafe, to call any man or body of men their matters,
would, in their opinion, be a violation of the divine
law, fince “ one is their matter, even Chrift, and they
are all brethren.” ^
In fupport of their fcheme of congregational churches, Their argu.-
they obferve, that the word which we tranfiate merits for
church, is always ufed in Scripture to fignify either a1*16”1^6-
Jingle congregation, or the place where a fingle congre- on"'le¬
gation meets. Thus that unlawful affembly at EphefuSgatjonal
brought together againft Paul by the craftfmen, is churches.,
called ixy.Xvnx, a church, (Adlsxix. 32, 39, 41.). The
word, however, is generally applied to a more facred
ufe 5,
[ 181 ]
I N D [ 182 ] I N D
Imlepend- ufe j but ftill it fignlfies either the body aflembling, or
cnt~" the place in which it aflembles. The whole body of
the difciples at Corinth is called the church, and fpoken
of as coming together into one place, (1 Cor. xiv. 23.)
The place into which they came together we find like-
wife called a church ; “ when ye come together in the
church,—when ye come together into one place,”
(1 Cor. xi. 18, 20.). Wherever there wrere more con¬
gregations than one, there were likevvife more churches
than one : Thus, “ Let your women keep filence in
the churchesci* (i Cor. xi. 18.). The
whole nation of Ifrael is indeed called a church, but it
was no more than a fingle congregation ; for it had but
one place of public worfhip, viz. firft the tabernacle,
and afterwards the temple. The Catholic church of
Chrift, his holy nation and kingdom, is likewife a fingle
congregation, having one place of worfhip, viz. heaven,
where all the members aflemble by faith and hold com¬
munion ; and in which, when they fliall all be fully
gathered together, they will in faft be one glorious af-
fembly. We find it called “ the general afiembly and
church of the firft-born, whofe names are written in
heaven.”
Befides thefe, the Independent can find no other de-
fcription of a church in the New Teftament j not a
trace of a dioceie or prefbytery confifting of feveral
congregations all fubjeft to one jurifdidlion. The
numoer of difciples in Jerufalem vTas certainly great
before they wrere difperfed by the perfecution in which
Paul bore fo aftive a part : yet they are never men¬
tioned as forming diftinfl aflemblies, but as one affem-
bly meeting with its elders in one place $ fometimes in
the temple, fometimes in Solomon’s porch, and fome-
tirnes in an upper room. After the difperfion, the
difciples wTho fled from Jerufalem, as they could no
longer affemble in one place, are never called a church
by themfelves, or one church, but the churches of Judea,
Samaria, and Galilee, (A£ls ix. 31. Gal. i. 22.).
Whence the Independent concludes, that in Jerufalem
the w’ords church and cotigregation were of the fame im¬
port and if fuch was the cafe there, where the gofpel
was firft preached, he thinks we may reafonably expeft
to find it fo in other places. Thus when Paul on his
journey calls the elders of the church of Ephefus to
^'•liletus, he fpeaks to them as the joint overfeers of a
fingle congregation : “ Take head to yourfelves, and
to all the flock, over which the Holy Ghoft hath made
you overfeers,” (Afts Xx. 28.). Had the church at
Ephefus confifted of different congregations united
under fuch a jurifdi&ion as that of a modern prefby¬
tery, it would have been natural to fay, “ Take heed
to yourfelves, and to the focks over which the Holy
Ghoft hath made you overfeers :” but this is a way of
fpeaking of which the Independent finds not an in-
ftance in the whole New Teftament. The facred Independ-
writers,, when fpeaking of all the Chriftians in a nation ents'
or province, never call them the church of fuch a nation '—-V-—'
or province, but the churches of Galatia (Gal. i. 2.),
the churches of Macedonia (2 Cor. viii. 1.), the churches
of Afia (1 Cor. xyi. 10.). On the other hand, when
fpeaking of the difciples in a city or town, who might
ordinarily affemble in one place, they uniformly call
them a cnurch; faying, the church of Antioch, the
church at Corinth, the church of Ephefus, and the
like.
In each of thefe churches or congregations there were jn
elders orprejbyters^nd deacons; and in every churchcongrega-
there feems to have been more than one elder, in fome d00 niore
a great many, “ who all laboured in word and doc-1^11011*1
trine.” Thus we read (Ads xiv. 23.) of Paul and^fry^r
Barnabas ordaining elders in every church ; and (Adis whole office j
xx. 17*) of a company of elders in the church of Ephefus, b to teach
who were exhorted to “ jW the flock, and to take as wel1 as
heed to themfelves and to all the flock over which the SoveiHs
Holy Ghoft had made them overfeers :” but of fuch el¬
ders as are to be found in modern prefbyterian churches,
who neither teach nor are apt to teach, the Indepen¬
dent finds no veftige in the Scriptures, nor in the ear-
lieft uninfpired writers of the Chriftian church. The
rule or government of this prefbytery or elderfhip in a
church is not their own, but Chrift’s. They are not
lords over God’s heritage, nor can they pretend to more
power over the difciples than the apoftles had. But
'when the adminiftration of the apoftles in the church
of Jerufalem, and other churches where they adted as
elders, is inquired into by an Independent, it does not
appear to him that they did any thing of common
concern to the church without the confent of the
multitude j nay, it feems they thought it neceflary to
judge and determine in difcipline in prefence of the
whole church (Adis vi. i-—6. xv. 22. 1 Cor. v. 3, 4, 5.)
Excommunication and abfolution were in the power of
the church at Corinth, and not of the elders as diftin- g
guifhed from the congregation (1 Cor. v. 2 Cor. ii.)Excommu.
The apoftle indeed fpeaks of his delivering fome untonication
Satan (1 Tim. i. 20.) : but it is by no means clear thataml ab^!u“
he did it by himfelf, and not after the manner pointed at p0°”e?of 6
} Cor. v. 4, 5 5 even as it does not appear, from his fay- each con-
ing, in one epiftle, that the gift was given unto Timothy gvegation.
by the putting on of his hands, that this was not done
in \h.e prejbytery of a church, as in the other epiftle
we find it adlually was. The trying and judging of
falfe apoftles was a matter of the firft importance :^but
it was done by the elders with the flock at Ephefus
(Rev. ii. 2. Adis xx. 28.) 5 and that whole flock did
in the days of Ignatius all partake of the Lord’s flip¬
per, and pray together in one (b) place. Even the
power of binding and loofing, or the power of the keys,
as
(b) The evidence upon which this is faid by Mr Glafs (for the whole of this reafoning is extracted from his
wor s) is probably the following paffage in the epiftle of Ignatius to the Ephefians : E« yap kcu hvlwv
Tr^a-ivxn, . for it the prayer of one or two be of fuch force as we are told, how much more prevalent muft
that be which is made by the bithop and the whole church ? He then that does not come together into the fame
with it, is proud, and hath condemned himfelf j for it is written, God refifteth the proud. Let us not
erefore refill the bdhop, that we may be the fervants of God.” The fentence, as it thus Hands by itfelf, cer-
am y countenances Mr Glafs’s fcheme ; but the reader who thinks any regard due to the teftimony of Ignatius,
will do well to perufe the whole epiftle as publilhed by Voflius.
10
What con-
ftitutes ei¬
ders in a
church.
I N D [ i
Intlepend- as it has been called, was by our Saviour conferred not
ent*. upon a particular order of difciples, but upon the
church : “ If thy brother ftiall trefpafs againft thee,
go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone :
if he (hall hear thee, thou haft gained thy brother.
But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one
or two more, that in the mouth of one or two witneffes
every word may be eftabliflied. And if he {hall ne¬
glect to hear them, tell it unto the church : but if he
negleft to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an
heathen man and a publican. Verily I fay unto you,
whatfoever ye {hall bind on earth, {hall be bound,”
&e. (St Mat. xviii. 15, 16, 17, 18.). It is not faid,
if he {hall neglefl to hear the one or two, tell it to the
elders of the church ; far lefs can it be meant that the
offended perfon fttould tell the caufe of his offence to
nil the difciples in a prefbytery or diocefe confifting of
many congregations: but he is required to tell it to
Of which t^at particular church or congregation to which they
thefentenceboth belong; and the fentence of that affembly, pro-
is final. nounced by its elders, is in a very folemn manner de¬
clared to be final, from which there lies no appeal to
any jurifditfion on earth.
With refpeft to the conjlituting of elders in any church
or congregation, the Independent reafons in the fol¬
lowing manner : The officers of Chrift’s appointment
are either ordinary and permanent in the church, or
they were extraordinary and peculiar to the planting of
Chriftianity. The extraordinary were thofe who were
etnployed in laying the plan of the gofpel churches,
and in publifliing the New Teftament revelation. Such
were the apoftles, the chofen witneffes of our Saviour’s
refurreftion ; fuch were the prophets infpired by the
Holy Ghoft for explaining infallibly the Old Tefta¬
ment by the things written in the New ; and fuch were
the evangelifts, the apoftles minifterss. Thefe can be
lucceeded by none in that which was peculiar to them,
becaufe their work was completed by themfelves. But
they are fucceeded in all that was not peculiar to them
by elders and deacons, the only two ordinary and per¬
manent orders of minifters in the church. We have
already feen, that it belongs to the office of the elder
to feed the flock of Chrift : and the only queftion to
be fettled is, how men are ordinarily called to that
office ? for about the office of the deacon there is little
or no difpute. No man now can pretend to be fo
called of God to the miniftry of the word as the apo¬
ftles and other infpired elders were, whom he chofe
to be the publiffiers of his revealed truth, and to whofe
miffion he bore witnefs in an extraordinary manner.
But what the apoftles were to thofe who had the di¬
vine oracles from their mouths, that their writings are
to us ; and therefore as no man can lawfully pretend a
call from God to make any addition to thofe writings,
fo neither can any man pretend to be lawfully called
to the miniftry of the word already written but in the
manner which that word diredds. Now there is no¬
thing of which the New Teftament fpeaks more clear¬
ly than of the charadlers of thhfe who flrould exercife
the office of elders in the church, and of the aftual ex¬
ercife of that office. The former are graphically drawn
in the epiftles to Timothy and Titus; and the latter is
minutely defcribed in Paul’s difcourfe to the Ephefian
elders, in Peter’s exhortation to elders, and our Lord’s
commiffion to thofe xninifters, with whom he promifed
83 ] 1 N D
to be always prefent even unto the end of the world. Independ-
It is not competent for any man or body of men to add , cnts‘ .
to, or diminilh from, the defcription of a gofpel mini-
fter given in thefe places, fo as to infift upon the ne-
ceffity of any qualification which is not there mention¬
ed, or to difpenfe with any qualification as needlefs n
which is there required. Neither has Jefus Chrift, Arguments
the only legiflator to the church, given to any mini-^
fters or people any power or right whatfoever to c&ll,every kind
fend, eledi:, or ordain, to that office, any perfon who is0f niinifte-
not qualified according to the defcription given in his rial ordina-
law ; nor has he given any power or right to rejeft theUon>
leaft of them who are fo qualified, and who defire the
office of a biffiop or elder. Let a man have hands laid
upon him by fuch as could prove an uninterrupted de-
fcent by impofition of hands from the apoftles ; let him
be fet apart to that office by a company of minifters
themfelves, the moft conformable to the fcripture cha-
rafter, and let him be chofen by the moft holy people
on earth ; yet if he anfwer not the New Teftament'
defcription of a minifter, he is not called of God to
that office, and is no minifter of Chrift, but is indeed'
running unfent. No form of ordination can pretend
to fuch a clear foundation in the New Teftament as
the defcription of the perfons who ftiould be elders of
the church ; and the laying on of hands, whether by
bifliops or prelbyters, is of no more importance in the-
miffion of a minifter of Chrift, than the waving of
one’s hand in the air or the putting of it into his bc-
fom ; for now when the power of miracles has ceafed,
it is obvious that fuch a rite, by whomfoever perform¬
ed, can convey no powers, whether ordinary or extra¬
ordinary. Indeed it appears to have been fometimes
ufed, even in the apoftolic age, without any fuch inten¬
tion. When Paul and Barnabas were feparated to the
particular employment of going out to the Gentiles,
the prophets and teachers at Antioch “ prayed and
laid their hands on them But did this ceremony con¬
fer upon the two apoftles any new power or authority
to aft as minifters of Chrift ? Did the impofition of
hands make thofe fhining lights of the gofpel one whit
better qualified than they were before to convert and
baptize the nations, to feed the flock of God, to teach,
rebuke, or exhort, with all long-fuffering and doftrine.
It cannot be pretended. Paul and Barnabas had un¬
doubtedly received the Holy Ghoft before they came
to Antioch ; and as they were apoftles, they were of
courfe authorized to difeharge all the funftions of the
inferior and ordinary minifters of the gofpel. In a
word, whoever in his life and converfation is conform¬
able to the charafter which the infpired writers give of
a biftiop or elder, and is likewife qualified by his
“ mightinefs in the fcripture” to difeharge the duties-
of that office, is fully authorized to adminifter the fa-
craments of baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, to teach, and even
exhort, and rebuke, with all long-fuffering and doc-1#3'"? l-‘e.
trine, and has all the call and million which the Lord
now gives to any man ; whilft he who wants the qua- call_
lifications mentioned, has not God’s call, whatever
he may have, nor any authority to preach the gof¬
pel of Chrift, or to difpenfe the ordinances of his reli-
gion*
From this view of the Independent principles, which
is faithfully taken from their own writers, it appears,, t,
that, according to them, even the eleftion of a congre¬
gation
I N D [ 1B4 ] I N D
Independ- gallon confers upon the man whom they may choofe
er,ts for their paftor no new powers, but only creates a new
relation between him and a piarticular flock, giving
 t- ■ him an exclufive right, either by himfelf or in con-
junftion with other pallors conftituted in the fame
manner, to exercife among them that authority which
he derives immediately from Chrilt, and which in a
greater or lefs degree is pofieffed by every fincere Chri-
flian according to his gifts and abilities. Were the
minifters of the gofpel conftituted in any other way
than this ; by impofition of hands, for inftance, in fue-
ceftion from the apoftles •, the cafe of Chriftians would,
in the opinion of the Independents, be extremely hard,
and the ways of God fcarcdy equal. We are ftridlly
commanded not to forfake the affembling of ourfelves
together, but to continue ftedfaft in the apoftles doc¬
trine and fellowfhip, and in the breaking of bread, and
in prayer : “ but can any man (afks one of their ad¬
vocates) bring himfelf to believe, that what he is com¬
manded to do in point of gratitude, what is made his
own perfonal aft, an aft expreflive of certain dutiful
and pious affeftions, can poflibly be reftrifted to the in¬
termediate offices or inftrumentality of others, who aft
by powers which he can neither give nor take away ?
To fuppofe a thing neceffary to my happinefs, which
is not in my oun power, or wholly depends upon the
good pleafure of another, over whom I have no au¬
thority, and concerning whofe intentions and difpofi-
tions I can have no fecurity, is to fuppofe a conftitu-
tion the moft foolifh and ill-natured, utterly inconfiftent
with our ideas of a wife and good agent.” Such are
fome of the principal arguments by which the Inde¬
pendents maintain the divine right of congregational
churches, and the ineffieacy of minifterial ordination to
conftitute a minifter of Chrift. We mean not to re¬
mark upon them, as the reader will find different con-
Ilitutions of the church pleaded for under the words
Presbyterians and Episcopacy, to which we refer
him for farther fatisfaftion. We Ihall only obferve at
prefent, what it would be affeftation to pals un¬
noticed, that the mode of reafoning adopted by the
laft quoted advocate for the Independents, if puftied
as far as it will go, neceflarily leads to confequences
v'hieh will not readily be admitted by a Chriftian of
any denomination, or indeed by a ferious and confiftent
Theift.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation
given to whatever is not certain, fixed, and limited j
in which fenfe it is the fame with indefinite.
INDEX, in Anatomy, denotes the fore-finger. It
is thus called from indico, “ I point ordireftj” becaufe
that finger is generally fo ufed : whence alfo the ex-
tenfor indicis is called indicator.
Index, in Arithmetic and Algebra, {hows to what
power any quantity is involved, and is otherwife called
its exponent. See Algebra.
INDEX ofia Booh, is that part annexed to a book,
referring to the particular matter or paifages therein
contained.
INDEX of a Globe, is a little ftyle fitted on to the
-north pole, and turning round with it, pointing to cer¬
tain divifions in the hour-circle. It is fometimes alfo
called gnomon. See Globe.
Expurgatory Index, a catalogue of prohibited books
in the church of Rome.
The firft catalogues of this kind were made by the Index,
inquifitors : and thefe were afterwards approved of by India,
the council of Trent, after fome alteration was made
in them by way of retrenchment or addition. Thus
an index of heretical books being formed, it was con¬
firmed by a bull of Clement VIII. in 1595, and print¬
ed with feveral introduftory rules j by the fourth of
which, the ufe of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue
is forbidden to all perfons without a particular licence j
and by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no book Ihall
Ee printed at Rome without the approbation of the
Pope’s vicar, or fome perfon delegated by the Pope ;
nor in any other places, unlefs allowed by the bifhop
of the diocefe, or fome perfon deputed by him, or by
the inquifitor of heretical pravity*
The Trent index being thus publifhed, Philip II,
of Spain ordered another to be printed at Antwerp,
in 1571, with confiderable enlargements. Another
index w as publifhed in Spain 1584 ; a copy of which
was fnatched out of the fire when the Engiifh plun¬
dered Cadiz. Afterwards there were feveral expurga¬
tory indexes printed at Rome and Naples, and particu¬
larly in Spain.
INDIA. See Hindostan.-—By the name of In¬
dia the ancients underftood only the weftern peninfula,
on this fide the Ganges, and the peninfula beyond
it, having little or no knowledge of the countries wrhich
lie farther to the eaftward $ though by the moderns all
thofe vaft trafts from the eaftern parts of the Perfian
empire to the iflands of Japan, are confounded under
the general name of Eafi Indies. Even the ancients,
though originally they were acquainted only w-ith the
weftern parts of Hindoftan, gradually extended the
name of India over the other countries they difeovered
to the eaftward ; fo that probably they wTould have in¬
volved all the reft in the fame general defignation, had
they been as well acquainted wdth them as the moderns
are. By whom thefe countries were originally peopled,
is a queftion which in all probability will never be refol-concern;ng
ved. Certain it is, that fome works in thefe parts difeo- the pco- I
ver marks of aftonifhing fkill and power in the inhabi-P^ng ofln-
tants, fuch as the images in the ifland of Elephanta; the tlia‘
rocking ftones of immenfe weight, yet fo nicely ba¬
lanced that a man can move them with his hand j the
obfervatory at Benares, &c. Thefe ftupendous w'orks
are by Mr Bryant attributed to the Cufhites or Baby¬
lonians, the firft diftinft nation in the world, and who
of confequence rnuft: for fome time have poffefTed in a
manner the fovereignty of the whole earth ; and it
can by no means appear improbable, that the fubjefts of
Nimrod, the beginning of whofe kingdom was in Shinar,
might extend themfelves eaftward, and thus fill the fer¬
tile regions of the eaft wdth inhabitants, without think¬
ing it worth while for a long time to meddle with
the lefs mild and rich countries to the w'eftward. Thus
would be formed that great and for fome time infu-Indians and
perable divifion betwixt the inhabitants of India and w'eftern na*
other countries ; fo that the W'eftern nations knew not .tiors weref
even of the exiftence of the Indians but by obfcure^0^t0
report ; while the latter, ignorant of their own ori- tjier<
gin, invented a thoufand idle tales concerning the an¬
tiquity of their nation, which fome of the moderns
have been credulous enough to believe and regard as
fafts.
The firft; among the weftern nations who diftinguifh-
ed
India.
3
Account
foftris to
India.
I N D [i
ed themfelves by their application to navigation and
“"commerce, and who were of confequence likely to
difcover thefe diftant nations, were the Egyptians and
Phoenicians. The former, however, foon loft their
of inclination for naval affairs, and held all feafaring peo-
the expedi- in deteftation as profane perfons j though the ex-
tionofSe- tenlive conquefts of Sefoftris, if we can believe them,
muft have in a great meafure fupplied this defeft.
Without regard to the prejudice of his people againft
maritime affairs, he is faid to have fitted out a fleet of
400 fail in the Arabian gulf or Red fea, which con¬
quered all the countries lying along the Erythrean
fea (a) to India*, while the army led by himfelf march¬
ed through Afia, and fubdued all the countries to the
Ganges *, after which he croffed that river, and ad-
4 vanced to the eaftern ocean.
Dr Robert- Great difputes have been carried on with refpedt to
fmsVordif conffueror» ar'd the famous expedition juft now
believing related ; but the learned Dr Robertfon, in his Df-
it. quifition concerning ancient India, declares himfelf in
doubt whether any fuch expedition ever was made, for
the following reafons. 1. Few hirtorical fadts fieem to
be better eftabliftied than that of the averfion the E-
gyptians entertained to feafaring people and naval af¬
fairs 5 and the Doctor confiders it as impoffible even
for the moft powerful monarch to change in a few years
a national habit confirmed by time and fandtified by
religion. The very magnitude of the armaments is an
argument againft their exiftence *, for befides the 400
flops of war, he had another fleet in the Mediterra¬
nean *, and fuch a mighty navy could not have been con-
llrudted in any* nation unaccuftomed to maritime affairs,
in a few years. 2. Herodotus makes no mention of
the conquefts of India by Sefoftris, though he relates
his hiftory at fome length. Our author is^of opinion
that the ftory was fabricated betwixt the time of He¬
rodotus and that of Diodorus Siculus, from whom we
have the firft account of this expedition. Diodorus
himfelf informs us that he had it from the Egyptian
priefts ; and gives it as his opinion, that “ many
things they related flowed rather from a defire to pro¬
mote the honour of their country than from attention
to truth and he takes notice that both the Egyp¬
tian priefts and Greek writers differ widely from one
another in the accounts which they give of the adlions
of Sefoftris. 3. Though Diodorus declares that he
has feledted the moft probable parts of the Egyptian
narrative, yet there are ftill fo many improbabilities,
or rather impofiibilities, contained in his relation, that
v'e cannot by any means give credit to it. 4. For the
reafon juft mentioned, the judicious geographer Strabo
rejected the account altogether, and ranks the exploits
of Sefoftris in India with the fabulous ones of Bacchus
5 and Hercules.
Infercourfe But whatever may be determined with regard to the
minswith ^ certain that the Tyrians kept up a con-
tndia. ftant intercourfe with fome parts of India by naviga¬
ting the Arabian gulf, now the Red fea. Of this na¬
vigation they became mafters by taking from the
Vol. XI. Part I.
India.
85 ] I N D'
Idumeans fome maritime places on the coaft of the
Red fea : but as the diftance betwixt the neareft place v
of that fea and Tyre was ftill confiderable, the land-
carriage would have been very tedious and expenfive j
for which reafon it was neceffary to become mafters of
.a port on the eaftern part of the Mediterranean, near¬
er to the Red fea than Tyre, that fio the goods
might be (hipped from thence to Tyre itfelf. With
this view* they took poffeflion of Rhinocolura, the neareft
port on the Mediterranean to the Arabian gulf; and
to that port all the goods from India were conveyed
by a much (horter and lefs expenfive route than over
land.—This is the firft authentic account of any in¬
tercourfe betwixt India and the weftern part of the
world } and to this we are without doubt in a great
meafure to afcribe the vaft wealth and power for which
the city of Tyre was anciently renowned *, for in other
refpefts the whole territory of Phenieia was but of
little confequence. Notwithftanding the frequency
of thefe voyages, how*ever, the ancients are able to
give little or no account of them. The moft particu¬
lar defcription we have of the wealth, power, and
commerce of ancient Tyre, is in the prophecies of Eze¬
kiel ; fo that if the Tyrians themfelves kept any jour¬
nals of their voyages, it is probable that they were
entirely loft when the city was deftrbyed by Alexander
the Great. £
Though the Jew's, under the reign of David of So-The Jews
lomon, carried on an extenfive and lucrative commerce,nr'^ v‘"
yet our author is of opinion that they did not trade to^1* ^nc^a'
any pajjrf; of India. There are only two places mention¬
ed to which their (hips failed, viz. Ophir and Tarfliifti j ^
both of which are now fuppofed to have been fituated
on the eaftern coaft of Africa : the ancient Tarlhifti,
according to Mr Bruce, was the prefent Mocha *, and
Ophir, the kingdom of Sofala, fo remarkable in former
times for its mines, that it was called by Oriental wri¬
ters the golden Sofala *.
Thus the Indians continued for along time unknown
to the weftern nations, and undifturbed by them 5 pro- J
bably in fubje&ion to the mighty empire of Babylon,
from which the country was originally peopled, or in
alliance with it j and the poffeflion of this vaft region
will eafily account for the immenfe and otherwife al-
moft incredible wealth and power of the ancient Baby-
lonifh monarchs. Soon after the deftruftion of thatccnqyCgg
monarchy by the Perfians, however, We find their mo-of the Ter-
narch Darius Hyftafpes undertaking an expedition fians m In-
againft the Indians f. His conquefts were not exten-f*1^
five, as they did not reach beyond the territory watered
by the Indus j neverthelefs, fuch as they were, theisfoa.
acquifition feems to have been very important, as the
revenue derived from thp conquered territory, according
to Herodotus, was near a third of that of the whole
Perfian empire. According to Iris account, however,
w e muft form a much more diminutive opinion of the
riches of the Perfian monarch than has commonly been
done j fince Herodotus telfs us, that the empire was
divided into 20 fatrapies or governments j all of which
A a yielded
* See Ophir
and Tat-
(a) This muft not be confounded with the Red fea, notwithftanding the fimilarity of names. The Erythrean
fea was that part of the ocean which is interpofed betwixt the ftraitsof Babelmandel and the Malabar coaft, now
called the Indian fea or ocean.
India.
8
Of Alexan¬
der the
Great.
I N D [
yielded a revenue of 14,560 Euboic talents, amount¬
ing in the whole to 2,807,437!. fterling. The amount
of the revenue from the conquered provinces of India,
therefore, mult have been.confiderably fhort of a mil¬
lion. Very little knowledge of the country was dif-
fufed by the expedition of Darius, or the voyage of
Scylax whom he employed to explore the coaft ; for
the Greeks paid no regard to the tranfaftions of thofe
whom they called Barbarians •, and as for Scylax him-
felf, he told fo many incredible dories in the account
he gave of his voyage, that he had the misfortune to#
be dilbelieved in almoft every thing, whether true or
falfe.
The expedition of Alexander is fo fully taken notice
of under the article HindostaN, that nothing more re¬
mains to be faid upon it in this place, than that he went
no farther into the country than the prefent territory
of the Panjab, ail of which he did not traverfe. Its
fouth-weft boundary is formed by a river anciently call¬
ed the Hyfudrus, now the Sstlege. The breadth of
the diilridt from Ludhana on the Setlege, to Attack
on the Indus, is computed to be 259 geographical
miles in a ftraight line ; and Alexander’s march, com¬
puted in the fame manner, did not exceed 200 j ne-
verthelefs, by the fpreading of his numerous army over
the country, and the exatf meafurement and delinea¬
tion of all his movements by men of feience whom he
employed, a very extenfive knowledge of the weftern
part of India was obtained. It is, however, furprifing
that having marched through fo many countries in
the neighbourhood of India, where- the people muft
have been well acquainted with the nature of the cli¬
mate, the Macedonian conqueror did not receive any
information concerning the difficulties he would meet
with from the rains which fell periodically at a certain
feafon of the year. It was the extreme diftrefs occa-
lioned by them which made his foldiers finally refolve
to proceed no farther j and no wonder indeed that they
did adopt this refolution, fince Diodorus informs us,
that it had rained inceffantly for 70 days before their
departure. Thefe rains, however, according to the
teftimony both of ancient and modern writers, fall
only in the mountainous parts, little or none being ever
feen in the plains. Aritlobulus informs us, that in the
country through which Alexander marched, though
heavy rains fell among the mountains, not a fliower
was feen in the plains below. The diftridt is now fel-
dom vifited by Europeans •, but Major Kennel was in¬
formed by a perfon of credit, who had refided in the
Panjab, that during great part of the S.W, monfoon,
or at leal! in the months July, Auguft, and part of
September, which is the rainy feafon in molt other
parts of I: dia, very little rain falls in the Delta of the
Indus, except very near the lea, though the atmofphere
is generally clouded, and very few fhowers fall through¬
out the whole feafon. Captain Hamilton relates, that
when he vifited Tatta, no rain had fallen there for three
years before. We may have fome idea of what the
Macedonians fuffered, by what happened afterwards to
Nadir Shah, who, though poffeffed of vaft wealth and
power, as well as great experience in military affairs,
yet loft a great, part of his army in crofting the moun¬
tains and rivers of the Panjab, and in battles with the
favage inhabitants who inhabit the countries betwixt
the Ox us and the frontiers- of Perila. He inarched
186 ] 1 N D
through the fame countries, and nearly in the fame
diredlion, that Alexander did.
By his voyage down the river Indus, Alexander
contributed much more to enlarge our geographical
knowledge of India than by all his marches and con-
quefts by land. According to Major Rennel, the fpace
of country through which he failed on the Indus, from
the Hyphafis to the ocean, was not lefs than 1000
miles ; and as, during the whole of that navigation,
he obliged the nations on both ftdes the river to fub-
mit to him, we may be very certain that the country
on each fide was explored to fome diftance. An ex-
a£t account not only of his military operations, but of
every thing worthy of notice relating to the countries
through which he paffed, was preferved in the journals
of his three officers, Lagus, Nearchus, and Ariftobu-
India,
lusj and thefe journals, Arrian informs us, he followed
in the compofition of his hiftory. From thefe authors State of In.
we learn, that in the time of Alexander, the weftern d;a in the
part of that vaft tract named India was poffeffed by [^n^rA*
feven very powerful monarchs. The territory of King
Porus, which Alexander firft conquered, and then re-
ftored to him, is faid to have contained no fewer than
2COO towns j and the king of the Prafii had affembled
an army of 20,000 cavalry, 2000 armed chariots, and
a great number of elephants, to oppofe the Macedonian
monarch on the banks of the Ganges. The navigable
rivers with which the Panjab country abounds, afford¬
ed then, and ftill continue to afford, an intercourfe from
one part to another by water : and as at that time
thefe rivers had probably many ftiips on them for the
purpofes of commerce, Alexander might ealily colledl
all the number he is faid to have had, viz. 2000; fince
it is reported that Semiramis was oppofed by double the
number on the Indus when fhe invaded India. When
Mahmud Gazni alfo invaded this country, a fleet was
collected upon the Indus to oppofe him, confifting of
the fame number of veffels. From the Ayetn Akbery,
alfo, we learn that the inhabitants of this part of India
flill continue to carry on all their communication with
each other by water ; and the inhabitants of the eir-
car of Tatta alone have 40,000 veffels of various con-
ftruclions. 10
Under the article Hl-NDOSTAN we have mentioned Why aW-
the ft!
ence ox Alex-
ei.clei’s hif-
Major Kennel’s opinion concerning ......— ... . e
ander’s hiflorians about the expedition of Scylax j but no ri0t;ce 0f
Dr Robertfon accounts for it in another manner. “ It the voyage
is remarkable (fays he), that neither Nearehus, nor of Scylax.
Ptolemy, nor Ariftobulus, nor even Arrian, once men¬
tion the voyage of Scylax. This eould not proceed
from their being unacquainted with it, for Herodotus
was a favouiite author in the hands of every Greek
who had any pretenflons to literature. It was proba¬
bly occafioned by the reafons they had to diftruft the
veracity of Scylax, of which I have already taken no¬
tice. Accordingly, in a fpeech which Arrian puts in
the mouth of Alexander, he afferts, that, except Bac¬
chus, he was the firft who had paffed the Indus 5 which
implies that he dilbelieved what is related concerning
Scylax, and was not acquainted with what Darius
Hyftafpes is faid to have done in order to fubjeft that
part of India to the Perfian crown. This opinion is
confirmed by Megafthenes, who refided a confiderable
time in India. He afferts that, except Bacchus and
Hercules (to whofe fabulous expeditions
Strabo is
aftoniftied
I N D [i
India, aftonirtied that he (hould have given any credit), Alex-
—' ander was the firtt who had invaded India. Arrian
informs us that the Affaceni, and other people who in¬
habited the country now called Candalicir, had been
tributary firft to the Aflyrians and then to the Medes
and Perfians, As all the fertile provinces on the
north-weft of the Indus were anciently reckoned to be
part of India,, it is probable that what was levied from
them is the fum mentioned in the tribute-roll from
which Herodotus drew his account of the annual re¬
venue of the Perfian empire., and that none of the pro¬
vinces to the fouth of the Indus were ever fubjett to
the kings of Perfia.”—The Doftor differs from Mr
Kennel with refpeft to the furprife which Alexander
and his army ex'preffed when they faw the high tides
at the mouth of the Indus. This he thinks might
very naturally have been the cafe, notwithftanding what
Herodotus had written concerning the flux and reflux
obfervable in the Red fea. All that has been men¬
tioned by Herodotus concerning this phenomenon is,
that “ in the Red fea there is a regular ebb and flow
■of the tide every day.” No wonder, therefore, that
the Macedonians (hould be furprifed and terrified at
the very high tides which prefented themfelves in the
Indian ocean, which the few words of Herodotus
above-mentioned had by no means led them to ex-
peft. In the like manner the Romans were furprifed
at the tides in the Atlantic, when they had conquered
fome of the countries bordering upon that ocean. Cae-
far defcribes the aftonifhment of his foldiers at a fpring
tide in Britain which greatly damaged his fleet ; and,
indeed, confidering the very little rife of the tide in the
Mediterranean, to which alone the Greeks and Romans
had accefs, we may reckon the account given us by
Arrian highly probable.
The country on each fide the Indus W'as found, in the
time of Alexander, to be in no degree inferior in popu¬
lation to the kingdom of Porus already mentioned.
The climate, foil, and produ&ions of India, as well as
the manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants, are exact¬
ly defcribed, and the defcriptions found to correfpond
in a furprifing manner with modern accounts. The
Hated change of feafons now known by the name of
monfoons, the periodical rains, the fwellings and in¬
undations of the rivers, with the appearance of the
country during the time they continue, are particu¬
larly defcribed. The defcriptions of the inhabitants
are equally particular *, their living entirely upon vege¬
table food, their divifion into tribes or cafts, w ith many
of the particularities related under the article Hindoo,
are to be met with in the accounts of Alexander’s ex¬
pedition. His military operations, however, extended
but a very little way into India properly fo called; no
farther indeed than the modern province of Lahar, and
the countries on the banks of the Indus from Moultan
to the fea *, though, had he lived to undertake another
expedition as he intended, it is very probable that he
would have fubdued a vaftly greater tra<R of country j
nor indeed could anything probably have fet bounds to
his conquefts but death or revolts in diftant provinces
of his empire. In order to fecure the obedience of thofe
coimtr’es fubdued, Alexander found it neceffary to
by Ales- build a number of fortified cities ; and the farther eaft-
ander in ward he extended his conquefts, the more neceffary did
India. lle £nci th;s Three he built in India itfelf} two
87 ] I N D
on the banks of the Hydafpes, and a third on the Ace-1 Ih^« t
fines, both navigable rivers, falling into the Indus af- l,r v~
ter they have united their ftreams. By means of thefe
cities he intended not only to keep the adjacent coun¬
tries in awe, but to promote a commercial intercourfe
betwixt different parts both by land and water. With
this view, alfo, on his return to Su!a, he furveyed in
perfon the courfe of the Euphrates and Tigris, caufing
the catara&s or dams to be removed which the Pt rfian
monarchs bad built to obftru£t the navigation of theie
rivers, in conformity to a maxim of their fuperftition,
that it was unlawful to defile any of the elements, which
they imagined wras done by navigators. After the na¬
vigation rvas opened in this manner, he propofed that
the valuable commodities of India {hould be imported
into the other parts of his dominions by means of the
Perfian gulf j while through the Red fea they were con¬
veyed to Alexandria in Egypt, and thence difperled all
over Europe.
The death of Alexander having put an end to all
his great fchemes, the eaftern part of his dominions
devolved firft on Pytho the fon of Agenor, and after¬
wards on Seleucus. The latter was very fenfible of
the advantages to be derived from keeping India in 12
fubjeSion. With this view he undertook an ex-Expedition
pedition into that country, partly to eftablifti his“^e^1!US
authority more perfectly, and partly to defend the
Macedonian territories againft Sandracottus king of
the Prafii, who threatened to attack them. The par¬
ticulars of his expedition are very little known ; Juftin
being the only author that mentions them, and bis
authority is but of little weight, unlefs corroborated
by the teftimony of other hiftorians. Plutarch, who
tells us that Seleucus carried his arms farther into In¬
dia than Alexander, is fubjeft to an imputation of the
fame kind ; but Pliny, whofe authority is of confider-
ably greater weight, corroborates the teftimony of Plu¬
tarch in this inftance, though his words are fo obfeure,
that learned men differ in opinion concerning their
meaning. Bayer thinks they imply that Seleucus
marched from the Hyphafis, the boundary of Alexan¬
der’s conquefts, to the Hyfudrus, from thence to Pali-
bothra, and then to the mouth of the Ganges; the dif-
tances of the principal ftations being marked, and
amounting in all to 2244 Roman miles. Notwithftand¬
ing this authority, however, Dr Robertfon thinks it
very improbable that the expedition of Seleucus fhould
have continued fo long, as in that cafe “ the ancients
would have had a more accurate knowledge of that part
of the country than they feem ever to.have pofieffed.”
The career of Seleucus in the eaft w'as flopped by
Antigonus, who prepared to invade the weftern part
of his dominions. The former was therefore obliged
to conclude a treaty with Sandracottus, whom he al¬
lowed to remain in quiet poffeffion of his territories :
but Dr Robertfon is of opinion, that during the life¬
time of Seleucus, which continued 42 years after the
death of Alexander, no diminution of the Macede- 13
nian territories took place. With a view of keeping Conjectures
up a friendly intercourfe with the Indian prince, Se-^nc®™inS
leucus fent Megafthenes, one of Alexander’s °fficers? tit)n 0{ p^
to Palibothra, capital of the kingdom of the Prafii,pbothra.
fituated on the banks of the Ganges. This city is by
Dr Robertfon fuppofed to be the modern Allahabad,
feated at the conflux of the Jumna and Ganges, con-
A a g trary
I N D
[ *
rndia.
* Set- Hin-
doflan,
»°4-
14 .
Expedition
of Antio-
chus the
Great into
India.
15
Account of
trary to tne opinion of Pvlajor Rsnnel, who fuppofes it
to be Patna*. As Megafthenes relidecl in this city
for a conuderable ipace of time, he had an opportunity
of making many obfervations on the country of India
in general j and thefe obfervations he was induced af¬
terwards to publilh. Unhappily, however, he mingled
with his relations the molt extravagant fables. To him
may be traced the ridiculous accounts of men with ears
fo large that they could wrap themfelves up in them j
of tribes with one eye, without mouths or nofes, &e.
whence the extrafls from his book given by Arrian,
Diodorus, and other ancient writers, can fcarcely be
credited, unlefs confirmed by other evidence.
After the embaffy of Megaflhenes to Sandracottus,
and that of his fon Damaichus to Allilrochidas, the
fuccelTor of Sandracottus, we hear no more of the af¬
fairs of India with regard to the Macedonians, until
the time of Antiochus the Great, who made a Ihort
incurfion into India about 197 years after the duath of
Seleucus. All that we know of this expedition is,
that the Syrian monarch, after finilhing a war he car¬
ried on againft the two revolted provinces of Parthia
and Baftria, entered India, where he obliged Sopha-
gafenus, king of the country which he invaded, to pay
a fum of money, and give him a number of elephants.
It is probable that the fucctffors of Seleucus were obli¬
ged foon after his death to abandon all their Indian ter¬
ritories.
After the lofs of India by the Syrians, an intereourfe
the Grecian was kept up for fome time betwixt it and the Greek
kingdom of kingdom of Baftria. This laft became an independent
JBadtna. ftate about 69 years after the death of Alexander •, and,
according to the few hints we have concerning it
in ancient authors, carried on a great traffic with
India. Nay, the Baftrian monarchs are faid to have
conquered more extenfive tracts in that region than
Alexander himfelf had done. Six princes reigned
over this new kingdom in fucceffion ; fome of whom,
elated with the conquefts they had made and the power
they had acquired, affirmed the title of Great King,
by which the Perfian monarchs were diflinguiffied in
their higheft fplendour. Strabo informs us, that the
Badtrian princes were deprived of their territories by
the Scythian Nomades, who came from the country
beyond the Jaxartes, and were known by the names of
Afli, Pafiani, Tachari, and Scarauli. This is confirmed
by the teftimony of fome Chinefe hiftorians quoted by
M. de Guignes. According to them, about 126 years
before the Chriftian era, a powerful horde of L artars,
puffied from their native feats on the confines of China,
and obliged to move farther to the weft, palled the
.Taxartes, and, pouring in upon Badtria like an irrefift-
ible torrent, overwhelmed that kingdom, and put an end
to the dominion of the Greeks after it had lafted near
16 13° years-.
Tntercourfe From this time to the elofe of the 15th century,
betwixt E- thoughts of eftabliffiing any dominion in India were
I^dia^ totally abandoned by the Europeans. The only ob-
jedt now was to promote a commercial intercourfe with
that country : and Egypt was the medium by which
that intercourfe was to be promoted. Ptolemy the fon
of Lagus, and firft king of Egypt, firft raifed the
power and fplendour of Alexandria, which he knew
had been built by Alexander with a view to carry on
a trade to India: and in order to make the navigation
3
8 ] I N D
more fecure, he built the celebrated light-houfe at
Pharos j a work fo magnificent as to be reckoned one "
of the wonders of the world. His fon Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus profecuted the fame plan very vigoroufly.
In his time the Indian commerce once more began to
centre in Tyre ; but to remove it effedlually from
thence, he formed a canal between Arfinoe on the Red
fea, not far from the place where Suez now Hands,
and the Pelufiac or eaftern branch of the Nile. This
canal was 100 cubits broad and 30 deep; fo that by
means of it the produftions of India might have been
conveyed to Alexandria entirely by water. We know
not whether this work was ever finilhed, or whether it
■was found ufelefs on account of the dangerous naviga¬
tion towards the northern extremity of the Red fea ; but
whatever was the caufe, it is certain that no ufe w as made
of it, and a new city named Berenice, fituated almoft:
under the tropic, upon the weftern ftiore of the Red
fea, became the ftaple of Indian commerce. From
thence the goods were tranfported by land to Coptos,
a city diftant only three miles from the Nile, to whicly
it was joined by a navigable canal. Thus, however,
there was a very tedious land carriage of no lefs than
258 Roman miles through the barren defert of The-
bais : but Ptolemy caufed diligent fearch to be made
everywhere for fprings, and wherever thefe were found,
he built inns or caravanferas for the accommodation of
travellers ; and thus the commerce with India was car¬
ried on till Egypt became fubjeft to the Romans. The
(hips during this period fet fail from Berenice, and
coafting along the Arabian fnore to the promontory
of Syagrus, now Cape Rafalgate, held their courfe
along the coaft of Perfia till they arrived at the mouth
of the weftern branch of the river Indus. They either
failed up this branch till they came to Pattala, now
Tatta, fituated at the upper part of the Delta, or
continued their courfe to fome other emporium on the
weftern part of the Indian coaft. A more convenient
courfe was afterwards found by failing diredtly to Zi-
zenis, a place concerning which there is now fome
difpute. Montefquieu will have it to be the kingdom
of bigertis, on the coaft adjacent to the Indus, and which
was conquered by the Badlrian monarchs; but Major
Rennel is of opinion that it was a port on the Malabar
coaft. Dr Robertfon does not pretend to decide this
difpute •, but is of opinion, that during the time of
the Ptolemies very little progrefs was made in the
difcoVery of India. He contefts the opinion of Ma¬
jor Rennel, that “ under the Ptolemies the Egyptians
extended their navigation to the extreme point of
the Indian continent, and even failed up the Ganges
to Palibothra, now Patna.” In this cale he thinks
that the interior parts of India mutt have been much
better known to the ancients than we have any reafon
to believe they were. He owns indeed that Strabo
mentions the failing up the Ganges, but then it is
only curforily and in a fingle fentence ; “ whereas if
fuch a confiderable inland voyage of above 400 miles,
through a populous and rich country, had been cuf-
tomarv, or even if it had been ever performed by the
Roman, Greek, or Egyptian traders, it muft have
merited a particular delcription, and muft have beem
mentioned by Pliny, and other writers, as there was
nothing fimilar to it in the praftice of navigation
among the ancients,”—The extreme danger of navi¬
gating
India.
i n d r i
India, gating tlie Red Tea in ancient times (which even in
'“—"v the prefent improved ftate of navigation is not entirely
got over) feems to have beert the principal reafon which
induced Ptolemy to remove the communication with
India from Arfinoe to Berenice, as there were other
harbours on the fame coaft coniiderably nearer to the
Nile. After the ruin of Coptos by the emperor
Dioelefian, thb Indian commodities were conveyed
from the Red fea to the Nile from Coffeir, iuppofed by
Dr Robertfon to be the Philoteras Portus of Ptolemy,
to Cous, the Mats Apolliniu, a journey of four days.
Hence Cous from a fmall village became an opulent
city but in procefs of time, the trade from India re¬
moved from Cous to K.t ne, farther down the river.
In modern times fuch Indian goods as are brought
by the Red fea come from Gidda to Suez, and are
carried acrofs the ifthmus on camels, or brought
by the caravan returning from the pilgrimage to
vi Mecca.
Why the it was to this monopoly of Indian commerce that
owed its vafl: wealth and power during the
not attempt time of its Macedonian monarchs j but it appears fur-
to rival the prifmg that no attempt was made by the Syrian mo-
Egyptians. narchs to rival them in it, efpecially as the latter w'ere
in poffeffion of the Perfian gulf, from whence they
might have imported the Indian commodities by a
much (horter navigation than could be done by the
Egyptians. For this neglect feveral reafons are affign-
ed by our learned author. I. The Egyptians, under
their Greek monarchs, applied themfelves to maritime
affairs *, and were in poffeffion of fuch a powerful fleet
as gave them a decided faperiority at fea. 2. No inter-
courfe by fea was ever kept up betwixt Perfia and In¬
dia, on account of the averfion which the Perfians had
to maritime affairs. All the Indian commodities were
then conveyed in the molt tedious and difficult manner
over land, and difperfed throughout the various pro¬
vinces, partly by means of navigable rivers and partly
by means of the Cafpian fea. 3. Many of the ancients,
by an unaccountable error in geography, imagined the
Cafpian fea to be a part of the great northern ocean ;
and thus the kings of Syria might hope to convey the
Indi&n commodities to the European countries without
attempting to navigate thofe feas which the Egyptian
monarchs deemed their own property. Seleucus Nica-
tor, the firft and greateft of the Syro-Macedonian mo¬
narchs, formed a projeft of joining the Euxine and
Cafpian feas by a navigable canal, which would have
effe&ually anfwered the purpofe, but was affaffinated
before he could put it in execution, and none of his fuc-
ceffors had abilities to execute fuch an undertaking.—
Alexander the Great had given order?, a little before
his death, to fit out a fquadron on the Cafpian fea, in
order to difeover whether it had any communication
with the northern ocean, the Euxine fea, or Indian
ocean ; but Dr Robertfon juftly thinks it furprifing that
fuch errors concerning this fea fhould have.exifted a-
mong the ancients, as Herodotus had long before de-
feribed it properly in the following words : The Caf¬
pian is a fea by itfelf, unconnefted with any other. Its
length is as much as a veffel with oars can fail in 15
days ; and its greateft breadth as much as it can fail
in eight days.” Ariftotle deferibes it in like manner,
and infifts that it ought to be called a great lake, and
not a fea,..
89 ] 1 N D
On the conqueft of Egypt by the Romans, the In- i
dian commodities continued as ulual to be impoited to jg
Alexandria in Egypt, and from thence to Rome j lju^intercourfe
befides this, the moft ancient communication betwixtpf the Ro-
the eaftern’and weftern parts of Afia feems never to mans with
have been entirely given up. Syria and Palelhne ate
feparated from Mefopotamia by a defert j but the pai-
fage through it was much facilitated by its affording a
ftation which abounded in water. Hence the pofleffion
of this ftation became an objeft of fuch coniequence,
that Solomon built upon it the city called in Syria lac/-
fnor and in Greek Palmyra. Both tliefe names are
expreffive of its fituation in a fpot adorned with palm-
trees. Though its fituation for trade may to us feem
very unfavourable (being 60 miles from the Euphrates,
by which alone it could receive the Indian commodi¬
ties, and 203 from the neareft coaft of the Mediteira-
nean), yet the value and fmall bulk oi the goods in
queftion rendered the conveyance of them by a long
carriage over land not only pra£Hcable but lucrative and
advantageous. Hence the inhabitants became opulent
and powerful, and long maintained its independence
even after the Syrian empire became fubjeit to home.
After the reduftion of Palmyra by the emperor Aure-
lian, however, it did not any more recover its fplendour *
the trade gradually turned into other channels, and the
city was reduced to ruins, which ftill exift, and mam-
feft its former grandeur. See Palmyra.
The exceffive eagernefs of the Romans for Afiatic
luxuries of all kinds kept up an unceafing intercourfe
with India during the whole time that the empire con¬
tinued in its power 5 and even after the deftrmflion or
the weftefn part, it w’as kept up betwixt Conftantinople
and thofe parts of India which had been vifited former- 19
lv by merchants from the weftern empire. Long be- New route
fore this period, however, a much better method oP°>^ J1 ’
failing to India bad been difeoyered by one Hippalus Hippallis.
the commander of an Indian Hup, who lived aoout. 80
years after Egypt had been annexed to the Roman em¬
pire. This man having obferved the periodical fhifting
of the monfoons, and how fleadily they blew from the
eaft or weft during fome, months, ventured to leave the
coaft, and fail boldly acrofs the Indian ocean from the
mouth of the Arabian gulf to Mufiris, a port on the
Malabar coaft ; which difeovery was reckoned a mat¬
ter of fuch importance, that the name of Hippalus was
given to the wdnd by which he performed the voyage.
Pliny paves a very particular account of the manner in
which the Indian traffic was now carried on, mention¬
ing the particular ftages, and the diftances between
them, which are as follow. From Alexandria to Ju-•
liopolis was two miles ; and there the cargo deftined for
India was (hipped on the Nile, and carried to Coptos,
diftant 303 miles, the voyage being ulually performed
in twelve days. From Coptos they were conveyed by
land to Berenice, diftant 258 miles, and halting at dif¬
ferent ftations as occafion required. The journey was
finithed on the 12th day •, but by reafon of the heat
the caravan travelled only in the night. The (hips
left Berenice about midfummer, and in 30 days reached
Ocelis, now Gel/a, at the mouth of the Arabian gulf,
or Cane (now Cape Fartaque') on the coaft of Arabia
Felix : from whence they failed in 40 days to Mufiris
already mentioned. Their homeward voyage began
early in the month of December j when fetting faiL
vithi
I N D [ i
ladia. with a north-eafl wind, and meeting with a fouth or
L” v 1 ’ fouth-weft one when they entered the Arabian gulf,
the voyage was completed in lefs than a year. With
regard to the fituation of Mufiris, as w'ell as of Barace,
another Indian port to which the ancients traded,
Major Rennel is of opinion, and Dr Robertfon agrees
with him, that they flood fomewhere between Goa and
Tellicherry ; and that probably the modern Mcerzaw
or Merjee is the Mufiris, and Barcelore the Barace of
20 the ancients.
Ptolemy’s Ptolemy, who flouriflied about 200 years after the
account of commencement of the Chriftian era, having the ad¬
vantage of fo many previous difcoveries, gives a more
particular defcription of India than what is to be met
with in any of the ancient waiters j notwithftanding
which, his accounts are frequently inconfiflent not only
with modern difcoveries, but with thofe of more an¬
cient geographers than himfelf. A moft capital error
in his geography is, that he makes thepeninfula of In¬
dia ftretchfrom the Sinus Barygazenus, or gulf of Cam-
bay, from weft to eaft, inftead of extending, according
to its real diredlion, from north to fouth j and this er¬
ror muft appear the more extraordinary, when we con-
fider that Megafthenes had publifhed a meafurement
of this peninfula nearly confonant to truth, which had
been adopted with fome variations by Eratofthenes,
Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny. His information
concerning the fituation of places, hov/ever, was much
more accurate. With refpeft to fome diftritls on the
eaftern part of the peninfula, as far as the Ganges, he
comes nearer the truth than in his defcriptions of any
of the reft. Thefe are particularly pointed out by
M. D’Anville, who has determined the modern names
of many of Ptolemy’s ftations, as Kilkare, Negapatam,
the mouth of the river Cauveri, Mafulipatam, &c. The
river Cauveri is the Chabaris of Ptolemy •, the kingdom
of Arcot, Arcati Regio ; and probably, fays Dr Robert¬
fon, the whole coaft has received its prefent name of
Coromandel from Sor Manduiatn, or the kingdom of
Sorae, which is fituated upon it. Ptolemy had likewife
acquired fo much knowledge concerning the river
Ganges, that he defcribes fix of its mouths, though his
delineation of that part of India which lies beyond the
Ganges is hardly lefs erroneous than that of the nearer
peninfula. M. D’Anville, however, has been at great
pains to elucidate thofe matters, and to illuftrate
thofe parts of the writings of Ptolemy which appear
to be beft founded. According to him, the Golden
Cherfonefus of Ptolemy is the peninfula of Malacca ;
he fuppofes the gulf of Siam to be the great bay of
Ptolemy ; and the Sinse Metropolis of the fame writer
he looks upon to be Sin-boa in the weftern part of the
kingdom of Cochin-China, though Ptolemy has erred
in its fituation no lefs than 50 degrees of longitude and
20 of latitude. M. Goffelin, however, differs from his
countryman M. D’Anville, in a late W'ork intitled “ The
Geography of the Greeks analyfed 5 or the fyftems of
Eratofthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy, compared with each
other, and with the knowledge which the moderns have
acquired.” In the opinion of M. Goffelin, the Mag¬
num Promontorium of Ptolemy is not Cape Romania at
the fouthern extremity of the peninfula of Malacca, as
M. D’Anville fuppofes, but the point Bragu, at the
mouth of the river Ava. The great bay of Ptolemy he
fuppofes not to be the gulf of Siam, but of Martaban.
2
90 ] I N D
He endeavours to prove that the pofition of Cattipnara, India,
as laid down by Ptolemy, correfponds with that of Mer- J
gui, a fea port on the weft of Siam 5 and that Thince,
or Since Metropolis, is not Sin-hoa, but Tana-ferim, a
city on the fame river with Mergui j and he contends,
that the Ibbadii infula of Ptolemy is not Sumatra, as
D’Anville would have it, but one of the final] iiles
which lie in a clufter off this coaft. M. Goffelin is of
opinion that the ancients never failed through the ftraits
of Malacca, nor had any knowledge of the ifland of Su¬
matra, or of the eaftern ocean.
The errors of Ptolemy have given occafion to a
miftake of more modern date, viz. that the ancients
were acquainted with China. This arofe from the re-
femblance betwixt the name of that empire and the
Since of the ancients. The Ayeen Akbefy informs us,
that Cheen was an ancient name of Pegu; w hence,
fays Dr Robertfon, “ as that country borders upon
Ava, where M. Goffelin places the great promontory,
this near refemblance of names may appear perhaps to
confirm his opinion that Sinas Metropolis was fituated
on this coaft, and not fo far eaft as M. D’Anville has
placed it.” 3t
Thus wre fee that the peninfula of Malacca was in all Boundary ;
probability the boundary of the ancient difcoveries by of the na-
fea } but by land they had correfpondence with coun-v>.?atlon
tries ftill farther diftant. While the Seleucidoe con^" cient”'
nued to enjoy the empire of Syria, the trade w'ith India
continued to be carried on by land in the wray already
mentioned. The Romans having extended their domi¬
nions as far as the river Euphrates, found this method
of conveyance ftill eftablilhed, and the trade wras by
them encouraged and protedled. J he progrefs of the
caravans being frequently interrupted by the Parthians,
particularly w hen they travelled towards thofe countries
where filk and other of the moft valuable manufactures
were procured, it thence became an object to the Ro¬
mans to conciliate the friendfhip of the fovereigns of
thofe diftant countries. That fuch an attempt was ac¬
tually made, we know from the Chinefe hiftorians, who
tell us, that Antoun, by whom they mean the emperor
Marcus Antoninus, the king of the people of the weft¬
ern ocean, fent an embaffy to Ounti, who reigned in
China in the 166th year of the Chriftian era ; but
though the fad is mentioned, we are left entirely in the
dark as to the iffue of the negociations. It is certain,
however, that during the times of the Romans fuch a
trade was carried on 5 and as we cannot fuppofe all
thofe W'ho vifited that diftant region to be entirely def-
titute of fcience, wTe may reafonably enough conclude,
that by means of fome of thefe adventurers, Ptolemy
was enabled to determine the fituation of many places
which he has laid down in his geography, and which
correfpond very nearly with the obfervations of modern
times. 22
With regard to the Indian iflands, confidering the Few Indian
little way they extended their navigation, they could iflands dif-
not be acquainted with many of them. The principal covered by
one was that of Ceylon, called by the ancients Tnpro-^- aB“
bane. The name was entirely unknown in Europe be¬
fore the time of Alexander the Great j but that con¬
queror, though he did not vifit, had fome how or other
heard of it; with regard to any particulars, however,
he feems to have been very flenderly informed ; and the
accounts of ancient geographers concerning it are
confufed
cients.
I N D [19
India, confufed and contradi&ory. Strabo fays, it is as
4—■'Y—large as Britain, and fituated at the diftance of feven
days according to fome reports, or 20 days failing ac¬
cording to others, from the fouthern extremity of the
pen in Tula. Pomponius Mela is uncertain whether to
confider Taprobane as an ifland, or the beginning of an¬
other world *, but inclines to the latter opinion, as no¬
body had ever failed round it. The account of Pliny
is ft ill more obfcure ; and by his defcription he would
make us believe, that it was feated in the fouthern
heraifphere beyond the tropic of Capricorn. Ptolemy
places it oppofite to Cape Comorin, at no great diftance
from the continent ; but errs greatly with regard to its
magnitude, making it nolefsthan 15 degrees in length
from north to fouth. And Agathemarus, who wrote
after Ptolemy, makes Taprobane the largeft ifland in
the world, affigning the fecond place to Britain. From
thefe difcordant accounts, fome learned men have fup-
pofed that the Taprobane of the ancients is not Ceylon,
as is generally believed, but the iftand of Sumatra j
though the defcription of it by Ptolemy, with the fi¬
gure delineated in his maps, feems to put it beyond a
doubt, that Ceylon, and not Sumatra, is the ifland to
which Ptolemy applies the defignation of laprobane.
The other iflands defcribed by that geographer to the
eaftward of Taprobane, are, according to Dr Robert-
fon, thofe called Andaman and Nicobar in the gulf of
Bengal.
From the time of Ptolemy to that of the emperor
Juftinian, we have no account of any intercourfe of the
Europeans with India, or of any progrefs made in the
Voyages of geographical knowledge of the country. Under that
Cofmas to emperor one Cofmas, an Egyptian merchant, made
India. fome voyages to India, whence he acquired the furnarne
of Indicopleujies. Plaving afterwards turned monk, he
publifhed feveral works 5 one of which, named Chriftian
Topography, has reached us. In this, though mixed
with many ftrange reveries, he relates with great fim-
plicity and appearance of truth what he had feen in
his travels or had learned from others. He defcribes
feveral places on the weftern coaft of the hither penin-
fula, which he calls the chief feat of the pepper-trade ;
and from one of the ports on that coaft named Mate,
Dr Robertfon thinks that the name Malabar may pro¬
bably be derived, as well as that of Maldives given to
a duller of iflands lying at no great diftance. Cofmas
informs us alfo, that in bis time the ifiand of Tapro¬
bane had become a great ftaple of trade. He fuppofed
it to lie about half way betwixt the Perfian gulf and
the country of the Sinse; in confequence of which
commodious fituation it received the filk of the Sinae,
and the precious fpices of the remote regions of the
eaft, which were from thence conveyed to all pa^ts of
India, Perfia, and the Arabian gulf. He calls it not
Taprobane, but Sie/dib.a, derived from Se/endib, or Se-
rendib, the fame by which it is ftill known all over the
eaft. From him alfo we learn, that the Perfians having
overthrown the empire of the Parthians, applied them-
feives with great diligence and fuccefs to maritime af¬
fairs j in confequence of which they became formidable
rivals to the Romans in the India trade. The latter
finding themfelves thus in danger of lofing entirely
that lucrative branch, partly by reafon of the rivallhip
juft mentioned, and partly by reafon of the frequent
hoftilities which took place between the two empires.
i ] IN D
formed a fcheme of preferving fome (hare of the trade i ^nL‘ia- f
by means of his ally the emperor of Abyffinia. In ^
this be was difappointed, though afterwards he obtain-Sjjk -worms
ed his end in a way entirely unexpefted. This was introduced
by means of two monks who had been employed as mif-into Eu-
fionaries in different parts of the eaft, and had pene-!Cl'e*
trated as far as the country of the Seres or China.
From thence, induced by the liberal promifes of Jufti¬
nian, they brought a quantity of the eggs of the filk-
worms in a hollow cane. Tlhey wrere then hatched by
the heat of a dunghill \ and being fed with the leaves
of the mulberry, worked and multiplied as well as in
thofe countries of which they are natives. Vaft num¬
bers were foon reared in Greece j from whence they
were exported to Sicily, and from thence to Italy ; in
all which countries filk manufa&ures have fince been
eftablilhed. 25
On the conqueft of Egypt by the Saracens in the Intercourfe'
year 640, the India trade was of courfe transferred to0!t^'^v^a-
them j and they foon began to purfue it with much^.^
more vigour than the Romans had done. I he city
of Baffora was built by the caliph Omar upon the
weftern banks of the great river formed by the union
of the Euphrates with the Tigris. Thus the command
of both rivers was fecured, and the new city foon be¬
came a place of fuch confequence as fcarce to yield to
Alexandria itfelf. Here Dr Robertfon takes notice,
that from the evidence of an Arabian merchant who
wrote in the year 8-5 1, it appears, that not only the Sa- 26
racens, but the Chinefe alio, were deftitute of the raa-Ch:nele U-
riners compafs j contrary to the general opinion, that’1^^^
this inftrument was known in the eaft long before it^^^
made its appearance in Europe. From this relation, asner3COlll.
well as much concurring evidence, fays our author,pafs.
“ it is manifeft, that not only the Arabians but the Chi¬
nefe were deftitute of this faithful guide, and that their
mode of navigation was not more adventurous than that
of the Greeks and Romans. They fleered fervilely
along the coaft, feldom ftretching out to fea fo far as to
lofe fight of land ; and as they ihaped their courfe in
this timid manner, their mode of reckoning was defec¬
tive, and liable to the fame errors with that of the
Greeks and Romans.” Notwithftanding this difadvan-
tage, however, they penetrated far beyond Siam,
wjiich had fet bounds to the navigation of the Euro¬
peans. They became acquainted with Sumatra and
other Indian iflands 5 extending their navigation as far
as the city of Canton in China. A regular commerce
was now carried on from the Perfian gulf to all the
countries lying betwixt it and China, and even with
China itfelf. Many Saracens fettled in India properly
fo called, and in the countries beyond it. In the city
of Canton particularly, they were fo numerous, that
the emperor permitted them to have a cadi or judge of
their own religion } the Arabian language was under-
ftood and fpoken in every place of confequence •, and
ftiips from China are even laid to have vifited the Per¬
fian gulf. _ 27
According to the Arabian accounts of thofe days, state of In-
the peninfula of India tv as at that time divided intodia when
four kingdoms. The firll was compofed of the pro-v ilte<l'’-V
vinces fituated on the Indus and its branches, the capi-j^n^ra"
tal of which was Moultan. The fecond had the city
of Canoge, which, from the ruins of it remaining at
tliis day, appears to have been a very large place. The
Indian
/
India.
■zS
Tedious
p all'age of
.Irdia
goods to
Europe.
1 N D [19
Indian hiltorians relate, that it contained 30,000 fhops
1 in which betel nut was fold, and 60,000 fets of mufi-
cians and fingers who paid a tax to government, i he
third kingdom was that of Cachimere, firft mentioned
by Maffbudi, who gives a fhort defcription of it. The
fourth kingdom, Guzerat, is reprefented by the fame
author as the moft powerful of the whole. Another
Arab writer, who flourifhed about the middle of the
14th century, divides India into three parts ; the north¬
ern, comprehending all the provinces on the Indus j
the middle, extending from Guzerat to the Ganges j
and the fouthern, which he denominates Comar, from
Cape Comorin.
From the relation of the Arabian merchant above
mentioned, explained by the commentary of another
Arabian who had likewife vifited the eafiern parts of
Afia, w’e learn many particulars concerning the inha¬
bitants of thefe diftant regions at that time, which
correfpond wdth what is obferved among them at this
day. They take notice of the general ufe of filk
among the Chinefej and the manufaflure of porcelain,
which they compare to glafs. They alfo defcribe the
tea plant, with the manner of ufing its leaves ; whence
it appears, that in the ninth century the ufe of this
plant in China was as common as it is at prefent. They
mention likewife the great progrefs which the Indians
had made in aftronomy ; a circumftance which feems
to have been unknown to the Greeks and Romans :
they afiert, that in this branch of fcience the Indians
were far fuperior to the moft enlightened nations of
the weft, on which account their fovereign was called
the “ King of wifdom.” The fuperftitions, extrava- '
gant penances, &c. known to exill at this day among
the Indians, are alfo mentioned by thofe' writer* •, all
which particulars manifeft that the Arabians had a
knouftedge of India far fuperior to that of the Greeks
or Romans. The zeal and induftry of the Mohamme¬
dans in exploring the moft diftant regions of the
eaft was rivalled by the Chriftians of Perfia, who
lent miflxonaries all over India and the countries ad¬
joining, as far as China itfelf. But while the weftern
Afiatics thus kept up a conftant intercourfe with thefe
parts, the Europeans had in a manner loft all know¬
ledge of them. The port of Alexandria, from which
they had formerly been fupplied with the Indian goods,
was now {hut againft them ; and the Arabs, fatisfied
with fupplying the demands of their own fubjedls,
neglefted to fend any by the ufual channels to the
towns on the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of
Conftantinople and fome other great towns were
fupplied with Chinefe commodities by the moft te¬
dious and difficult paffage imaginable. The filk of
that country was purchafed in the moft wefterly pro¬
vince named Chenfi ; from whence it was conveyed by
a caravan, which marched 80 or IOO days, to the
banks of the Oxus. Here it was embarked, and car¬
ried down the river to the Cafpian fea j whence, after a
dangerous voyage acrofs that fea, It was carried up
the river Cyrus as far as that river is navigable j after
which it was conduced by a land carriage of five days
to the river Phafis, then down that ftream into
the Euxine, and thence to Conftantinople. The paf¬
fage of goods from Hindoftan was lefs tedious j they
being carried either direftly to the Cafpian or to the
xiver Oxus, but by a paffage much fhorter than that
India.
2 ] ' I N D
from China j after which they were conveyed down the
Phafis to the Euxine, and thus to Conftantinople.
It is evident that a commerce thus carried on muff;
have been liable to a thoufand difadvantages. The
goods conveyed over fuch vaft trails of land could not
be fold but at a very high price, even fuppofing the
journey had been attended with no danger •, but as
the caravans were continually expofed to the a {faults
of barbarians, it is evident that the price muft on that
account have been greatly enhanced. In fpite of every
difficulty, however, even this commerce tlouriftied, and
Conftantinople became a coniiderable mart for Eaft In¬
dian commodities ; and from it all the reft of Europe
was chiefly fupplied with them for more than two cen¬
turies. The perpetual courfe of hoftilkies in which
the Chriftians and Mohammedans were during this
period engaged, contributed ftill to increafe the diffi¬
culty 5 and it is remarkable, that the more this difficul¬
ty increafed, the more defirous the Europeans feemed
to be of poffeffing the luxuries of Afia.
About this time the cities of Amalpbi and Venice,
with fome others in Italy, having acquired a greater
degree of independence than they formerly poflefied,
began firft to exert themfelves in promoting domeftie
manufattures, and then to import the productions of
India in much larger quantities than formerly. Some
traces of this revival of a commercial fpirit, according
to Dr Robertfon, may be obferved from the end of the
feventh century. The circumftances which led to this
revival, however, are entirely unnoticed by hiftorians ;
but during the feventh and eighth centuries, it is very
probable that no commercial intercourfe whatever took
place betwixt Italy and Alexandria ; for, prior to the
period we fpeak of, all the public deeds of the Italian
and other cities of Europe had been written upon pa-
ner made of the Egyptian papyrus, but after that upon
parchment.
The mutual antipathy which the Chriftians and Mo¬
hammedans bore againft each other, would no doubt
for a long time retard the progrefs of commerce be¬
tween them ; but at laft the caliphs, perceiving the
advantage which fuch a traffic would be of to their
fubjefts, were induced to allow it, while the eagernefs
with which the Chriftians coveted the Indian products
and manufaftures, prompted them to carry it on. ButEffedt^of
fcarce was the traffic begun, when it feemed in danger the cru-
of being totally interrupted by the crufades. Not- fades on
withftanding the enthufiaftical zeal of thefe adventuri^J^!*”
-ers, however, there were many to whom commerce
was a'greater objeft than religion. This had always
been the cafe with numbers" of the pilgrims who
vifited the holy places at Jerufalem even before the
commencement of the crufades: but thefe, after they
took place, inftead of retarding the progrefs of this
kind of commerce, proved the means of promoting it to
a great degree. “ Various circumftances (fays Dr
Robertfon) concurred towards this. Great armies, con¬
duced by the moft illuftrious nobles of Europe, and
compofed of men of the moft enterprifing Ipirit in all the %
kingdoms of it, marched towards Paleftine, through
countries far advanced beyond thofe which they left in
every fpecies of improvement. They beheld the dawn
of profperity in the republics of Italy, which had be¬
gun to vie with each other in the arts of induftry, and
in their efforts to engrofs the lucrative commerce with
the
29
India.
^ 30
How the
India
trade was
carried on
in the 14th
century.
I N D t 193 ] I N D
tlie eafl. They next admired the more advanced ftate
of opulence and fplendour in Conftaritinople, raifed to
a pre-eminence above all cities then known by its ex-
tenfive trade, particularly that which it carried on with
India and the countries beyond it. They afterwards
ferved in thofe provinces of Afia through which the
commodities of the ealt were ufually conveyed, and
became mailers of feveral cities which had been llaples
of that trade. They eftablilhed the kingdom of Je-
rufalem, which fubfifted near 200 years. They took
poffeflion of the throne of the Greek empire, and go¬
verned it absut half a century. Amidlt fuch a va¬
riety of events and operations, the ideas of the fierce
warriors of Europe gradually opened and improved 5 they
became acquainted with the policy and arts of the people
whom they fubdued : they obferved the fources of
their wealth, and availed themfelves of all this know¬
ledge. Antioch and Tyre, when conquered h>y the
cruladers, were flourilhing cities, inhabited by opulent
merchants, who fupplied all the nations trading in the
Mediterranean with the productions of the call 5 and,
as far as can be gathered from incidental occurrences
mentioned by the hiftorians of the holy war, who be¬
ing moftly priefts. and monks, had their attention di¬
rected to objeCts very different from thofe relating to
commerce, there is reafon to believe, that both in Con-
Itantinople while fubjeCt to the Franks, and in the ports
of Syria acquired by the Chriftians, the long eftablilhed
trade with the ealt continued to be protected and en¬
couraged.”
Our author next goes on to Ihow in what manner
the commerce of the Italian Hates was promoted by
the crufades, until at laft, having entirely engroffed
the Eait India trade, they Itrove with iuch eagernefs
to find new markets for their commodities, that they
extended a tafte for them to many parts of Europe
where they had formerly been little known. The ri-
vallhip of the Italian Hates terminated at lalt in a
treaty with the fultan of Egypt in 1425, by which the
port of Alexandria and others in Egypt were opened
to the Florentines as well as the Venetians 5 and foon
after, that people began to obtain a lliare in the trade
to India.
The following account of the manner in which the
India trade was carried on in the beginning of the 14th
century, is given by Marino Sanudo a Venetian noble¬
man. The merchants of that republic were fupplied
with the commodities they wanted in two different
ways. Thofe of fmall bulk and great value, fuch as
cloves, nutmegs, gems, pearls, &c. were carried up
the Perfian gulf to Baffora, from thence to Bagdad,
and afterwards to fome port on the Mediterranean.
The more bulky goods, fuch as pepper, cinnamon, and
other fpiceries, were brought in the ufual manner to the
Red lea, and from thence to Alexandria. The goods
brought by land, however, were always liable to be
feized by barbarians 5 and therefore the fupply that way
was fcanty, and the price extravagantly dear, while,
on the other hand, the fultan of Egypt, by impofing
duties upon the Eafl; India cargoes to the amount of
a full third of the value, feemed to render it impofiible
that the owners thould find purchafers for their goods.
This, however, was far from being the cafe } the de¬
mand for India goods continually increafed ; and thus
ft communication, formerly unknown, betwixt all the.
Vol. XI. Part I.
nations of Europe, was begun and kept up. All this India,
time, however, there had been no diredt communica- v
tion betwixt Europe and India, as the Mohammedans
would never allow' any Chriltian to pafs through their
dominions into that country. The dreadful incurfions
and conquefts of the Tartars under Jenghiz-khan, how¬
ever, had fo broken the power of the Mohammedans
in the northern parts of Afia, that a way was now
opened to India through the dominions of thefe bar- 31
barians. About the middle of the 13th century, there-.Tomney of
fore, Marco Polo, a Venetian, by getting accefs to the ^
khan of the Tartars, explored many parts of the eaft ',"c eaft_
which had long been unknown even by name to the
Europeans. He travelled through China from Peking
on its northern frontier to fome of its molt foutherly
provinces. He vifited alfo different parts of Hindoi-
tan, and firfl, mentions Bengal and Guzerat by their
modern names as great and flourifhing kingdoms. Ho
obtained alfo fome account of an ifland which he called
'Zipangri, and w as probably no other than Japan •, he
vifited Java with feveral of the i(lands in its neighbour¬
hood, the ifland of Ceylon, and the coaft of Malabar
as far as the gulf of Gambay j to all which he gave the
names they have at this day. The difcovery of fuch
immenfe regions unknown before in Europe, furnifli-
ed vafl; room for fpeculation and conjecture ; and while 32
the public attention was yet engaged by thefe difco- Genoefe
veries, the deftrudtion of Conftantinople by the Turks^ra^e to.
gave a very confiderable turn to the Eaft India com- ^ ^ ”
merce, by throwing it almolt entirely into the handshaking of
of the Venetians. Hitherto the Genoefe had rivalled Conftanti-
that flate in the commerce we fpeak of, and they hadri0Ple-
pofftfled themfelves of many important places on the
coalt of Greece, as well as of the port of Caffa on the
Black fea. Nay, they had even eflablithed themfelves
at Conftantinople, in the fuburb of Pera, in fuch a
manner as almofl; entirely to exclude the Greeks them-
felves from any (bare in this commerce \ but by the
deffruftion of Conftantinople they were at once driven
out of all thefe poffeffions, and fo thoroughly humbled,
that they could no longer contend with the Venetians
as before ; fo that, during the latter part of the 15th
century, that republic fupplied the greater part of
Europe with the productions of the eaft, and carried
on trade to an extent far beyond what had been known
in former times. The mode in which they now car¬
ried on this trade w as fomewhat different from what
had been praCtiled by ancient nations. The Tyrians,
Greeks, and Romans, had failed direCtly to India in
queft; of the commodities they wanted *, and their
example has been imitated by the navigators of mo¬
dern Europe. In both periods the Indian commodi¬
ties have been paid for in gold and filver ; and great
complaints have been blade on account of the drain of
thofe precious metals, which were thus buried as it 33
were in India, never to return again. The Vene-Immenfe
tians, however, were exempted from this lofs ; for ha-^ca^
ving no direCt intercourfe w ith India, they fupplied
the mfelves from the warchoufes they found, in Egypt from their
and Syria, ready filled with the precious commo-Indian
dities they wanted ; and thefe they purchafed more commerce,
frequently by barter than with ready money. Thus,
not only the republic of Venice, but all the cities which
had the good fortune to become emporia for the India
goods imported by it, were raifed to fuch a pitch of
B b power
I N D
[ 194 1
I N D
Ir^ia-
34
High inte-
raft of mo¬
ney in the
15th cen¬
tury.
35
The Vene¬
tian trade
ruined by
the difco-
very of the
Cape of
Good Hope.
power and fplendour as fcarce ever belonged to any Eu¬
ropean ftate. The citizens of Bruges, from which
place the other European nations were for a long time
fupplied with thefe goods, difplayed fuch magnificence
in their drefs, buildings, and manner of living, as ex¬
cited even the envy of their queen Joan of Navarre
who came to pay them a vifit. On the removal of
the ftaple from Bruges to Antwerp, the latter foon
difplayed the fame opulence ; and in feme cities of
Germany, particularly Augfburg, the great mart for
Indian commodities in the internal parts of that coun¬
try, there are examples of merchants acquiring fuch
large fortunes as entitled them to high rank and con-
fideration in the empire. The moft accurate method,
however, of attaining fome knowledge of the profits
the Venetians had on their trade, is by confidering the
rate of intereit on money borrowed at that time. This,
from the clofe of the nth century to the commence¬
ment of the 16th, we are told, was no lefs than 20 per
cent, and fometimes more. Even as late as 1500,
it was 10 or 12 in every part of Europe. Hence we
are to conclude that the profits of fuch money as was
then applied in trade muft have been extremely high j
and the condition of the inhabitants of Venice at that
time warrants us to make the conclufion. “ In the
magnificence of their houfes (fays Dr Robertfon), in
richnefs of furniture, in profufion of plate, and in
every thing which contributed either towards ele¬
gance or parade in their mode of living, the nobles of
Venice furpaffed the ftate of the greateft monarch be¬
yond the Alps. Nor was all this difplay the effeft of
an oftenlatious and inconfiderate diftipation ; it was the
natural confequence of fuccefsful induftry, which, ha¬
ving accumulated wealth with eafe, is entitled to enjoy
it in fplendour.”
Th is exceffive fuperiority of wealth difplayed by the
Venetians could not fail to excite the envy of the other
ftates of Europe. They were at no lofs to difeover
that the Eaft India trade was the principal fource from
whence their wealth was derived. Some of them en¬
deavoured to obtain a fhare by applying to the fultans
of Egypt and Syria to gain admiffion into their
ports upon the fame terms with the Venetians; but
either by the fuperior intereft of the latter with thofe
princes, or from the advantages they had of being
long eftabhihed in the trade, the Venetians always
prevailed. So intent indeed were the other Euro¬
pean powers on obtaining fome fhare of this lucra¬
tive commerce, that application was made to the fo-
vereign of Ruflia to open an intercourfe by land with
China, though the capitals of the two empires are up¬
wards of 6000 miles diftant from each other. This,
however, was beyond the power of the Ruflian prince
at that time 5 and the Venetians imagined that their
power and wealth were fully eftablilhed on the moft:
permanent bafis, when two events, altogether unfore-
feen and unexpedted, gave it a mortal blow, from which
it never has recovered, nor can recover itfelf. Thefe were
the c^fcovery of America and that of the paffage to the
Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The former
put Spain in poffeflion of immenfe treafures; which
.being gradually diffufed all over Europe, foon call¬
ed forth the induftry of other nations, and made them
exert themfelves in fuch a manner as of itfelf muft
have foon leflened the demand for Indian produdlions.
The difeovery of the paffage to India by the Cape of India.
Good Hope, however, was the moft effe&ual and -r—j
fpeedy in humbling the Venetians. After a tedious
courfe of voyages along the weftern coaft of Africa,
continued for near half a century, Vafco de Gama, an
adtive and enterprifing Portuguefe officer, doubled the
Cape of Good Hope, and, coafting along the eaftern
Ihore of the continent, failed next acrofs the Indian
ocean, and landed at Calicut on the coaft of Malabar,
on th 22d of May 1498, ten months and two days
after leaving the port of Litbon. On his arrival in In¬
dia he was at firit received with great kindnefs by the
fovereign of that country, ftyled the Samorin ; but af¬
terwards, from whafe caufes we cannot now well de¬
termine, the Indian prince fuddenly changed his kind¬
nefs into mortal enmity, and attempted to cut off Ga¬
ma with his whole party. The Portuguefe admiral,
however, found means to efcape every plot that was
laid againft him j and loaded his (hips not only with
the products of that part of the country, but with many
of the valuable produces of the more remote regions.
On his return to Portugal, De Gama was received £Xpfofts0f
with all imaginable demonftrations of kindnefs. ThethePortu-
Portuguefe nation, nay all the nations in Europe, the guefe in
Venetians alone excepted, rejoiced at the dil'covery lncfia>
which had been made. The latter beheld in it the
certain and unavoidable downfal of their own power,
while the Portuguefe, preluming upon their right of
prior difeovery, which they took care to have confirm¬
ed by a papal grant, plumed tbemfelves on the thoughts
of having the whole Indian commerce centre in their
nation. The expedtations of the one, and the appre-
henfions of the other, feemed at firft to be well-
founded. A fueceflion of gallant officers fent into
the eaft from Portugal accomplifhed the greateft and
moft arduous undertakings. In 24 years after the voy¬
age of De Gama, they had made themfelves mafters
of many important places in India 5 and among the reft:
of the city of Malacca, where the great ftaple of trade
throughout the whole Eaft Indies was eftablifhed. As
this city ftands nearly at an equal diftance from the
eaftern and weftern extremities of all the countries
comprehended under the name of Indies, it was fre¬
quented by the merchants of China, Japan, of all the
kingdoms on the continent, the Moluccas and other
iflands in that quarter, as well as by thofe of Malabar,
Ceylon, Coromandel, and Bengal. Thus the Portuguefe
acquired a moft extenfive influence over the internal
commerce of India j while, by the fettlements they had
formed at Goa and Diu, they were enabled to engrofs
the trade on the Malabar coaft, and greatly toobftrudt
the long eftablifhed intercourfe of Egypt with India by
the way of the Red fea. Their fhips now frequented
every port in the eaft where any valuable commodities
were to be had, from the Cape of Good Hope to the
river of Canton in China ; and all alonp- this immenfe
extent of more than 4000 leagues, they had a chain of
forts and factories eftablilhed for the convenience of
protefting their trade. They had likewife made them¬
felves mafters of feveral ftations favourable to com¬
merce along the fouthern coaft: of Africa, and in
many ifiands lying between Madagafcar and the Moluc¬
cas. In all places where they came, their arms had
ftruck fuch terror, that they not only carried on their
trade without any rival or controul, but even preferibed
to
I N D [ IQ5 ] IN D
India, to tlie natives die terms of their mutual intercourfe •,
nay} fometimes they fet what price they pleafed upon
the commodities they purchaled, and thus were ena¬
bled to import into Europe the Indian commodities in
greater abundance and at a lower rate than had ever
been done before. Not fatisfied with this, they formed
a fcheme of excluding all other nations from any (hare
of the trade they enjoyed ; and for that purpofe de¬
termined to make themfelves mailers of fuch ftations
on the Red fea and Perfian gulf as might put them in
poiTeflion of the navigation of both thefe feas, and
enable them not only to obftruft the ancient commerce
between Egypt and India, but to command the
mouths of the great rivers which we have formerly
mentioned as the means of conveying the Indian goods
through the internal parts of Alia. The conduft of
thefe enterprifes was committed to Alphonfo Albu¬
querque, the mod diitinguHhed officer at that time in
the Portuguefe fervice. By reafon of the vaft number
of the enemies he had to contend with, however, and
the fcanty fupplies which could be derived from Por¬
tugal, he could not fully accomplifh what was expected
from him. However, he took from the petty princes
who were tributaries to the kings of Perfia the fmall
ifland of Ormus, which commanded the mouth of the
Perfian gulf; and thus fecured to Portugal the poflef-
fion of that extenfive trade with the eaft which the Per-
fians had carried on for feveral centuries. On this bar¬
ren ifland, almoft: entirely covered with fait, and fo hot
that the climate can fcarcely be borne, deftitute of a
drop of frefti water, except what was brought from
the continent, a city was ere&ed by the Portuguefe,
which foon became one of the chief feats of opulence,
fplendour, and luxury, in the eaftern world. In the
Red fea the Arabian princes made a much more for¬
midable refiftance ; and this, together with the da¬
mage his deet fuftained in that fea, the navigation of
which is always difficult and dangerous, obliged Albu¬
querque to retire without effefting any thing of impor¬
tance. Thus the ancient channel of conveyance ftill
remained open to the Egyptians 5 but their commerce
was greatly circumfcribed and obftrufted by the power¬
ful interert of the Portuguefe . in every port to which
^ they had been accuftomed to refort.
Inefledtual The Venetians now began to feel thofe effefts of
ftruggles of De Gama’s difcovery which they had dreaded from
the Vene- the beginning. To preferve the remains of their com-
tdeve'thTir merce> they applied to the fultan of the Mameluks in
affairs. " Egypt, who was no lefs alarmed than themfelves at
the lofs of fuch a capital branch of his revenue as he
had been accuftomed to derive from the India trade.
By them this fierce and barbarous prince was eafily
perfuaded to fend a furious manifefto to Pope Julius II.
and Emmanuel king of Portugal. In this, after ftat-
ing his exclufive right to the Indian trade, he inform¬
ed them, that if the Portuguefe did not relinquifh that
new courfe of navigation by which they had penetrat¬
ed into the Indian ocean, and ceafe from encroaching
on that commerce which from time immemorial had
been carried on between the eaft of Afia and his domi¬
nions, he would put to death all the Chriftians in
Egypt, Syria, and Paleftine, and demolifh the holy
fepulchre itfelf. To this threat, which fome centu¬
ries before would have alarmed all Chriftendom, no re¬
gard was paid } fo that the Venetians, as their laft re-
fource, were obliged to have recourfe to a different India,
expedient. This was to excite the fultan to fit out a
fieet in the Red fea to attack the Portuguefe, and drive
them from all their fettlements in the eaft; nay, in or¬
der to affift him in the enterprife, he was allowed to
cut down their forefts in Dalmatia, to fupply the defi¬
ciency of Egypt in timber for fhip-building. The tim¬
ber was conveyed from Dalmatia to Alexandria 5 and
from thence, partly by water and partly by land, to
Suez 5 where twelve men of war were built, on board
which a body of Mameluks were ordered to ferve under
the command of an experienced officer. Thus the Por¬
tuguefe were affaulted by a new enemy, far more formi¬
dable than any they had yet encountered j yet fuch was
the valour and conduft of the admiral, that after feveral
fevere engagements, the fleet of the infidels was entire¬
ly ruined, and the Portuguefe became abfolute mafters
of the Indian ocean.
This difafter was followed in no long time by the
total overthrow of the dominion of the Mameluks in
Egypt by Selim the Turkifh fultan ; who thus alfo
became mafter of Syria and Paleftine. As his intereft
was now the fame with that of the Venetians, a league
was quickly formed betwixt them for the ruin of the
power of the Portuguefe in India. With this view Selim
confirmed to the Venetians the extenfive commercial
privileges they enjoyed under the government of the
Mameluks ; publifhing at the fame time an edift, by
which he permitted the free entry of all the produc¬
tions of the eaft imported dire£Hy from Alexandria in¬
to any part of his dominions, but impofed heavy taxes
upon fuch as were imported from Lilbon. All this,
however, was infuffieient to counteraH the great ad¬
vantages which the Portuguefe had obtained by the
new paffage to India, and the fettlements they had
eftabliftied in that country; at the fame time that the
power of the Venetians being entirely broken by the
league of Cambray, they were no longer able to con¬
tribute any affiftance. They were therefore reduced to
the neceflity of making an offer to the king of Portu¬
gal to purchafe all the fpices imported into Lilbon,
over and above what might be requifite for the con-
fumption of his own fubjedfts. This offer being rejeft-
ed, the Portuguefe for fome time remained uncon-
trouled mailers of the Indian trade, and all Europe
was fupplied by them, excepting fome very inconfider-
able quantity which was imported by the Venetians
through the ufual channels. ^
The Portuguefe continued to enjoy this valuable Why the
branch of commerce undifturbed almoft for a whole I>orru£ueie
century j to which, however, they are indebted more tra<^e was
to the political fituation of the different European na-rUpt'"cj 1^
tions than to their own prowefs. After the acceffion other Eu-
of Charles V. to the throne of Spain, that kingdom wasroPeaj?
either fo much engaged in a multiplicity of operations, P°wers*
owing to the ambition of that monarch and his fon
Philip II. or fo intent on profecuting their difeoveries
and conquefts in the new world, that no effort was
made to interfere with the Eaft Indian trade of the
Portuguefe, even though an opportunity offered bv the
difcovery of a fecond paffage by fea to the Eaft Indies
through the ftraits of Magellan. By the acquifition
of the crown of Portugal in 1580, Spain, inftead of
becoming the rival, became the protestor and guardian
of the Portuguefe trade. The reiources of France all
JB h 2 thts
I N D
[ I9^ 1
I N D
39
RreaKhip
of the
the haft
Indies,
India, tills ti'rae were fo much exhaufted by a continuance of
***-¥-*—' long and deiolating wars, that it could bellow neither
much attention on obje6fs at fuch a diflance, nor en¬
gage in any expenfive fcheme. England was defolated
by the ruinous wars between the houfes of York and
Lancafter, and afterwards its enterprifing fpirit was re-
llrained by the cautious and covetous Henry VII. His
1’on Henry VIII. in the former part of his reign, by
engaging in the continental quarrels of the European
princes, and in the latter part by his quarrel with the
pope and contefts about religion, left no time for com¬
mercial fchemes. It was not, therefore, till the reign
of Queen Elizabeth that any attention was paid to the
affairs of the call by that kingdom. The firft who
Ihook the power of the Povtuguefe in India were the
Dutch 5 and in this they were gladly feeonded by the
natives, whom the Portuguefe had molt grievoufly
oppreffed. The Englifh foon followed their example ;
and in a few years the Portuguefe were expelled from
their moil valuable fettlements, while the moft lucra¬
tive branches of their trade have continued ever fince
in the hands of thofe two nations.
It is not to be (uppofed that the other European
nations would lit itili and quietly fee thefe two en-
Firn n and profs w]10ie 0f lucrative commerce without at-
Enijiilh in f - • r n T- n r l-
ternptmg to put m tor a mare. Ealt India compa¬
nies were therefore fet up in different countries : but
it was only between France and Britain that the
great rivallhip commenced 5 nor did this fully difplay
itfelf till after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Both
nations had by this time made themfelves mafters of
EngHfti fet-confiderabie fettlements in India. The principal of
tlements in thofe belonging to Britain were, I. Surat, fituated
India. on t]ie weftern jQf, 0f the peninfula within the Ganges,
between the 2irt and 22d degrees of N. Lat. This
peninfula comprehended the kingdoms of Malabar,
Decan, Golconda, and Bifnagar, with the principali¬
ties of Gingi, Tanjour, and Madura *, the weftern
coafl: being diftinguilhed by the name of Malabar, and
the eaftern by that of Coromandel. 2. Bombay, a
fmall ifland in the kingdom of Decan, about 45
leagues to the fouth of Surat. 3. Dabul, about 40
leagues farther to the fouth, in the province of Cun-
can. 4. Carwar, in N. Lat. 130, where there was a
imall fort and factory. 5. Tillicherry, to which place
the Englilh trade w'as removed from Calicut, a large
town 15 leagues to the fouthward. 6. Anjengo, be¬
tween eight and nine degrees of latitude, the moft
foutherly fettlement on the weftern coaft of the penin¬
fula. 7. On the Coromandel coaft they poffeffed Fort
St David’s, formerly called Tegapatan, lituated in the
kingdom of Gingi, in. 11° 40' N. Lat. 8. Madras, the
principal fettlement on this coaft, betw'een 130 and
140 N. Lat. not far from the diamond mines of Gol¬
conda. 9. Vifigapatam, farther to the north. 10. Ba-
lafore, in latitude 22°, a factory of fmall confequence.
11. Calcutta, the capital of all the Britifh fettlements
in the Eaft Indies. Thefe w7ere the principal places
belonging to Britain which we {hall have occafion to
Qrignvof ment*on in tbe account of the contefts which now
the blaft In took place j thofe of the French were chiefly Pondi-
dian war cherry and Chandernagore.
betwixt the The war is faid to have been firft occafioned by the
EiWiftCn^ intr'gues the French commandant M. Dupleix } who
3 n immediately after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, began
40
to fow diffenfion among the nabobs, who had by this
time ufurped the fovereignty of the country. Nizam '
Almuluck, viceroy of Decan, and nabob of Arcot, had,
as officer for the Mogul, nominated Anaverdy Khan to
be governor of the Carnatic, in the year 1 745. On the
death of Nizam, his fecond Ion Nazir-zing was appoint¬
ed to fucceed him in his viceroyalty, and his nomina¬
tion was confirmed by the Mogul. Fie was oppofed by
his coufin Muzapher-zing, who applied to Dupleix for
affiftance. By him he was fupplied with a body of
Europeans and ibrne artillery ; after which, being alfo
joined by Chunda Saib, an adlive Indian prince, he
took the field againft Nazir-zing. The latter was fup-
ported by a body of Britifh troops under Colonel Lau¬
rence j and the French, dreading the event of an en¬
gagement, retired in the night; fo that their ally was
obliged to throw himfelf on the clemency of Nazir-
zing. His life was fpared, though he himfelf was de¬
tained as a ftate prifoner j but the traitor, forgetting
the kindnefs fliowed him on this oceafion, entered into
a confpiracy againft the life of Nazir-zing, and mur¬
dered him in his camp •, in which infamous tranfaftion
he was encouraged by Dupleix and Chunda Saib, who
had retired to Pondicherry. Immenfe riches were
found in the tents of Nazir-zing, great part of which
fell to the fhare of Dupleix, whom Muzapher-zing now
affociated with himfelf in the government. By virtue
of this affociation, the Frenchman affumed the ftate
and formalities of an eaftern prince j and he and his
colleague Muzapher-zing appointed Chunda Saib na¬
bob of Arcot. In 1749, Anaverdy Khan had been
defeated and killed by Muzapher-zing and Chunda
Saib, affifted by the French ; after which his fon Mo¬
hammed Ali Khan had put himfelf under the protec¬
tion of the Englifh at Madras, and was confirmed by
Nazir-zing as his father’s fucceffor in the nabobfhip or
government of Arcot. This government, therefore,
was difputed betwixt Mohammed Ali Khan, appoint¬
ed by the legal viceroy Nazir-zing, and fupported bv
the Englifh company, and Chunda Saib nominated by
the ufurper Muzapher-zing, and protefted by Dupleix,
who commanded at Pondicherry. Muzapher-zing, how¬
ever, did not long enjoy his ill-got authority 5 for in
the year 1751, the nabobs who had been the means
of railing him to the power he enjoyed, thinking them¬
felves ill rewarded for their fervices, fell upon him fud-
denly, defeated his forces, and put him to death ; pro¬
claiming Salabat-zing next day viceroy of the Deccan.
On the other hand, the Mogul appointed Gauzedy
Khan, the elder brother of Salabat-zing, who was
confirmed by Mohammed Ali Khan in the government
of Arcot : but the affairs of the Mogul were at that
time in fuch diforder, that he could not with an army
fupport the nomination he had made. Chunda Saib
in the mean time determined to recover by force the
nabobfhip of Arcot, from which he had been depofed
by the Mogul, who had placed Anaverdy Khan in his
room. With this view he had recourfe to Dupleix at
Pondicherry, who reinforced him with 20CO Sepoys,
60 Caffrees, and 420 French 5 upon condition that if
he fucceeded, he ftiould cede to the French the town
of Velur in the neighbourhood of Pondicherry, with
its dependencies, confining of 45 villages. Thus rein¬
forced, he defeated Anaverdy Khan, who loft bis life
in the engagement, reaffumed the government of Arr
eot,
India,
42
Mr Clive’
firft appe:
ance in a
military
capacity.
very and
fuccefs.
1 N D [ i
cot, and punctually performed the engagements he had
■' come under to his French allies.
All this time Mohammed Ali Khan had been fup-
ported by the Englilh, to whom he lied after his fa¬
ther’s death. By them he was fupplied with a rein¬
forcement of men, money, and ammunition, under the
conduCt of Major Laurence, a brave and experienced
officer. By means of this fupply he gained fome ad¬
vantages over the enemy •, and repairing afterwards to
Fort St David’s, he obtained a further reinforcement.
With all this affiltance, however, he accompliffied no¬
thing of any moment ; and the Englifh auxiliaries
having retired, he was defeated by his enemies. Thus
he was obliged to enter into a more clofe alliance with
the Engliffi, and cede to them fome commercial points
which had been long in difpute ; after which, Captain
Cope was difpatched to put Trinchinopoli in a ftate
of defence, while Captain de Gingis, a Swifs officer,
marched at the head of 400 Europeans to the affift-
ance of the nabob. On this occalion Mr Clive firft
ar-offered his fervice in a military capacity. He had
been employed before as a writer, but appeared very
little qualified for that or any other department in ci¬
vil life. He now marched towards Arcot at the
head of 210 Europeans and 500 Sepoys. In the firft
expedition he difplayed at once the qualities of a great
commander. His movements were condufted with
fuch fecrecy and defpatch, that he made himfelf mafter
of the enemy’s capital before they knew of his march j
and gained the affeCtions of the people by his generofi-
ty, in affording protection without ranfom. In a ffiort
time, however, he found himfelf inverted in Fort St
David’s by Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib, an Indian
chief, pretender to the naboblhip of Arcot, at the head
of a numerous army 5 the operations of the fiege be¬
ing conducted by European engineers. Thus, in fpite
of his utmoft efforts, two practicable breaches w'ere
made, and a general affault given ; but Mr Clive ha¬
ving got intelligence of the intended attack, defended
himfelf with fuch vigour, that the affailants were every¬
where re pul fed with lofs, and obliged to raife the
fiege with the greateft precipitation. Not contented
with this advantage, Mr Clive, being reinforced by a
detachment from Trinchinopoli, marched in queft of
the enemy ; and having overtaken them in the plains
of Arani, attacked and entirely defeated them on the
3d of December 1751.
This victory was followed by the furrender of the
forts of Timery, Conjaveram, and Arani : after which
Mr Clive returned in triumph to Fort St David’s. In
the beginning of the year 1752 he marched towards
Madras, wffiere he was reinforced by a fmall body of
troops from Bengal. Though the whole did not ex¬
ceed 300 Europeans, with as many natives as weve fuf-
ficient to give the appearance of an army, he boldly
proceeded to a place called Koveripauk, about 15 miles
from Arcot, where the enemy lay to the number of
1500 Sepoys, 1700 horfe, with 150 Europeans, and
eight pieces of cannon. Victory was long doubtful,
until Mr Clive having fent round a detachment Wj fall
upon the rear of the enemy, while the Englilh attack¬
ed the entrenchments in front with their bayonets, a
general confufion enfued, the enemy were routed with
confiderable {laughter, and only faved from total de-
ftruClion by the darknefs of the night, The French
3
97 ] I N D
to a man threw down their arms, and furrendered India,
themfelves prifoners of war •, ali the baggage and can- v
non falling at the fame time into the hands of the
viClors.
On the return of Mr Clive to Fort St David’s, he His ex-
was fuperfeded in the command by Major Laurence. P^0i.ts und£r
By him he was detached with 400 Europeans, a few Maior Lau*
Mahratta foldiers, and a body of Sepoys, to cut offrence*
the enemy’s retreat to Pondicherry. In this enter-
prife he was attended with his ufual good fuccefs, took
feveral forts, vanquilhed the French commander M,
d’Anteuil, and obliged him with all his party to furren¬
der prifoners of war. 45..
Chunda Saib, in the mean time, lay encamped with Death of
an army of 30,000 men at Syringham, an illand in the GHlr)da
neighbourhood of Trinchinopoli j but Major Lau-^a^’
rence having found means to intercept his provifions,
he was obliged to fly. Being obliged to pafs through*
the camp of the Tanjore general, he obtained a pafs
for the purpofe ; but was neverthelefs detained by the
nabob ; who was an ally of the Englilh, and his head
Tj’as ftruck off, in order to prevent any difputes that
might arife concerning him.
After the flight of Chunda Saib, his army was at¬
tacked and routed by Major Laurence ; and the illand
of Syringham furrendered, with about 1000 French fol¬
diers under the command of Mr Law, brother to him .5
who fchemed the Miffiffippi company. M. Dupleix, M. Dupleix
exceedingly mortified at this bad fuccefs, proclaimed Pretends
Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib, nabob of Arcot;
and afterwards produced forged commiffions from the fheMo^l
Great Mogul, appointing him governor of all the Gar - and afreds’
natic from the river Kriftnah to the fea. The better the ftate of.
to carry on this deception, a meffenger pretended toan.In^an‘
come from Delhi, and was received with all the pomp1,rince’
of an ambaffador from the Great Mogul. Dupleix,'
mounted on an elephant, and preceded by mulic and
dancing women, after the oriental falhion, received
his commiffion from the hands of this importer 5 after
which he affefled the ftate of an eaftern prince, kept
his durbar or court, appeared fitting crofs-legged on a
fopha, and received prefents as fovereign of the coun¬
try, from his own council as well as from the na¬
tives.
Thus the forces of the Englilh and French Eaft
India companies were engaged in a courfe of hoftili-
ties at a time when no war exifted between the two
nations ; and while they thus continued to make war
on each other under the title of auxiliaries to the con¬
tending parties, Gauzedy Khan took poffeffion of the
dignity appointed him by the Mogul; but had not
been in pofleffion of it above 14 days when he was
poifoned by his own fifter. His fon Seah Abadin Khan
was appointed to fucceed him by the Mogul; but the
latter being unable to give him proper affiftance, Sala-
bat-zing remained without any rival, and made a pre-
fent to the French commander of all the Englilh pof-
feflions to the northward.
Thus concluded the campaign of 1752. Next year Rein£,e-
both parties received confiderable reinforcements ; thementsar-
Englilh, by the arrival of Admiral Watfon with a r*ve Ironi
fquadron of Ihips of war, having on board a regiment EnSland
commanded by Colonel Aldercroon j and the French an^ ^raaee’
by M. Gadeheu, commiffary and governor-general of
all their fettlements, on whofe arrival M. Dupleix de¬
parteds
India.
N D [ 19S ]
The new governor made the moft of government.
48
Provifional
treaty be¬
twixt the
two na¬
tions con¬
cluded.
parted for Europe
friendly propofals ; and defired a ceffation of arms un
til the difputes could be adjufted in Europe. Thefe
propofals being readily liftened to on the part of the
Englifh, deputies were fent to Pondicherry, and a pro¬
vifional treaty and truce were concluded, on condi¬
tion that neither,of the two companies (hould for the
future interfere in any of the differences that might take
place in the country. The other articles related to the
places or fettlements that {hould be retained or pofleff-
ed by the refpefHve companies, until frefti orders
fhould arrive from the courts of London and Ver-
failles ; and till then it was ftipulated, that neither of
the two nations {hould be allowed to procure any new
grant or ceflion, or to build forts in defence of any
new eftablifhment; nor {hould they proceed to any cef¬
lion, retroceflion, or evacuation, of what they then pof-
fefTed *, but every thing {hould remain on the fame foot¬
ing as formerly.
The treaty was publiflied on the nth of January
I755 '■> at- en^ which month Admiral Watfon re¬
turned with his fquadron from Bombay, and M. Ga-
deheu returned to France in the beginning of Febru¬
ary, leaving M. Leyrit his fucceffor at Pondicherry.
M. Bufiy, with the Soubahdar Salabat-zing, command¬
ed in the north 5 and M. de Sauflay was left to com¬
mand the troops at Syringham. Matters, however,
did not long continue in a ftate of tranquillity. Early
In the year it appeared that the French were endea¬
vouring to get poffeflion of all the provinces of the
Deccan. M. Bulfy demanded the fortrefs of Golconda
from Salabat-zing 5 and M. Leyrit encouraged the
phoufder or governor who rented Velu to take up
arms againft the nabob. He even fent 300 French
and as many Sepoys from Pondicherry to fupport this
rebel, and oppofe the EnglKh employed by the nabob
to eolledl his revenues from the tributary princes. In
this office they had been employed ever fince the cef¬
fation of hoftilities ; one half of the revenue being paid
to the nabob, and the other to the company, which
now involved them in a kind of military expedition
Expedition into the country of the Polygars, who bad been pre-
of the Eng-v]oufly fummoned to fend agents to fettle accounts
with the nabob. Four of them obeyed the fummons 5
but one Lachenaig refufed, and it was therefore refolv-
ed to attack, him. The country was very ftrong, being
almoft entirely fortified by nature or art j for it was
furrounded by craggy hills detached from one another,
and covered with bufhes fo as to be impafiable for
any but the natives, who had thrown up works from
hill to hill. Thefe works were indeed very rude, be¬
ing formed of large ftones laid upon one another with¬
out any cement, and flanked at proper diflances by
round earthen towers} before the wall was a deep and
broad ditch, with a large hedge of bamboos in front,
fo thick that it could not be penetrated but by the hat¬
chet or by the fire. This was forced, though not with¬
out fume lofs \ after which another work of the fame
kind, but ftronger, made its appearance •, but this be¬
ing likewile forced, Lachenaig was obliged to fubmit
and pay his tribute.
The Engliih army now marched to Madura, a flrong
Indian town about 60 miles fouth of Trinchinopoli. On
their approach it fubmitted without any oppofition,
and the inhabitants feemcd pleafed with their change
1 N D
Here a deputation was received from
India.
49
lifli into
the country
of the Po¬
lygars.
50
Madura
reduced.
a neighbouring Polygar, defiring an alliance, and as a
proof of. his iincerity making an offer of two fettle-T 51
ments on the fea-coaft of his country oppofite to ther TneW
Miand Ox Ceylon, which tvould greatly facilitate their obtained
future commerce with Tinevelly. Before this time by the
they could not have reached that city but by a circui- b-nghfli.
tous march of 460 or 530 miles ; but from the new
fettlements the diftance to Tinevelly was no more than
50 miles, and reinforcements or fupplies of any kind
might be fent them from Madras or Fort St David 52
in four or five days. This offer being accepted, Co-E*Plo'ts
lonel Heron, the Englifh commander, marched to at- Heron ^
tack the governor of Madura, who had fled to a place iei°n‘
called Coilgoody: on the approach of the EngHfh lie
fled from this place alfo, leaving the greatefl part of
his troops v o defend the place. The road was fo rugged,
that the carriages of the cannon broke down •, and as
the troops were not furnilhed with fcaling ladders, there
feemed to be little hope of gaining the place, which
was very ftrong. j he colonel, however, determined
to make an affault after the Indian manner, by burn¬
ing down the gates with bundles of ftraw j and to en¬
courage his men in this new method of attack, he him-
felf carried the firft torch, being followed by Moham- 5-
med Iffouf, who bore the fecond. The place was ta-His impro-
ken and plundered, not fparing even the temples 5(^nce in
which infpired the inhabitants with the ulmoft abhor-p/ailcierinS
rence of the vidors, on account of their contempt of^mpLt™
their religion. 1
After this exploit the army removed to Madura ;
and a garrifon being left in the place, they proceeded
to Tinevelly, which fubmitted without oppofition, and
owned the jurifdi&ion of the nabob 5 though fome of
the Polygars ftill evaded payment, and therefore hofti¬
lities were commenced againft them. ^
The new expedition was marked by an aft of the Cruel maf-
moft difgraceful cruelty at a fort named iVe//eeo^//,facre at
40 rqiles fouth of Tinevelly. It was fortified by a mudNellecotalu
wall with round towers. The affault was made with
great refolution, and the troops gained poffeflion of
the parapet without being repulfed. On this the gar¬
rifon called out for quarter, but it was barbaroufly re¬
fufed ; a general maffacre of men, women, and chil¬
dren enfued, only fix perfons out of 400 being fullered
to efcape with life.
It now appeared that the revenues collefted in this
expedition had not been fufficient to defray the ex-
pences of the army ; and a report being fpread that
Salabat-zing was advancing into the Carnatic at the
head of his army, along with M. Buffy the French
commander, to demand the Mogul’s tribute, it was
thought proper to recal Colonel Heron to Trinchino¬
poli. Before this, he had been prevailed on by the In¬
dian chief who accompanied him, to convey to him
(Mazuphe Cawn) an inveftiture of the countries of
Madura and Tinevelly for an annual rent of 187,500!.
fterling. In his way he was likewife induced by the
fame chief to make an attempt on a ftrong fort named
Nelly tang aville, fituated about 30 miles weft of Tine¬
velly ; and belonging to a refraftory Polygar. This
attempt, however, proving unfuccefsful for want of
battering cannon, the colonel returned with Mazuphe
Cawn to Trinchinopoli, where he arrived on the 22d of
May 1755.
The
In^ia.
55
Unfortu¬
nate expe¬
dition and
difgrare of
Colonel
Heron.
e 56
Scheme
formed by
the Engliih
againft the
French.
INI) [ 1
The laft expedition of this commander was againft
a mud fort named Vo/fi/nntnm, fituated near the en¬
trance of the woods belonging to the^Colleries. Thefe
people were highly incenfed at the plundering of Coil-
goody, and particularly at the lofs of their facred
images, which the rapacious conquerors had carried off.
In coni'equence of this they had already flaughtered a
party of Sepoys whom the commanding officer at Ma¬
dura had fent out to colleft cattle. In their march the
Engliffi army had to go through the pafs of Natam,
one of the moft dangerous in the peninfula. It begins
about 20 miles north of Trinehinopoli, and continues
for fix miles through a wood impaffable to Europeans.
The road which lay through it was barely fufficient to
admit a fingle carriage at a time, at the fame time that
a bank running along each fide rendered it impoflible
to widen it. In moft places the wood was quite con¬
tiguous to the road j and even where part of it had
been felled, the eye could not penetrate above 20
yards.—A detachment of Europeans, pioneers, and
fepoys, were fent to fcour the w oods before the main
body ventured to pafs through fuch a dangerous defile.
The former met with no oppofition, nor did any ene¬
my appear againft the latter for a long time. At laft
the march was flopped by one of the heavieft tumbrils
flicking in a dough, out of which the oxen were not
able to draw it. The officers of artillery fuffered the
troops marching before to proceed •, and the officer
who commanded in the rear of the battalion, not fuf-
pefting what had happened, continued his march,
while moft of the Sepoys who marched behind the rear
divifion of the artillery were likewife fuffered to pafs
the carriage in the Hough, which choaked up the road,
and prevented the other tumbrils from moving forward,
as well as three field pieces that formed the rear divi¬
fion of artillery, and the whole line of baggage that
followed. In this divided and defencelefs ftate the rear
divifion of the baggage wns attacked by the Indians;
and the whole would certainly have been deftroyed, had
it not been for the courage and activity of Capt. Smith,
who here commanded 40 Caffres and 200 Sepoys, with
one fix-pounder. Confiderable damage, however, was
done, and the Indians recovered their gods ; which
certainly were not worth the carrying off, being only
made of brafs, and of a diminutive fize. Colonel
Heron was tried by a court-martial for mifconduft
in this expedition ; and being found guilty, was de¬
clared incapable of ferving the company any longer ;
foon after which he returned to Europe, and died in
Holland.
In the mean time Nanderauze, an Indian prince,
formed a fcheme to get pofieffion of Trinchinopoli ;
and in order to cornpafs his end with greater facility,
communicated his defign to M. de Sauffay the com¬
mander of the French troops. But this gentleman hav¬
ing communicated intelligence to the Engliffi com¬
mander, the enterprife mifcarried, and no difference
betwixt thefe twro rival nations as yet took place. It
does not, however, appear that the Engliffi were in the
leaft more folicitous to avoid hoftilities than the French ;
for as foon as the company were informed of the ac-
quifitions made by M. BulTy in the Deccan, it was de¬
termined to encourage the Mahrattas to attack Sala-
bat-zing, in order to oblige him to difmifs the French
auxiliaries from his fervice. In order to fucceed in this
Imlia.
57
99 ] I N D
enterprife, it was neceffary to have a commander well
experienced in the political fyfiems of the country, as
well as in military affairs j and for this purpofe Mr
Clive, now governor of Fort St David’s, and invefted
with a lieutenant colonel’s commiffiot) in the king’s
troops, offered his fervice. Three companies of the
king’s artillery, confifting of 100 men each, and 300
recruits, were lent from England on this expedition,
who arrived at Bombay on the 27th of November j
when on a fudden the prefidency oF Madras took it
into confideration that this expedition could not beTheexpv*
profecuted without infringing the convention made ditaon laid
v ith the French commander. “ This (fay£ Mr Grofe) a^e*
was a&ing with too much caution 5 for every thing
relating to Salabat-zing and the French troops in his
fervice feemed to have been ftudioufiy avoided. The
court of directors had explained their whole plan to the
prefidency of Madras ; but the Ihip which had the let¬
ters on board was unfortunately wrecked on a rock
•about 800 miles eaft of the Cape of Good Hope.”
The whole expedition was therefore laid afide, and the
prefidency of Madras dire (fled all their force for the
prefent againft Tulagee Angria, who had long been
a formidable enemy to the Englifti commerce in thofe
parts- .... sS
The dominions of this pirate confifted of feveral Account of
iflands near Bombay, and an extent of land on the the pirate
continent about 180 miles in length, and from 30 totll!agee
60 in breadth. He pofftffed alfo leveral forts that had^1’6113’
been taken from the Europeans by his anceftors j the
trade of piracy having, it feems, been hereditary in the
family, and indeed followed by moft of the inhabitants
of this coaft. This was the more dangerous for trading
veffels, as the land breezes do not here extend more
than 40 miles out at fea, fo that the fhips are obliged
to keep within fight of land ; and there was not a
creek, harbour, bay, or mouth of a river, along the
whole coaft of his dominions, where Angria had not
eredted fortifications, both as Rations of difcovery and
places of refuge to his veffels. His fleet confifted of
two kinds of veffels peculiar to this country, named
grabs and gallivats. The former have generally two Defcrfpnon
mafts, though fome have three ; the latter being about of his fleet.
30c tons burthen, and the former 150. They are
built to draw little water, being very broad in propor¬
tion to their height ; but narrowing from the middle
to the end, where, inftead of bows, they have a prow
projecting like a Mediterranean galley, and covered
W'ith a ftrong deck level with the main deck of the
veffel, from which it is feparated by a bulk-head that
terminates the forecaftle. As this con ft nidi on lub-
jeCts the grab to pitch violently when failing againtt
a head fea, the deck of the prow is not inclofed with
Tides as the reft of the veffel, but remains bare, that
the water which comes upon it may pafs off without
interruption. Two pieces of cannon are mounted on
the main deck under the forecaftle, carrying balls of
nine or twelve pounds, which point forwards through
port-holes cut in the bulk-head, and fire over the prow j
thofe qf the broad-fide are from fix to nine pounders.
The gallivats are large row-boats built like the grab,
but fmaller, the largeft fcarce exceeding 70 tons bur¬
den. They have two mafts, the mizen flightly made,
and the main-maft bearing one large and triangular fail.
In general they are covered with a fpar deck made of
fplit
6o
Their man¬
ner of at¬
tacking
ftiips.
fit
Unfuccefs-
ful at¬
tempts to
reeluce this
pirate.
62
Succefs of
Commo¬
dore James
againlt his
forts.
INI) [ 200 j I N D
fpiit bamboos, and carry only paterreroes fixed on fwi-
vels in the gunnel of the veffel ^ but thofe of a larger
fize have a fixed deck, on tvhich they mount fix or
eight pieces of cannon from two to four pounders.
They have 40 or 50 flout oars, by which they may be
moved at the rate of four miles an hour.
Angria had commonly a fleet of eight or ten grabs,
with 40 or 50 gallivats •, which flipped their cables
and put out to fea as foon as any veffel had the misfor¬
tune to come within fight of the port or bay where
they lay. If the wind blew with any ftrength, their
conftruclion enabled them to fvvim very fwiftly: but if
it was calm, the gallivats rowed, and towed the grabs.
As foon as they came within gunfliot of the enemy,
they aflembled aftern, and the grabs began the attack,
firing at firft only at the mafts, and choofing the mofl
advantageous pofitions for this purpofe. It the veffel
happened to be difmafted, they then drew nearer, and
battered her on all fides till fhe ftruck ; but if the de*
fence was obflinate, they fent a number of gallivats
with 2bo or 300 foldiers in each, who boarded from all
quarters fword in hand.
This piratical ftate had for more than 50 years been
formidable to all the nations in Europe 5 the Englifli
Eafi India company had kept up a naval force for the
protection of their trade at the rale of more than
50,000!. annually, and after all found it fcarcely ade¬
quate to the purpofe. An unfuecefsful attempt had
been made in 1717, by the prefidency of Bombay,
againfl the forts Geriah and Kennary, the principal
ftrong holds of Angria.—^Another was made in 1722,
under Admiral Matthews, againfl: a fort named Coila-
bley, about x 5 leagues foutli of Bombay : but this
alfo mifcarried through the cowardice and treachery
of the Portuguefe, who pretendeid to aflifl the Englifli.
In 1735 Fort Geriah was unfuccefsfully attacked by a
Dutch armament of feven ftiips, two bomb-ketches,
and a numerous body of land forces j while all this
time the piracies of Angria went on fuccefsfully, and
not only trading veffels, but even men of war belong¬
ing to different nations, were captured by him, parti¬
cularly in the month of February 1754, when three
Dutch (hips of 50, 36, and 18 guns, were burnt or
taken by the piratical fleet.
This laft fuccefs encouraged Angria fo much, that
he began to build veffels of a large fize, boafting that
he ftiould be mafter of the Indian feas. The Mahrat-
tas having implored the afliftance of the Englifli againfl:
this common enemy, Commodore William James was
fent from Bombay on the 22d of March 1755, with
the Protector of 44, the Swallow of 16 guns, and two
bomb-ketches ; but with inftruftions not to hazard the
fleet by attacking any of the pirate’s forts, only to
blockade the harbours, while the Mahratta army carried
on their operations by land. He had fcarce begun his
voyage \vhen he fell in with a confiderable fleet of the
pirates, which he would certainly have taken, had
it not been for the timidity and dilatory behaviour of
his allies, who could not by any means be induced to
■follow him. They had, however, inverted three of
the forts, but after a very ftrange manner 5 for they
durft not approach nearer than two miles, and even
there entrenched themfelves up to the chin, to be fe-
cure againfl; the fire of the fort, which they returned
only .with one four pounder. The commodore, pro- India.
Voked at this pufillanimous behaviour, determined, for —"v—
the honour of the Britilh arms, to exceed the orders
he had got. Running within 100 yards of a fort
named Severndroog, he in a few hours ruined the
walls, and fet it on fire ; a powder magazine alfo blow¬
ing up, the people, to the number of about xcoo,
abandoning the place, and embarking on board of eight
large boats, attempted to make their efcape to another
fort named Goa, but were all intercepted and made
prifoners by the Englifli. The whole force of the at¬
tack being then turned upon Goa, a white flag was
foon hung out as a fignal to furrender. The governor,
however, did not think proper to wait the event of a
capitulation, but without delay palled over to Severn-
droog, W'here he hoped to be able to maintain his
ground notwithftanding the ruinous ftate of the forti¬
fications. The fire was now renewed againfl: this for-
trefsj and the feamen having cut a paflage through one
of the gates with their axes, the garriion foon lurren-
dered, at the fame time that two other forts befieged
by the Mahrattas luing out flags of truce and capitu¬
lated : and thus were four of Aftgria’s forts, for fo
many years deemed impregnable, fubdued in one day.
Thefe fuceeffes were folhnved by the furrender of The pirate
Bancoote, a ftrong fortified ifland, nowr called Fort fjI|aJ\Tub.
ViBoria, and which the Englifli retained in poffeflxon j Aljmjr
but the other forts w ere delivered up to the Mahrattas. vVatfon.
On the arrival of Admiral Watfon in the beginning of
November 1751;, it was determined to root out the pi¬
rate at once, by attacking Geriah the capital of his do¬
minions j but it was fo long fince any Englifhman had
feen this place, and the reports of its ilrength had been
fo much exaggerated, that it was thought proper to
reconnoitre it before any attack was made. This was
done by Commodore James •, who having reported that
the fort, though ftrong, was far from being inacceffible
or impregnable, it was refolved to profecute the en-
terprife with the utmoft expedition and vigour. It
was therefore attacked by fuch a formidable fleet, that
Angria, lofing courage at their approach, fled to the
Mahrattas, leaving Geriah to be defended by his bro¬
ther. The fort, however, was foon obliged to furren¬
der, with no more lofs on the part of the Euglifli than
19 men killed and wounded: but it was afterwards ac¬
knowledged, that this fuccefs was owing principally
to the terror of the garrifon, occafioned by fuch a vio¬
lent cannonade; for their forlifications appeared to
have been proof againft the utmoft efforts of an ene¬
my. All the ramparts of this fort wrere either cut out
of the folid rock, or built of ftones at leaft ten feet
long laid edgeways.
In this fortrefs were found 200 pieces of brafs can¬
non, with fix brafs mortars, and a great quantity of
ammunition and military ftores, befides money and
effefts to the value of 125,0001. Angria’s fleet was
entirely deftroyed, one of the (hips having been fet on
fire by a (hell from the Englifli fleet, and the flames
having fpread from thence to all the reft. About 2000
people were made prifoners ; among whom were the
wife, children, mother, brother, and admiral of the
pirate : but they were treated w ith the greateft cle¬
mency : and his family, at their own requert, continued
under the protection of the Engliftx at Geriah. All
India,
64
M. BuOy
difniifTed
by Salabat
zing.
65
A detach¬
ment of
Enajlidi
troops or¬
dered
againft M.
Bufly, but
counter¬
manded.
66
Surajah
Dowla, na¬
bob of Ben-
gal, anv
enemy to
the Eng¬
lish.
I N D [
the other forts belonging to Angria foon fubmitted ; fo
that his power on the coaft of Malabar was entirely an¬
nihilated.
While the affairs of the Engliih went on thus fuc-
cefsfully, M. Bufly had been conftantly employed near
the perfon of Salabat-zing, whom he had ferved in
much the fame manner that the Engliih had Moham¬
med Ali Cawn. As he made ufe of his influence with
that prince, however, to enlarge the poffeflions of the
French, and was continually making exorbitant de¬
mands upon him, the prime minifter of Salabat-zing at
length reprefented to him the danger and fhame of al¬
lowing a fmall body of foreigners thus to give law to
a great prince ■, and having formed a powerful com¬
bination againif the French, at laft obtained an order
for their diftrriffion. M. Bufly took his leave without
any marks of difguft, having under his command
about 600 Europeans, with 5000 Sepoys, and a fine
train of artillery. His enemies, however, had no mind
to allow him to depart in fafety ; and therefore fent
orders to all the polygars to oppoie their paiTage, fend
ing 6000 Mahrattas after them to ha rats them on their
march.
Notwithftanding this oppofition, M. Buffy reached
Hyderabad with very little lofs. Here he took pof-
feffion of a garden formerly belonging to the kings of
Golconda, where he refolved to keep his poll until
fuccours ihould arrive from Pondicherry and Mafuli-
patam. Here Salabat-zing propofed to attack him ;
and the better to attain his purpofe, applied to the
Engliih prelidency at Madras for a body of troops to
affift him in this fervice. Nothing could be more
agreeable to1 thefe who had the power at that place
than fuch an invitation ; and a detachment of 400 Eu¬
ropeans and 1500 Sepoys was on the point of being
ordered to the affiftance of Salabat-zing., when expreffes
from Bengal informed them of the greateft danger
that had ever threatened the Britifh fettlements in In-
doftan.
This danger arofe from the difpleafure of Surajah
D owla the new nabob of Bengal. His grandfather
Aliverdy Khan having died in April or May 1756,
Surajah fucceeded to the nabobiliip of Bengal, Ba-
har, and Orixa. He was congratulated on his aecef-
lion by Mr Drake the EngTifh prefident at Calcutta,
who requefted his favour and protection in behalf of
his countrymen. This was readily promifed, even to
a greater degree than what had been fhown by his
grandfather j but in a fhort time his refentment was
incurred by the imprifonment, as it is faid, of Omi-
ehund, an eminent Gentoo merchant, 'who had lived
feveral years under the protection of the Englifh go¬
vernment at Calcutta. Of this, however, Surajah
Dowla did not direCtly complain •, but founded his pre¬
tence of war upon the conduCl of the Englifh in re¬
pairing the fortifications of Calcutta 5 which indeed
was abfolutely neceffary on account of the great like¬
lihood of a war with the French. On this account,
however, the nabob fignified his difpleafure, and threat¬
ened an attack if the works were not inftantly demolifh-
ed. With this requifition the prefident and council
pretended to comply ; but neverthelefs went on with
their works, applying firfl. to the French and then to
the Dutch for afliftance 5 but as neither of thefe nations
VcxuXL Part L
India;
201 ] I N D
thought proper to interfere, the Englifh were obliged
to hand alone in the quarrel. ——
Surajah Dowla took the field on the 30th of May His{x7pe(};w
1756-, with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000 horfe,tion agair,£
and 400 elephants ; and on the 2d of June detached Calcutta.
20,000 men to invert: the Englilh fort at Caffumbazar,
a large town fituated on an ifland formed by the weft-
ern branch of the Ganges. The fort was regularly
built, with 60 cannon, and defended by 300 men, but
principally Sepoys. The nabob pretending a defire to
treat, Mr Watts the chief of the factory, was perfuaded
to put himfelf in his power 3 which he had no fooner
done, than he was made a dole prifoner, along with
Mr Batfon a furgeon who accompanied him. The
two prifoners were treated with great indignity, and
threatened with death 3 but two of the council who
had been fent for by the tyrant’s command were
fent back again, with orders to perfuade the people
of the faftory to furrender it at diferetion. i bis pro-
pofal met with great oppefitien in the council 3 but
was at laft complied with, though very little to th©
advantage of the prifoners 3 for they were not only de- 1
prived of every thing they poffefled, but ftrigped al-
moft naked, and fent to Hooghly, where they were
clofely confined.
The nabob,, encouraged by this fuccefs, marched
direftly to Calcutta, which he inverted on the 15th.
Though he now threatened to drive the Englilh en¬
tirely out of his dominions, yet he propofed an accom¬
modation with Mr Drake, provided he would pay him
his duty upon the trade for 15 years, defray the ex-
pences of his army, and deliver up the Indian mer- <33
chants who were in the fort. This being refufed, a Calcutta
fiege commenced, and the place was taken in three taken> an<^
days, through the treachery of the Dutch guard *
who had the charge of a gate. The nabob promifed ers
on the word of a foldier, that no harm Ihould be done the cated.
Englilh 3 neverthelefs they were fhut up in a prifon fo * See
ftrait, that out of 146 all perilhed in a lingle night forcutta‘
want of air but 22. It was not, however, fuppofed that
any maffacre at this time was intended 3 and it is pro¬
bable that he only gave orders to confine the prifoners
clofely for the night, without taking into confideration
whether the place they were confined in was large or
fmall.
The news of this difafter put an end to the expedi¬
tion projected againft M. Bully 3 and Colonel Clive tfp
was inftantly difpatched to Bengal with 400 Euro-Espeditio®'
peans and 1000 Sepoys, on board of the fleet com-ot,A^miraI
manded by Admiral Watfon. They did not arrive till ^
the 15th of December, at a village called Fulia, fitua-ne] c];ve
ted on a branch of the Ganges, where the inhabitants agatnft the
of Calcutta had taken refuge after their misfortune, nabob.
Their firft operations were againft the forts Bufbudgia,
Tanna, Fort-William, and Calcutta, now in the hands
of the enemy. All thefe were reduced almoft as loon
as they could approach them. An expedition was then
propofed againft Hooghly, a large town about 60
miles above Calcutta, and the place of rendezvous for
all nations who traded to Bengal 3 its warehoufes and
(hops being always filled with the richeft merchandife
of the country. This was likewife eafily reduced 3 and
the city was deftroyed, with the granaries and ftore-
houfes of fait feated on each fide the river 3 which
C c proved
India.
70
him.
, 71.
War with
the French.
I N D [202
proved very detrimental to the nabob, as depriving him
of the means of fubfxftence for his army.
Surajah Dowla, enraged at this fuccefs of the Eng-
lift, now feemed determined to crufh them at once by
a general engagement. From this, however, he was
intimidated by a fuccefsful attack on his camp, which
foon induced him to conclude a treaty. This took place
on the 9th of February 1757, on the following condi-
Treaty con-tions. 1. That the privileges and immunities .granted
chided with to the Englift by the king (Mogul) ftould not be dif-
puted. 2. That all goods with Englift orders ftould
pafs, by land or water, free of any tax, fee, or impofi-
tion. 3. All the Company’s factories which had been
feized by the nabob ftould be reftored j and the goods,
money, and effe<Sls, which had been plundered, ftould
be accounted for. 4. That the Englift ftould have
permiffion to fortify Calcutta as they thought proper.
5. They ftould alfo have the liberty to coin their own
imports of bullion and gold.
As certain intelligence was now received of a war
between France and England, the firft object that na¬
turally occurred, after the conclufion of this treaty,
was the redu&ion of the French power in the eaft j
in confequence of which it was reprefented to Admiral
Watfon, by a committee of the council of Bengal, that
this was the only opportunity he perhaps might ever
have of atling offenfively again!! them. An attack
would therefore immediately have been made on Chan-
dernagore, had not a-deputation arrived from that
place, requefling a neutrality in this part of the world
until matters ftould be finally decided in Europe.
The negociation, however, was broken off on a fug-
geftion that the government of Chandernagore, being
fubordinate to that of Pondicherry, could not render
any tranfa£!ion of this kind valid. It remained, there¬
fore, only to obtain the confent of the nabob to make
an attack upon this place : but this feemed not likely
The nabob to be got; for in ten days after the conclufion of the
Complains treaty, he fent a letter to the admiral, complaining of
of the Eng-his intention. “ It appears (fays he) that you have a
defign to befiege the French faflory near Hooghly,
and to commence hoftilities again!! that nation. This
is contrary to all rule and cuftom, that you ftould
bring your animofities and differences into my country j
for it has never been known, fince the days of Timur,
that the Europeans made war upon one another in the
king’s dominions. If you are determined to befiege
the French factories, I fliall be neceffitated, in honour
and duty to my king, to aflift them with my troops.
You are certainly bound to abide by your part of the
treaty !tri£tly, and never to attempt or be the occafion
of any troubles or difturbances in future within the
provinces under my jurifdiftion, &c.” To this Ad¬
miral Watfon replied, that “ he was ready to defift
from his intended enterprize if the French would
agree to a folid treaty of neutrality 5 or if the nabob,
as foubahdar (viceroy) of Bengal, would, under his
hand, guarantee^ this treaty, and promife to protect the
Englift from any attempts made by the French again!!
their fettlements in his abfence.” This letter did not
prove fatisfaftory j the nabob having been informed
by the French agent, that the Englilh defigned to
turn their arms again!! him as foon as they had made
themfelves mafters of Chandernagore. This was itre-
nuoufly denied by the admiral 5 and a number of let-
]
I N D
72
lift.
ters paffed between him and the nabob, in one of which India,
the latter made ufe of the following expreffions, which '""-“'V'”0*
were fuppofed to imply a tacit confent that Chanderna¬
gore ftould be attacked. “ My forbidding war on my
borders was becaufe the French were my tenants, and
upon this affair defired my protection : on this I wrote
to you to make peace, and no intention had I of
favouring or affifting them. You have underltanding
and generofity : if your enemy with an upright heart
claims your protection, you will give him his life j but
then you muff be well fatisfied of the innocence of his
intentions j if not, then whatfoever you think right,
that do.”
Having thus, as was fuppofed, obtained the con-Chander-
fent of the nabob, an attack was made on Chanderna- nagore ta«
gore, vftich was foon reduced to the neceffity of capi-ken ^1£
.i.* .1 1 Englifh.
tulating j though the French made a gallant defence,
and, as Mr Ives informs us, “ flood to their guns as
long as they had any to fire.” A meffenger was dif-
patched with the news to Surajah Dowla three days
after the place had furrendered, intimating alfo that
the French had been purfued fome way up the country.
This intelligence, however, feemed to be by no means
agreeable, as he could fcarce be induced to return an
anfwer. At laft he pretended difpleafure on account
of the defign of the Englifli to infringe the treaties,
and complained that they had ravaged fome parts of
his dominions. This was denied on the part of the
admiral; who in his turn accufed the nabob of breach
of promife, and negleCt in fulfilling his engagements.
The laft letter fent by Admiral Watfon to the nabob,
of date 19th April 1757, concludes in this manner.
“ Let me again repeat to you, that I have no other
view's than that of peace. The gathering together of
riches is what I defpife *, and I call on God, who fees
and knows the fpring of all our aClions, and to whom
you and I mull one day anfwer, to witnefs to the
truth of what I now write : therefore, if you would
have me believe that you wilh for peace as much as I
do, no longer let it be the fubjeC! of our correfpondence
for me to a!k the fulfilment of our treaty, and you to
promife and not perform it j but immediately fulfil all
your engagements : thus let peace flourift and fpread
throughout all your country, and make your people
happy in the re-eftabliftment of their trade, which
has fuffered by a ruinous and deftruftive war.” From
this time both parties made preparations for war. The
nabob returned no anfw'er till the 13th of June, when
he fent the following declaration of war. “ According
to my promifes, and the agreement made between us,
I have duly rendered every thing to Mr Watts, ex¬
cept a very fmall remainder : Notwithftanding this, Mr
Watts, and the reft of the council of the fadlory at
Caffembuzar, under the pretence of going to take the
air in their gardens, fled away in the night. This is
an evident mark of deceit, and of an intention to break
the treaty. I am convinced it could not have hap¬
pened without your knowledge, nor without your ad¬
vice. I all aleng expe£!ed fomething of this kind, and
for that reafon I would not recal my forces from
Plaffey, expefting fome treachery. I praife God,
that the breach of the treaty has not been
ParV’&C* , r r . fitionof
Nothing lets was now refolved on m the Englift the nabob
council at Calcutta than the depofition of the nabob ; refolved
which on*
0n The dept.
I N D
t 203 ]
I N D
India.
75.
Avarici¬
ous and
treacherous
behaviour
of Omi-
chund and
the Eng-
lifh.
76
Treaty con¬
cluded with
Meer Jaf-
Ser.
c 77-
Surajah
Dow!a de¬
feated and
put to
death.
xvfuch at tills time appeared pra&icable, by Tupporting
the pretenfions of Meer Jaffier Ali Cawn, who had
with other noblemen entered into a confpiracy againft
him. Meer Jaffier had married the filter of Aliverdy
Cawn, the predeceffor of Surajah Dowla ; and was
now fupported in his pretenfions by the general of the
horfe, and by Jugget Seet the nabob’s banker, who
was reckoned the richelt merchant in all India. By
thefe three leading men the defign was communicated
to Mr Watts the Englilh refident at the nabob’s court,
and by him to Colonel Clive and the feeret committee
at Calcutta. The management of the affair being left
to Mr Watts and Mr Clive, it was thought proper to
communicate the fecret to Omichund, through whom
the neceffary correfpondence might be carried on with
Meer Jaffier. This agent proved fo avaricious, that
it was refolved to ferve him in his own way •, and by
a piece of treachery to him alfo, to gain their point
with both parties. Two treaties were therefore writ¬
ten out •, in one of which it was promifed to comply
with Omichund’s demand, but in the other his name
was not even mentioned ; and both thefe treaties were
figned by all the principal perfons concerned, Admiral
Watfon alone excepted, whom no political motives
could influence to fign an agreement which he did not
mean to keep. Thefe treaties, the fame in every re-
fpe£t excepting as to Omichund’s affair, were to the
following purpofe : I. All the effefls and factories
belonging to the province of Bengal, Bahar, and O-
rixa, {hall remain in poffeffion of the Engliih, nor
fhould any more French ever be allowed to fettle in
thefe provinces. 2. In confideration of the Ioffes fuf-
tained by the Englifti company by the capture and
plunder of Calcutta, he agreed to pay one crore of
rupees, or 1,250,000!. fferling. 3. For the effefts
plundered from the Engliffi at Calcutta, he engaged
to pay 50 lacks of rupees, or 625,000!. 4. For the
effects plundered from the Gentoos, Moors, and others
inhabitants of Calcutta, 20 lacks, or 250,000!. 5. For
the eft'efts plundered from the Armenian merchants,
inhabitants of Calcutta, feven lacks, or 87,500!.
6. The diftribution of all thefe fums to be left to
Admiral Watfon, Colonel Clive, Roger Drake, Wil¬
liam Watts, James Kilpatrick, and Richard Becher,
Efquires, to be difpofed of by them to whom they
think proper.
All things being now in readinefs, Colonel Clive be¬
gan his march againft Surajah Dowla on the 13th of
June, the very day on which Surajah Dowla fent off
his laft letter for Admiral Watfon. Before any aft of
hoftility was committed, however, Colonel Clive wrote
the nabob a letter, upbraiding him with his conduft,
and telling him at laft, that “ the rains being fo near,
and it requiring many days to receive an anfwer, he
had found it neceffary to wait upon him immediately.”
This was followed by the decifive aftion at Plaffey 5 in
which the treachery of Meer Jaffier, who commanded
part of the nabob’s troops, and flood neuter during the
engagement, undoubtedly rendered the viftory more
eafily acquired than it would otherwife have been.
The unfortunate nabob fled to his capital with a few
that continued faithful to him. He reached the
city in a few hours \ but not thinking himfelf fafe
there, left it the following evening, difguifed like a
Faquir, with only two attendants. By thefe he appears
to have been abandoned and even robbed"; for on the India.
3d of July he was found w andering forfaken and almoft
naked on the road to Patna. Next day he was brought
back to Muxadabad; and a few hours after privately
beheaded by Meer Jaffier’s eldeft fon, to whole care he
had been committed. The ufurper took poffeflion of
the capital in triumph*, and on the 29th of June Colo¬
nel Clive went to the palace, and in prefence of the ra- jyjee)?jar
jahs and grandees of the court folemnly handed him tO[:er pro/'
the mufnud or carpet and throne offtate, where he was claimed
unanimoufly faluted foubahdar or nabob, and received of
the fubmiffion of all prefent. Bengal.
While thefe tranfaftions were going forward with c;0i0nci
the nabob, the utmoft efforts were uied to expel the Coote’s
French entirely from Bengal. By the articles of capi-expedition
tulation at Chandernagore, the whole of that garrifon
were to continue prifoners of war 5 but about the time1
of figning the treaty, Mr Law w ith a fmall body of
troops made his efcape out of Caffembuzar, and bent his
march towards Patna. There he had been protefted
by the late nabob *, and on the commencement of frefh
hoftilities, had collefted about 200 French, the only
remains of that nation in Bengal, to make an attempt
to fuccour him. With thefe he w'as within tw'o hours
march of Surajah Dowla’s camp when the battle of
Plaffey w'as fought 5 on hearing the new's of which he
flopped : but afterw ards being informed of the nabob’s
efcape, he marched again to his afliflance, and w7as
within a few hours of joining him when he was taken.
Three days after he was purfued by Major Eyre Coote
at the head of 223 Europeans, three companies of Se-
poys, 50 Lafcars or Indian failors, and 10 Marmutty
men or pioneers to clear the roads, together with two
pieces of cannon, fix pounders. On this expedition the
major exerted his utmoft diligence to overtake his anta-
gonift, and fpent a very confiderable fpace of time in
the purfuit; for though he fet out on the 6th of July,
he did not return to Muxadabad till the ift of Septem¬
ber. Mr Lawq however, had the good fortune to ef¬
cape ; but though the major did not fucceed in what
was propofed as the principal end of his expedition, he
was, neverthelefs, fays Mr Ives, of confiderable ferviee
to the company ai\d to his country in general. He had
obliged Ramnarain, the moft powerful rajah in the coun¬
try, to fwear allegiance to Meer Jaffier j he laid open
the interior ftate of the northern provinces j and, in
conjunction w'ith Mr John ft one, gave the company fome
infight into the faltpetre bufinefs, from which fuch ad¬
vantages have fince been derived to the public. So
Before the return of Major Coote, Admiral Pocock Death of
had fucceeded to the command of the fleet, in confe-
quence of the deceafe of Admiral Watfon, who died on
the 16th of Auguft. The joy of the Britifh was con-
fiderably damped by the lofs of this gentleman, who
had gained a great and deferved reputation both in the
military line and every other. News were alfo re¬
ceived, that the French had been very fuccefsful on
the coaft of Coromandel. Salabat-zing, as has already
been obferved, had applied to the Engliffi for affift-
ance againft the French j but as they were prevented
from performing their agreement by the difafter at
Calcutta, he found himfelf under a neceffity of accom¬
modating the differences with his former friends, and
to admit them again into his fervice. M. Bufly was
now reinforced by the troops under Mr Law $ who
C c 2 had
Admiral
Watfon.
IND f 204 ] IND
I-Uiia. j-ad colte&ed as many Europeans in his journey as
made up 500 with thofe he had at firft. With thefe
Succei's of undertook to reduce the Englifti faflories of Inge-
the French ram, Bandermalanka, and Vizagapatnam. As none
on the Co- of the two former places were in any date of defence,
romandel ^],e g^eated part of the company’s effefts were put on
diipboard on the fird alarm j but as Vizagapatnam
■was garrifoned by 140 Europeans and 420 Sepoys, it
was fuppofed that it would make fome defence. If
any was made, however, it appears to have been very
trifling j and by the conqued of this the French be¬
came maders of all the coads from Ganjam to Mafiuli-
patnam. In the fouthern provinces the like bad fuc-
cefs attended the Britifli caufe. The rebel Polygars
having united their forces againd Mazuphe Cawn,
obtained a complete victory over him ; after which
the Englifli Sepoys, being prevailed upon to quit Ma¬
dura, the conqueror feized upon that city for hira-
felf.
In the beginning of 1758, the French made an at¬
tempt on Trinchinopoly. The command was given
to M. d’Autreuil, who inveded the place with 900
men in battalion, with 4000 Sepoys, 100 huffars, and
a great body of Indian horfe. Trinchinopoly was then
In no condition to withdand fuch a formidable power,
as mod of the garrifon had gone to bedege Madura
under Captain Caillaud 5 but this commander having
received intelligence of the danger, marched back with
all his forces, and entered the town by a difficult road
which the enemy had negle&ed to guard 5 and the
French general, difconcerted by this fuccefsful ma¬
noeuvre, drew off his forces, and returned to Pondi¬
cherry.
This fortunate tranfaftion was fucceeded by the
liege of Madura, in which the Engliffi were fo vigo-
roufly repulfed, that Captain Caillaud was obliged to
turn the liege into a blockade in order to reduce the
place by famine. But before any progrefs could be
made in this way, Mazuphe Cawn was prevailed upon
to give it up for the fum of 170,000 rupees. A large
garrifon of Sepoys was again put into the place, and
Captain Caillaud returned to Trinchinopoly.
An unfuccefsful attempt was now made by Colonel
Ford on Nellore, a large town furrounded by a thick
mud wall, with a dry ditch on all lides but one, where
there is the bed of a river always dry but in the rainy
feafon. The enterprifet is faid to have proved unfuc¬
cefsful through the unheard-of cowardice of a body of
Sepoys, who having flickered themfelves in a ditch,
abfolutely refufed to ftir a ftep farther, and rather chofe
to allow the reff of the army to march over them to the
a {fault, than to expofe themfelves to danger. Several
other enterprifes of no great moment were undertaken 3
but the event was on the whole unfavourable to the
Englifli. whofe force by the end of the campaign was
reduced to 1718 men, while that of the French a-
mounted to 3400 Europeans, of whom 1000 were lent
s, to Pondicherry.
French de- Both parties now received confiderable reinforcements
reared at from Europe 3 Admiral Poeock being joined on the
"4^ °f" March by Commodore Stevens with a fquadron
cock.' " ^ve men 'vVar5 ai,4 the French by nine nu n of war
and two Frigates, having on board G neral Lally with
a large body of troops. The Engl'ffi admiral no {bon¬
er found himfelf in a condition to cope with the enemy
2
\
than he went in queft of them 3 and an engagement India,
took place, in which the French were defeated with the
lofs of 600 killed, and a great many wounded, while
the Englifli had only 29 killed and 89 wounded. The
former returned to Pondicherry, where they landed
their men, money, and troops. After the battle three
of the Britiih captains were tried for milbehaviour, and
two of them difmiffed from the command of their fliips.
As foon as his veff.ds were refitted, the admiral failed
again in quell; of the enemy, but could not bring them They "are
to an aflion before the 3d of Auguft, when the French defeated «
were defeated a fecond time, with the lofs of 251 kill-^con^
ed, and 602 wounded. time''
Notwithftanding this fuccefs at fea, the Englifli were
greatly deficient in land forces 3 the re-eftablifliment of
their affairs in Bengal having almoft entirely drained
the fettlements on the coaft of Coromandel of the troops
neeeffary for their defence. The confequence of this
was the lofs of Fort St David, which General Lally re-Take Fort
duced, deltroying the fortifications, demolifliing alfoSt David*
the adjacent villages, and ravaging the country in fuch
a manner as filled the natives with indignation, and in
the end proved very prejudicial to his affairs. He pro¬
ved fuccefsful, howevetr, in the reduftion of Devicot-
tah, but was obliged to retreat with lofs from before
Tanj ore, his army being greatly diflreffed for want of
provinons 3 and money in particular being fo deficient,
that on the 7th of Auguft the French feized and car¬
ried into Pondicherry a large Dutch fliip from Bata¬
via, bound to Negapatnam, and took out of her about
5000I. in fpecie.
From this time the affairs of the French daily declin¬
ed. On their retreat from Tanjore, they abandoned
the ifland of Seringham 3 however, they took Tripaf-
fore, but were defeated in their defigns on the import¬
ant poll of Chinglapet, fituated about 45 miles fouth-
weft of Madras. Their next enterpriies on Fort St
George and Madras were equally unfuccefsful. The
latter was befieged from the 12th of December 175810
the 17th of February 1759, when they were obliged to
abandon it with great lofs 3 which difafter greatly con¬
tributed to depreis their fpirits, and abate thofe fanguine
hopes they had entertained of becoming mailers in this
part of the world.
The remainder of the year 1759 proved entirely fa¬
vourable to the Britifli arms. M. d’Ache the French
admiral, who had been very roughly handled by Ad¬
miral Pocock on the 3d of Auguff 1758, having refit¬
ted his fleet, and being reinforced by three men of war
at the iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon, now ventured
once more to face his antagonift, who on his part did
not at all decline the combat. A third battle enfued French de-
on the 10th of September 1759, when the French, not-feated a
withftanding their fuperiority, both in number of fliipsth'!d lime
and weight of metal, were obliged to retreat with con-p^^11'13
fiderable lofs 3 having 1500 men killed and wounded,
while thole on board the Englifli fleet did not exceed
569. By the 17th of Oftoher the Englifli fleet was
completely refitted 3 and Admiral Pocock having been
joined by a reinforcement of four men of war, foon af¬
ter returned to England.
All this time the unfortunate General Lally had been
employed in nnfuccefeful endeavours to retrieve the af¬
fairs of his country menHill, however, he attempted
to aft on the offenfive 3 but his fate was at laft decided
by
I N D
[ 205 ]
I N D
India.
86
General
Lally de¬
feated at
Wande-
wafli.
S7
AU the
French
forts in In
dia, and
Pondicher
ry their
capita!, ta
ken.
88
Bifagree-
abif fitua-
tion of the
aiabo
Bengal.
by laying fiege to Wandewafh, wbicb bad lately been
taken by Colonel Coote. The advantage in numbers
was entirely in favour of the French general j the Eng-
lifli army confiding only of 1700 Europeans, including
artillery and cavalry, while the French amounted to
2200 Europeans. The auxiliaries on the Englifh fide
were 3000 black troops, while thofe of the French
amounted to 10,000 black troops and 3®® Caffres *, nor
was the odds lefs in proportion in the artillery, the -ihiig-
lifh bringing into the field only 14 pieces of cannon and
one howitzer, while the hrench had 25 pieces in the
field, and five on their batteries againft the fort. The
battle began about 11 o’clock on the 22d of January
1760, and in three hours the whole French army gave
way and fled towards their camp 5 but quitted it on
finding themfelves purfued by the Englifh, who took
all their cannon except three fmall pieces. They col-
lefled themfelves under the walls of Cheltaput, about
18 miles from the field of battle, and foon after retired
to Pondicherry. Colonel Coote caufed the country to
be wafted to the very gates of this fortrefs, by way of re¬
taliation for what the French had done in the neigh¬
bourhood of Madras He then Jet about the liege of
Cheltaput, which furrendered in one day •, a confi-
derable detachment of the enemy was intercepted by
Captain Smith; the fort of Timmery was reduced
by Major Monfon, and the city of Arcot by. Captain
Wood. This laft conqueft enabled the Englifh to re-
ftore the nabob to his dominions, of which he had
been deprived by the French ; and it greatly weak¬
ened both the French force and intereft in India.
M. Lally, in the mean time, had recalled his forces
from Seringham, by which means he augmented his
army with 500 Europeans. All thefe were now fhut
up in Pondicherry, which was become the laft hope of
the French in India. To complete their misfortunes.
Admiral Cornifti arrived at Madras with fix men of
war ; and as the French had now no fleet in thefe parts,
the admiral readily engaged to co-operate with the land
forces. The confequence was the reduftion of Carical,
Chellambrum, and Verdachellum, by a ftrong detach-
- ment under Major Monfon ; while Colonel Coote re¬
duced Permucoil, Alamperva, and Waldour. Thus
' he was at laft enabled to lay fiege to Pondicherry itfelf.
Previous to this, however, it had been blockaded by
fea and land, which reduced the place to great ftraits
for want of previfions, and induced a mutinous difpofi-
tion among the garrifon. The batteries were not open¬
ed till the beginning of December 1760 ; and the
place capitulated on the 15th of January 1761, by
which an end was put to the power of the trench in
this part of the world.
While the Englilh were thus employed in effeflual-
ly reducing the power of their rivals in every part of
India, Meer Jaffier, the nabob of Bengal, who had
been raifed to that dignity by the ruin of Surajah
Dowla, found himfelf in a very difagreeable fituation.
The treafure of the late nabob had been valued at no
lefs than 64 crore of rupees, about 80 millions fterling ;
and in expectation of fueh a vail fum, Meer Jaffier bad
no doubt thoughtlefsly fubmhted to the enormous ex-
aftions of the Engliih already mentioned. On his ac-
eeffion to the government, however, the tveafure of
which he became tnafter fell fo mueb Ihort of expecta¬
tion, that he could by no means fulfil his engagements
India*
to them and fupply the expences of government at the ,
fame time. This foon reduced him to the neceffity of '
mortgaging his revenues to fupply prefent demands ;
and by this ruinous expedient he put it out of his own
power ever to extricate himfelf. In this dilemma his
grandees became faftious and difeontented, his army
mutinous for want of pay, and he rendered himfelf
odious to his fubjetls by the exa£tions he was necefli-
tated to lay upon them. The Englifh, who for their
own intereft had raifed him to the fupreme power, no
fooner found that he was incapable of anfwering their
purpofe any longer, than they began to fcheme againft
him ; and in order to have fome colour of reafon for shameful
pulling down the man whom they had juft fet up, they b havkmr
either invented or gave ear to the meft malicious ca-onhe^En|.
lumnies againft him. The charges brought againft
him were ffiortly thefe : 1. That foon after his advance¬
ment he had refolved to reduce that power which
raifed him to the dignity. 2. That, to effeft this, he
aflaffinated or banifhed every perfon of importance
whom he fufpefled of being in the Englilh intereft.
3. That he negociated with the Dutch to introduce
an armament for the expulfion of the Englilh. 4. I hat
he had in different inftances been guilty of the deepeft
deceit and treachery towards the Englifli, his beft .be-
nefaftors and allies. 5. That at three different periods
the Englilh commander in chief had been bafely de-
ferted both by the nabob and his fon, when he and the
troops were hazarding their lives for them. 6. I hat he
meditated a fecret and feparate treaty with Shah-Zad-
dah, the Mogul’s fon, and had intended to betray the
Englilh to him. 7. That the whole term of his go¬
vernment had been one uninterrupted chain of cruelty,
tyranny, and oppreffion. 8. That he meditated, and
was near carrying into execution, an infamous fecret
treaty with the Mahrattas, which would have proved
the total deffruftion of the country if it had taken place.
9. That he threw every poffible obffrudlion in the way
of the col left ion of the Englifli tunkas or affignments
upon lands, iq. That he encouraged the obftrudlions
given to the free currency of the Engliih ficcas ; by
which the company fuff'ered heavy Ioffes. 11. That by
his cruelties he had rendered it fcandalous for the Eng¬
lifli to fupport his government any longer; and, 12.
That by his mifcondudl, he had brought the affairs of
the company as well as'his own into the utmoft danger
of ruin.
In what manner thefe charges were fupported it is
difficult to know, nor perhaps were the accufers very
folicitous about the ftrength of their evidence. This
feems the more probable, as the accufations of cruelty
were, in fome inftances at leaft, void of foundation.
On the 13th of June 1760, Mr Holwel wrote from
Calcutta to Mr Warren Haftings, that by exprefs he
had received intelligence of the murder of the princeffes
of Aliverdy Khan and Shah Amet, in a moft inhuman
manner, by Meer Jaffier’s orders. He was faid to have
fent a jemmatdaar with loohorfe to Jefferaut Khan
to carry this bloody fcheme into execution ; with fe¬
parate orders to the jemmatdaar to put an end to
their lives. He refufed adling any part in the tragedy,
and left it to the other ; who carried them oul by night
in a boat, tied weights to their legs, and threw them
overboard. They ftruggled for fome time, and held by
the gunwale of the boat j but by ftrokeson their heads,
and
V,
. ,90
Different
accounts
of his de-
pofition.
I N D [ 206 ] I N D
and cutting off their hands, they were at lalt forced off
and drowned. In like manner we were told that many
others of Surajah Dovvla’s relations had perithed ; yet
when it was thought proper to replace Meer Jaffier in
1761, all thefe dead perfons were found alive excepting
tw'o. It mull alfo be remembered, in behalf of the un¬
fortunate nabob, that befides the fums exafted of him
by the Englifh at his acceflion, he had ceded to them a
large extent of territory, and granted them fomany im¬
munities in trade, that he had in a manner deprived
himfelf of all his refources j and it was impoflible for
him ta defray the neceflary expences without either ex¬
torting money from his fubje&s, or infringing the privi¬
leges he had fo ineonfiderately granted.
There were two accounts of this remarkable revolu¬
tion publilhed, materially differing from one another.
The firit was given in a memorial drawn up at a con-
fultation at Fort William, November 10. 1760, where
were prefent Henry Vanlittart, Efq. prefident j William
Ellis, B. Sumner, William M‘Guire, Henry Vereft,
and Henry Smyth, Efqs. “ We refolved (fays the go¬
vernor) to give the nabob the next day (October 19.
1760) to refledt upon the letters I had delivered him,
propoting fome meafures for regulating thefe abufes. I
heard nothing from him all that day; but found by my
intelligence that he had been in council at his old ad-
vifers, whofe advice, I was fure, would be contrary to
the welfare of the country and of the company. I
therefore determined to aft immediately on the nabob’s
fear. There could not be a better opportunity than the
night of the 19th offered, it being the conelufion of the
Gen too feaft, when all the principal people of that caff
would be pretty v’ell fatigued with their ceremonies.
Accordingly I agreed with Colonel Caillaud, that he
ihould crofs the river with the detachment between three
and four in the morning; and having joined Coflim Ali
Khan and his people, march to the nabob’s palace, and
furround it juft at daybreak. Being extremely defirous
to prevent difturbance or bloodflied, I wTrote a letter to
the nabob, telling him, I had been waiting all the day
in expeftation that he would have fettled the urgent af¬
fairs upon which I conferred with him yefterday ; but
his having favoured rae with no anfwer, plainly {bowed
that all I could reprefent to him for the good of his
country would have no. effeft, as long as his evil coun-
fellors were about his perfon, who would in the end
deprive him of his government and ruin the company’s
affairs. For this reafon I had fent Colonel Caillaud
with forces to wait upon him, and to expel thofe bad
eounfellors, and place his affairs in a proper ftate, and
I would ftiortly follow. This letter I gave to the co¬
lonel, to fend to the nabob at fuch a time as he ftiould
think moft expedient. Meafures were taken at the
fame time for feizing his three unworthy minifters, and
to place Coffim Ali Khan in the full management of
all the affairs, in quality of deputy and fucceffor to the
nabob.
“ The neceffary preparations being made vdth all
care and fecrecy poftible, the colonel embarked with
the troops, joined Coflim Ali Khan wdthout the leaft
alarm, and marched into the court-yard of the palace
juft at the proper inftant. The gates of the inner court
being (hut, the colonel formed his men without, and
fent the letter to the nabob, wdio was at firft in a great
rage, and long threatened that he would make what
reftftance he could, and take his fate. The colonel
forbore all hoftilities, and feveral meffages pafled be¬
tween him and the nabob. The affair remained in
this doubtful ftate for two hours, when the nabob
finding his perfifting was to no purpofe, fent a mefiage
to Coflim Ali Khan, informing him that he was ready
to fend the feals and ali the enfigns of dignity, pro¬
vided he would agree to take the whole charge of the
government upon him, to difeharge all arrears due to
the troops, to pay the ufual revenue to the king, to
fave his life and honour, and to give him an allowance
fufficient for his maintenance. All thefe conditions
being agreed to, Coffim Ali was proclaimed ; and the
old nabob came cut to the colonel, declaring that he
depended on him for his life. The troops then took
polTeflion of all the gates ; and the old nabob was told,
that not only his perfon was fafe, but his government
too if he pleafed, of which it was never intended to de¬
prive him. He anfwered, that he had now no more
bufinefs in the city, where he thould be in continual
danger irom Coflim Ali Khan ; and if lie was permit¬
ted to go and live at Calcutta, he ftiould be contented,
Coflim Ali Khan was now placed on the mufnud, and
the people in general feemed much pleafed with the re¬
volution. The old nabob did not think himfelf fafs
even for one night in the city. Coflim Ali Khan fup-
plied him with boats, and permitted him to take away
about 60 of bis family, with a reafonable quantity of
jewels. He begged that he might fleep in his boat
that night; which he accordingly did, and on the
morning of the 2ld of Oftober he fet out for Calcutta,
and arrived there on the 29th. He was met by a depu¬
tation from the council, and treated with every mark of
refpeft due to his former dignity.”
il he fecond account of this affair w as not publiflied
till the nth of March 1762, and was figned Eyre
Coote, P. Amyatt, John Cavnac, W. Ellis, S. Batfon,
H. Verelft. w In September 1760 (fay they), when
there was not the leaft appearance of a rupture or
difguft between us and the nabob, but friendfhip and
harmony fubfifting, Meer Coflim Khan his fon-in-law
came down to Calcutta, and having ftaid a fhort time
returned to Moorfhedabad. A few days after, Mr Van-,
fittart went up to that city on the pretence of a vifit to
the nabob Meer Jaffier. Colonel Caiilaud, with 200
Europeans and fome Sepoys, attended him ; who, it
was pretended, were going to join the army at Patna.
When Mr Vanftttart arrived at Moradbaug, the nabob
paid him two vifits; at the laft of which Mr Vanfittart
gave him three letters, propoflng the reformation of the
abufes in bis government, infifted on his. naming fome
perfon among his relations to take charge of the fubah-
ftiip, and particularly recommended Coffim Ali Khan,
who was fent for, and the nabob defired to flay till he
came : But the nabob being greatly fatigued, was fuf-
fered to depart to his palace. The night and follow¬
ing day paffed in concerting meafures with Coflim Ali>.
how to put in execution the plan before agreed on in
Calcutta, where a treaty was figned for this purpofe.
In confequence of thefe deliberations, our troops croffed
the river next night, and being ioined by Coflim and
his party, furrounded the nabob’s palace. A letter
from Mr Vanfittart was fent in to the nabob, demand¬
ing his compliance with what had been propofed to
him. To this the nabob returned for anfwer, ‘ thaj: he
India.
never
I N D t 207 ] I N D
India, never expe&ed fuch ufage from the Englifh ; that while
a force was at his gates, he would enter into no terms.’
A meffage was fent in, that if he did not direftly com¬
ply, they fnould be obliged to ftorm the palace. Ado-
niihed and terrified at this menace, he opened the gates,
exclaiming, that “ he was betrayed j that the Englilh
were guilty of perjury and breach of faith 5 that he per¬
ceived their defigns againft his government; that he
had friends enough to hazard at lead one battle in his
defence : but although no oaths were facred enough to
bind the Englidi, yet as he had fworn to be their faith¬
ful friend, he would never fwerve from his engagement,
and rather fuffer death than draw his fword againd
them.” So fufpicious was he of being fold, that he de-
fired to know what fum of money Codim Ali Khan was
to give for the fubahdiip, and he would give half as
much more to be continued. He hoped, however, if
they intended to dethrone him, that they would not
leave him to the mercy of his fon-in-law, from whom
he feared the word j but widied they would carry him
from the city, and give him a place of fafety in Cal¬
cutta. “ This lad requed of the nabob was condrued
in the light of a voluntary refignation. Our troops
took pofleflion of the palace j Meer Cofiim was raifed
to the mufnud } and the old nabob hurried into a boat
with a few of his domedics and neceffaries, and fent
away to Calcutta in a manner wholly unworthy of the
high rank he fo lately held, as was alfo the fcanty fub-
fidence allowred him for his maintenance at Calcutta by
his fon-in-law. Thus w'as Jaffier Ali Khan depofed, in
breach of a treaty founded on the mod folemn oaths,
and in violation of the national faith.”
According to this account, the ferrants of the com¬
pany, who were the projeftors of the revolution, made
no fecret that there was a prefent promifed them of 20
lacks of rupees from Coflim, wiio was defirous of mak¬
ing the fird aft of his power the afladination of Jaf¬
fier, and was very much difpleafed wdien he found that
the Englilh intended giving him proteftion at Cal¬
cutta.
It could fcarce be fuppofed that Meer Coflim, raifed
to the naboblhip in the manner vre have related, could
be more faithful to the Englilh than Meer Jaffier had
been. Nothing advantageous to the interefls of the
company could indeed be reafonably expefted from fuch
a revolution. No fucceflbr of Meer Jaffier could be
more entirely in fubjeftion than the late nabob, from
his natural imbecility, had been. This lad conlide-
ration had induced many of the council at fird to op-
pofe the revolution •, and indeed the only plaufible pre¬
tence for it was, that the adminidration of Meer Jaffier
was fo very weak, that, unlefs he was aided and even
controuled by feme perfons of ability, he himfelf mud
91 foon be ruined, and very probably the intereds of the
Cm^chemescomPany a^or'§ whh him. Meer Coffim, however, was
againft the a man a Vf'ry different difpofition from his father-in-
finglift. law. As he knew that he had not been ferved by the
Englilh out of friendlhip, fo he did not think of mak¬
ing any return of gratitude 5 but indead of this, confi-
dered only how he could mod eafily get rid of fuch
troublefome allies. For a while, however, it w'as ne-
ceffary for him to diffemble, and to take all the advan¬
tage he could of the power of his allies whilfl it could
be ferviceable to him. By their affidance he cleared
his dominions of invaders, and drengthened his fron¬
tiers agaiad them j he reduced, by means of the fame India,
affidance, the rajahs or independent Indian chiefs who '“-'h
had rebelled in the time of his predeceflbr, obliging
them to pay the ufual tribute ; by which means he re¬
paired his finances, and thereby fecured the difeipline
and fidelity of his troops. Having thus, by the affifl-
ance of the Englith forces, brought his government into
fubjeftion, he took the mod effeftual means of fccuring
himfelf againd their po*er. As the vicinity of his ca¬
pital, Muxadabad, to Calcutta, gave the Englilh fac¬
tory there an opportunity of infpefting his aftions, and
interrupting his defigns when they thought proper, he
took up his refidence at Mongheer, a place 200 miles
farther up the Ganges, which he fortified in the bed and
mod expeditious manner he could. Being very fenfible
of the advantages of the European difeipline, he refoi-
ved to form his army on a new model. For this pur-»
pofe he collefted all the Armenian, Perfian, Tartar,
and other foldiers of fortune, whofe military charafters
he fuppofed might ferve to raife the fpirits of his Indian
forces, and abate their natural timidity. He alfo care¬
fully collefted every wandering European who had
borne arms, all the Sepoys wrho had been difmiffed from
the Engliffi fervice, didributing them among his troops,
in order to teach them the Engliffi exercife. He chan¬
ged the faffiion of the Indian mulkets from matchlocks
to firelocks j and as their cannon were almod as defi¬
cient as their fmall arms, he procured a pattern of one
from the Engliffi, by which he foon formed a train of
artillery ; and having thus done every thing in his
power to enable himfelf to withdand the Engliffi by
force of arms, he fefolved alfo to free his court from
their emiffaries, by imprifoning or putting to death
every perfon of any confequence in his dominions who
had fliown any attachment to their interefl.
His next dep was to free himfelf from fome of thofe
redraints which his predeceffor Meer Jaffier, and even
he himfelf, had been obliged to lay upon the trade of
the country, in order to gratify the avarice of his Eu¬
ropean allies. At his acceffion indeed he had ceded
to the company a traft of land worth no lefs than
700,000!. annually, befides 70,000!. a-year on other
accounts. All this, however, was not fufficient j the
immunities granted them in trade were of dill worfe
confequences than even thofe vad conceffions. He
knew by experience the didrefs which thefe immuni¬
ties had brought upon his predeceffor, and therefore 9S
determined to put an end to them. In purfuance ofHe lays
this refolution, he began, in the year 1762, every-0,1
where to fubjeft the Engliffi traders to the payment^
of certain duties throughout his dominions, and re¬
quired that their difputes, if beyond the limits of their
own jurifdiftion, fliould be decided by his magidrates.
This gave fuch an alarm at Calcutta, that, in Novem¬
ber 1762, the governor Mr Vanlittart waited on him
in perfon at Mongheer, in order to expodulate with
him upon the fubjeft. The nabob anfwered his re-
mondrances in the following manner. “ If (faid he)
the fervants of the Englilh company were permitted
to trade in all parts, and in all commodities, cudorn
free, as many of them now pretend, they mult of
courfe draw all the trade into their own hands, and my
cudoms would be of fo little value, that it would be
much more for my interefl to lay trade entirely open,
and colleft no cudoms from any perfon whatever upon
any
I N D
| Ityiia. ar)y kincl 0f merchandife. This would draw a number
v of merchants into the country, and increafe my reve¬
nues by encouraging the cultivation and manufadlure
of a large quantity of goods for fale, at the fame time
that it would effectually cut off the principal fubjeCt of
difputes which had difturbed the good underitanding
between us, an objeft which I have more than any
other at heart.”
By thefe intimations Mr Vanfittart was very much
difconcerted ; nor indeed was it in any perfon’s power
to devife a plaufible anfwer. What the nabob had
threatened was evidently in his power } and though he
, had laid the trade entirely open, no reafonable fault
could have been found with him. The proceeding,
however, tended evidently to deflroy the private trade
carried on by the gentlemen of the faClory ; and even
93 to prejudice, as. they faid, that of the company itfelf.
A new a- Mr Vanfittart therefore thought proper to fubrnit to
greeinent certain regulations, by which the trade of the Englifh
witn VFr was Put unc*er certain reunctions.
Vanfittart, This new agreement being inffantly put in execu-
and dif- tion on the part of the nabob, excited the utmoft in-
owned by dignation at Calcutta. On the 17th of January 1763,
c-‘je coun“ the council paffed a refolution, difavowing the treaty
made by the governor, and affirmed that he affumed
a right to which he was by no means authorized ; that
the regulations propofed were diffionourable to them as
Englifhmen, and tended to the ruin of all public and
private trade •, and that the prefident’s iffuing out re¬
gulations independent of the council was an abfolute
breach of their privileges. They fent orders therefore
to all the factories, that no part of the agreement be¬
tween the governor and nabob Ihould be fubmitted to.
Application was again made to Meer Coffim to per-
fuade him to a third agreement ; but before the fue-
cefs of this negociation could be known, hoftilities
94 commenced on the part of the Englifh.
The city of There was at that time in the city of Patna (fitua-
Patna ta- ted on the Ganges, about 300 miles above Calcutta),
Erl' liff/but3 f°r^^ed factory belonging to the Eail India com-
im ediate Pan7» where were a few European and Indian foldiers.
ly after re- By this faflory the city was fuddenly attacked on the
taken. 25th of June 1763, and inftantly taken, though it
was defended by a itrong garrifon, and the fortifica¬
tions had been newly repaired. The governor and
garrifon fled out into the country on the fir ft appear¬
ance of danger ; but perceiving that the viftors took
no care to prevent a furprife, he fuddenly returned
with a reinfoi^ement from the country, retook the
city, and either cut in pieces or drove into their fort
all the Englifh who were in it, after having been only
four hours in poffeflion of the place. The Engliffi,
difheartened by this difafter, did not now think them-
felves able to defend their fort againft the Indians 5 for
which reafon they left it, with a defign to retreat into
the territories of a neighbouring nabob ^ but being
purfued by a fuperior force, they were all either killed
93 or taken.
Maffacre This piece of perfidy, for fuch it certainly was, the
Pn^rft: nabob repaid by another, viz. flaughtering the depu-
fcutfes Ce"Pes wh° had been fent him by the council of Calcut¬
ta to treat about a new agreement with regard to com¬
mercial affairs. They fet out from Mongheer on the
24th of June, having been unable to bring Meer Coffim
to any terms; and though he furnifhed them with the
I N D
ufual paffports, yet, as they were faffing the city India,
of Muxadabad, they found themfelves attacked by a
number of troops affembled for that purpofe on both
fides of the river, whofe fire killed feveral gentlemen
in the boats. Mr Amyatt, the chief of the embaffy,
landed with a few Sepoys, whom he forbade to fire, and
endeavoured to make the enemy’s troops underftand
that he was furniffied with the nabob’s paffports, and
had no defign of committing any hoftilities > but the
enemy’s horfe advancing, fome of the Sepoys fired not-
withftanding Mr Amyatt’s orders to the contrary. On
this a general confufion enfued, and Mr Amyatt, with
moft of the fmall party who attended him, were cut in
pieces.
Thefe a£ls of treacherous hoftility were foon follow-Meer jaf*.
ed by a formal declaration of war. Meer Jaffier, not-^er ai.a'n
withftanding the crimes formerly alleged againft him,^^me
was proclaimed nabob of Bengal, and the army im- 97
mediately took the field under the command of Major Major
Adams. The whole force, however, at firlt confifted '^ai^s
only of one regiment of the king’s troops, a few of the ’
company’s, twro troops of European cavalry, ten com-]yicer c0£„
panics of Sepoys, and 12 pieces of canon. Thefe very fim.
foon came to action with the enemy 5 and having got
the better in two fkirmilhes, cleared the country of
them as far as Caffimbuzar river, a branch of the
Ganges, which lay between Calcutta and Muxadabad,
or Moorfhedabad, the capital of the province.
This war was now carried on with uninterrupted
fuccefs on the part of the Englifli ; nor does it appear
that all the pains taken by Meer Ccffim to discipline his
troops had made them in the leaft more able to cope
with the Europeans. The Englifli were fuffered to
pafs the river without oppofition j but an army of
10,000 Indians were advantageoully pofted between 93
the river and the city. Thefe were entirely defeated, The In-
and Major Adams pufhed on diredfly for the capital.diarscte*-
In his w:ay he found the Indians again ftrongly pofted feilte(^
with intrenchments 15 feet high, and defended by a
numerous artillery. This ftrong poll was taken by
ftratagem ; a feint being made with a fmall body of
troops againft that part where the enemy had colletted
their greateft ftrength. Thus the attention of the
enemy was drawn entirely to that place, without re¬
garding others where no attack w as apprehended. The
greateft part of the Engliffi army, however, had in the
night-time marched round the Indian fortification, and
by day-break made a furious affault on a place where
there was only a flight guard. Thefe inftantly fied y
the intrenchm< nts were abandoned j and the city, which
was protected only by them, fell of ceurfe into the
hands of the conquerors.
This fuccefs of the Englifh ferved only to make them
redouble their diligence. They now penetrated into
the heart of the province, croffed the numerous branches-
of the Ganges, and traverfed moraffes and forefts in
queft of their enemy. Meer Coffim, on the other band,
was not wanting in his defence ; but the utmott efforts
he could ufe were totally infufficient to flop the career
of an enemy fo powerful and now fluffed with vidory. 99
The two armies met on the banks of a river called Nu- Meer Cof-
nas Ntt//as, on the 2d of Auguft 1763. The Indians
had chofen their poll with great judgment, and had ^
much more the appearance of an European army than Tfuilas.
ever was obferved before, not only in their arms
and
[ 208 ]
I N D
India, and accoutrements, but in their dividon into brigades,
■‘'V’”""' and even in their clothing. The battle was much
more obftinate than ufual, being continued for four-
hours; but though the Indian army confided of no
fewer than 20,000 horfe, and 80O0 foot, the Eng-
lifii proved in the end vi&orious, and the enemy were
obliged to quit the field with the lofs of all their can¬
non.
From this time the Indians did not attempt any re¬
gular engagement with the Englifii, They made a
iland indeed at a place called Auda Nulla, which they
had fortified in fuch a manner that it feemed proof againft
any hidden attack. But here alio they fullered them-
felves to be deceived in a manner fimilar to that above
mentioned, and the place was taken with great llaugh
ter. They now abandoned a vaft tract of country ; and
though there were feveral very defenfible polls one be¬
hind another, fo much were they difheartened by this
misfortune, that they never attempted to itop the pro-
grefs of the Englilh, but laid open the whole country
t00 to the very gates of Mongheer.
Mongheer The next operation w-as the liege of Mongheer it-
taken. felf; which notwithstanding all the pains Meer Coflim
had been at to fortify it, held out no more than nine
days after the trenches were opened ; fo that nothing
now remained to complete the conqueft of Bengal but
I0I the reduction of the city of Patna. The unfortunate
Inhuman Meer Cofifim, in the mean time, enraged at the irre-
murder of fiilible progrefs of the Englilh, vented his rage on the
the Enghfh unhappy prifoners taken at Patna j all of whom, to the
p”,°°er!> at number of about 200, he caufed to be inhumanly mur¬
dered. This villany was perpetrated by one Somers, a
German, who had originally been in the French fer-
vice, but defer ted from them to the Englilh Ealt In¬
dia company, and from the company to Meer Coffim.
This atTaffin, by the Indians called Soomeroo, having in¬
vited the Englilh gentlemen to fup with him, took the
opportunity of borrowing their knives and forks, on
pretence of entertaining them after the Englith manner.
At night, when he arrived, he flood at fwme dirtance in
the cook-room to give his orders-, and as loon as the two
firft gentlemen, Mr Ellis and Lulhington, entered, the
former was feized by the hair, his head pulled backward,
and his throat cut by another. On this Mr Lulhington
knocked down the murderer with his lift, feized his
fword, wounded one and killed two before he himfelf
was cut down. The other gentlemen being now a-
larmed, d-fended themfelves, and even repulfed the Se¬
poys with plates and bottles. Somers then ordered
them on the top of the houfe to fire down on the pri¬
foners ; which they obeyed w-ith reluctance, alleging
that they could not think of murdering them in that
manner, but if he would give the prifoners arms, they
would fight them ; on which he knocked feveral of
them down with bamboes. The confequence was, that
all the gentlemen were either Ihot or had their throats
cut. Dr Fullarton was the only perfon who efcaped,
having received a pardon from the tyrant a few- days
before the mafiacre.
This inhumanity was far from being of any fervice
to the caufe of Meer Coflim, Major Adams marched
without delay from Mongheer to Patna ; and as the
place was but indilferently fortified, it could make but
a feeble refiftance. The cannon of the Englilh foon
made a pra&icable breach, and in no longer time than
Vol. XL Part I.
I N D
eight days this great city was taken by ftorm. Thus India,
the nabob was deprived of all his fortined places, his
army reduced to a fmall body, and himfell obliged to na ta_
'fly to Sujah Dowla nabob of Oude, w ho aflcd as l et', und
grand vizier to the Mogul. Here he was kindlv re- em a en-
ceived, and an afylum promifed for his perfon, but ad 1 1 ^ r
mittance was refuted to his army, nor would this pr nce Ln
confent at any rate to make’his country a feat of war. ’
The Englilh were now emire mailers of Bengal -, tor
though Meer Jaffier was proclaimed nabob, ii is not to
be fuppofed that he had now any authority farther than
what they pleated to give him. Majoi Adams did not
long furvive the conqueft. of Patna, which was taken
on the 6ih of November 1763 ; he died in the month
of March 1764.
Meer Coffim being thus driven out, an agent wras fent
from Calcutta to Sujah Dowla, propofing an alliance
with him and the Mogul, who was along with him, io^
and offering to affiit them againft Meer Ceffirn or anyAH;ance
other enemy w ho Ihould attempt an invalion of their noeof d
dominions ; in return for which, it was expefted that'tvit**^ujah
they Ihould declare themfelves open enemies to Mter
Cofljm, and ufe their utmoft endeavours to leize and
deliver him up with all his effedfs. This delign was
communicated to Major Adams or, the Sfh of Decem¬
ber 1763 ; but as he was next day to refign the com¬
mand of the army, Major Carnac was defired to take
the command upon him, and to watch the mo:ions of
Meer Coflim, as well as to guard the dominions of Meer
.Taflier againft any hoftilities which might be attempt¬
ed. It was alio relolved, that in cafe Meer Coflim
Ihould prevail upon he Mogul and Sujah Dowla to
affill him, Major Carnac was delired to advance to the
banks of the river Carumnaffa, and there oppole, the
entrance of any hoftile army.
It foon appeared that the friendlhip of the Enpdifli
was not what Sujah Dowla defired. He confidered
them as rapacious ufurpers, who having got a foot¬
ing in the country under pretence of commerce, could
be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the entire pofle . on 70^
of it, to the ruin of the natural inhabitants. In the Prc.pofed
beginning of February 1764, therefore, it was kn<wn'd iiiiue
that Sujah Dow la had determined to aflift Meer Coffim r f ^
in attempting to recover Bengal, d he prelident and
council on this wrote him, that though they heard fuch
a report, they could not believe it, confidering the
former connexions fubfifting between him and thd
chiefs of the company, and were perfuaded he would
not aX in fuch an unjuft manner : but if it really was
his intention to efpoufe the caufe of Meef Coffim, they
informed him that they were refolvcd to keep Bengal
free from troubles, and carry the war into the domi¬
nions of Sujah Dow la himfelf. To this the nabob re¬
plied by enumerating the many favours conferred on
the Englifh by the Mogul. “ Notwithftanding thefe
(fays he) you have interfered in the king’s country,
poffcffed yourfelves of diftriXs belonging to the governr
ment, and turned cut and eftablilhed nabobs at pleafure,
w ithout the confent of the imperial court. Since you
have imprifoned dependants on the court, and expofed
the government of the king of kings to contempt and
dilhonour ; fince you have ruined the trade of the mer¬
chants of the country, granted proteXion to the king’s
fervants, injured the revenues of the imperial court, and
crulhed the inhabitants by your aXs of violence j and
D d lince
[ 209 ]
In i'a.
IDS
Sir Hecflor
Munro fuc-
ceeds Ma¬
jor Adams.
io£>
Defeats the
Indians at
Buxard.
107
Is repuifed
at Chanda
Cieer.
IN I) [21
fince you arc continually fending frefh people from
Calcutta, and invading different parts of the royal do¬
minions j to what can all thofe wrong proceedings be
attributed, but to an abfolute difregard to the court,
and a wicked defign of feizxng the country to your-
feives ? If thefe difturbances have arifen from your
own improper defires, defift from fuch behaviour in fu¬
ture j interfere not in the affairs of government 5 with¬
draw your people from every part, and fend them to
their own country j carry on the company’s trade as
formerly, and confine yourfelves to commercial affairs,”
&c. Another letter, much to the fame purpofe, was
fent to Major Carnac 5 but the prefldent and council of
Calcutta, inftead of paying any regard to the remon-
ftrances of the nabob, determined to commence an im¬
mediate and offenfive war againfl him.
Notwithftanding this refolution, feveral difficulties
occurred in carrying on a war at this time. The prin¬
cipal were the death of Major Adams, whofe name had
become formidable to the Indians, and the mutinous
difpofition of the army. The former was obviated by
the appointment of Colonel Hector Munro, who, in
military fkill, appeared nothing inferior to his prede-
ceffor j and t the mutinous difpofition of the foldiery
was got the better of by a moil fevere example of the
mutineers, 24 of whom were blown away from the
mouths of cannon. Hoftilities were commenced on
the part of Meer Cofiim, who cut off a fmall party of
Englifh troops, and fent their heads to the Mogul and
Sujah Dowla. An army of 50,000 men was col¬
lected, with a molt formidable train of artillery, fuch
as might be fuppofed to follow an European army of
equal numbers. This prodigious armament feems to
have effaced all the caution of Meer Coffim j for though
he had formerly experienced the bad effects of enga¬
ging the Englifh in'a pitched battle, yet he now thought
proper to try his fortune a fecond time in the fame
way. The two armies met on the 22d of OClober
1764, at a place called Buxard, on the river Carum-
naffa, about 1.00 miles above the city of Patna. The
event was fimilar to, that of other engagements with
the Englifh, to whom it never was poffible for any
advantages either in fituation or number to make the
Indians equal. The allied army was defeated with
the lofs of 6000 killed on the fpot, 130 pieces of can¬
non, a proportionable quantity of military ftores,, and
all their tents ready pitched j while, on the fide of the
conquerors, only 32 Europeans and 239 Indians were
killed, and 57 Europeans and 473 Indians wounded.
The only place of ftrength now belonging to the
allies on this fide the river was a fort named Chanda
Geer. The reduftion of this place, however, might
well have been deemed impraCficable, as it flood on the
top of a high hill, or rather rock, fituated on the very
brink of the Ganges, by which it could be conftantly
fupplied with provifions; and as to military flores, it
could not fland in need of any as long as ftones could
be found to pour down on the affailants. Notwith-
flanding all thofe difficulties, however, Colonel Munro
caufed his foldiers advance to the attack ; but they
were received with fueh volleys of ftones, which the
Indians threw both with hands and feet, that they were
repuifed in a very fhort time j and though the attack
was renewed the next day, it was attended with no bet-
I
]
I N D
ter fuccefs; on which the Engiifn commander encamped Indi?..
with his army under the walls of Benares. —y—j
Soon after this, Colonel Munro being recalled, the
command of the army devolved on Sir Robert Fletcher,
a major in the company’s troops. The nabob, in the
mean time, inftead of attacking the Englilh army at
once, contented himfelf with fending out parties of
light horfe to fkirmifh with their advanced pofts, while
the main body lay at the diftance of about 15 miles
from Benares, which rendered it very dangerous for
them to move from their place. On the 14th of
January 1765, however, Sir Robert ventured at mid¬
night to break up his camp under the walls of Benares,
and to march off towards the enemy, leaving a party
to protect that place againft any attempt during his
abfence. In three days he came up with the main loJ
body of Indians, who retreated before him ; on which Chanda
he refolved to make another attempt on Chanda Geer, Geer takew
before 'which the late commander had been foiled. Sir
His fuccefs would in all probability have been no bet-j^.^eU
ter than that of his predeceflor, had not the garrifon
mutinied for want of pay, and obliged the commander
to furrender the place.
The redudtion of Chanda Geer was followed by
that of Eliabad, the capital of the enemy’s country, a
large city on the Ganges, between 60 and 70 miles
above Chanda Geer, defended by thick and high walls
and a ftrong fort j foon after which Sir Robert was
fuperfeded in the command of the army by Major
Carnac. Sujah Dowla in the mean time had been Sujah Dow-
abandoned by the Mogul, who concluded a treaty la afiiftcd
with the Engliffi foon after the battle of Buxard. Heby tbe
did not, however, give himfelf up to defpair, but ga_ Mahrattas*
thered together, with great afliduity, the remains of
his routed armies j and feeing that his own territories
could not fupply him with the requifite number of
troops, he now applied to the Mahrattas for afliftance.
But thefe people, though very formidable to the other
nations of Indoftan, were far from being able to cope
with the Engliffi. On the 20th of May 1765, Gene-WhgIa®s
ral Carnac having aflembled his troops, marched im-defeated,
mediately to attack them j and having gained a com-and Sujali
plete victory at a place called Ca/pi, obliged them to D°wla
retreat with precipitation acrofs the Yumna into theirlubm!tSj
own country.
Sujah Dowla, now deftitute of every refource, de¬
termined to throw himfelf on the clemency of the
Englilh. Previous to this, however, he allowed Meer
Coflim and the affaflin Somers to efcape j nor could
any confideration ever prevail upon him to deliver them
up. Three days after the battle of Calpi, the nabob
furrendered himfelf to General Carnac, without ftipu-
lating any thing in his own favour, farther than that
he fhould await the determination of Lord Clive con¬
cerning him.. ITr
In the beginning of February this year died Meer Young na«-
Jaffier Ali Cawn, nominal nabob of Bengal. Tbebob °f ^en<'
fuccefiion was difputed betwixt his eldeft furviving
Najem il Doula, a youth of about 18 years of age, and£ngi^
a grandfon by his eldeft fon Miran, at that time only
feven years old. As the Englifti were in reality abfo¬
lute fovereigns of the country, it was debated in the
council of Calcutta whether Meer Jaffier’s fon fhould
be allowed to fucceed, according to the cuffom of the
country.
I N D [ 21
India, country, or the grandfon, according to the Engliih
'' cuftom. The point being carried in favour of Najem,
it was next debated on what terms he thould be ad¬
mitted to the fucceffion. The late nabob, among
other impofitions, had obliged himfelf to fupport an
army of j 2,oco horfe and as many foot. It was
alleged on this occafion, that ho had not fulfilled
his engagement j that he had difbanded moft of the
troops ; that at belt they were but an ufelefs bur¬
den, having never anfwered any purpofe in real fer-
vige, for which reafon the company had been obliged
to augment their military eftablithment: it was there¬
fore now judged expedient that the nabob ihould fettle
a fum, upwards of 8oo,oool. annually, on the com¬
pany, to be paid out of the treafury : that he Ihould
alfo difcard his prime minifter and great favourite
Nuncomar, and receive in his place a perfon appointed
by the council, who was to aft in the double capacity
of minifter and governor to aflift and inftruft him.
The council were alfo to have a negative upon the no¬
mination of all the fuperintendants and principal of¬
ficers employed in collefting or receiving of the re¬
venues ; that he ihould take their advice, and have their
confent to fuch nominations whenever they thought
proper to interfere in them. He was alfo to receive their
complaints, and pay a due attention to them upon the
mifbehaviour of any of the officers who either were ap¬
pointed already or Ihould be in time to come.
With thefe extravagant requifitions the young na¬
bob was obliged to comply, though he had difcern-
ment enough to perceive that he was now an abfolute
Have to the council at Calcutta. Though obliged by
treaty to difmifs Nuncomar from the office of prime
minifter, he ftill continued to ffiow him the fame favour,
until at laft he was charged with carrying on atreafon-
able correfpondence with Sujah Dowla, for which the
nabob was enjoined to fend him to Calcutta to take
his trial. The unfortunate prince ufed every method
to deliver his favourite from the impending danger,
but to no purpofe : he was obliged to fubmit to the
mortification of having all his offers with regard to his
releafe rejefted, though the committee at Calcutta af¬
terwards thought proper to fet him at liberty without
any trial.
Thefe extraordinary powers, exerted in fuch a def-
potic manner by the council of Calcutta for fuch a
length of time, could not but at laft induce their fupe-
riors to circumfcribe them in fome degree, by appoint¬
ing others who fhould aft independently even of this
council, and who might be fuppofed to be aftuated by
more upright and honourable principles than had hi¬
therto appeared in their conduft. The great charafter
which Lord Clive had already gained in the eaft, juftly
n2 marked him out as a proper perfon for adjufting the
lord Clive affairs of Bengal. On the 3d of May 1 765 he arrived
arrives in in t|ie powers as commander in chief,
with un- Prehdent, and governor of Bengal. An unlimited power
limited was committed to a feleft committee, confifting
powers. of his lordfhip and four gentlemen, to aft and deter¬
mine every thing themfelves, without dependence on
the council. It was, however, recommended in their in-
ftruftions, to confult the council in general as often as
it could be done conveniently ; but the foie power of
determining in all cafes was left with them, until the
troubles of Bengal ftiould be entirely ended. By thefe
i ] I M D
gentlemen a plan of reformation was inftantly Tet about; India,
by which, however, violent difputes were occafioned : v'^r‘J
but the committee, difregarding thefe impotent efforts,
exerted their authority to the full extent, fcldom even
acquainting the council with their tranfaftions, and
never allowing them to give their opinion on any oc¬
cafion. IT?
On taking the affairs of Bengal into thorough con-gujahDow.
fideration, Lord Clive found that the fuccefs of the la rettored,
Britiffi arms could be produftive of nothing but wars}
that to ruin Sujah Dowla was to break down the
ftrongeft barrier which the Bengal provinces could
have againft the incurfions of the Mahrattas and other
barbarous people to the weftward, who had long defola-
ted the northern provinces j and the Mogul, with whom
the company had concluded a treaty, was utterly unable
to fupport himfelf, and w-ould require the whole Engliffi
power in the eaft to fecure him in his dignity. His
lordffiip therefore found it neceffary to conclude a It^
treaty with Sujah Dowla. The Mogul was fatisfied Affairs of
by obtaining a more ample revenue than he had for Bengal fet-
fome time enjoyed 5 by which means he might be ena-^^L-
bled to march an army to Delhi to take pofieffion of 01
his empire. For the company his lordlhip obtained
the office of duan or colleftor of revenues for the
province of Bengal and its dependencies. Thus Sujah
Dowla was again put in pofleffion of his dominions,
excepting a fmall territory which was referved to the
Mogul, and eftimated at 20 lacks of rupees, or
250,000!. annually. The company were to pay 26
lacks of rupees, amounting to 325,000!. fterling.
They engaged alfo to pay to the nabob of Bengal an
annual fum of 53 lacks, or 662,500!. for the expences
of government, and the fupport of his dignity. The
remainder of the revenues of Bengal were allotted to
the company, who on their part guaranteed the terri¬
tories at that time in poffeffion of Sujah Dowla and the
Mogul.
Thus the Eaft India company acquired the fove-
reignty of a territory equal in extent to the moft flou-
riffiing kingdom in Europe. By all this, howrever, they
were fo far from being enriched, that the diforder of
their affairs attrafted the attention of government, and
gave the Britifh miniffry an opportunity at laft of de¬
priving them of their territorial pofleffions, and fub-
jefting the province of Bengal to the authority of the
crown *. New misfortunes alfo fpeedily occurred, and #See T.ajl
the company found a moft formidable enemy in Hyder India Com*
Aly, or Hyder Naig. This man, from the rank of at'any-
common Sepoy, had raifed himfelf to be one cf the^yar.^tv
moft confiderable princes in the empire of Indoftan. Hyder Aly,
Being fenfible that the power of the Englifh was an in-
fuperable bar to his ambitious defigns, he praftifed on
the nizam of the Deccan, and partly by promifes, part¬
ly by threats, engaged him to renounce his alliance
with the company, and even to enter into a war againft
them. As he had been at great pains to introduce the
European difeipline among his troops, and had many
renegadoes in his fervice, he imagined, that with the
advantage of numbers he ffiould certainly be able to
cope with his antagonifts in the open field. In this, tje ;s (}e„
however, he was deceived ; for pn the 26th of Sep-feated by
tember 1767, his army was entirely defeated by Colo-Colonel
nel Smith at a place called Errour near Trinoinallee •santL
after which the nizam thought it adviiable to defert his
D d 3 new
I N D
Jnftia. new ally, and conclude another treaty with the Englith.
y-i.» jrrorii the latter, however, he did not obtain peace but
at the expence of ceding to them the duanny of the
Balegat Carnatic, which includes the dominions of
Hyder Aly and tome petty princes.
Hyder, thus deierted by his ally, transferred the feat
of war to a mountainous country, where, during the
year 1767, nothing decifive could be effected-, while
the Indian cavalry was fometimes enabled to cut off
the fupplies, and interrupt the communications of their
antagonifts. During thefe operations fome {hips were
fitted out at Bombay, which conveyed 400 European
foldiers, and about 8oo Sepoys, to attack Mangalore,
one of Hyder Aly’s principal fea-ports, where all his
fliipK lay. This enterprife proved fuccefsful, and nine
ftrps were brought away ; but too fmall a garrifon ha¬
ving been left in the place, it was almoft immediately
after retaken, and all who were in it made prifoners
117 by Hyder Aly.
BerHne of ]n the mean time, an injudicious meafure, adopted
lili Affairs ^ the Englifh in their method of managing the army,
wit;: the ’ proved not only of the utmoft detriment to their caufe,
caufe of but occafioned difgraces hitherto unheard of in the
their bad hifiory of the nation, viz. the defertion of officers from
iucccfs. ferv;ce 0f Britain to that of a barbarous prince, and
the giving up of forts in fuch a lhameful manner as
could not but fuggeft a fufpicion that they had been
betrayed.—The original caufe of all this mifehief was
the appointment of field deputies to attend the army, and
to controul and fuperintend the conduct of the com¬
mander in chief-, and thefe, in the prefent inftance,
being deeply concerned in the contracts for the army,
took care to regulate its motions in fuch a manner as
beft fuited their private intereft or convenience. Hy¬
der Aly did not fail to improve the errors confequent
upon this kind of management to h*s own advantage.
General Smith had penetrated far into his country, ta¬
ken feveral of his fortreffes, and was in a fair way of
becoming mailer of his capital, when all his operations
were checked at once by the field deputies. His anta-
gonift being thus allowed fome refpite, fuddenly enter¬
ed the Carnatic with a numerous army of horfe, rava¬
ging and deftroying every thing at pleafure. Thus
the Engliffi were obliged to relinquifh all their con-
quefts in order to defend their ownterritories; while this
reverfe of fortune not only dii'couraged the allies of the
Englifh, but even produced in them an inclination to
defert their caufe, and go over to Hyder Aly, while
thofe who remained faithful paid dearly for their at¬
tachment. The nabob of Arcot, the mofl faithful ally
the Englifh ever had, fuffered extremely on this occafion.
Hyder Aly had long entertained a violent enmity a-
gainft this prince, moil probably on account of his in¬
violable attachment to the Engliffi. His dominions
were therefore ravaged without mercy; and, thus while
Hyder gratified his perfonal refentment againft him,
he cut off from the Engliffi one of the principal re~
fources they had for carrying on the war.
On the return of the company’s forces to the de¬
fence of the Carnatic, they found themfelves very little
able to cope with their adverfary; for, befides the
continuance of the fame caufes which had formerly
contributed to their want of fuccefs, they had been
very much weakened in their expedition. Hyder Aly
had alfo the prudence to avoid a general engagement,
‘ 3
I N D
but frequently Intercepted the convoys of the Englifh, India,
cut off their detached parties, and wearied them out
with long and continual marches. The news of his
fuccefs againft an enemy hitherto invincible by all
the powers of India, fo railed his reputation, that ad¬
venturers flocked to him from all parts; by which
means his cavalry were foon increafed to upwards of
90,000 ; to which, however, his infantry bore no pro¬
portion.
Notwithftanding all this fuccefs, it appears that the
forces of Hyder Aly were altogether unable to cope
with thofe of Britain, even when there was the great-
eft imaginable difparity of numbers. A detachment of
the company’s forces had made an affault upon a fort
called Mulwaggle, in which they were repulfed with
fome lofs. This, with the fmall number of the de¬
tachment, encouraged Hyder Aly to march at the
head of a great part of his army to the proteftion of
the fort. The commanding officer, however, Colonel
Wood, did not hefitate, with only 460 Europeans and
2300 Sepoys, to attack his army, confifting of 14,000
horfe' 12,000 men armed with matchlock guns, and
fix battalions of Sepoys. The engagement lafted fix Jl$
hours; when at laft Hyder Aly, notwithftanding his Hyder Aly
numbers, was obliged to i-etreat, leaving the field co-deteated by
Vered with dead bodies ; the lofs of the Britifti being ^ori^
upwards of 300 killed and woundted. This engage¬
ment, however, was attended with no confequences
affedfting the war in general, which went on for fome
time in the fame manner, and greatly to the difadvan-
tage of the company. The divifions and difeontents
among the officers and council daily increafed, the fol¬
diers deferted, and every thing went to ruin. The re¬
venues of the eftablifhment of Madras being at laft un¬
equal to the expences of the war, large remittances were
made from Bengal to anfwer that purpofe; and as thefe
were made in a kind of bafe gold coin, the company is
laid by that means alone to have loft 40,000!. in the
difference of exchange only. At laft Hyder Aly hav¬
ing given the Engliffi army the flip, fuddenly appeared
within a few miles of Madras ; which occafioned fuch
an alarm, that the prefidency there were induced to en¬
ter into a negociation with him. The Indian prince,
on his part, was very ready to hearken to propofals of
peace upon any reafonable terms. An offenfive and ^
defenfive treaty was therefore concluded on the 3d of conc[uc;e(j
April 1769, on the fimple condition that the forts and with him.
places taken on both fides ftiould be reftored, and each
party fit down contented with their own expences. I20
By this treaty it was particularly ftipulated, that in Broken by
cafe of either party being attacked by their enemies, the Eng lift*
the other fhould give them affiftance ; and in this cafe
even the number of troops to be fupplied by each was
fpecified. It foon after appeared, however, that the
prefidency of Madras were refolved to pay very little
regard to their engagements. Hyder Aly having in
a little time been involved in a war with the Mahrattas,
applied for affiftance, according to agreement ; but
was refufed by the prefidency, who pretended to fear a
quarrel with the Mahrattas themfelves. As the latter
are a very powerful and warlike nation, Hyder Aly
found himfelf overmatched, and therefore applied feve¬
ral times to the Englifh for the affiftance he had a right
to expeft ; but was conftantly refufed on various pre¬
tences: which convinced him at laft that he could place
na»
[ 212 ]
g t*i
21
India.
m
War be
1 N D [
no dependence on the friendihip of the Engliih, and
filled him with an implacable hatred againft them. As
foon, therefore, as he could make up his differences
with the Mahrattas, he refolved to recover his Ioffes,
and revenge himfelf on thofe faithlefs allies. With this
view he applied himfelf to their rivals the French ;
whom no Indian nation ever found backward in fupply-
ing them with the means of defence againft the Englifti.
By their means he obtained military ftores in the great-
eft abundance, a number of experienced officers and
foldiers 5 and the European difcipline was brought to
much greater perfe&ion than even he himfelf had ever
been able to bring it before this period, ihus, in a
fhort time, imagining himfelf a match for the Mah¬
rattas, he renewed the war •, and gained fuch decifive
advantages, as quickly obliged them to conclude an
advantageous treaty vrtth him.
It now appeared that the Englifti, notwithftanding
tween the their pretended ill-will to quarrel with the Mahrattas,
dglifli aftd not t]ie ieaft hefitation at doing fo when their in-
lahrattas. tereq. was conCerned. In order to underftand the fub-
fequent tranfaftions, however, we mutt obferve, that
the Mahrattas, like other nations of Indoftan, were
originally governed by princes called rajahs, who reign¬
ed at Setterah j and though in procefs of time they
came to be divided into a number of petty ftates, yet
they paid a nominal refpedt to the ram rajah, who had
a right to affemble their chiefs, and order out their
troops on any neceffary occafion. By degrees this dig¬
nity of ram-rajah or fou-rajah (as he was alfo called),
became merely titular, the adminiftration being entire¬
ly poffeffed by the paiftiwa or chancellor. This office
being ufurped by one particular family, Nana-row, the
reigning paiftiwa, feized the ram-rajah and confined
him in a fortrefs near Setterah. At his death he left
two fons Mada-row and Narain-row ; of whom the
former, as being the elder, fucceeded him in the paifti-
waftiip. Monogee Booila, or Bouncella, the immediate
predeceffor of Moodagee Boofla, rajah of Berar, was
one of the pretenders to the dignity of ram-rajah, as
being the neareft of kin •, at the fame time that Ro-
ganaut-row, called alfo Ragobah, uncle to Mada-row
himfelf, pretended to the paiftiwaffiip. On this ac¬
count the latter was confined by Mada-row, but who
imprudently relealed him a little before his death, and
even recommended to him in the moft affectionate man¬
ner the care of his brother Narain-row, who was to
fucceed to the paiihwaffiip. The care he took in con-
fequence of this recommendation was fuch as might
eafily have been imagined ; the unhappy Narain-row
was murdered, and Roganaut-row the affaftin fled to
Bombay where, on promifing a ceffion of territory,
he was protefted and encouraged in his pretenfions.
The Mahrattas remonftrated againft this behaviour •,
but the Engliffi had determined at all events to profit
by the civil diffenfions of the Indians, and therefore
paid no regard to the juftice or injuftice of their caufe.
The Mahrattas therefore not only made up their dif¬
ferences with Hyder Aly, as has been already men¬
tioned, but became determined enemies to the Englilh,
at the fame time that a dangerous confederacy was
formed among the moft powerful princes of India to
expel from that part of the world thofe intruders, whofe
avarice could be fatisfied with no conceflions, and
India.
3 ] I N D
whom no treaties could bind when it ferved their turn ^
to break them.
The refentment of Hyder Aly was particularly di-
reCIed againft the prefidency of Madras for the rea-
fons already given } he had alio received frefli provoca¬
tion by their caufing a body of troops march through
his dominions without his leave, and that to the aftiil-
ance of a prince for whom he had no great friendftnp *,
alfo by the capture of the French fettlement of Maine,
on the coaft of Malabar, which he faid was within his
dominions, and confequently that the French were un¬
der his protection. His troops were therefore affem-
bled from every quarter, and the greateft preparations
made for a powerful invafion. dhe prefidency of Ma¬
dras in the mean time fpent their time in mutual al¬
tercations, negleCting even to leeure the paffes of the
mountains, through which only an invafion could be
made, until their aCtive antagenift, having feized and 124
guarded thofe paffes, fuddenly poured out through them Dreadfal
at the head of 100,000 men, among whom was a large'‘’vafion by
body of European troops under French officers, and ^ er
commanded by Colonel Tally, a man ot great bravery
and experience in war.
The alarm was given on the 24th of JuJy I'jBo that
Hyder Aly’s horfe were only nine miles diltant from
Madras. The inhabitants inftantly deferted their
houfes and fled into the fort 5 while the unrefifted bar¬
barian burnt the villages, reduced the inferior forts,
and prepared to lay fiege to the capital. It being now
abfolutcly neceffary to make fome refiftance, mealures
were taken for affembling the troops 5 in doing which
an exprefs was fent to Colonel Baillie, at that time at
Gumeroponda, about .18 miles from Madras, to proceed
from thence direCtly to Conjeveram with the corps un¬
der his command, where the main body was to meet I2-
him. But when the latter was under marching or-Unrortu-
ders, the firft regiment of cavalry pofitively refufed tonat_eexPe~
move without money j and as they perfifted in their
refolution, were at laft made prifoners and lent to Ma-
dras. The main body, then, confiding of 15CO Eu¬
ropeans and 4200 Sepoys, under Sir HeCIor Munro,
with their train of artillery, proceeded towards Conje¬
veram : and fuch were the fatigues of their march,
that 200 men belonging to the 73d regiment were
left lying on the road. On their arrival at Conje¬
veram, they found the town in flames, great bodies of
the enemy's cavalry advancing on both flanks, and no
appearance of Colonel Baillie’s detachment. '1 he march
of this body had been impeded by a fmall river fwclled
by a hidden fall of rain On this occafion, the officer
who gives the account of this difafter makes the fol¬
lowing obfervation. “ In this incident we have a moft
remarkable proof and example of the danger of pro-
craftination, and on what minute circumftances and
hidden fprmgs of the mind the fortune and the general
iffue of war may depend. Had Colonel Baillie paffed
over the Tripaffere without halting, as fome advifed,
and encamped on its fouthern inftead of its northern
bank, the difafter that foon followed would have been
prevented, and an order of affairs wholly different
from that which took place would have fucceeded.”
Hyder Aly having now raifed the fiege of Arcot,
in which he had been employed, marched toXvards
Conjeveram ) in the neighbourhood of which he en¬
camped,,
India.
124
He is at¬
tacked by
Tippoo
Saib, but
repulfes
him.
125
I N D [21
camped, and in the courfe of feveral days, at different
times, offered battle. On the 6th of September, he
detached his fon Tippoo Saib with the flower of his ar¬
my to cut off the detachment under Colonel Baillie,
who was now at Perrambaukam, a fmall village diiiant
from the main body about 15 miles, he himfelf remain¬
ing in the neighbourhood of Conjeveram, in order to
watch the motions of Sir Hedlor Munro.
The detachment under Tippoo Saib confifted of
30,000 horfe, 8000 foot, with 12 pieces of cannon.
Notwithftanding this fuperiority in number, however,
they were bravely repulfed by Colonel Baillie’s hand¬
ful of troops ; and a junction was effedted with a de¬
tachment under Sir Robert Fletcher, fent by Sir Hec¬
tor Munro on firff; hearing the noife of the engage¬
ment.
This jundtion was effedled on the 9th of September,
and next morning orders were given for the whole ar¬
my to march ; Colonel Fletcher’s detachment being
Is again at-difperfed in different parts of the line. From the
tacked. moment they began to march, the enemy played off
their rockets, which, however, did but little execu¬
tion ; but about ten at night feveral guns began to
open on the rear of the Englifli. Colonel Baillie,
therefore, after fome proper manoeuvres, caufed his
troops form a line, while the enemy cannonaded them
incefiantly wjth great execution. On this Colonel
Baillie detached Captain Rumley with five companies
of Sepoy grenadiers to ftorm their guns ; which fervice
they would have undoubtedly accomplilhed, had not
their march been interrupted by a torrent of water
which at that time happened to be unfordable. Cap¬
tain Rumley therefore returned about half an hour af¬
ter eleven, when the guns of the enemy were heard
drawing off towards the Englifh front, and a general
alarm was perceived throughout their camp ; owing,
as was fuppoled, to their having received intelligence
of the party that had been fent to ftorm their guns.
“ From their noife, confufion, and irregular firing
(fays our author), one would have imagined that a
detachment of our men had fallen upon them with
fixed bayonets. At that critical moment, had a party
of grenadiers been fent againft them, they would have
routed without difficulty the whole of Tippoo’s army.
Having about ten o’clock, in the evening advanced a
few hundred yards into an avenue, the detachment re¬
mained there in perfect filence till the morning.
“ Colonel Fletcher being afked by fome officers, why
Colonel Baillie halted ? modeftly anfwered, that Colo¬
nel Baillie was an officer of eftabliflied reputation, and
that he no doubt had reafons for his condu£l. It can¬
not, however, be concealed, that this halt afforded an
opportunity for Tippoo Saib to draw off his cannon to
a very ftrong poft by which the Englilh were obliged
to pafs ; and at the fame time of informing Hyder of
their fituation, and fuggefting to him the expediency
of advancing for the improvement of fo favourable a
conjunfture.
“ On the 10th of September, at five o’clock in the
morning, our little army marched off by the right in
fubdivifions, having their baggage on their right flank
and the enemy on their left. A few minutes after
fix two guns opened on their rear, on which the line
. h.alted a few minutes. Large bodies of the enemy’s
4 ] I N D
cavalry now appeared on their right flank j and juft at India,
the moment when the pagoda of Conjeveram appeared
in view, and our men had begun to indulge the hopes
of a refpite from toils and dangers, a rocket-boy was
taken prifoner, who informed them, that Hyder’s
whole army was marching to the affiftance of Tippoo.
Four guns now opened on their left with great effect.
So hot was the fire they fuftained, and fo heavy the
lofs, that Colonel Baillie ordered the whole line to
quit the avenue, and prefent a front to the enemy j
and at the fame time difpatched Captain Rumley with
ten companies of Sepoy grenadiers to ftorm the enemy’s
guns.
“ Within a few minutes after Captain Rumley had
left the line, Tippoo’s guns were filenced. Rumley’s
little detachment immediately took poffeffion of four
of the enemy’s guns, and completely routed the party
attached to them. Captain Rumley, overcome with
fatigue, ordered Captain Gowdie, the officer next in T,f-
command, to lead on the party, and take poffeffion of Is attacked
fome more guns placed a few hundred yards in their by Hyder’s
front. But in a few minutes after, as they were advan-whole ar“
cing for this purpofe, a Hidden cry was heard amongmy*
the Sepoys, of horfe ! horfe ! The camp followers,
whofe numbers were nearly five to one of the troops
under arms, were driven on a part of our line by the
numerous and furrounding forces of Hyder Aly ; who
being informed of the embarraffing fituation of Colo¬
nel Baillie, had left his camp without ftriking his
tents, with a view to conceal his march from the Eng-
liih. A great confufion among our troops was the un¬
avoidable confequence of this hidden onfet. The Eu¬
ropeans were fuddenly left on the field of aftion alone :
and at that critical moment a detachment from the ad¬
vanced guard of Hyder’s army preffed on with great
celerity between our line and Captain Rumley’s party.
The commanding officer, therefore, apprehenfive of be¬
ing cut off from our little army, judged it moft prudent
to retreat.
“ Colonel Baillie, when he was informed that an
immenfe body of horfe and infantry was marching to¬
wards him, and that this was fuppofed to be Hyder’g
main army, faid, “ Very well, we (hall be prepared to
receive them.” Hyder’s whole forces now appeared
inconteftably in view ; and this barbarian chief, who,
as was obferved of the Roman general by Pyrrhus, had
nothing barbarous in his difcipline, after dividing his
guns agreeably to a preconcerted plan, opened from
60 to 70 pieces of cannon, with an innumerable quan¬
tity of rockets.
“ Hyder’s numerous cavalry, fupported by his re¬
gular infantry and European troops, driven on by
threats, encouraged by promifes, and led on by his
moft diftinguiftied officers, bore on our little army in
different.quarters without making the lead; impreffion.
Our men, both Europeans and Sepoys, repeatedly pre-
fented and recovered their fire-arms as if they had
been manoeuvring on a parade. The enemy were re- GalLnt be-
pulfed in every attack ; numbers of their heft cavalry haviour of
’were killed, and many more were wounded j evenlheEnS"
their infantry were forced to give way : and Hyder'hfll’
would have ordered a retreat, had it not been for the
advice of General Lally, who informed him that it
was now too late, as General Munro was moft pro¬
bably
125
They are
at laft de¬
feated.
I N D [21
bably advancing on their rear from Conjeveram ; for
which reafon nothing remained but to break the de¬
tachment by their artillery and cavalry.
“ Tippoo Saib had by this time collefted his party
together, and renewed the cannonade^ and at the fame
time that the Englifh were under the neceffity of fuf-
taining an attack both from the father and ion, two
of their tumbrils were blown up by Hyder’s guns, and
a large opening made in both lines. They had now
no other ammunition than grape 5 their guns difcon-
tinued firing j and in this dreadful fituation, under a
terrible fire not only of guns but rockets, lofing great
numbers of officers and men, they remained from half
paft feven till nine o’clock.
“ On this Hyder Aly, perceiving that the guns
were quite filenced, came with his whole army round
their right flank. The cavalry charged them in dif-
tin£t columns, and in the intervals between thefe the
infantry poured in volleys of mufquetry with dreadful
cffeft. Mhiar Saib, with the Mogul and Sanoor ca¬
valry, made the firfl impreftion. Thefe were followed
by the elephants and the Myforean cavalry, which com¬
pleted the overthrow of the detachment. Colonel Bail-
lie, though grievoufly wounded, rallied tire Euro¬
peans, and once more formed them into a fquare} and
with this handful of men he gained an eminence,
where, without ammunition, and moft of the people
wounded, he refilled and repulfed 13. feparate attacks ^
but frefh bodies of cavalry continually pouring in, they
were broken without giving way. Many of our men,
defperately wounded, railing themfelves from the ground
received the enemy on their bayonets.
“ Captain Lucas’s battalion of Sepoys, at the time
when our men moved up to a rifing ground, was Ita-
tioned to the right of the European grenadiers j but
5 1 I N D
that corps, feeing the Europeans in motion, and mif- India,
underftanding perhaps this evolution for a retreat, broke v—
in the utmoft confufion. The Europeans, bravely fuf-
taining their reputation for intrepid valour, remained
in this extremity of diftrefs Heady and undaunted,
though furrounded by the French troops, and by Hy¬
der’s cavalry to the number of 40,000. They even
exprefled a defire, though their number did not exceed
400, of being led on to the attack. A party of To-
pafles, who lay at the diflance of about 30 yards in our
front, kept up an inceffant fire of fmall arms with
great effed.. Many attempts were made by the ene¬
my’s cavalry to break this fmall body of men; but by
the Heady condud of both our officers and men they
were repulfed.
“ Colonel Baillie, finding that there was now no
profped of being relieved by General Munro, held
up a flag of truce to one of the chiefs of Hyder’s
army. But this was treated with contempt, and the
furdar endeavoured at the fame time to cut off the co¬
lonel. The reafon the enemy afligned for this was,
that the Sepoys had fired after the fignal was hoifted. 129
A few minutes after this, our men received orders to Throw
lay down their arms, with intimation that quarterc^own,t^eiS
would be given. This order was fcarcely complied c’ruej]y
with, when the enemy rufhed in upon them in the ufed.
moff favage and brutal manner, fparing neither age
nor infancy nor any condition of life ; and, but for
the humane interpofition of the French commanders
Lally and Pimoran, who implored and infifled with
the conqueror to fhow mercy, the gallant remains of
our little army muff have fallen a facrifice to that fa¬
vage thirff of blood with which the tyrant difgraced
his vidfory (a).”
In this unfortunate afiion near 700 Europeans were
killed
(a) In a narrative of the fufferings of the Englifh who furvived this fatal day, faid to be publifhed by an of¬
ficer in Colonel Baillie’s detachment, we find it related, that “ Hyder Aly, feated in a chair in his tent, enjoyed
the fight of the heads of the flain, as "well as of his prifoners. Colonel Baillie, who was himfelf very much
wounded, was brought to his camp on a cannon, and with feveral other gentlemen in the fame fituation laid at
the tyrant’s feet on the ground and in the open air. In this fituation they faw many of the heads of their coun¬
trymen prefented to the conqueror, fome of them even by Englifh officers, who were forced to perform that hor¬
rid tafkj in a little time, however, Hyder ordered no more heads to be brought to him while the Englifh gentle¬
men were prefent. A tent was fitted up for Colonel Baillie and his officers, but without ftraw or any thing elfe
to lie upon, though many of them were dar.geroufly wounded ; and as the tent could only contain 10 perfons,
the reff were obliged to lie in the open air. When the prifoners were removed from place to place, they were
wantonly infulted, and even beaten by thofe who had the charge of them. If the latter halted to refreffi them¬
felves under a tree, they would be at the trouble of carrying their prifoners to the fide next to the fun, Jeff they
fhould enjoy the benefit of the fhade. Sometimes they were tormented with thirff, at others the people allowed
them to drink water out of the palms of their hands, it being reckoned a profanation to allow an European to
drink out of a veffel belonging to an Indian,” &c.
In this narrative are likewife mentioned fome examples of a recovery from wounds, which, if we can depend
on their authenticity, muff undoubtedly fhow/a reftorative power in the human body altogether unknown in this
climate.
“ Lieutenant Thomas Bowfer received a mufket ball in his leg, and after that eight defperate wounds with
a fcymitar. He lay for feven hours on the fpot, deprived of all fenfation \ but, towards evening, awakened
from his trance, ftnpped of all his clothes, except a pair of under drawers and part of his fhirt, with an intenfe
third:, calling out, and imploring a little water from the enemy. Some were moved with compaflion, while others
anfwered his intreaties only with infults and threats of immediate death. Some w’atcr, however, was brought
from a pool in the field of battle, about 50 or 6o yards from the place where he lay. It was deeply tinged with
blood j neverthelefs, Mr Bowfer being furnifhed by one of Hyder’s foldiers with an earthen chatty, or pot con¬
taining about a pint, and dire£ted to the place, crawled thither as well as he could. Though ffruck with hor¬
ror at the fight of the dead and wounded with which it was filled, he quenched his thirft with the liquid ; and
having
1 N D - [21
India.
*3°
Sir Eyre
Coote ap¬
pointed to
the com¬
mand of
the army.
killed on tlie fpot; the lofs on Hyder Aly’s part was
fo great that he induftrioufly concealed it, being en¬
raged that the conqueft of fuch an inconfiderable body
fhould coft him fo many of his braved troops, He
feemed ever after to conlider the Englifli with an ex¬
treme degree of terror^ infomuch that, notwithftanciing
his pretended exultation on account of the prefent vic¬
tory, he no fooner heard a report of Sir He&or Munro’s
march to attack him, than he left his camp in the ut-
moft eonfufion, abandoning great part of his tents and
baggage, as well as the vail numbers that had been
wounded in the late adlion.
On the news of Colonel Baillie’s difafter, the fupreme
council of Bengal requefted Sir Eyre Coote to take
upon him the management of the war} for the carrying
on of which a large fupply of men and money was in-
ftantly decreed. This was readily undertaken by the
illuftrious officer juft mentioned, notwithftanding-his
very precarious ftate of health at that time} and from
the moment he took upon him the management of af¬
fairs, the fortune of the war was changed.
The fpirit of diffenfion, which for a long time had
infedled the prefidency of Madras, was indeed the true
caufe of all the misfortunes that had happened. This
was found by Sir Eyre Coote to be even greater than
he had heard by report; the refpeft and confidence of
the natives was wholly loft } the complaints of the of¬
ficers and foldiers w-ere loud and acrimonious } an in¬
activity prevailed in all the councils and operations,
while the enemy carried every thing before them. Sir
Hedlor Munro had been greatly haraffed on his march
to Madras, whither he had retreated after Colonel
Baillie’s difafter } the forces of Hyder Aly had in¬
verted all the plates in that neighbourhood in fuch a
manner as in a great tneafure to cut off all fupplies }
and Arcot, the capital city of the moil faithful ally
the Britifti ever had, was taken by ftorm, together with
an adjoining fort, by which means an immenfe quan¬
tity of ammunition and military ftores fell into the
hands of the enemy.
No fooner had Sir Eyre Coote taken upon him the
command of the Britifti forces, than his antagonift
thought proper to change his plan of operations en¬
tirely. He now' detached large parties of his nume¬
rous forces to lay fiege to the principal fortreffes be¬
longing to the company } while, with the braveft and
belt difeiplined part, he kept the field again!! the Bri¬
tifti commander in perfon. On the very firft appear¬
ance of the Britifti army, however, his refolution fail-
Inctra,
131
6 ] I N D
ed, and he abandoned the fiege of every place he had
inverted, retiring to a confiderable diilance on the
other fide of the river Palaar, without even difputing
the paffage of it, as it was expedled he would have
done.
A refpite being thus obtained from the incurfions Pondicher.
of this formidable enemy, the next operation was to revolts,
fecure Pondicherry, whofe inhabitants had revolted.1,ut 's.
• quickly
1 hey were, however, eaiily chiarmed, their magazines
feized, and all the boats in their poffeflion deftroy-
ed } in confequence of which precaution, a French
fquadron that foon after appeared off Pondicherry was
obliged to depart without being furniftied with any
neceffaries. But in the mean time Hyder Aly having-
drawn large reinforcements from all parts of his domi¬
nions, refolved to try his fortune in a pitched battle.
His army amounted to 200,000 men, 40,000 of whom
w'ere cavalry, and 15,000 well difeiplined Sepoys. Still,
however, he durft not openly attack the Britilh army
in the field, but took a ftrong poll from whence he
might harafs them on their march. Sir Eyre Coote,
however, was not on his part backward to make the
attack } and on the other hand Hyder Aly prepared
to engage him with all poflible advantage. The battle
was fought on the ift of July 1781 } and notwith-
ftahding the vaft fuperiority of Hyder Aly’s army, he ^
was routed with great (laughter. The Indians, how- Defeats
ever, made a much more obftinate refiftance than ulual} Hjder My<
the engagement lafted from nine in the morning till
four in the afternoon, and the deficiency of the Engliih
in cavalry prevented them from purfuing the advantage
they had gained. 133
Notwithftanding the lofs of this battle, Hyder Aly Gains a fe-
was foon encouraged to venture another. This was(oncl vic*
fought on the 271b of Auguft the fame year, on thetor}r'
very fpot where Colonel Baillie had been defeated. It
was more obftinately contefted than even the former,
being continued with great fury from eight in the
morning to near dulk. A number of brave officers
and foldiers fell on the part of the Britiffi, owing chief¬
ly to the terrible fire of the enemy’s artillery and the
advantageous pofition of their troops. At laft, how¬
ever, the Indian army was totally defeated, and dri-,
ven from every poft it had occupied ; though from the
obfiinate refiftance made at this time, Hyder began
to entertain hopes that his forces might, by a fuc-
ceffion of fuch battles, be at laft enabled to edpe with ^
the Engliih. He therefore ventured a third battle in Hyderde-
fome weeks after, but was now defeated w ith greater feat ;d a
]0fs third time.
having filled his chatty, endeavoured to proceed towards Conjeveram. He had not, however, moved from his
place above 300 or 400 yards, when, being quite overcome, he was obliged to lie all night in the open air, du¬
ring which time there fell two heavy (bowers of rain. Next morning he proceeded to Conjeveram } but after
walking about a mile,, was met by fome of the enemy’s horfemen, by whom he was brought back prifoner, and
obliged to walk without any affiftance. When delivered up to the enemy’s Sepoys, he was fo (liff with his
wounds, that he could not (loop or even bend his body in the fmalleft degree.
“ The quarter-mailer ferjeant of artillery received fo deep a cut aerols the back part of his neck, that he
was obliged to fupport bis bead with his hands in order to keep it from falling to a fide all the journey. I he
lead (hake or uneVennefs of the ground made him cry out with pain. He once and again eeafed from all at¬
tempts to proceed } but being encouraged and conjured by his companions to renew his efforts, he did fo,
reached the camp, and at laft, as well as Mr Bowfer, recovered.”—It is alfo remarkable, that, according to
our author, out of 32 w’ounded perfons only fix died } though one would be apt to think that the exceilivel/
fevere ufage they met with would have killed every one.
India.
T35
A fourth
vidlcry
gained by
the Englifh.
136
Dutch fet-
'tlement of
I N D f 2
lofs than before. Undifcouraged by this bad fuccefs,
however, he laid fiege to Vellore $ and expecting that
the relief of it would be attempted, feized a ftrong
pafs through which he knew the Britifh army muft
dire£l their march. The Britilh commander accord¬
ingly advanced, and found the enemy in poffeffion of
fome very ftrong grounds on both lides of a marfh
through which he was obliged to pafs. Here he was
attacked on all Tides, but principally in the rear, the
enemy directing their force principally againft the bag¬
gage and convoy of provifiohs defigned for the gar-
rifon. Their utmoft efforts, however, were unfuc-
cefsful, and Sir Eyre Coote forced his way to Vellore
in fpite of all oppolition. Hyder Aly did not fail
to wait his return through the fame pafs j and having
exerted his utmoft ikill in polling his troops, attacked
him with the utmoft vigour : but though the Englilh
were affaulted in front and on both flanks at once, and
a heavy cannonade kept up during the whole time of
the engagement, the Indians were at laft defeated with
great flaughter.
By thefe fucceffes the prefidency of Madras were
now allowed fo much refpite, that an enterprife was
planned againft the Dutch fettlement of Negapatam,
fituated to the fouth of Madras, and in the neighbour¬
hood of Tanjour. A very inconliderable force, how¬
ever, could yet be fpared for this purpofe, as Hyder
Aly, though fo often defeated, was ftill extremely
formidable. Sir He£tor Munro had the management
Negapatam 0f expedition : and fo furious was the attack of
if ucet. the Britilh failors, that the troops left to guard the
avenues to the place were defeated at the very firft
onfet. A regular liege enfued $ which, however, was
of very ftiort duration, a breach being foon made and
the garrifon furrendering prifoners of war.
And like- The lofs of Negapatam was quickly followed by that
wife Inn- of Trincomale in Ceylon. Admiral Hughes, who had
coma e. conveyed Sir Hedtor Munro with the land forces to that
place, and affifted him with his failors, immediately
after its furrender fet fail for Trincomale, where he
arrived about the middle of January 1782. The fort
of that name was quickly reduced ; but the main
ftrength of the fettlement confifted of a fort named
OJlenburgh, the principal place on the ifland, and by
the capture of which the Avhole fettlement would be
reduced. This fort Hands on a hill which commands
the harbour, but is itfelf overlooked by another bill at
the diftance of no more than 200 yards. Though the
gaining of this poll was undoubtedly to be attended
with the lofs of the fort, it does not appear that the
governor even attempted to defend it. A Britilh de¬
tachment of failors and marines therefore took poffef-
flon of it, when the admiral fent a fummons of furren¬
der, reprefenting the inutility of making any farther
defence after the lofs of fuch a poll; and being ex¬
tremely defirous of avoiding an effufion of blood, re¬
peated his arguments at feveral different times. The
governor, however, proving obftinate, the place was
.taken by ftorm, with the lofs of about 60 on the part of
the Britilh, and very little on that of the Dutch, the
victors giving quarter the moment it alked. Four
hundred Europeans were taken prifoners j a large quan¬
tity of ammunition and military ftores, with a numerous
artillery, were found in the place: and two Indiamen
Vol. XL Part I.
17 ] IN D
richly laden, with a number of fmall trading veffels, Inlha.
were taken in the harbour. v’"—”v" ' ^
A more formidable enemy, however, now made his admiral
appearance on the coaft of Coromandel. This was Suffrein ar-
Suffrein the French admiral; who fetting out from rives with a
his native country with 11 Ihips of the line and feveral powerful
flout frigates, had fallen in w ith the Jiannibal of 50
guns, and taken her when feparated from her conforts.
This Ihip, along with three others, a 74, a 64, and a
50, had been fent out to the affiftance of Sir Edward ;
and the three laft had the good fortune to join him
before the arrival of M. de Suffrein. The latter, fup-
poflng that he had not yet received this reinforcement,
bore down upon the Englilh fquadron at Madras, to
which place they had failed immediately after the cap¬
ture of Trincomale. Perceiving his miftake, however,
he inftantly bore aw'ay. The Englilh admiral pur-
fued, took fix veffels, five of them Englilh prizes, and
the fixth a valuable tranfport laden with gunpowder
and other military ftores, befides having on board a
number of la-4-officers and about 300 regular troops.
This brought on an engagement, in which M. Suf¬
frein, perceiving the rear divifion of the Britiffi fleet
unable to keep up with the reft, direfted his force 139
principally againft it. The Ihips of Admiral Hughes En^age-
himfelf and Commodore King fuftained the molt vio-mentb^r
lent efforts of the French, having moftly two, and j^dTir ^
fometimes three, veffels to contend with. Thus the Edward
commodore’s Ihip was reduced almoft to a w reck j but Hughes,
about fix in the evening, the wind becoming more fa¬
vourable to the Englilh, the fquadron of the enemy
were obliged to draw off. The lofs of men on the
part of the Britilh amounted to little more than 130
killed and wounded, but that of the French exceeded
250.
After the battle Sir Edward returned to Madras $
but meeting with no intelligence of Suffrein at that
place, he made the beft of his way for Trincomale,
being apprehenfive of an attack upon that place, or of
the intercepting of a convoy of ftores and reinforce¬
ments at that time expected from England. Suffrein
had indeed got intelligence of this convoy, and was at
that time on his way to intercept it. This brought
the hoftile fleets again in fight of each other j and as
the Britiffi admiral had been reinforced by two Ihips of
die line, he was now better able to encounter his ad- 149
verfary. A defperate battle enfued, which continued A fecond
till towards night, when the fliips on both Tides W'ere Tobattlc*
much ffiattered, that neither could renew the engage¬
ment next day.
. Though theTe engagements produced nothing de-
cifive, they were nevertheleTs of the utmoft prejudice
to the affairs of Hyder Aly, who was thus prevented
from receiving the fuccours he had been promifed
from France j and he was ftill farther mortified by the ^
defeat of his forces before Tellicherry, which place heKjder*
had blocked up fince the commencement of hoftilities. Aly’s forces
This lafl: misfortune was the more fenfibly felt, as an at
open paffage was now left for the Englifli into thofe le‘“ ienT‘
countries beft affefted to Hyder. His bad fuccefsCol ^
here, however, was in fome meafure compenfated by Braith-
the entire defeat of a detachment of about 2000 Eng-waite’s <!e-
lifti infantry and 300 cavalry under Colonel Braith-tadiment
wake, a brave and experienced officer. This detach- ^ oft by
E e Hient, salb.
141
India.
I N D [21
inent, confifting of chofen troops from Sir Eyre Coote’s
army, lay encamped on the banks of the Coleroon,
which forms the northern boundary of lanjour. lip-
poo Saib having procured exa£l: intelligence of the li-
tuation of this party, formed a defign of attacking it
while no danger was fufpe£ted on account of the di-
ftance of Hyder Aly’s army. He fet out on his
defign with an army of 15,000 horfe and 5000 foot,
acco;npan!ed by a body of French regulars j and ha¬
ving eroded the Coleroon, fuddenly furrounded the
Britifh forces on all fides. The colonel, perceiving his
danger, formed his men into a fquare, diflributing the
artillery to the feveral fronts, and keeping his cavalry
in the centre. In this fituation they refitted for three
days the utmoft efforts of his numerous enemies, al¬
ways compelling them to retreat with great lofs. At
laft General Tally, rightly conjefturing that the
ftrenglh of the Englifh muff be exhaufted and their
numbers thinned by fuch defperate fervicC, propofed
that the French infantry, which was freth and entire,
(liould attack one of the fronts of the fquare, while
the forces of Tippoo thould do the fame with the other
three. This laft attack proved fuccefsful } the Britith
forces were broken with great daughter, which how¬
ever was flopped by the humanity of the French com¬
mander ; who even obtained from Tippoo Saib the care
of the prifoners, and treated them with a tendernefs
and humanity they certainly would not otherwife have
experienced. A number of Britidi officers, however,
periffied in the engagement, and only one remained
un wounded.
In the meantime, the fuccours from France, fo
long expefted by Hyder, made their appearance. As
foon as a junftion was formed, they proceeded, under
the command of M. Duchemin, to inveft Cucdalore *,
which not being in any fituation to (land a fiege, was
Furrendercd on capitulation. In like manner fome
other places of fmaller confequence were reduced, un¬
til at lafi: being joined by Hyder’s numerous forces,
they determined to lay fiege to Vandervafh, a place of
great importance, and the lofs of which would have
been extremely detrimental to the Engliffi. This
quickly brought Sir Eyre Coote with his army to its
relief; but Hyder Aly, notwithflanding his being re¬
inforced by the French, durft not yet venture a battle
in the open field. On this the Britifh commander pro¬
ceeded to attack Arnee, the principal depofitory of Hy¬
der’s warlike ftores and neceffaries. Thus the latter
was obliged to quit his advantageous ground ; but he
Hvc!er\lv ^ fecrecy and fpeed, that he came upon
defeated a Britifh army unawares while preparing for its laft
fifth time march to Arnee, now only five miles diftant. Perceiv-
by Sir Eyre ing the march of the Britiffi troops was through
low grounds, encompaffed on moft parts with high
hills, he planted his cannon upon the latter ; from
which he kept a continual and heavy fire on the troops
below, while his numerous cavalry attacked them
on every fide. Notwithftanding all difadvantages, the
Britifh commander at laft clofed in with the enemy ;
and after an obftinate difpute completely routed them.
Neither this, however, nor any other engagement with
Hyder Aly, ever proved decifive ; for as the want of
cavalry prevented the Britiffi general from ptrrfuing
his advantage, fo that of his antagonift was fo nume-
rous'j that by it he always covered his retreats in fuch
8 J
I N D
*43
Cuddaiore
taken.
Coote.
an effeflual manner as to lofe but few men, and in a India,
ffiort time to be in a condition to aft again on the of- ^
fenfive. This was remarkably the cafe at prefent; for
notwithftanding this defeat, which happened on the 2d
of June 1782, he cut oft’ an advanced body of the
Britifh army five days after ; and haraffed the whole
in fuch a manner, that Sir Eyre Coote, notwithftand¬
ing his fuecefs, was obliged to move nearer Madras;
foon after which, he was obliged, on account of his bad
ftate of health, to relinquifh the command of the army
to General Stuart.
Hvder Aly now perceiving that he was likely to be
attended with no fuccefs by land, began to reft his
hopes on the fuccefs of the French by fea. He there¬
fore earneftly requefted M. Suffrein, who poffeffed at
that time a decifive fuperiority in the number of ffiips,
to lofe no time in attacking the Britifh fquadron be¬
fore it could be joined by a reinforcement which was
then on its way, and was reported to be very formi¬
dable. As the French commander was by no mefins a thiid fea.
deficient in courage, a1 third engagement took placefiafit, great-
on the 5th of July 1783. At this time the Britifh ly to thedi£.
had the advaatape of the wind,'the battle was mucha<jv?nta&ft
more clofe, and the viftory more plainly on their fide. prent^
It is faid indeed, that had not the wind fortunately
fhifted in fuch a manner as to enable the French to
difengage their fliips, a total and ruinous defeat would
have enfued. After the engagement, the French ad¬
miral proceeded to Cuddaiore, having received intelli¬
gence that a large body of French troops in tranfports
had arrived off the ifland of Ceylon, in company with
three fhips of the line. As this feemed to afford hopes
of retaliation, he ufed fuch diligence in refitting his
fhips, that the fleet was able to put to fea in the be¬
ginning of Auguft. His intention was to make an
attempt on Trincomale ; and fo well were his defigns-
condufted, that Sir Edward received no intelligence
of the danger, till a Britilh frigate chafing a French
one, which took {belter with the fquadron at Trinco¬
male, difeovered it by this accident, and haftened back ^
with the news to Madras. It was now, however, toowho re¬
late ; the place was not in a condition to refift a fiege jverthelefs
and the French batteries having filenced thofe of the^^^na
fort in two days, a capitulation took place on the laftc m
day of Auguft,
Sir Edward Hughes having been detained by con¬
trary winds, did not arrive at Trincomale before the
2d of September, when he had the mortification to fee
the forts in’Mhe hands of the French, and that Suffrein
was in the harbour with 15 fail of the line, while he .
had only 12. He did not hefitate at venturing an a fourth
engagement with this inferiority, nor did M. Suffrein battle bf-
decline the combat. The event of the battle was^^1^
no other than {battering the fleets and killing and
wounding a number of men on both fides. In this,fleets.
however, as well as in the other engagements, the fupe¬
riority of the Englifh was very manifeft ; and in en¬
tering the harbour of Trincomale the French loft a 74
gun {hip.
The lofs of Trincomale was feverely felt by the Eng¬
liffi ; for while the French lay fafely in the harbour
refitting their fquadron, the Engliffi were obliged f°rEncli(h
that purpofe to fail to Madras. Flere the fleet was fleet fhat-
affailed by one of the moft dreadful tempefts everteredbya
known on that coaft. Trading veliels to the number
I N D [2
India, of near 100 were wrecked, as well as thofe for Madras
—-v  laden with rice, of which there was an extreme fcarcity
at that place. Thus the fcarcity was augmented to a
famine, which carried off vaft numbers of the inhabi¬
tants before fupplies could arrive from Bengal. The
continuance of the bad weather obliged Sir Edward
with his whole fquadron to fail to Bombay j and there
he did not arrive till towards the end of the year, when
his fquadron was fo much (battered, that, in order to
repair it with proper expedition, he was obliged to di-
ftribute it between the dock-yards of Bombay and the
Portuguefe fettlement at Goa.
In the mean time Sir Richard Bickerton arrived at
Bombay from England with five men of war, having
on board 5000 troops, after a very favourable paffage j
having neither feen nor heard of the bad weather which
had defolated the coafts of India. It was likewife the
intention of France to fignalize the campaign of this
year by an immenfe force both by fea and land in In¬
dia. Exclufive of the forces already on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, they were to be joined by 5000 more, all
regulars, from their iflands on the African coaft. Suf-
frein was to be reinforced by feveral {hips of the line,
when it was hoped that a decided fuperiority at fea
•would be obtained over the Englifh *, while their fupe-
rior numbers and artillery on fhore would render them
invincible by any force that could be brought againft
them. To oppofe thefe defigns, it was deemed necef-
fary by the prefidency of Bombay to make a power¬
ful diverfion on the coaft of Malabar. Here was fitua-
ted the kingdom of Myfore, the fovereignty of which
had been ufurped by Hyder Aly under the title of
Dayva, as that of the Mahrattas was hy a perfon ftyled
Paifhwa. This kingdom is nearly in the fame parallel
with Arcot. To the northward is the kingdom of
Canara, which is faid to have been the favourite pof-
feffion of Hyder Aly j the name of its capital is Bid-
nore, which alfo gives name to an extenfive territory,
^ and was by Hyder changed to that of Hydernagur,
Expedition The expedition had been fet on foot as early as the end
®f Colonel of the year 1781 j a ftrong body of forces under the
Humber- command of Colonel Humberftone had taken the two
cities of Calicut and Panyan, befides others of leffer
note, and penetrated into the inland country, which
is there difficult and dangerous. Having here made
himfelf mailer of a place called Mongarry Cotta, of
which the fituation commanded the entrance into the
inner parts of the country, he proceeded to attack Pa-
latacherry, a confiderable town at fome miles diftance j
but being fuddenly environed with a numerous and ho-
ftile army, inftead of making himfelf mafter of the
place, it was not without the utmoft difficulty that he
made his efcape after lofing all his provifions and bag¬
gage. A great army, confiding of 20,COO foot and
10,000 horfe, under Tippoo Saib, alfo advanced againft
him with fuch celerity, that the colonel had only time
to retreat to Panyan, where he was fuperfeded in the
command by Colonel Macleod ; and foon after the
place was inverted by the forces of the enemy, among
whom was General Lally with a confiderable body of
French. Two Britifl frigates, however, having come
to the affiftance of the place, rendered all the attempts
of the enemy to reduce it abortive. At laft Tippoo
Saib, impatient of delay, made a vigorous effort againft
the Briiifti lines j but though both the Indian and
9 ] 1 N d
French commanders behaved with great bravery, tne ^
attack not only proved unfuccefsful, but they were re-
pulfed with fuch lofs as determined Tippoo to abandon
the fiege of the place, and retire beyond the river cf
Panyan. . /50
As foon as the prefidency of Bombay were acquaint- Un.ortu- ^
ed with the fuccefs of Colonel Humberftone, General F-
Matthews was difpatched to his affiftance with a power- Qerierai
ful reinforcement. This expedition, which began the Matthews,
campaign of 17^3 kingdom of Canara, has been
related with circumftances fo difgraceful, and fo ex¬
ceedingly contrary to the behaviour for which the Bri-
tilh .troops are remarkable, that we are totally at a lols
to account for them. On the one hand, it leems fur-
prifing how the national character could be forfeited
by a particular body, and not by any other part of the
army; and on the "other, it feems equally furprifing
why fuch calumnies (if we fuppofe them to be fo)
fbould have arifen againft this partifcular body and no
other part of the army. Such accounts of it, however, The army
were publiftied as railed the indignation of the military
gentlemen, who thought proper to puhlilh a vindica-
tion of themfelves. In the Annual Regifters, from this expedi-
whence, next to the gazettes and newfpapers, the ge- tion.
nerality receive what they look upon to be authentic
intelligence, the charafter of this army is treated with
the higheft afperity. “ In the ftory of the conqueft
and recovery of Canara (fays the New Annual Regi-
fter), the Spaniards may be faid to be brought a fe-
cond time upon the fcene, but not to fit down in ful-
len and infolent profperity after all their crimes. The
Spaniards of Britain were overtaken in the midft of
their career ; and he who is mare of a man than an
Englilhman, will rejoice in the irregular and unmea-
fured, but at the fame time the juft and merited, ven¬
geance that was infli&ed upon them by the prince
whofe dominions they were ravaging !” In fupport,
of this dreadful exclamation the following account is
given of the expedition. It began with the putting in
execution a defign formed by General Matthews of
carrying the war into the heart of Hyder Aly’s domi¬
nions. For this purpofe the Englifti inverted the city
of Onore, fituated about 300 miles to the fouth of
Bombay, and one of the principal places in the country
of Canara. “ It was taken by affault (fays Dr An¬
drews) with great flaughter, and plundered with cir¬
cumftances of avarice and rapine that difgraced the vic¬
tors ; among whom, at the fame time, great diffiontents
arofe concerning the divifion of the fpoil.” “ No quar¬
ter (fays the Annual Regifter) was given by the vic¬
torious Englilh ; every man they met was put to the
fword. Upon this occafion we beg leave to tran-
fcribe three lines from the private letter of one of the
officers concerned in the expedition. ‘ The carnage
(fays he) was great: we trampled thick on the bo¬
dies that were ftrewed in the way. It was rather
{hooking to humanity ; but fuch are only fecondary
confiderations, and to a foldier, whofe bofom glows
with heroic glory, they are thought only accidents of
courfe; his zeal makes him afpire after farther vic¬
tory.’ This part of the peninfula had hitherto been
untouched by the barbarous and unfparing hands of
Europeans, and of confequence was full of riches and
fplendour. In the fortrefs of Onore were fou,nd fums
of money to an unknown amount, befides jewels and
E e 2 diamond?.
I N 15 £ 2
diamonds A conilderable part of this appears to have
been fecured as private plunder by General Matthews,
Th e complaints of the military were loud j they thought,
and naturally, that the acquilition of riches was the fair
and reafonable confequence of the perpetration of blood-
flied. But their commander turned a deaf ear to their
reprefentations 5 and haftened, by adding new laurels
to his fame, to hide the {lander that might otherwife
reft upon him.”
From Onore the army proceeded to the neareft for-
treftes on the fea-coaft, Inore and Cundapour. Here
they were joined by a reinforcement from Bombay,
under the command of Colonels Macleod and Humber-
ftone, with pofitive orders to proceed for Bidnore or
Hydernagur the capital of Canara. On this General
Matthews marched for the mountains called the Ghauts,
where there is a pafs three miles in length, though only
eight feet wide, and which was then ftrongly fortified,
and defended by a vaft number of the natives. “ The
Englifh (fay our authors), however, had already ob¬
tained a confiderable reputation by their executions j
and the ufe of the bayonet, the moft fatal inftrument
of war, and which was employed by them on all oc-
eafions, created fuch an extreme terror in the enemy,
as to enable them to furmount this otherwife impreg¬
nable defile.”
The gaining of this pafs laid open the way to Bid-
nore the capital, to which a fummons was now fent.
An anfwer was returned, that the place was ready to
fubmit, provided the inhabitants were not molefted,
and the governor was permitted to fecure his property.
The wealth of this city was undoubtedly great, but
the eftimates of its amount are very different. By the
accounts of Bombay it was ftated only at 175,0001.5
while the officers concerned in the expedition fay that
it was not lefs than i,200,000l. or even 1,920,000!. 5
and even this was only public property ; that feized
upon by the foldiers, and which belonged to private
perfons, was undoubtedly very confiderable alfo.
This treafure was at firft (hown by the general to
his officers, and declared to belong to the army 5 but
he afterwards told them that it was all the property of
the Mohammedan governor, and had been fecured to
him by the terms of the furrender. It was therefore
fent to Cundapour, under the convoy of Lieutenant
Matthews, brother to the general, to be thence tranf-
mitted to Bombay 5 but whether any part of it ever
reached that fettlement or not was never known. The
difcontents of the army were now carried to the ut-
moft height 5 and the conteft became fo ferious, that
Colonels Macleod, Humberftone, and Shaw, quitted
the fervice all together, and returned to Bombay. The
officers charged their general with the moft infatiable
and fhameful avarice 5 while he, in return, accufed his
whole army of doing every thing difrefpeftful and in¬
jurious to him 5 of paying no regard to order and dif-
cipline, and of becoming loofe and unfeeling as the
jnoft licentious freebooters.
From Bidnore detachments were fent to reduce fe¬
deral fortreffes, the principal of which was Ananpour
or Anantpore. Here orders were iffued for a ftorm
and no quarter. Every man in the place was put to
death, except one horfeman, who made his efcape after
being wounded in three places. “ The women, un¬
willing to be feparated from their relations, or expo-
4
20 ] INI)
fed to the brutal licentiodfhefs of the foldiery, threw
themfelves in multitudes into the moats with which the
fort was furrounded. Four hundred beautiful women
pierced with the bayonet, and expiring in one an¬
other’s arms-, were in this fituation treated by the Bri-
tilh with every kind of outrage.”
This exploit was fucceeded by the redmftion of
Canva and Mangalore, which completed the reduction
of Canara, when General Matthews put his army in
cantonments for the rainy feafon.
This rapid fuceefs was owing to the death of Hyder
Aly, which happened in the end of the year 1782..
His fon Tippoo Saib, however, having taken poiref-
fion of the government, and fettled his affairs as well
as time would allow, inftantly refumed his military
operations. On the 7th of April 1783 he made his
appearance before Bidnore, fo that General Matthews
had fearce time to col left a force of 2000 men, and
to write to Bombay for a reinforcement. But, how¬
ever neceffary the latter muft have been in his circum-
fiances, the prefidency were fo much influenced againft
him by the unfavourable reports of his officers, that
they fufpended him from his commiffion, appointing
Colonel Macleod to fucceed to the command of the
army.
Tippoo Saib now advanced with a vaft army fup-
pofed not to be fewer than 150,000 men, covering the
hills on each fide of the metropolis as far as the eye
could reach. The army of General Matthews, alto¬
gether unable to cope with fuch a force, w'as quickly
driven from the town, and forced to take refuge in
the citadel. Tippoo having cut off their retreat by
gaining pofTeffion of the Ghauts, laid clofe fiege to
the fortrefs 5 which in lefs than a fortnight was obliged
to capitulate. The terms propofed were, that all pub¬
lic property fliould remain in the fort 5 that the Eng¬
lifh fliould engage not to aft againft Tippoo for a fti-
pulated time 5 that they fhould march out with the
honours of war 5 that they fhould pile their arms, and
have full liberty to proceed unmolefted with their pri¬
vate property to the fea-coaft, from thence to embark
for Bombay 5 and in this capitulation the garrifons of
Ananpour, and other inland fortreffes, were alfo in¬
cluded.
All thefe terms were broken by Tippoo, who faid
that they had forfeited their title to liberty by a breach
of the articles of capitulation, in embezzling and fe-
creting the public money, which was all in good faith,
to be delivered up. That this was really the cafe feems
to be univerfally acknowledged. In the Annual Re-
gifter we are told, that “ to prevent too much money
being found in the poffeffion of one man, the general
ordered his officers to draw on the paymafter-general
for whatever fums they wanted. When the fort was
furrendered to the fultan, there was not a fingle rupee
found in it.” By this circumftance the fate of the
garrifon was decided. General Matthews was fent for
next morning to a conference. He was not, however,
admitted to his prefence, but immediately thrown into
chains. Moft of the other principal officers were, on
various pretences feparated from the army. The ge¬
neral and his companions were condufted to Seringa-
patam the capital of Myfore 5 and after having expe¬
rienced a variety of feverities, were at laft put to death
by poifon. In this manner the general and 20 officers
perifhed.
I N D [ 221 ] I N D
India, pcriftied. The polfon adminiftered was the milk of the
cocoa-tree, which is faid to be very deadly.
The above account was repeatedly complained of as
partial, and at laft openly contradi&ed in a pamphlet
entitled “ A Vindication of the Conduft of the Eng-
liih Forces” employed in that expedition, and publithed
by order of the Eaft India Company. In this pamph¬
let the circumdance mod found fault with was that
regarding the women at Anantpore, which was pofi-
tively contradifted. On this account, therefore, the
publidiers of the above-mentioned work retraft that
part of their narrative, as being founded in mifrepre-
fentation. Notwithdanding this vindication, however,
they dill draw the following conclufions. “ It is al¬
ready fufficiently evident, how little has been effe&ed
by this vindication of the Bombay officers. The great
outlines of the expedition remain unaltered. It is dill
true that a remarkable degree of feverity was employed
in the field •, that, in the capture of the fortreffes of
Canara, the principle of a dorm and no quarter was
very frequently applied j and that the acquifition of
money was too much the governing objetl in every
dage of the undertaking. The vindication of the of¬
ficers has therefore done them little fervice 5 and it
happens here, as it generally does in the cafe of an im-
perfeff: reply, that the majority of the fafts are rather
drengthened and demondrated by the attempt to refute
them. With refpeft to the conclufion of the dory,
the treafures of Hydernagur, and the charge brought
againd them by Tippoo, that they had broken the
terms of the capitulation, and that when the fort was
furrendered not a rupee was to be found in it •, thefe
circumdances are paffed over by the officers in the pro-
founded filence. It was this that roufed the fultan to
vengeance } and it is to this that he appeals for his juf-
tification in difregarding a capitulation which had been
fird diffolved by the vanquished Engliffi.”
The vindication above alluded to was figned by one
major and 52 fubaltern officers. It feems not, how¬
ever, to have given entire fatisfaflion to the military
gentlemen themfelves, as other vindications have ap¬
peared, faid to be written by officers ; but thefe being
anonymous, can be fuppofed to add very little weight
to that already mentioned, where fuch a refpedtable
body have figned their names. We ffiall therefore
drop a fubjeft fo difagreeable, and the invedigation of
which at the fame time is entirely foreign to the plan
of this work.
It now remains to give fome account of the war with
the Mahrattas, begun, as was formerly hinted, on ac-
count of the proteftion afforded to the affaffin Roga-
Account of naut-row. This man had formerly obliged the Mogul
theMahrat-to take Ihelter in the Englifh faftory at Bengal j but
♦a war. being unable to keep up his credit among his country¬
men, was expelled as already related. On his arrival
at Bombay, an alliance was formed betwixt him and
the Engliffi government j by which the latter engaged
to replace him in the Mahratta regency in confidera-
tion of fome valuable ceffions of territory. The fu-
preme council of Bengal, however, difowned this trea¬
ty, and concluded one with the Mahrattas in the month
of March 1776; by which it was agreed that they
fliould provide for Ragobah’s fubfiftence according to
his rank, on condition of his reiiding in their country.
This being not at all agreeable to Ragobah, he fled India,
once more to Bombay, where a new confederacy was
entered into for his reftoration. The council of Bengal
approved of this on account of the approaching rupture
with France: and in confequence of this, a detachment
was, in February 1778, ordered to march acrofs the
continent of India. By fome mifmanagement in this
expedition, the whole army was obliged to capitulate
with the Mahratta general on the 9th of January 1779.
One of the terms of the capitulation was, that a body
of troops which were advancing on the other fide
ffiould be obliged to return to Bengal. But General
Goddard, the commander of thefe forces, denying the
right of the council of Bengal to remand him, proceed¬
ed on his march, and arrived on the 18th of February.
Here he received orders to conclude a new treaty, if it
could be obtained on eafier terms than that of the capi¬
tulation, by which it had been engaged to cede all our
acquifitions in the country of the Mahrattas.
Such extreme difregard to any ftipulations that
could be made, undoubtedly provoked the Pvlahrattas,
and induced them to join in the confederacy with Hy-
der Aly already mentioned. The war, however, was
fuccefsfully begun by General Goddard in January 1780.
In three months he reduced the whole province of Gu-
zerat. Madajee Seindia the Mahratta general advan¬
ced to oppofe him 5 but as he did not choofe to venture
a battle, the Engliih general ftorrned his camp, and
totally routed him. Other exploits were performed in
the courfe of this campaign ; during which the gover¬
nor-general (Mr Haftings) feeing no hopes of an accom¬
modation, entered into a treaty with the rajah of Go-
hud, and with his confent Major Popham reduced a
fortrefs in his dominions named Guallior, garrifoned
by the Mahrattas, and hitherto reckoned impreg¬
nable.
Thefe fucceffes were followed by the dreadful incur-
fions of Hyder Aly already related, which put a flop
to the conquefts of General Goddard ; all the forces he
could fpare being required to affift the army under Sir
Eyre Coote. The laft exploit of General Goddard was
the reduction of the ifland of Salfette, and of a ftrong
fortrefs named Bajfein in its neighbourhood. The army
of Scindia, confifting of 30,000 m^n, was alfo defeated
this year by Colonel Carnac ; and the Mahrattas, dis¬
heartened by their Ioffes, confented to a feparate peace
with the Englifh, leaving Hyder Aly to manage the
war as he thought proper.
In the mean time, however, the expences Incurred
by thefe wars were fo high, that Mr Haftings, who
was obliged to furnifh them fome how or other, was re¬
duced to the greateft difficulties. For this purpofe not
only all the treafure of Bengal was exhaufted, but it
was found neceffary to draw extraordinary contributions
from the Britiffi allies, which was produftive of many j ^
difagreeable circumftances. One of the moft remark-Revolt ox-
able was the revolt of Benares. The rajah of this Benares,
country had formerly put himfelf under the proteftion
of the Engliffi, who on their part agreed to fecure his
dominions to him on condition of his paying an annual
fubfidy to the nabob of Oude. In 1770 the rajah died,
and was fucceeded by his fon Cheit Sing, who held the
fovereignty at the time we fpeak of. On the death of
the nabob in 1775, a new treaty was made with his
fucceffor,
India.
Che it Sing
arrefted
and depo-
fcd.
I N D [
fucceffor, by which the fovereignty of Benares was
transferred to the Eaft India Company, an acquifition
equivalent to 240,000!. per annum ; at the fame time
that the fubfidy paid by Sujah Dowla, and which, by
Lord Clive, had been fixed at 36,000!. and afterwards
railed to 252,000!. was now augmented to 312,000!.
per annum.
On receiving intelligence in July 1778, that tvar had
a£hially commenced between France and England,
Cheit Sing was required to pay 50,000!. as his (hare of
the public burdens. Such a demand was paid with ex¬
treme reludlance on the part of a prince who already
contributed 240,000!. and probably thought that an
abundant equivalent for the proteftion enjoyed. The
fame requilition, however, was made the two fucceed-
ing years, but with a promife that the demand fhould
ceafe when peace was reftored. Inftead of any prefent
alleviation, however, a body of troops was alfo quarter¬
ed upon him, and he was likewife obliged to pay for
their maintenance, left he ftiould not voluntarily pay
the additional 50,000!. In November 1780, in addi¬
tion to all thefe demands, he was alfo required to fend
into the field fuch a body of horfe as he could fpare $
but this requifiticn, owing to fome, mifunderftanding,
was never complied with.
In July 1781 Mr Haftings having, it is faid, recei¬
ved fome intelligence that the oppreffed rajah medita¬
ted rebellion, fet out on a vifit to the nabob of Oude,
and in his way propofed to clear up the mifunderftand-
ing with him. The method by which he intended to
clear up this mifunderftanding was to lay a fine upon
the poor prince of 400,000!. or 500,000!. y and as a
reafon for doing fo, it was alleged that the late rajah
had left a million fterling in his treafury j a fum which
was continually increafing. Cheit Sing advanced to
the borders of his territories to meet the governor-ge¬
neral, behaved with all imaginable fubmiffion j and
having got private intelligence of what was meditated
againft him, offered to pay down 200,0C0l. This was
refufed j and the governor-general having reached the
capital, forbade the rajah his prefence, and by a letter
acquainted him with his caufes of complaint. Cheit Sing
fent a very fubmiftive anfwer ; but as he endeavoured
to exculpate himfeU, Mr Haftings was fo far from be¬
ing fatisfied, that he put the prince under an arreft.
Such an unheard-of proceeding excited the utmoft
furpnfe and refentment in fubjedls accuftomed to re¬
gard their fovereign with a degree of reverence little
ihort of adoration. On the very day of the arreft they
afft-mbled tumultuoufly, cut in pieces the guard which
had been fet on the palace, and carried off their prince
in triumph. It does not appear, however, that this
was any other than a tranfitory tumult •, for though they
could eafily have cut off the governor-general, they
made no attempt againft him. Cheit Sing protefted
his innocence, and made the moft unlimited offers of
fubmiffion, but all in vain. His government was de¬
clared vacant, and the zem’mdary beftowed on the next
heir ; the annual fubfidy to the government of Bei gal
was augmented from 240,000!. to 400,000!. annually.
’I lie miterable rajah ua" forced to fly his country 5 and
his mother, though proimfed leave to retire upon condi¬
tions, was attacked in her retreat and plundered by the
fold-iers. After all his endeavours to procure money,
however, Mr Haflings found this adventure turn out
2
222 1 N D
is much lefs profitable than he had expelled ; for the trea- India,
fury of the fugitive prince was feized and retained by*“v—»
the foldiery.
As to the nabob of Oude, a new treaty was conclu-]yrew5t^ea^
ded with him j the defign of which was evidently toties with
eafe him of fome of the burdens to which he was at that**16 nabob
time fubjedled. Part of the Britifh troops were there-0*
fore withdrawn from his dominions. As Fizulla Khan,
the moft profperous of his dependents, had been called
upon to furnifti a body of 5000 horfe to join the na¬
bob’s army, and had not complied with the requifition*
the guarantee of his treaty with the nabob, formerly
executed, was withdrawn ; but it being afterwards dii-
covered that his territory was not equivalent to the
claims of the governor, the treaty was renewed on pay¬
ment of a flight fine. As the widow of Sujah Dowla
was fufpedled of favouring the late rajah Cheit Sing,
the reigning prince was allowed to reclaim the treafures
of his father in her poffeffion, on condition of paying
her a certain ftipulated allowance annually. The trea¬
fures were feized as payment of the debts of the prince
to the company.
Hoflilities continued in India between the French
and Englifli till the year 1783 was far advanced, and
long after tranquillity had been reftored to other parts
of the world. In the beginning of the feafon for ail ion
the governor and council of Bengal determined to fend
an ample fupply to the prefidency of Madras, that they
might be enabled to put an end to the wai:, which Tip-
poo feemed willing to profecute with even more vigour
than his father had done. For this purpofe Sir Eyre
Coote, who, for his health, had gone to Bengal by
fea, fet fail once more for Madras, being intrufted with
a large fum of money for the neceffary expences of
the war. In his paffage he was chaced for forty-
eight hours by two French men of war. The folicitude ,
and fatigue he underwent during this time, being al-
moft conftantly upon deck, occafioned a relapfe, fo that
he died in two days after his arrival at Madras. His
death was greatly lamented, as the greateft expefta-
tions had been formed of a happy conclufion being put
to the war by his extraordinary military talents, for
which he had already acquired fo great a reputation in
India.
The invafion of Tippoo’s dominions having called
him off from the Carnatic, General Stuart took the op¬
portunity of attacking him in another quarter. Colo¬
nel Fullarton was defpatched with a large body of
troops to invade the province of Coimbatour. This
he executed with great fuccefs; overrunning the coun¬
try, taking feveral fortrefles, and making a very alarm¬
ing diverfion on this fide of Tippoo’s dominions. Ge¬
neral Stuart, however, having ftill greater defigns in
view, was obliged to recal this gentleman in the midft
of his fuccefs. The ft-ge of the ftrong fortrefs of Cud-Curldalore
dalore was the operation which now engaged his atten-un,ucce^‘
tion. It was now become the principal place of armst”!,'
belonging to the French j was ftrongly fortified, andthg]7ng„
garrifoned by a numerous body of the Feft troops inlith.
France, as well as a confiderable number of Tippoo’s
choiceft forces. The fiege therefore proved fo difficult,
that though the Englifla difplayed the utmoft valour
and military fkill, they were not able to reduce the
place until hoftilities were interrupted by the news of a
general pacification having taken place in Europe. In
this
I N D [ 223 ] INI)
Indi*. tills fiege a remarkabls circumflance took place, viz.
U-^Y~W that of a corps of Sepoy grenadiers encountering and
overcoming the French troops oppofed to them with
fixed bayonets. For this remarkable inftance of va¬
lour, they not only received the highefi: applaufe at the
time, but provifion was made for themfelves and fami¬
lies by the prefidencies to which they belonged.
After the redu&ion of Hydernagur, and the deffruc-
tion of the army under General Matthews, the Fng-
lilh poffeffed only three places of confequence in the
kingdom of Canara. Thefe were Mangalore, Onore,
and Carwa. The fiege of all thefe places was underta¬
ken at once. Mangalore, the principal portjn the
country, was defended by a very numerous garrifon un¬
der Major Campbell. Tippoo fat down before it on
the 19th of May j and the attack and defence were
both conducted with the greateft fpirit and aftivity.
Notwithftanding the utmoft: efforts of the befiegers,
however, and that the garrifon were reduced to the laft
extremity for want of provifions, they held out in fpite
of every difficulty, until the general pacification being
concluded, the place was afterwards delivered up. In
other parts nothing more happened than an indecifive
engagement between M. Suffrein and Admiral Hughes j
fo that the Britifh empire in Bengal was for that time
fully eftablifhed, and continued unmrdefled by foreign
enemies, till the ambition of hippo Saib again promp¬
ted him to invade the territories of the nabob, an ally
of Britain. This again brought on a war with that
refflefs, but able prince j in this war the Britifh were
joined by the Mahrattas, and the conduit of it was en-
trufled to Lord Cornwallis.
Character Among the various ufurpers who fuddenly rofe to the
ofHyder rank of foverejgn princes on the fall of the Mogul em-
pirt*, Hyder Aly was the moft fuccefsful. A mailer in
diffimulation and treachery, he laboured, while in a
humble ftation, to acquire the confidence of his fupe-
riors, that he might the more completely betray them.
Thefe qualities, fo neceffary to a fuccefsful ufurper, were
in time accompanied with confiderable military fkill,
and great talents for government. Hence the power
which he at firft fo treacheroufly obtained, was foon
augmented by frefh acquifitions } and the territories
which he conquered were governed with a fyffematic
arrangement and rigorous juftice, which fpeedily aug¬
mented their population, and increafed his own re-
l5S fources.
and of Tip- His fon, Tippoo Sultan, though far inferior to his
poo Sultan, father in the art of government, in moderation, and in
the general fleadinefs of his charafter, was, however,
diftinguifhed in India as an excellent officer and intre¬
pid warrior j qualities which effeffually fecured him the
confidence of his troops. The operation of the fyltem
eftablifhed by his father, and the warlike complexion
of his own character, continued to fupport the general
profperity of his dominions, which w'ere enlarged on
all fides by conquefls from his neighbours, and were
flrengthened by a great number of the moft impregna¬
ble fortrefles in the peninfula.
Hence the power (ft the Myforean kings, which in
its rife had been often combated, and fometimes de¬
feated by the Mahrattas, at laft acquired a decided af-
cendency in the fouth of India. The difeipline and fi¬
delity of their troops, till their late aggreffions on the
Britiih, had conftantly been increafing in reputation j
and fully evinced the excellent regulations which had India. ^
been eftablifhed for the army. The government ofJ
both princes was ftriftj that of the laft, violent and
arbitrary. It was (till, however, the defpotifm of an
able and warlike fovereign, who may rigoroufly check,
but does not deftroy thofe fubjedts which muft form the
means of his future aggrandifement.
From thefe caufes the extenfive territory of the My-
fore and its dependencies had not, in the courfe of ma¬
ny years, fuffered materially, either from infurre&ion
or external invafion a felicity but rarely experienced
in any quarter of India. When they were invaded by
the Britifh and their allies, under the condutt of Lord
Cornwallis, the whole country was found in a high
ftate of cultivation, and filled with inhabitants. Ihe
regular army confifted of 70,000 men •, and the troops
employed in the garrifons, in the police, and in the
colleflion of revenue, amounted, by the moft authen¬
tic accounts, to twdee that number. This vaft efta-
blifhment was fo completely furnifhed with artillery in
the numerous forts, and in the field, that upwards oft
400 cannon were found in the outworks of the capital
alone. The moft frequent bar to the efficiency of na¬
tive armies, is the want of regular pay : an obftacle
the provident fultan had removed by gradually amaf-
fing vaft treafures, which he fecured in the forts, or in
the capital; and by improving his revenue, which a-
mounted annually to upw ards of three millions fterling.
The pow er and refources of the Myforean dominions,
thus formidable in themfelves, cannot be fairly eftimat--
ed, unlefs we take into account their advantageous po-
lltion and the charafler of the fovereign. Lying in the
heart of the Deccan, and ftrengthened by innumerable
forts, they command the adjoining frontiers of all
their neighbours j while the reftlefs and enterprifing
fpirit of the prince has long obliged all around him to
keep in a ftate of conftant military preparation, to them
nearly as expenfive as that of adtual war. Few years
were fuffered to elapfe, in which their territories were
not either menaced or aftually invaded. I he open and
defeneelefs frontier of the Carnatic w;as frequently the
objeftt of thefe incurfions ; and the territory of our ally,
the nabob of Arcot, had often fuffered devaftations
that are ftill remembered with horror, ft he Britifh,.
who were bound by treaty to be the protefttors of this
prince, had their own territories plundered extenfively j
and, on one occafion, had been forced to fubmit to an
ignominious peace, which was didtated to them at the
gates of Madras. 159
ftftie French officers in India, many of whom had influence of
long been entertained in the fervice of Fippoo, had the h ■ ench
communicated to his policy that marked hoftility againft ie
the Britifh nation, by which it was fo peculiarly diftm-
guifhed. A fplendid embaffy, which had been dif-
patched to France, returned previous to 1789, before
the breaking out of the late war •, which muft be re¬
garded as the commencement of a regular, fyftem of
hoftility for the entire overthrow of the Britifh power
in the eaft.
Although the events of the French revolution ope¬
rated to divert their attention from profecuting the ob-
jedts of this new alliance, the power of Tippoo had
become fo formidable to the Britifh government, that
the revenues of Madras and Bombay were inadequae
to fupport the forces neceffary for their defence. Large
fupplies
I N D [ 224 ] I N D
India.
160
His excef-
five ambi¬
tion unites
different
Hates a-
gainft him.
fupplles both of troops and of money were required from
* Europe j and experience had fully proved, that unlefs
the power of the kings of Myfore was reduced, the
Britiih polTeflions in the eaft: could not be retained with¬
out incurring an annual lofs to the Hate.
Happily the power, talents, and ambition of the pre-
fent fultan were fully known to the whole of India.
His views of univerfal conquefl: had alarmed all the
nativq powers of the peninfula; and both the Nizam
and the Mahrattas were roufed to combine for their
own defence. Tippoo was the firft Mohammedan
prince, fince the eftablilhment of the Mogul empire,
who openly difclaimed the authority of the king of
Delhi, or Great Mogul. He was the firft alfo to im-
prefs coin with his own titles ; a mark of difrefpeft
which none of the native governments had ever Ihewn.
The great feal which he adopted foon after his father’s
death, and which he affixed to all his public deeds, de¬
clared him to be “ the meffengerof the true faith,” and
announced his ambition to appear as a prophet as well
as conqueror. In the fpirit of eaftern vanity, he not
only declared himfelf the greateft king on earth, but
announced himfelf to be thereftorer of the Mohamme¬
dan faith ; and to avail himfelf of the enthufiafm of his
iecl, he invites all true Muffulmans to join his ftand-
ard, and not only to drive the European infidels out of
India, but to eftabliffi the empire of Mohammed over
the world.
An ambition fo openly avowed, and to an extent fo
inordinate, created immediate alarm among the native
powers of India. It rendered an union peculiarly necef-
fary between the Nizam and the Mahrattas j ftates
who differed in religion, in government, and in every
point of intereft, except that fear, which combined
them againft this powerful adverfary, who was ever
ready to attack them, and who, in fa£t, already com¬
manded their fouthern frontier.
The policy of the Britiffi, who had earlier forefeen
the danger, led them to adopt a ftill more vigorous
preparation than the native powers. Four additional
regiments had been raifed in Europe, and fent to India
under General Abercromby and Colonel Mufgrave ;
and as early as 1788, there were in that country thir¬
teen European battalions, confifting of 8oco men, be¬
tides the troops in the company’s eftabliffiment. Earl
Cornwallis, and feveral of the firft officers in the Bri¬
tiffi fervice, were appointed to command them, under
a new fyftem, by which the powers of the governor-
general and commander in chief were united in the
fame perfon. Thus the counteranion of different au¬
thorities was avoided, and every advantage fecured
which might give efficiency to the operations of war¬
fare.
Happily for the execution of thofe views of defence,
the climate of the Myfore, like all the central parts of
the peninfula of India, is temperate and healthy, in a
degree fuperior to that of any other region of the globe
lying within the tropics. The monfoons which deluge
the coafts of Malabar and Coromandel, have their force
broken as they approach the high mountains of the in¬
terior, where they fall out in ffiowers, which, though
heavy, are not commonly of long continuance. The
verdure of the country is thus preserved 5 and the tem¬
perature of the climate is moderated throughout almoft
the whole year. The Jdritiffi army was therefore able
to remain conftantly in the field, during the whole war j India,
and although they did not enter into cantonments, or
leave their tents, yet the health of the troops did not
materially fuffer.
The military operations againft Tippoo may there- Operations
fore be divided into campaigns, not lb much from theoftheBri.
change of feafon, as from the fuceefs or failure of the1'^1 a8a‘nft
feyeral plans of attack that were carried on againft thatTippo°*
prince. The firft campaign commenced in the month
of June 1790, and -was diredled to the fouthern part of
the peninfula, with a view to relieve the rajah of Tra-
vancore, whofe country had already been attacked by
the fultan. During it, the main army was commanded
by General Meadows j and before the end of the year,
it effected the redu&ion of his rich provinces below the
mountains 5 while the Bombay troops, under General
Abercromby, conquered the valuable diftrifts below
the Ghauts on the weft and north, as far as the river
Baliapatam.
The fecond campaign was carried on by Earl Corn¬
wallis in the heart of Tippoo’s dominions. Though
unfuccefsful in effecting its ultimate objeft, it was dif-
tinguiihed by the capture of the important fortrefs of
Bangalore in the interior of the country $ an event
which fixed the feat of war in the enemies territory,
and was decifive of its final fuccefs. A fuccefsful battle
was alfo fought in the vicinity of Seringapatam 5 and a
demonflration made againft that capital, which, from
the advanced feafon and the fwelling of the Caverv,
proved abortive.
The laft failure, which muft in part be afcribed to
the delay of the Mahratta armies, and the want of pro-
vifions, was fpeedily followed by the arrival of thefe
allies, and by preparations for a freffi campaign. As
thefe new efforts completely humbled the fultan, and
produced a fuccefsful termination of hoftilities, it is ne-
ceffary to detail them more particularly.
The feafon of the year, which, after the battle in
179r, prevented an immediate attack of Seringapatam,
was alfo unfavourable to the numerous draught cattle
belonging to the army. They were infe&ed with an
epidemic diforder, which was aggravated by famine,
and killed them in vaft numbers-, while the remainder,
from difeafe and hunger, becameunfitfor fervice. Mean¬
while the fcarcity of grain, of arrack, and every article
of fubfiftence, daily increafed j this fcarcity became at
laft fo urgent, that the camp followers, which in India
are four times as numerous as the fighting men, were
reduced to the neceffity of devouring the putrid flefti of
the dead bullocks ^ and to add to all thefe calamities,
the fmallpox unfortunately raged in the camp.
Similar diftreffes were fuffered by the Bombay army,
who, with infinite labour, had dragged their artillery
for 50 miles through the moft fteep and difficult paffes,
in order to co-operate with Lord Cornwallis. Unable
to form a jun&ion, from the fwelling of the Cavery
and the badnefs of the roads, they were compelled to
retrace their fteps over thofe vaft woody mountains,
which form the immenfe and impregnable barrier be¬
tween the kingdom of Myfore and the Malabar coaft.
In this perilous retreat, the battering train of both ar¬
mies was unavoidably loft, being too unwieldy to be
moved by the fmall portion of draught cattle which
now furvived } upwards of 40,000 had already perifhed
fince the commencement of the campaign.
Difappointed
I N D
[ 225 ]
I N D
162
Diftrefs of
the army.
India. Difappointed of the relief and afliftance which the
' junttion of the Bombay troops might have afforded, the
pofition of the main army became a fcene of the greatefl:
diftrefs. The tents and clothing of the troops, as well as
their provifions, were nearly worn out. Great part of the
horfes of the cavalry w ere fo far reduced by want and fa¬
tigue, that they were unable to carry their riders. The
ground at Caniambaddy, where it had encamped for a
few days to favour the jun£lion, or to protedt the re¬
treat, of General Abercromby, was covered to an ex¬
tent of feveral miles, with the carcafes of the cattle and
horfes j and the laft fight of the gun carriages, carts,
and ftores of the battering train, left in flames, was the
melancholy fpedlaele which the troops beheld, as they
faffed along, on quitting this deadly camp.
Fortunately for them in this dreadful fituation, they
Were met, before they had finifhed the firft day’s
march, by the allied force of the Mahrattas, under
Purferam Bow and Hurry Punt. Every defpatch fent
to thefe chiefs had been intercepted by the vigilance of
the enemy. They were aftonifhed when they learned
the difafters which had been occafioned by their delay :
their arrival, which evinced their fincerity in the caufe,
produced general fatisfa£lion in the Britifh camp, and
a convi&ion, that the ruin of the fultan, though de¬
layed, muft now become certain and inevitable. Tip-
poo himfelf, on feeing his enemies firm and aftive in
their union, was not infenfible to the dangers that
awaited him. Before the allied armies left the vicinity
of his capital to forward their preparations for a new
campaign, he made overtures to Lord Cornwallis for
the conclufion of a peace j but that nobleman would
liften to no terms of accommodation in which his allies
were not included, and which were not preceded by
the releafe of all the prifoners that had been detained
during the prefent and former wars.
The arrival of the Mahratta troops, amounting to
32,000 cavalry, however fortunate it might be deemed
at the critical moment in which it happened, brought
little additional effective ftrength to the allied army.
Their battalions were unwieldy, irregular, and ill-dif-
ciplined: their force had declined as much as Tippoo’s
had advanced in improvement j and they were at pre¬
fent far inferior to thofe troops who, under Madha
Row, had defeated Hyder Aly in 1772. Their chiefs
were, however, overjoyed that they had effedted a
jundtion nearly on the fpot where that fignal vidtory
had been obtained. They were pleated at having met
the Britifh army without having occafion to try their
ftrength fingly with Tippoo, of whofe difcipline and
abilities in the field they entertained a deep apprehcn-
fion.
. To avoid confufion and interference, they were en¬
camped at a diftance from the Britifh troops. Their
ground, from the number of followers, and their fami¬
lies, had the appearance of a large town, or of a whole
nation emigrating from its territory. The tents of the
chiefs are placed around their general’s, without any
regularity or order. They are of all dimenfions, and of
every variety of colour, refembling houfes rather than
Appearancecanvas* ft1'6^5* winding and crofting in every di-
oftbeir redtion, prefent the appearance of a great fair j in
camp, which fmiths, jewellers, merchants, and mechanics, are
difplaying their wares, and as bufily employed in their
Vol. XI. Part L
153
Jen&ion
with the
Mahrattas,
trades, as if they lived in their own capital, and enjoyed India,
a profound peace *.
The ftate of their artillery, upon which modern war-
fare fo much depends, will at once demonftrate the ira-ofthe Cam-
perfedlion of the military fyftem among the Mahrattain
ftates. In the conftrudtion of their gun carriages, they India in
make little ufe of iron, but for their ftrength they truft 'g^crai.
to the bulk and folidity of the timber : Hence they are i)iro„,r
unwieldy from their weight, and clumfy beyond all be¬
lief; the wheels, in particular, are heavy and low, be¬
ing formed of large folid pieces of wood united toge¬
ther. The guns themfelves are ponderous in the ex¬
treme, and of the moft irregular dimenfions; each is
painted in a fantaftic manner, and bears the name of
fome one of their gods. Not a few are dragged after
the army long after they have ceafed to be ferviceable,
from the great eftimation they are held in, on account
of part atchievements which they are fuppofed to have r(j£
performed for the ftate. Some of thefe ufelefs impedi- and ftate
ments of a march are dragged along at the immenfe their mi«
expence of 100, and fometimes 150 draught cattle |j.^ary
yoked in pairs. The moft infurmountable obftacle to 1
the efficiency of the Mahratta artillery, was the fear-
city of ammunition with which they were provided at
this period ; fubfequent improvements have enlarged
this fupply, and rendered them far more formidable to
their enemies.
The infantry of this nation holds a rank, if pof-
fible, ftill more contemptible than their artillery. Its
officers are half-caft Portuguefe or French ; and the
privates confift of outcafts of every defeription, who are
uniform in nothing but in the wretched condition of
their mufkets, ammunition, and accoutrements. The
Mahrattas themfelves hold them in contempt, ride
through them on the march, without ceremony, or even
the appearance of refpeft. If there happen to be a
few Europeans among the officers and men, which in
thefe times was but feldom the cafe, they execrate the
fervice, and till they find an opportunity of efcape,
continue to deplore their fate.
The cavalry is the favourite portion of a Mahratta
army ; and it is to his horfes, and the bazars, that the
attention of every chief is almoft folely direfted. On
marching days, the baggage and infantry move off at
daybreak, w’hile the chiefs and their principal followers
remain upon the ground fmoking their hookahs till they
have advanced fome miles; they then follow, each pur-
fuing his own route, attended by his principal people;
while the inferior ranks difperfe over the country to
plunder and forage in every dire&ion. jgjj
The troops of the Nizam at this period joined Lord Troops of
Cornwallis and the Mahrattas; their ftate of equip-d\e N'zani
ment and difcipline was almoft in every refpeft
wretched as that of the Mahrattas. Their forces, when^11 1
united, amounted to about 80,000 men ; and if to thefe
be added four times the number of camp-followers,
brinjarries, and the carriage department, the number
of ftrangers to be fubfifted in the Myfore alone, cannot
be much lefs than half a million. That no diftruft,
jealoufy, or counteranion, ftiould have difturbed the
combined operations of fueb an immenfe multitude,
muft; be aferibed to the unexampled moderation and vi¬
gilant conduft of the commander in chief. Such a vafl:
army had never taken the field in India in the Britifti
F f caufe;
I N D [2
India, caufe ; yet no murmurs, or even the flightefi appear-
ance 0f diftruft, were ever manifeited by the allies to¬
wards the BritKh commander. They fubmitted with
implicit confidence not only to his arrangements in car¬
rying on the war ; but, which was little to be expect¬
ed among allies fo much alive to their particular inter-
efts, they acquiefced in his diftribution of the conquer¬
ed territories with a deference which evinced the moil
perfect confidence in his liberality and juftice.
The fteady co-operation, however, of any native
power with the Britifti army in the field, is a circum-
ftance hardly to be looked for, and muft therefore prove
a refource on which no commander would choofe to re¬
ly. His patience will often be feverely tried by their
irregularities and delays ; and in the molt critical emer¬
gencies his views may be fruftated by their want of
punctuality, or by a total failure in their engagements.
Even in the article of provifions, the prefence of the
native armies, bating the temporary relief at their firft
junction, proved a much greater annoyance than a be¬
nefit ; for it increafed the number of mouths to be fup-
plied, in a country defolated by its friends as well as by
hoftile armies.
The com- With thefe coadjutors, Lord Cornwallis fet out in
bined army (;Pje month of June, towards Bangalore. He determi-
i0r~ ned on a new and circuitous route, northward by Nag-
gemungulum, that he might accomplilh fome of the
important objefts neceffary to enable the confederates
to commer ce another campaign. He had to enable the
Mahrattas to withdraw the polls which they had left
on their march, when they advanced from Poonah to¬
wards Scringapatam. He had to confine the fultan to
as fmall a portion of his territory as pradlicable, and
thus to oblige him to confume the provifions which he
had laid up for the defence of his capital: and, laftly,
he had to gain time for collefting and bringing forward
the vaft ftores of camp equipage, provifions, and fupplies,
which he had ordered for the fucceeding campaign.
In order to facilitate the communication between
the Myfore and the Carnatic, from which the fupplies
w'ere chiefly to be drawn; the various hill forts, which
command the different paffes, were to be reduced.
Many of thefe fortreffes, from their fituation upon high
and precipitous rocks, are of fuch ftrength that they
have always been deemed impregnable by the native
armies of India. In ancient times they formed the in-
acceffible retreats of the rajahs who Hill retained their
independence j and it was not till the vigorous adminx-
llration of Tippoo and his father, that they were
brought into fubjeftion and garriftmed by the Myfore-
an troops.
Among thefe forts, Savendroog, Chittledroog, and
Kiftnaghury, are the moft remarkable in point of na¬
tural ftrength. The firft of thefe conlifts of a vaft.
mountainous rock, which rifes'above half a mile in
perpendicular height above its own bafe, which covers
a fpace of eight or ten miles in circumference. This
rock is furrounded by walls on every fide, and defend¬
ed by crofs barriers wherever it was deemed acceftible.
Towards the upper part, the immenfe pile is almoit pre¬
cipitous, and has the farther advantage of being divi¬
ded on the top into two hills, which have each their
defences, and are capable of being maintained indepen¬
dent of the garrifon in the lower works.
6 ] I N D
To the fiege of this tremendous fortrefs, Lieutenant- India,
colonel Stewart commanding the right wing of the J
main army was appointed. The attempt commenced on
the icth of December, when this officer pitched his
camp within three miles of the north fide of the rock. jgg
The formidable appearance of the place itfelf, had Savendroog
withdrawn the attention of the troops from a circum-befieged,
fiance/ which proved on trial the chief obftacle to the
execution of their arduous attempt. It confifted in the
formation of a gun road from the camp to the foot of
the mountain. This was found a work of incredible la¬
bour, fince it led through a long tradl of rocky bills,
thickly planted with bamboos; and after every effort,
the battering guns were ftill to be dragged over rocks
of confiderable height, and of an afeent almoft perpen¬
dicular.
This celebrated rock, fo difficult of approach, and of
fuch immenfe ftrength, is no lefs famed for a noxious
atmofphere, occafioned by the hills and immenfe traHs
of wood by which it is furrounded •, the appellation of
Savendroog, or Rock of death, is faid to have been given
it from the noxious and fatal nature of its climate.
Tippoo Sultan, fenfible of all its advantages, congratu¬
lated his army on the infatuation of the Britifli, which
had at laft led them to an enterprife which would
fpeedily operate their difgrace, and terminate in their
ruin. One half of the Europeans, he afferted, would
be deftroyed by difeafe, and the other half he was con¬
fident would be killed in the affault. The garrifon
which Tippoo had fele£ted for the ftation of Saven¬
droog were of the fame fentiments with their mafter :
regarding the attempt to reduce it as madnefs, they
fortunately trufted more to its ftrength, than to their
own exertions for its defence j and hence, little or no
oppofition was made to the ereftion of our batteries,
farther than the ill-direded fire of their artillery pro¬
duced.
In three days, during which it was found neceffary
to advance the batteries nearer to the wall, a prafti-
cable breach was effedted, and a lodgement made for
the troops within twenty yards of the breach. The
ftorming party, which confifted chiefly of Europeans,
wras led by Lieutenant-colonel Nilbet, and was di¬
vided into four different parties of attack, in order
to fecure both hills into which the mountain w'as di¬
vided, and to diftradt the attention of the enemy.
Each party fucceeded in gaining its objedt; for a anci taken»
large body of the enemy who w’ere feen in the morn¬
ing coming down for the defence of the breach, on
obferving the Europeans advancing to the ftorm, was
feized with a panic, and fled. The eaftern hill im¬
mediately above the breach, wras carried by Captain
Gage, without meeting, or even overtaking, the ene¬
my ; the main body of which endeavoured to gain the
weftern hill, and, had they effedted their objedt, the
liege muft have recommenced. Happily, however, the
pathway leading from the breach to this hill is fo
fteep and narrow that the fugitives impeded each other,
and the affaiiants preffed them fo hard, that they enter¬
ed the different batteries along with the enemy. In
thefe numbers wrere killed, among whom was the fe~
cond killadar; and the citadel on the fummit of the
hill w’as at laft gained, where the firft killadar was
made prifoner. So clofe and critical was the purfuit
oa
I N D [ 227 ] IN 1>
Irutfa.
170
Other
Itrongholds
taken.
i?1
Effects of
thefe fuc-
cefles.
on this fortunate oceafion, that a ferjeant of the 71ft
regiment, when at feme diftanee, Ihot the man who
was in the aft of [hutting the firft gate ; and upon this
occurrence, almoit accidental, the fate of the citadel
hinged. It was inftantly taken, without the lots of a
tingle man ; although a hundred of the enemy had
been killed during the advance, and many had peritlied
by falling from the precipices in endeavouring to efcape.
Only one private foldier was wounded in this remark¬
able affault of the impregnable fortrefs of Savendroog :
it formed a difplay of fuccefsful prowefs, fortunate al-
moft beyond example ; and it exhibited before the
enemy, in open day, an inflance of intrepidity, of
high value to the reputation of the army and the inte-
retts of the India government.
The beneficial confequences of this important cap¬
ture, were fenfibly felt at the different forts, almofl im¬
pregnable, by which this part of the country is fo re¬
markably ftrengthened. Colonel Stewart’s detachment,
which had been fo much ditlinguithed by this atchieve-
nient, marched in two days againft Outredroog, ano¬
ther fortrefs ftrengthened by five different walls, and fo
iteep as to prove tenable by a handful of men againft
the largeft army. After the refufal of a fummons to
furrender, the lower fort was efcaladed with fuch rapi¬
dity, that the killadar requefted a parley. While this
was in agitation, an appearance of treachery was dif-
covered in the upper fort, where the garrifon were feen
moving and pointing their guns againft the affailants.
Fired at this fight, Lieutenant M‘Innes led on the
ftorming party with impetuofity ; feme of the gates were
inftantly broken, others were efcaladed, till five or fix
different walls on the face of the fteep rock were paf-
fed, when the troops gained the fummit, and put the
garrifon to the fword. So panic-ltruck were the ene¬
my, when they faw a fingle European above the wralls,
that they could make no refiftance. The killadar was
made prifoner, a number of the garrifon was killed,
and not a few, terrified at the approach of Europeans
with their bayonets, are faid to have precipitated them-
felves from the rocks.
The affault of thefe fortreffes, which had hitherto
been deemed impregnable, made fo ferious an impref-
fion on the enemy, that in none of the hill forts, how¬
ever inacceftible, did they afterwards make an attempt
to refill; the Britilh troops. Hence, the ftrong moun¬
tainous country between Bangalore and Seringapatam,
which, ftudded with forts, had fo much checked all
communication, now afforded fecurity to the convoys.
Thefe now reached the army without oppofition $ and
the fupplies of warlike (lores of every defeription were
as completely re-eftablilhed as they had been at the
beginning of the laft campaign.
To prevent any future fcarcity of the great article
of grain, the commander in chief encouraged the na¬
tive brinjarries, a clafs of men vvhofe employment is
purchafing grain where it is cheap, and felling it to
the army. By conftantly affording regular payment and
a good price to thefe native merchants, they fupplied
the camp to an extent far exceeding what could ever
be furnifhed by the moft extenfive carriage eftablilh-
ment. The grain-dealers had at this time paffes for no
lefs than 50,000 bullocks, whofe rice was inftantly paid
for, as foon as it reached the camp, and orders given
for purchafing more from whatever quarter it could be India,
procured. This brought forth the refources of the ene- m"
mies country as well as our own j for feveral of Tippoo’s
brinjarries, tempted by the certainty of payment and
a high price, fold their rice in the Britilh camp.
Supplies being thus provided to an extent far ex- Prepara-
ceeding every former example, the allied armies, and tioris ^or
the different detachments, were ordered to affemble for anot'ier
another campaign. The Bombay troops, deftined again Can ^a °n
to aft from the fame quarter as laft feafon, marched
from Cananore, and arrived at the foot of the Poodi-
cherrim Ghaut in the month of December. Several
weeks of hard labour were neceffary to drag the artillery
through woods extending nearly 60 miles, and over
mountains of immenfe height. Thefe mountains, which
on the weft command a view of the Malabar coaft, and
on the eaft of the country of the My lore, form an ele¬
vated ridge towering into the clouds, on which the ri¬
vers are feen taking their rife, and flowing in different
direftions, till they reach the eaftern and weftern fliores
of the peninfula. The friendly territory of the Coorga
rajah furrounds the interior of this formidable pafs,
where a fmall oppofition might bid defiance to a whole
army. This circumftance enabled the Bombay troops,
confifting of 8400 men, with all their baggage and ar¬
tillery, and a fupply of rice for 40 days, to penetrate
with fafety into the Myfore frontier, which they reach¬
ed on the 22d of January 1792. To facilitate the re¬
turn of our army, batteries were conftrufted, and the
defence of this pafs committed to Lieutenant-colonel
Peche with 300 men, a precaution which had not the
fultan overlooked, he would have fuffered no invalion
on this quarter of his dominions.
The Mahratta forces, which had feparated from the
main army at Bangalore, had fpent the feafon of the
monfoon in a train of exploits which feemed to imply
more than their ufual lhare of aftivity. With the afiift-
ance of the Bombay detachmentof three nativTe battalions,
they took the important poll of Simoga, after defeating
Reza Saib and near 10,000 of the fultan’s cavalry.
This brilliant fuccefs encouraged Purferam Bow to en¬
gage in an enterprife againft Bednore, which had near¬
ly fruftrated the whole plan of the campaign, by pro-
trafting his junftion with General Abercromby beyond
the ftipulated time. From this attempt, however, he was
diverted by the arrival of Cummer ud Deen Khan, one
of Tippoo’s belt generals, who had been difpatched
againft; him. This chieftain retook the fort of Si¬
moga ; but being too weak to encounter the Bow in
the field, the Mahrattas effefteu their junftion with
the Bombay army, though fomewhat later than the ap¬
pointed feafon. The main army under Lord Cornwal¬
lis, which had been fo aftively employed during the
rains in fubduing the hill forts, and in coll eft ing the
neceffary ftores and reinforcements, was ordered ulti¬
mately to affemble at Outredroog, one of the ftrongeft
of Tippoo’s forts, which was fituated within 50 miles
of his capital. This place being equally fpacious and
ftrong, was fitted up as a general hofpital, and formed
into a magazine for the grain and public ftores that
were not immediately needed for the army. The bat¬
tering train under Colonel Duff, and the laft convoys
under Colonel Floyd, having lafely joined, the main
army was at laft fully prepared to refume its enterprifes
F f 2 againft
India.
*73.
'The allied
army ap¬
proaches to
Seringa-
patam.
I N D [2
againft the fultan, who, in imitation of his father, when
formerly attacked in 1767, had encamped with the
whole of his force in a ftrong pofition under the walls
of his capital.
One jun&ion more was ftill expelled j that of
the Nizam or Soubah from Gurramcondah, the lower
fort of which he had captured. This prince having
left a ftrong force to garrifon the place, marched again
to meet Lord Cornwallis, who was detained in expec-
tion of this event for feveral days beyond the time he
had appointed for leaving Outredroog. On the 25th
of January, the young prince at laid arrived with his
army ; his youth and inexperience were put under the
guidance of a minifter 60 years of age, a man of great
talents and eftablifhed reputation. The confederacy,
which thus united the chief powers in the peninfula for
the overthrow of a formidable and ambitious enemy,
was attended alfo by an ambaflador, w ho arrived at this
time, from Madajee Boonfla the rajah of Berar. The
Pefhwa and the Nizam were themfelves in the field on
their refpe£Hve frontiers, and all India looked with
anxious expeftation to the event of this important cam¬
paign.
On the ill of February the allied armies marched
from Hooleadroog, the laid hill fort of which they had
taken pofleffion, lying at the diftance of only 40 miles
from Seringapatam. Tippoo’s cavalry, which had been
fent out to harafs them on the march, made little im-
preflion, and were therefore chiefly occupied in burn¬
ing the intermediate villages, and in laying wafte the
country. The Laft march, of ^the 5th of February,
firetched acrofs a range of barren hills lying fix miles
north-eaft of Seringapatam. From thefe heights, a
view of the whole city was prefented to the army, and
the encampment of the fultan under its walls. Every
circumftance was eagerly viewed by our troops j and,
from the fultan’s pofition, it was evident he meant to
defend the place in perfon, and to make it the grand
eoncluding fcene of the war.
The camp of the allies was pitched on the north
fide of the illand. The Britifii formed the front line,
and extended its whole length on both fides of the
Lockany, a fmall river which at this place flows into
the Cavery. The referve was placed a mile in the
rear, to afford fpace for the baggage and ftores ; and
the Nizam and Mahrattas were ftationed ftill farther
in the rear, to prevent interference with the Britifti
eamp.
Oppofite to Seringapatam, on both fides of the river,
a large fpace is inclofed by a bound hedge, which
marks the limits of the capital, and affords a refuge to
the peafants during the incurfions of cavalry. Tippoo’s
front line, or fortified camp, lay immediately behind
this hedge, where it was defended by heavy cannon in
the redoubts, and by a large field train advantageoufly
placed. In this line there were 100 pieces of artillery,
and in the fort and ifland which formed his fecond
line there were above thrice that number. The re¬
doubts on his left were entrufted to two of his beft offi¬
cers, and a corps of Europeans commanded by Mon-
fieur Vigie ; Sheik Anfar, a general of eftabliftied re¬
putation, was ftationed on the right, and the Carighaut
hill •, while Tippoo himfelf commanded the centre,
having his tent pitched in the fultan’s redoubt. The
fort and ifland, where there was the greateft number of
4
28 ] I N D
guns, were entrufted to Syed Saib and other comman- India,
ders. The whole army of the fultan, thus ftationed,
confifted of about 50,000 men.
Ever fince the junction of the allied armies, Tippoo
finding he could not. keep the field, employed his chief
attention, and the labours of his main army, in fortify¬
ing this camp, and in ftrengthening his defences in the
fort and ifland. The country had already been laid
wafte in the former campaign $ and the fultan feemed
to reft his hopes, that the ftrength of his works and
th% valour of his army would protradl the fiege, till
the want of fupplies, or the approach of the monfoon,
would again force his enemies to abandon their enter-
prife, as they had been compelled to do on former oc-
cafions.
Impreffed with thefe ideas, Tippoo made no attempt
to interrupt our reconnoitring parties, who had been
bufily employed on the firft day after their arrival in
examining his camp. The diftance of our pofition, and
the abfence of the armies under General Abercromby
and Purferam Bow, increafed his fecurity : for he did
not imagine that Lord Cornwallis would venture to
attack him without their affiftance ; far lefs could he
believe that a fortified camp, defended by the guns of
his capital and a powerful army, would be attempted
by infantry alone, without guns, and in the uncertain¬
ty of night.
The promptitude and fpirit of Lord Cornwallis had
fuggefted far different ideas, and a plan of attack which
was bold beyond even the expeflatxons of his own ar¬
my. On the evening of the fixth of February, juft
after the troops had left the parade, orders w'ere iffued
for an attack at 7 o’clock of the enemies camp and
lines in three divifions. The Britifh camp was left to
be defended by the artillery and cavalry ; while the af-
failants wffio were inftantly furnilhed with guides and
fcaling ladders, marched in perfect confidence that muf-
kets alone w'ould prove the fitteft inftruments for open¬
ing their way into the enemy’s camp.
No part in the execution of this bold enterprife was
affigned to the troops of the allies 5 nor was the intend¬
ed affault even communicated to them, till after the
columns had marched. It was perhaps good policy to Tippoo’s
conceal from them a meafure fo repugnant to all their camp at-
maxims of war, and in which they could not poffiblytacked*
concur. This opinion feems juftified by the furprife
and confternation which they difplayed, on learning
that Lord Cornwallis, like a common foldier, was per-
fonally to lead the attack on the enemies fortified
camp. They not only deemed his fuccefs impoffible,
but they dreaded that the ruin of the allied armies
would be involved in the attempt.
The three columns into which the affailants had
been divided, marched with equal intrepidity to exe¬
cute the different obje&s that had been allotted them 1
many obftacles intervened ; various conflifts enfued in,
different quarters of the enemies camp ) each party was
uncertain of the fate of the reft, and each individual
of his affociates. The return of day at laft removed
their fears and uncertainty, by difclofing the complete
fuccefs w'hich had crowned their exertions throughout
the whole line of attack.
The right column commanded by General Meadows
had met with more impediments than the reft j it at¬
tacked and carried the eadgali, a redoubt on the ene-
xaiea
I N D [22
India, mies left, which was defended by eight guns, ai J a
—r-—' numerous garrifon, nearly 500 of which fell in this at¬
tack. Confiderable lofs was alfo fuftained by the Bri-
tifli in this redoubt. After its capture, the column
was again formed in its original order, and marched
with a view to fupport the centre under Lord Corn¬
wallis •, but miftaking the proper track, and making
too wide a circuit, it reached the Carighaut hill on the
enemy’s right, which had already been carried by Co¬
lonel Maxwell.
The centre column about 11 o’clock forced through
the bound hedges, amidft a heavy five from the fultan’s
redoubt and Tippoo’s lines. Thefe, however, were alfa
forced. The troops were now enabled to crofs the river,
and penetrate into the ifland. Soclofely did they prefs
upon the fugitives, that they would have entered the
citadel along with them, but for the precaution of raif-
ing the drawbridge, which they had drawn up at the
moment of entering the place.. So precipitately had
Tippoo been forced to abandon his tent in the fultan’s
redoubt, that his filver flicks, pikes, and mathemati¬
cal inftruments, were found fcattered in the place.
The fort being inacceffible from the removal of the
bridge, the advanced party forced into the town or pet-
tah, which had been almoft abandoned for the defence
of the batteries. Here they found 27 half-ftarved Eu¬
ropeans, loaded with irons, and confined in a dungeon.
Some of thefe unhappy men, who were now relieved,
had been cruelly given up to Tippoo by Admiral Suf-
frein j others were deferters, whom Tippoo, however,
had treated with equal feverity.
The left divifion of the attack, which was command¬
ed by Lieut. Col. Maxwell, vvasdeflined to take poffef-
fion of the Carighaut hill, and from thence to defcend
and penetrate into the illand on the right flank of the
enemy. Thefe objects w^ere effefted with rapidity, and
but little lofs, except in crofling the C a very, which was
deep and rapid, and at the fame time flrongly defend¬
ed by the enemy’s batteries. In crofling the flream,
which at this place was neck deep, the ammunition was
unavoidably damaged •, but the troops preffed forward
with the bayonet, and at laft joined the other divifions
who were now' aflembled at the pettah.
The enemy having loft all their pofitions on the north
fide of the river, where the fiege w-as to commence, and
almoft the whole of the ifland, every material objefl of
the aflault was fecured. On the fide of the Britifh, the
lofs, though confiderable, was fmall in proportion to the
importance of the viftory, and the difafters of the ene¬
my , of whom, it afterwards appeared, that no lefsthan
20,000 had either deferted, or been flain in the vari¬
ous conflifts during this night of enterprife, danger, and
death.
On the 7th, the enemy, as if alhamed of the rapidity
with which their different polls had been abandoned,
made feveral attempts to recover them. Their efforts
were direfted chiefly to the fultan’s redoubt, command¬
ed by Major Sibbald. Expofed to the guns of the
fort, and the batteries on the ifland, the major’s little
party defended the place for the whole day ■, and hav¬
ing (uccefsfully repulfed the different affaults of the ene¬
my, they at laft, weary of the attempt, defifted from
the enterprife. The endeavour which the fultan’s troops
made to regain the pettah, met with a fimilar check j
and the night of the 7th would have afforded fome re-
India,
.175.
9 ] I N D /
pofe to the army, had not the rumour of an intended
attack by Tippoo during the night, kept them on the
alert. That fuch an attack had been meditated, there
was full evidence j but both the chiefs and the foldiery
were fo much difpirited by the fatal train of events that
had fo rapidly taken place during the laft; twenty-four
hours, that they could not be induced to fecond the
zeal of their fovereign. During the various conflicts of
the 6th and 7th, the fatigues and dangers of the Brx-
tilh army were fevere j and its lofs in killed, wounded,
and miffing, was far from being inconfiderable (536
men). The extent and importance of the acquifitions
gained by this brilliant conteft feemed, however, to
compenfate every facrifice that had been made. It now
occupied the lines and polls from which the enemy had
been driven j and the works which had been fo com¬
pletely fortified for the defence of the capital, now be¬
came lines of circumvallation for its attack. 1 he troops
on the one fide were broken and difpirited j on the o-
ther they were in perfect order, and animated with their
recent fuccefs. The Europeans in the fervice of Tip¬
poo, after the difaftrous events of the laft; two days, now
defpairing of his fortunes, deferted to our army j and
many of them enlifted with the Mahrattas ; others re¬
tired to the French fettlements. After their departure,,
the fultan’s army never encamped in order, or affumed
a formidable appearance.
The Britiffi army, now in poffeffion of the illand and anc^ Senn-
town of Seringapatam, was immediately employed in.Sal3tarn
making the neceflary preparations for the fiege of the
fortrefs or citadel. This enchanting illand being plen¬
tifully watered by the Cavery, and a vaft number>of-
interfecling canals, maintains a perpetual verdure : ou
the eaft, it is decorated by the buildings of the fort,
which occupies a mile fquare y on the weft, by the Laul
Bang, containing the maufoleum of Hyder Aly, adorn¬
ed by tall cypreffes, lhaded walks, and a variety of'
trees, whofe foliage and perennial verdure announce an
everlafting fpring. The mofques and religious build¬
ings were converted into hofpitals for the wounded and
lick •, and the trees, now for the fitft time affailed by'
the axe, furniffied materials for fafcines and gabions for
the approaching fiege.
The proud mind of the liiltan could not remain tran¬
quil, on feeing his beautiful gardens and all his im¬
provements threatened with deftruction, by an enemy*
who was alfo preparing to deprive him of his citadel
and all that remained of his power. His indignation
was expreffed by a continual dilcharge of cannon from
the fort, directed againft the ifland, the redoubts, and
every party of ours that feemed within his reach. Som&
of his ffiot ranged as far as.the camp, aimed apparently
at head quarters : but the diftanee of the-feveral polls
was too great •, and his ineffectual cannonade ferved ra¬
ther to proclaim the wrath of the fovertign, than ma¬
terially to annoy his enemies.
Tired by thefe repeated efforts, which he faw wera
vain, and worn out by the ebullitions of his own anger,
Tippoo at laft began to meditate ferioufly on the necef-
lity of a peace, the only means by which he could ex-*
tricate himfelf from his perilous Hate. In order to
fmooth the way for his overtures, he previoully liberated 1
two Britiffi officers, who had been detained contrary to
capitulation in Coimbatore j thefe officers, till now the
viftims of his cruelty, he loaded with prefents, and mads
them
I N D [ 2.;
India, them the bearers of a letter to Lord Cornwallis filing for
l'-* ‘y -— peace# Another expedient, more daring, but far lefs
honourable, was nearly at this time praftifed to attain
hi deliverance. A fmall party of horfemen were de-
fpatehed to r he Britilh camp in the night, for the pur-
poh of aifaffinat ’ng the commander in chief: as ftrag-
gling parties of the Nizam’s horfe were near, the
troopers, millaken for friends, had littledifhculty in en¬
tering the camp ; and, but for an accident, might have
effebled their purpofe. Detected, however, by their in¬
quiries for his lordfhip’s tent, they were fired at by a
party of recruits j and fuch was the fpeed with which
they made off, that they fuffered little damage in this
difgraceful enterprife, which is fo often reforted to by
the princes of India. This was the fecond attempt a-
■gainft the commander’s life during the prefent war:
that both were unfuccefsful, muft be afcribed to that
intoxication in which the natives are plunged, before
they can be induced to venture upon fuch hazardous
deeds.
Though Tippoo had recourfe to thefe vile projects,
which he knew were countenanced by the practice of
his country, he did not trufl: to them folely for his de¬
fence. The Bombay army which was at this time ap¬
proaching, he combated and haralfed by every effort of
honourable war: its junftion, however, with the main
army was effeffed on the 16th j and on the fecond night
after this event, the trenches were opened, and a paral¬
lel formed within 800 yards of the north face of the
fort. General Abercromby, ifatioued on the fouth quar¬
ter with a flrong detachment, was ordered to cannonade
it from the heights. This attack being dire&ed againft
the weakeft part of the fort, occafioned the greateft
alarm. Tippoo himfelf, therefore, at the head of his
troops, marched to difiodge the general : being fuppor-
ted by the guns of the fort, be maintained the adiion
for the whole day 3 but towards evening, he was forced
to retreat.
This defperate effort was the laft that Tippoo made
for his defence, His affairs haftened to a crifis 3 cabals
■were formed by the chiefs, and his troops deferted in
multitudes during the night. Plenipotentiaries from
the allies, fince that, had been treating with his vakeels 3
his haughty fpirit, hitherto untraffable, was now forced
to yield to their demands. He faw his capital blockaded
on every fide by a powerful army, plentifully fupplied
■with provifions, which muft infallibly reduce his troops
by famine, fliould they even prove fuccefsful in repell¬
ing its aifaults; even his laft hopes of relief from the
monfoon, and the fwelling of the river, were thus final-
ly cut off.
Treaty of On the 23d of February, therefore, the preliminaries
peacefign- Df peace were figned by Tippoo, amidft the confli&ing
ed by Tip- emotions 0f pride, refentment, and fear ; and orders
were iffued to the troops on both fides to ceafe from far¬
ther hoftilities 3 a ftipulation, of which the dread of an
immediate affault alone inforced the obfervance.
By the terms of this treaty, Tippoo was compelled to
pay, as an indemnification for the expences of the war,
three crore and 30 lacks of rupees at two inftalments, the
o ] I N D
firf -to be advanced immediately, and the fecond at the India,
end of four months. Other articles of this inftrument ^
provided farther, that the whole prifoners taken from
the allied powers from the time of Hyder Aly, fliould
be unconditionally reftored 3 that no lefs than one-half
of his territories fliould be ceded to the allies 3 and that
two of Tippoo Sultan’s three eldeft fons fliould be
give as hoftages, for the due performance of the
treaty.
The candid and upright condudl: of Lord Cornwallis
had gained the full confidence of all the allies. So
complete was the afcendancy he polTeifed over their
councils, that they fubmitted without a murmur to all
the arrangements which he propofed 3 a circumftance
(confidering the deep interefts which were at flake) that
muft be regarded as not the leaft extraordinary in this
campaign.
The terms of this agreement, which refembled a ca¬
pitulation more than a treaty, were hard, and Tippoo
with great difficulty w'as prevailed on to fubfcribe to
them. Another ftruggle, perhaps ftill greater, yet re¬
mained for his family. This arofe from the diftrefs in
his feraglio, on parting with his children. The fultan
was entreated to requeft another day for making pre¬
parations for their departure 3 and Lord Cornwallis,
though he had already difpenfed with their accompany¬
ing the treaty, as firft agreed, had the humanity to grant
this requeft.
About noon day on the 26th the princes mounted His ions de-
their elephants richly caparifoned, and attended with allvere(iuP
fplendxd retinue left the fort, the w'alls and ramparts 0f ^ ^oltaSe3‘
which were crowded w ith multitudes of fpeftators. A-
midft the vaft multitudes whom curiofity or affeftion
had drawn out to witnefs this fcene, Tippoo himfelf
was beheld (landing above a high gateway through
which, as they pafied, the princes were faluted by the
guns of the fort 3 a compliment which they again re¬
ceived as they approached the Britifti camp. They
were feated in filver howdahs, attended by their father’s
minifter, and a numerous retinue. The proceflion which
they thus formed, was equally grand and interefting.
It was led by feveral camel harcarras and ftandard-
bearers, carrying green flags fufpended from rockets,
followed by one hundred pikemen with fpears inlaid
with filver. Their guard of two hundred Sepoys, and
a party of horfe, brought up the rear (c).
In this order the princes proceeded till they ap¬
proached the tent of Lord Cornwallis, who had order¬
ed a battalion of Sepoys for their reception 3 where the
commander in chief embraced them with a cordiality
and tendernefs that refembled parental affedlion. The
manners, drefs, and appearance of the young princes
themfelves, formed an interefting fpeftacle to their Eu¬
ropean hofts. Bred up from their infancy with infinite
care, and inftrufted to imitate in their manners the re-
ferve and politenefs of more advanced age, all prefent
were aftoniflied to obferve the correftnefs and propriety
of their conduft. Abdul Kalick, the eldeft, was of a dark
complexion, even among the natives of India 3 but his
countenance was marked by thougbtfulnefs and intelli¬
gence.
(c) For the fubftance of this account we are indebted to an eye witnefs, Major-general Dirom 3 who has favour¬
ed the public with an excellent narrative of this campaign.
I N D [ 231 ] I N D
India, gence. Tlie younger, Mooza ud Deen, was remarka-
u—• yy faJr • a regular fet of features, with an open appear¬
ance, rendered him the general favourite, and more ad¬
mired than his brother. Clothed in red turbans and
long white muflin gowns, every where fparkling with
emeralds, rubies, and pearls, their external decorations
difplayed a brilliancy far furpafling every European
idea of drefs, and feemed to realize thofe laboured de-
fcriptions of fplendour, which are in the weftern world
only feen in the pages of romance. Thus attired, the
young princes, immediately after their reception, were
feated on each fide of Lord Cornwallis, when Gulam
Aly, the head vakeel of Tippoo, thus addreflfed the Bri-
tifh general : “ Thefe children were this morning the
Tons of the fultan my mailer : Their filiation is now
changed : They mull look up to your lordlhip as their
father.”
The conduct of the commander in chief had perhaps
fuggefted this addrefs : he had in faft received the
boys, as if they had been his own fons j and he again
anxioufly allured the vakeels, and the young princes
themfelves, that every poffible attention would be Ihown
. them, and the greateft care taken of their perfons.
Their re- 1 he fcene became more interefting ; the faces of the
ception by children brightened up ; and not only their attendants,
Lord Corn- but all the fpe£lators, were delighted to obferve, that
waliis. any fears they might hare harboured were removed,
and that they would foon be reconciled to their change
of fituation. With regard to the youngeft, this defira-
ble objedt was likely to be firft attained. He was.the
favourite fon, and was faid to be the fultan’s deftined
heir : his mother, a beautiful and delicate woman, had
loft her brother in a late adlion ; and (he herfelf had
died of fright a few days before the attack of the lines.
Thefe circumftances, together with his own captivating
appearance, drew to the youngeft boy the greateft {hare
of attention, and rendered his fituation doubly inte¬
refting.
After being regaled, in the eaftern manner, with
otter of rofes and betel nut •, the princes were prefent-
ed each with a gold watch from Lord Cornwallis, a
gift from which they feemed to receive great delight.
On this occafion the minifters of the Nizam and the
Mahrattas attended with their fuits 5 and when the ce¬
remony of their reception was ended, the princes were
led back to the tents furnilhed by the fultan, which
wrere of a green colour, an emblem of majefty which
Tippoo always had carried -with him into the field.
The detaining of Tippoo’s fons as hoftages, may be
deemed a rigorous condition impofed on that prince $
the event, however, foon proved, that without this pre¬
caution, he could never have been induced, unlefs by a
renewal of hoftilities, to fulfil the terms of the treaty.
The value of the money to be received, as well as the
rents of the different diftridls to be ceded, were keenly
difputed. When the territory of the Coorga rajah, in
particular, was required, the demand feemed unexpect¬
ed both by the fultan and his minifters, and was at firft
received with aftonifhment and difdain. This rajah
was confidered as a chief caufe of the war, and Tippoo,
therefore, wifhed to crufh him. Lord Cornwallis feem¬
ed equally refolute in his defence*, for he again manned
the works, and threatened to recommence the attack.
Happily, his ftock of provifions was ample y and al¬
though upwards of 400,000 ftrangers and half a mil- India,
lion of cattle were daily to be fed, the fupply was fuf- " ‘
ficient for the whole} while one million fterling of the
fine impofed on Tippoo, had already been paid. The
firm determination of the commander in chief, aided by
thefe circumftances, which were not unknown to the
fultan, damped his refolution. His refentment cooled,
and he finally implemented the terms agreed upon,
copies of which were delivered to the confederated
powers.
The war againft Tippoo, which was now happily ter*
minated, placed the dominions of the India Company*
and of their allies in a ftate of fafety and tranquillity
which they had never enjoyed fince the aggrandifement
of his ambitious family. In the former campaigns
againft the Myfore, the civil and military powers were
placed in feparate hands *, meafures were planned with¬
out either energy or uniformity of fyftem j and their
execution being trufted to other hands, feldom difplay¬
ed the promptitude or vigour neceffary to their fuccefs..
They had often ended in the accumulation of debt,
without adequate advantage 5 fometimes they produced
the devaftation of the company’s pofieffions j and hi¬
therto they had uniformly increafed the power and pre-
tenfions of the formidable adverfary whom they were
meant to fubdue.
This war, juft concluded, was followed by effe£ls
fuited to the energy and perfeverance with which it
had been conduced. The one half of his dominions
was at once wrefted from the hands of the common
enemy *, and while his power was thus diminifhed, an
additional ftrength and fecurity was conferred on his
neighbours, by that impregnable barrier which was
added to their territories. In the three different cam¬
paigns the fultan’s lofs had been great *, in the laft, it
feemed almoft irredeemable, not lefs than 67 forts were
taken, 800 cannon fell into the hands of the allies}
and the killed, wounded, and milling of Tippoo’s troops
amounted to 49,000 men. At the conclufion of the
treaty very few places of ftrength were left in his pof-
feflion ; his treafury was drained, and the ftrength and
fpirit of his army completely broken. To the modera¬
tion of the Britifti commander alone it was owing that
he ftill remained a fovereign ; for he was at laft com¬
pletely in the power of the victors. This moderation,
but little merited by a cruel and vindictive enemy, he
eafily forgot when his power was afterwards revived,
and he permitted his French counsellors to perfuade
him that he was again able to contend againft the Bri¬
tifti government.
In the mean time, however, the India Company’s Advantages
territories fenfibly felt the advantages of the treaty ofof this trea-
Seringapatam. The prefidency of Madras, which ^ t0 t'ie
was molt expofed to inroads from the Myfore, has by conTa,'-v»
that event fecured a chain of forts along its frontiers,
which has ever fince effe&ually freed it from the evils
of invafion. The Carnatic, recovered from its former
calamities, muft improve its revenue, while it is defend¬
ed at a lefe expence. The Malabar coaft and prefi-
dencyof Bombay have experienced, ever fince the victory
at Seringapatam, a ftate of ftill greater fecurity than
the Carnatic. It contains a country the moft varied,
and perhaps the moft fertile in India, which under a
regular government may be improved to an extent at
prefent
X N D [ 232 ] I N D
India, prefent almofl inconceiveable. Hitherto, from being a
fCene of conftant war and bloodfhed, it has not been dif¬
fered to develope its refources.
While the relative fituation of the Britifh and the
fultan were thus improved by the pacification, the inte-
refts of our allies were perhaps dill more effentially be¬
nefited. The Mahrattas have gained an addition of
drength as well as territory, by enlarging their frontier
1g0 from Darwar to the Tumbudra j and the Nizam has
and to the gained a fimilar advantage, being drengthened on the
allies. one {ic}e by the fame river, and on the other by the
Sanar and Gungecotta. Both powers are by their
pofition placed nearer the aid of the Britilh, to whom
they mud in future look up for their defence againd
all their enemies, as well as the aggreflions of the My-
forean armies. During the feven years tranquillity that
fucceeded this memorable campaign, the armies of both
thefe powers, having no external enemy to call forth their
exertions, gradually relaxed in difcipline, and affumed
a dill more tumultuary and unmilitary appearance.
On the other hand, the troops of Tippoo, from his
Unconquerable hodility to the Britiih power, and from
the fecret indigations of the French, were kept in a
date of condant preparation, by which their difcipline
was improved. The influence of time, and the re¬
fources of a vigorous government, gradually repaired
the vad lofles which had been fudained during the
three lad campaigns. The power of the Myforean
court had indeed been much impaired, but it had lod
none of that antipathy and hatred againd the neigh¬
bouring dates by which it had always been didinguilh-
ed.
Of all the confederated powers engaged in this war,
the Britifh derived, perhaps, the dualled fliare of the
direct and immediate advantages which refulted from it.
The prize-money fhared by the army, although in-
creafed by the renunciation of the {hares of Earl Corn¬
wallis and General Meadows, was not great $ and the
territories that were ceded to the India Company being
difunited and at a diflance, feem to have been demand¬
ed rather with a view to weaken the common enemy
than to add to their refources. Prior to the year 1799,
the period of the final conqued of Seringapatam and
the Myfore, more than two-thirds of the ancient terri¬
tory of the Pvlogul empire dill remained in the hands of
populous and independent dates, profeffing either the
Hindoo or Mohammedan faith. Among the latter, the
Nizam and the king of Myfore dill held the chief
rank ; while five powerful Mahratta chiefs, the adher¬
ents of Brahmanifm, occupied the fird dation in the
former clafs.
Some of thefe princes, during the former wars in
Hindodan, had individually arranged themfelves on
the fide of the monarchy of France, againd that of Bri¬
tain. Thefe rival and leading powers in Europe, had
for near a century occupied a fimilar pofition in the
ead, which decided in fome meafure the fate of Afia.
The republican councils, however, by which the French
government had been lately fubverted, embraced a
much vvider range in their foreign policy.
They attempted to form at once all thefe different
princes colleftively into a combination, which they
hoped might become the inftrument of their own ambi¬
tion. Hence proceeded their warm profefiions of
philanthropy to the natives, and their new-born zeal
for improving their condition, and for refeuing them Indian
from the rapacity and tyranny of the Britilh. The' r-—'
fame unperidiable third after external conqued and
univerfal dominion which indigated that nation to
attempt thofe momentous changes, which were lately
beheld in Europe, began to difplay their violence in
the ead, and to characterize the whole of the French lgl
policy in Ada. Confidential agents had already beenReftkisam.
difperfed over the territories of thefe princes j officersfiition of
from France had been fecretly fent out and appointed^ drench,
to their armies. For feveral years thefe agents had
been feduloufly employed not only in difeiplining their
troops, but in promoting among the native princes a
combination for the purpofe of fubverting the Britiffi
government, and for annihilating throughout the pen-
infula every power that might be deemed hodile to
their own.
Thefe fchemes of ambition, wild and romantic as
they may feem, hare been executed with complete
fuccefs over almod one half of Europe } and it mud
be confeffed, that the power of the mighty confederacy
which was proje&ed in the ead, was more than fuffi-
cient to fubjugate the whole of India, had it been pof-
dble to effeft the deady co-operation of its members in
any common fydem of policy. A clofer viewr of it will
evince its power and efficiency for the execution of the
mod extendve plans even of French ambition.
The Mahratta empire, by being properly confoli-
dated, mud of itfelf command an immenfe force*
Stretching throughout the whole length of the peninfu-
la, from the bay of Bengal to the banks of the Indus,
its population has been edimated at no lefs than forty
millions of fouls } while its known revenue has been
found to amount to feventeen millions derling. Thefe
refources, however ample, it mud be noticed, are far
more efficient in India than in Europe ; they have
there been found by aftual experiment, adequate to the
edabliffiment and condant maintenance of an army of
upwards of 300,000 men. Nor has the progrefs of the
French emidaries in communicating European tallies
to this immenfe force, been at all inadequate to the
vad fchemes of their policy, or to the magnitude of their
undertaking j many battalions in the fervice of the
Pefliwa and of Holkar, but more efpecially in the eda-
blifhment of Scindiah, have been found in a date of
difcipline that might have been deemed creditable in
mod European armies. Among the troops of this lat¬
ter prince, the brigade of General Perron has long been
didinguidied by a fydem of taftics hardly inferior to
that of the Britiffi Sepoys 5 it condds of about 40,000
men, who are regularly regimented and brigaded, and
as completely clothed and accoutred as the Britifli
troops. The pay of this force is regularly iflued, a
rare occurrence in India; and while in the field, its
operations are fudained by a well appointed artillery,
confiding of upwards of 40 pieces of ordnance.
To the charge of this favourite portion of his army
Scindiah has for fome time pad committed the capital
of the empire, and the cudody of the venerable but
unfortunate Shah Allum 5 a monarch who, it is faid,
has reached the uncommon period of 90 years ; and
who, it would appear, is more waded and broken down
by an unexampled load of calamity, than by either the
weight or feeblenefs of his dngular age. The forcible
reftraints to which this unhappy prince has for many
years
I N D [2
India, years been fubje&ed, eafily enabled the French party
 ' among Scindiah’s troops towreft from him the fan&ion
of the imperial name, and the femblance at lead of le¬
gitimate authority ; a matter of fome moment, as it
ferved to fcreen the progrefs of ufurpation. It was ac¬
cordingly in the vicinity of the capital, and almoft in
the prefence of the dethroned emperor, that the projects
of French ambition feemed to tend to maturity with the
mod deady and rapid courfe. Confiderable advances
had already been made towards the formal ceflion of
the important provinces of Agra and Delhi to the
French government, and towards their final union with
that didant kingdom.
Fortunately for the independence of the neighbour¬
ing dates, and the fafety of the Britidr empire, that
nobleman who at this critical period had been appoint¬
ed to the government of India poiTefled a complete
knowledge of the ehara&er and views of the French
Vigorous nation. Soon after the arrival of the marquis of Wel-
governmentlefly in the ead, his innate penetration, and unwearied
of Marquis jndudry in acquiring the knowledge of Indian politics,
Wditfly. enabled him to difcover the whole range and extent of
thofe plans of hodility which the French had medi¬
tated in Afia. He was fully apprifed of the dangerous
fituation of the Britiih empire in that quarter of the
globe j and with equal promptitude and energy he em¬
ployed the whole refources of its power in order to avert
or repel the danger.
It was, however, at Hyderabad in the Deccan that
the impatience and aftivity of French intrigue fird
compelled him to meet actual hodility in the field : an
infurre&ion of the French officers there had wreded
from the Nizam the whole authority over his army,
and in fadt, bad already converted that faithful and
peaceable ally of the Britiffi into an open enemy. By
a hidden and unexpedled movement of a fmall part of
our army, that had been prepared for this purpofe, thefe
officers were all fuddenly apprehended, and the allegi¬
ance of the Nizam, and the fubordination of his army,
were almod indantaneoufly redored. This fird aft of
the marquis Wellefly, though fcarcely heard of in
Europe, certainly augured favourably of his govern¬
ment ; for it not only paved the way to his fubfequent
fuccefs againd the Myfore, but from its promptitude
and decifion it deferved to be ranked among the mod
meritorious meafures of his whole adminidration.
The vengeance of the king of Myfore, for his former
Ioffes and defeats, had not fuffered him to enjoy a mo¬
ment of tranquillity after the late pacification (d). He
had in faft been raifing up a Mohammedan confe¬
deracy, which was to confid of the grand feignior, the
Perfian chiefs, the nabob of Oude, and the Nizam ; and
was intended for a purpofe, no lefs fplendid in the eyes
of the faithful, than the extirpation, not only of the
Britifh, but of all the enemies of Tflamifm throughout
Flindodan The army of this prince was fully pre¬
pared to take the field, but the fortunate event that ha-s
Vol XL Part I.
3 ] I N D
jud been related, had deprived him of the co-operatkm Indl*.
of the Nizam, his neared, and therefore his mod effi- " f
cient ally.
The native princes of India are in general far more
prompt in imbibing refentment, and in learning maxims
of hodility againd their neighbours, than cautious or
prudent in their application. Their French indruftors
were alfo at this period, fo much intoxicated with the
new form which their own government in Europe had
affumed, that they had indituted a fociety, in the capi¬
tal of Myfore, for the romantic purpofe of Ipreading
the doftrine of liberty and equality among the defpots
and Haves of Afia. The fovereign of Myfore himfidf
was eafily perfuaded to become an honorary member
of this inditution, where he appeared among its afloci-
ates under the name of Citizen Tippoo, an appellation
perhaps the mod awkward and incongruous that had
ever been affumed by an eadern defpot. The wild
and frantic orifons that were daily poured forth in this
club, in favour of an imaginary liberty, v'ere condant-
ly accompanied with fentiments of detedation, and
vow’s of eternal hodility, againd the Britilh government j
its forces were therefore indantly prepared and march¬
ed into the field to meet an aggreffion, which there ,
had been fo little care taken to conceal. Pad experi¬
ence had taught the Britiih officers to avoid the purfuit
of a native army in its rapid and difcurfive evolutions in
the field j the Britilh, therefore, marched direftly to¬
wards the capital of the enemy, which fell, but not till
two decided viftories had been obtained without its
walls, and alfo an obdinate defence had been made in
the interior of the city. In this lad conflift (e), which Fall of Tip*
was maintained by both the aflailants and the natives?00
with equal valour and obdinacy, much blood was fpilt, *‘iS ca^ta^
and the lives of many brave men were lod, among the
red that of Tippoo Sultaun, whofe body was found,
after long fearch, among heaps of the fiain, where he
had fallen nobly defending the lad bulwark of his king¬
dom, and w here, however unfortunate he may be deem¬
ed in other refpefts, he at lad met with a fate not un-
worthy of his bravery.
By the pacification at Hyderabad, the fall of Se-
ringapatam, and the death of Tippoo Sultaun, the
Mohammedan branch of the grand confederacy, which
the French had raifed againd the Britiffi power in In¬
dia, was completely broken and finally dedroyed. For
although the few remaining adherents of the deceafed
monarch made fome defperate efforts for the redoration
of his family, thtfe wore rendered abortive by the afti-
vity and vigilance of thofe Britiffi officers who had
been left in charge of the conquered country (f). The
campaign againd the Myfore was, therefore, completed
by a fignal aft of judice, as creditable to the govern¬
ment of India, as the late brilliant fucc< fies had been
honourable to the Britiffi arms. The greater part of the
vanquiffied territory was redored to the rajah of My¬
fore, and his ancient family again mounted that throne,
G g from
(d) Effefted by Marquis Cornwallis.
(e) This memorable attack was led by General Baird, who had been for three years confined in a dungeon
by the tyrant. \ _
(f) Particularly by Sir Arthur Wellefly, who fignalized himfelf by the defeat of Doondea Waugh, the mod
fieady adherent of Tippoo.
I N D [ 234 1 I N D
India, from which they had been driven by the treachery and
■ii»" r »« nfurpation of Tippoo and his father : nor did the ven¬
geance of the Britifh, though hurled with luch de-
ltru£txve rapidity againft the mott formidable and in¬
veterate of all their enemies, prevent them from afford¬
ing fympathy and relief to the furviving family of the
Myforean kings 5 ample endowments were fet apart for
their fupport, which they ftill continue to enjoy, with
perhaps equal comfort, and certainly with greater fe-
eurity, than in the molt profperous days of the fortunes
of theifchoufe.
This train of important and fuccefsful events took
place during the fhort fpace of only a few months after
the arrival of the marquis of Wellefly, and they cer¬
tainly entitled his adminiftration to rank with the moft
active and brilliant that had ever been difplayed by any
governor of India 5 according, however, to his views
of the ftate of that country, he muft have regarded his
labours as fcarcely half finilhed. He faw the immenfe
power of the Mahratta empire ftill remaining not only
unbroken, but daily increafing, and confolidating under
the adtive and unceafing operation of French influence.
A French ftate, as already noticed, of large extent
and formidable power, had been framed by the fuccef-
live labours of Generals de Boyne and Perron, around
the capital of India. This nafcent power the all-de¬
vouring ambition of the new emperor had already
grafped as a rich prize, and its deftru&ion became
therefot'te abfolutely neceflary to the fafety of our empire
in India, fince, amidft all the multiplied aggrefiions of
his neighbours, the ufurper had uniformly diftinguifhed
the Britifh nation as the marked, though perhaps not
the ultimate objedl of his hoftility.
The reduction of a hoftile power fo immediately In
the vicinity of our poiTeflions, might certainly have
juftified a war ; but as no aftual aggreflion had yet been
committed in that quarter, it was on the other fide of
the peninfula that the marquis of Wellefly was again
firfl: called upon for the aftive fupport of the interefts
of his government : the danger became at once prefling
and immediate by the ufurpation of the whole Mahrat¬
ta power by a fingle chief ; and the caufe of the fugitive
184 was identified with our own.
"No balance The politics of India were never fo refined, or con-
of power fiderate, as to admit of a balancing fyftem, by which
Indian ln ^le overgrown power of any individual ftate might
be prevented from endangering the independence of
the reft. Hardly any eircumftance of common danger
has ever been deemed fufficiently urgent, to unite the
native princes in the defence of the country even againft;
foreign invafion. During the conteft between the Bri-
tifh and the king of Myfore, the Mahrattas obferved a
fufpicious neutrality: they gazed on the combatants with
an indifference that bordered on fatuity and which
ftrongly foreboded the diffblution of their ftate. After
the fall of that kingdom, their empire aftually fell into
a ftate of anarchy that demanded the moft; prompt
.meafures of precaution for the fafety of the Britifh ter¬
ritories, and thofe of its allies, which lay around its
frontiers. The conftitution of their empire, originally
ill conftrudled and undefined, had lately been radically
changed. The ancient rajahs of Satarah, who had
originally laid the foundation of its power, and ex¬
tended its influence over the peninfula with fuch un¬
exampled rapidity, had gradually funk from the rank
of fovereigns to imbecility, and, owing to the per- India,
fonal ambition of their fervants, fell into a ftation, ifu—'V—J
not of abfolute privacy, at leaft of complete infignifi-
cance.
Their minifters, already become hereditaryTn their
offices, and too powerful for controul, had fufficient
influence to remove the feat of government from Sa¬
tarah, and to conftitute the town of Poonah the capital
of the empire. There, removed from the eyes of the
princes, they no longer deigned to preferve further al¬
legiance, than the femblance of delegated power j they
accordingly retained the appellation of Pefhwa, but
compelled the fubordinate members of the confederacy
to acknowledge them as the legitimate organ of the
whole executive power of the ftate, whether civil or
military. It is, however, fcarcely poffible, accurately
to define either the rights or the power attached to
the Pefhwa, after his being acknowledged reprefen-
tative of the fupreme head of the empire. The ex¬
tent of his prerogatives feems to have varied at dif¬
ferent times, according to the perfonal talents and am¬
bition of each incumbent in the exercife of this recent
power.
Bajee Rao, the prefent Pefhwa, from that imbecility
and indolence which in Afia is fo often attached to
high ft at ions, had devolved upon inferior agents almoft
the whole of the aftive duties of his office. His
power had frequently been difputed or controlled j
he had at different times nearly become a prey to the
ambition of the fubordinate chiefs j and, at the period
now under review, though defended by Scindiah, hs
had been completely defeated by Flolkar’s troops,
and obliged to flee for fecurity beyond the limits of his
own dominions.
The danger to the Britifh poffeffions, and thofe of
their allies, became prefling and immediate, from this
ufurpation of almoft the whole Mahratla power by the
hands of a fingle chieftain j and the caufe of the Pt fhwa
thus became identified with that of our India govern¬
ment.
A treaty of defenfive alliance between the India
Company and the* Pefhwa, w^as therefore drawn up at
the earneft folicitation of that prince, and was finally
ratified at Bafiein, where he had fled from the aggref-
fions of Hoikar for proteftion. By this inftrument, it
was ftipulated, that he fliould be reftored to his domini¬
ons, and to the exercife of his legitimate authority, on
condition of his maintaining for the defence of his ter¬
ritories, and at his own expence, a brigade of Britilh
troops; which it was at firft agreed fnould confift of
6000, but afterwards the number was increafed to
10,000 men.
The terms of this convention were no fooner arranged,
than the Britifli army, under Sir Arthur Wellefly,
marched towards Poonah with that promptitude and deci-
fion which have always diftinguiftied the fervices of this ^
valuable officer. The jrapidity of his movements, and
his unexpected advance, favedthe capital from deftruc-ken.
tion ; for the troops of Hoikar, who had continued to
pillage the city, fince it fell into their poffeffion, had at
laft refolved to finifh the cataftrophe, by fetting it on
fire. Alarmed, however, by the fudden approach of
the Britifh army, they fled from the place with the ut-
moft precipitation, and foon after abandoned the ter¬
ritory of Poonah. Room was thus made for the peace-
I N D
C 235 ]
I N D
India.
1S6
Combina-
tkm of the
Mahratta
chiefs.
able reflorationof the depofed fovereign; and the Pefh-
' wa, when he afterwards arrived, was received by his
fubjects, not merely with fubmiffion and quietnefs, but
with every mark of the fincerell joy and fatisfaflion.
During his abfence the inhabitants bad been fubje&ed
to the fevered; forms of military execution •, and forced to
fubmit to the various exactions of a chief the moll needy,
defperate, and rapacious, of all the leaders of the preda¬
tory bands of his countrymen. When, therefore, they
again beheld their lawful fovereign, they greeted his re¬
turn by falutes from all the forts in his kingdom, and tefti-
fied their joy, by illuminations on the tops and acclivities
of the hills throughout the whole vicinity of Poonah.
Thus far the meafures of the governor of India
wore an afpeft of confilfeney and vigour, which au¬
gured well in favour of their ultimate fuccefs. The
juitice of his interference at this time, to check the
overgrown power of an afpiring adverfary, and to
fuccour the dilfrefs of a fallen prince, will hardly be
queftioned by fuch as are verfant in the politics of In¬
dia: Nor will it be denied, fince all the Mahratta princes
exercifed the right of making treaties themfelves, that
the fame privilege belonged to the head of the empire.
According to thefe views, the defenfive treaty of
BalTein was not only avowed by the parties, but freely
communicated to the reft of the chiefs, who explicitly
declared, that it contained no ftipulations injurious
either to the principles of their conftitution, or to the
juft rights of any member of the Mahratta confederacy.
On the other hand, its advantages were fufficiently ob¬
vious. It had the immediate effedt of reftoring a depo¬
fed prince to his throne, and to the exercife of his ac¬
knowledged rights, as well as of checking a dangerous
ufurpation. It detached from the influence of French
councils a very important branch of the Mahratta con¬
federacy, and therefore coincided with the general
tendency and fpirit of the Britifti policy in the eaft.
But the power of the Pefhwa, and the predominant
rights which, by the conftitution of the empire, were at¬
tached to his office, had, as was already noticed, be¬
come a grand objedt of ambition among the more con-
fiderable chiefs. Scindiah had for many years labour¬
ed to gain an afeendency at the court of Poonah, and
on fome occafions adtually poffeffed a powerful influ¬
ence on its councils. Ragojee Boonfla had, from fa¬
mily connedlion, fome grounds for the advancement of
his own claims to this office j while Holkar had lately,
by the fortune of war, had the whole authority placed
within his grafp, and in the name of Amrut Rao, bro¬
ther to the Pelhwa, had actually begun to exercife its
different prerogatives.
The final deprivation of thefe chiefs, of fo fair an
objedt of ambition as the general controul of the whole
Mahratta empire, feemed to reproach their indolence
and want of ambition j and the nearer they confidered
its attainment, the ftronger the jealoufy and difap-
pointment which its lofs occafioned. The deep refent-
ment thus excited among thefe chiefs, though unac¬
knowledged by themfelves, was the true caufe of that
open hoftility which they were now about to commence
againft the Britiffi power. Thus impelled by the
ftrong emotions of difappointed ambition, Scindiah and
the rajah of Nagpore entered into a clofe engagement
to fruftrate the arrangements lately ftipulated by the
treaty of Baffein. In order to execute this purpofe,
India
each chief fet on foot a large army, which was marched
from different quarters to a point of union, bordering
on the territories of the Nizam, an ally of the India
company.
This menacing pofition they maintained for a con-
fiderable time, in order to complete their own prepara¬
tions, and the more effectually to urge Holkar to join
their confederacy j nor could they beptriuaded to aban¬
don it by the ftrongeft remonftrances of out govern¬
ment againft military preparations fo unneceffary for
their own defence, and in a fituation fo incompatible
with the peace and fafety of the Britifti allies. How¬
ever unwilling the marquis of Welleily might be to
hazard the tranquillity and fafety of the Britiffi empire
in the eaft by entering into a conteft with thefe power¬
ful chiefs, whofe dominions adually ftretched over
more than one-half of the peninfula of India, he had
however no alternative left him. ’i he full and pofi-
tive information which he had from various fources ob¬
tained, of the nature and extent of the hoftilities that
had for fome time paft been meditated, was now con¬
firmed by the menaces of the enemy, and the a&ual
preparations that he had made to carry them into exe¬
cution. He forefaw the dangerous crifis which was
now fo near at hand ; and the hollow profeffions of
friendlnip which were conftanlly fent in reply to his
remonftrances, did not for a moment prevent him from
bringing forward the whole refources of his government
to defeat their enterprifes. igy
A combination of the Mahratta empire, fo extenfive Armies fent
and powerful as that now formed by the confederates, againft
had never hitherto been brought into aftion againft thetheai*
Britiffi power j and it mull be acknowledged alfo, that
a fyftem of defence, equally prompt, vigorous, and com-
prehenfive, was never planned by any former governor
of Britifti India. Five different armies, each of con-
fiderable force, v^ere fpeedily prepared, brought into
the field, and ready to invade the vaft territory of the
enemy, nearly at the fame period of time. The value
of the previous arrangements that had been formed
with the Nizam and the Pelhwa, particularly the fub-
fidiary treaties, was now diitinClly felt. By them the
Britiffi army was enabled to proceed through the
friendly territories of allied chiefs, to the very bounda¬
ry of the Mahratta dominions, where it was joined by
a large fubfidiary force both from Hyderabad and
Poonah, which materially promoted the fuccefs of the
campaign. The marquis thus was enabled to attack
the extenfive dominions of the enemy, from almoft
every affailable point, by an effort almoft liraultaneous.
On the fouth they were invaded by a powerful divi-
fion of the Madras army under Sir Arthur Wellelly j
in Guzerat, on the weft, by Colonel Murray, and a
ftrong detachment of the Bombay troops j a fimilar ef¬
fort wTas alfo made by General Lake on the northern
extremity of Scindiah’s dominions, where the main
ftrength of his army was ftationed in conjun£lion with
the celebrated brigade of General Perron. On the
eaft, in Bundelcund, the fame fyftem of attack wa£
purfued, where the adherents of the confederacy Ali
Mohammed and Himnut Bahaudur were overpow'ered
and difperfed. During the execution of all thefe ope¬
rations, the provinces of Balafore and Cuttack were
wrefted from the rajah of Nagpore, by the immediate
direction and under the aufpices of the governor-gene-
G er 2 ral
I N D [ 236 ] I N D
India, ral himfelf who had planned and combined all thefe af-
faults with a degree of judgment and accuracy which
fecured their uniform fuccefs, and which has proved as
creditable to his own talents as the prompt execution
of his plans has been honourable to our Indian armies.
But the circumftance which appears moft fignally to
have promoted the fuccefs of this eventful campaign,
was the ample and unreftri&ed authority which was
conferred on the different commanders carrying on their
operations fo far removed from the feat of government.
It was thus thefe officers were enabled to meet every
new exigency by the unreftrained application of all
their refources, and to furmount or evade unforefeen
difficulties, as they happened to arife, by the immediate
exercife of difcretionary power. The unexampled ra¬
pidity of our victories, and vaft extent of the con quells
that were made in the ffiort fpace of a few months,
muft be in fome meafure alfo afcribed to that juft tri¬
bute of commendation which was fo impartially and
liberally beftowed on the officers and troops after their
hard-fought battles. This approbation, equally merited
and ufeful, infpired the army with a juft confidence in
its own ftrength, and preferved among the troops un¬
common alacrity amidft their fatigues and danger.
The ftrong partiality which the marquis of Wellef-
ly muft have naturally felt for the brilliant fervices of
his brother, on no occafion prevented him from dif-
•erning the merits of other officers, and from confer¬
ring on them their juft (hare of applaufe. Immediately
after the battle of Delhi, he expreflfes his fenfe of the
fervices of General Lake and his army in the following
fpirited and patriotic terms in his general orders to the
troops. He obferves, that “ on reviewing the rapid
fuccelfes obtained by our arms within the ffiort fpace of
a few months, every loyal fubjedt of the Britiffi empire
muft be animated with the moft zealous emotions of juft
pride and national triumph. I have already expreffed
the fentiments of gratitude and admiration with which
I contemplated the conduft of his excellency the com¬
mander in chief, and his army, in the a£iion of the 29th
of Augult, and in the gallant affault of the fortrefs of
Ally Ghur on the 4th of September. The decifive
victory gained on the 1 ith, in the battle of Delhi, juf-
tifies the firm confidence I repofed in the bravery, per-
feverance, and difcipline of the army, and in the fkill,
judgment, and invincible intrepidity of their iliuftrious
commander The glory of that day is not furpaffed, by
anv recorded triumph of the Britiffi arms in India ; and
is attended by every circumftance calculated to elevate
the fame of Britiffi valour, to illuftrate the character of
Britifti humanity, and to fecure the liability of the Bri¬
tiffi empire in the eaft.”
The bravery of Sir A. Wellefly and his armyv their
atchievements in the memorable battles of Alfye and
Argaum in the Deccan, were not lefs confpicuous ; nor
were the general merits of this officer lefs worthy of
thofe liberal and manly encomiums which he received
from the marquis. Both commanders enjoyed the ap¬
probation of their fovereign, and received from him
thofe honours uffiich are the reward of valour. Fortu¬
nately too for the interefts of the Britiffi empire, aflail-
ed at this period by the moft inveterate of all its ene¬
mies, the folid advantages refulting from thofe well
eontefted battles were not inferior to the fplendour of
theit atchievement.
Their immediate confequences were the defeat of India,
the combined armies of the confederate chiefs j and, ‘v——
from the lofs of their artillery, an irreparable blow to Thei'r8^r;|
their ftrength and refources throughout the whole of i;ant fuc_'
the Deccan. Thefe profperous refults were, no doubt, cefies.
aided and accelerated by the aufpicious progrefs of the
army at all the different points from which it invaded
the Mahratta empire. Soon after thefe fucceffes, the
French officers attached to Scindiah’s army, after ha¬
ving quarrelled with the native firdars and with each
other, abandoned the fervice of that chief: after the
example of Perron their principal partizan, they fub-
mitted to the proteflion of the Britifti commander, who
fuffered them to retire with whatever property they
had acquired, and had been able to bring away.
Thus the grand fabric of French power which that
fiation had been anxioufly railing up, with the affu-
med fandtion of the imperial authority, and the more
efficient fupport of the Mahratta power, was at laft
broken down, and completely deftroyed throughout the
whole of India. The conqueft of Balafore and Cuttack
by Colonel Harcourt feemed well calculated to prevent
its future renovation $ for it connedled the two prefi-
dencies of Bengal and Madras, and united the Britiffi
territories along the whole extent of the Coromandel
coaft, where they now prefent an unbroken and hoftile
frontier againft every inroad from the ffiore, and form
a barrier againft the introduction of French fupplies,
and officers to difcipline the armies of every inimical
power.
The ftrong detachment of the Bombay army under
Colonel Murray, though engaged in enterprifes appa¬
rently lefs fplendid, were equally ferviceable in promo¬
ting the important refults of the campaign. This offi¬
cer not only defended the coaft and Britiffi territory in
that quarter, and thofe of our ally the Guickar rajah
but he alfo reduced the fortreffes of Broach, Powanghur,
and other polls of importance. Thus, in every quarter
of this extended warfare, was the Britifli eaufe trium¬
phant j—on the Ihores of Guzerat and Balafore, on
the mountains of the Deccan, and in the plains of Del¬
hi, her banners were fupported with equal energy and
fpirit ; and victory everywhere continued fteadily to
follow them.
In the fpace of a few months, a rapid fucceffion of
events had taken place, of fufficient importance to
change completely the relative condition of the Britiffi
empire, and the different powers of India. Its power
was enlarged j and its afcendeney among the neigh¬
bouring ftates was without controul. Seven hundred
pieces of cannon had been taken from the enemy j
their armies routed and difperfed. Eight fortreffes had
been reduced, either by liege or by efealade. The
mighty ftrength of the French and Mahratta confede¬
racy had been fuddenly cruffied throughout a territory
extending over 1000 miles iquare. What feemed, how¬
ever, of no lefs importance, in thefe warlike times, and
in the critical fituation of the Britifti empire, then at¬
tacked and threatened with invafion, by its moft power¬
ful and inveterate enemy in Europe } her military re¬
putation was heightened ; the laurels the had lately ga¬
thered in Syria and Egypt were refrethed j and the en¬
joyed a fatisfacfory proof, that amidft increafing luxury
and imminent danger, no portion of the enterprife and
valour of her armies had been loft. Nor is it to be forT,
gottsjy
a
I N D [ 237 ] I N D
gotten that all her late victories in the eaft, had been
obtained over troops not in the ordinary circumftances
of Indian armies. They had been difciplined by Eu¬
ropean officers, and led with intrepidity and Ikill. The
proficiency they had made in European taftics was fo
great, that during the action at Affye, the Mahrattas
made no lefs than five different changes of pofition, and
fuftained on the fame day an equal number of affaults,
before they yielded theconteft. It was by the point of
the bayonet alone, that they were at laft compelled to
relinquilh their guns j ICO of which were taken on the
field of battle, by an army fcarce amounting to a tenth
part of the number of that which they had, with fuch
fingular bravery, driven from the field.
The Mahratta confederacy being finally fubdued,
a peace was concluded between the India Company,
Dowlut RaoScindiah, and the Berar rajah, in January
1804. The ffiort period off tranquillity that fucceeded
this event was fpeedily interrupted by Holkar, another
powerful chief, whofe expulfion of the Pefhwa had
originally occafioned the war. This prince, though
he kept aloof from the confederacy of his countrymen,
with an indifference which feemed to argue at once a
deficiency of patriotifm and a want of found policy,
was, neverthelefs, found to maintain the conteft for
his independence with far greater Ikill and bravery
than^any prince-whom the Britilh arms had oppofed
in India.
The power and refources of Holkar had gradually
been increafed, like that of the other chiefs, by the in¬
troduction of European officers into his army, and by
an improved fyltem of difcipline which was thus efta-
bliffied. Thus formidable itfelf, his power was render¬
ed almoft unaffailable, from the nature of his country,
which is uncommonly mountainous, and, during the
rains, impaffable from jungles and moraffes. His Ikill
in maintaining the predatory warfare, fo congenial to
a Mahratta army, was far fuperior to that of the other
chiefs •, whofe experience had fo fully taught him the
danger of rilking any regular engagement with Euro¬
pean troops. Thus, although his territories were invad¬
ed on all fides by detachments of the company’s forces,
he conftantly eluded their attacks; and by the fingular
rapidity of his movements, he was enabled fuddenly to
affemble almoft his whole force, and overpower whatever
detachments he might find at a diftance from fupport.
In this lituation, the troops under Colonel Monfon were
furprifed. This officer had marched againft his capi¬
tal Indoor, in concert with Colonel Murray, who had
reached the place from Bombay, and captured it with¬
out much oppofition. His lefs fortunate coadjutor,
however, after being betrayed by his guides and de-
ferted by a part of his troops, was attacked by a fupe¬
rior force under Holkar himfelf, before which he was
forced to retreat towards Agra, through a country im¬
paffable from the rains, and deftitute of provifions. Af¬
ter feveral difaftrous conflicls, during a retreat of feven
weeks, which degenerated into a flight, the greater
part of his guns, and the whole of the baggage and mi¬
litary flares, were loft. A few only of the troops reach¬
ed Agra at midnight, in a ftate of extreme diftrefs ;
the greater part had been overtaken in their flight,
and were either maffacred, or cruelly mutilated, by
their ferocious purfuers.
Colonel Willot. of the Bengal artillery was almoft
equally unfuccefsful in an attack which he had planned fod
againft a ftrong poft in the interior : he failed in the ” ^
attempt, and ibon after died of the wounds he had re¬
ceived. It was in Bundelcund, and the country of the
Rohillas, that Holkar received the moft confiderable
checks, which produced a reverfe of fortune. From
both thofe territories he was completely driven by
Lieutenant-colonel Fawcet and General Smith.
Parties of his cavalry had been repeatedly defeated
by Lord Lake: but the rapidity of their movements as
often faved them from deftrudlion ; and it was not till
the decifive battle of Deeg, on the 13th of November,
that the main ftrength of this enterprifing chief was
completely broken. At this place his army, trufting
to the great ftrength of its pofition, behind fucceflive
ranges of batteries, was induced to hazard a general
adlion. From thefe different batteries, which extended
to the depth of two miles, they were fucceffively driven
by the gallant General Frazer, who had the credit of
forcing a poft which had been deemed impregnable j
and which at this period was defended by 24 battalions
of infantry, and 150 pieces of cannon.
In this brilliant atchievement the general was wound¬
ed in the leg, and foon after was obliged to be carried
off the field. The completion of the viftory thus fell
to Colonel Monfon, who now faw complete vengeance
inflidled for his pall difafters, and for the unexampled
cruelty of his enemy ; 2000 of whom were killed, ei¬
ther in the battle or during the retreat. An immenfe
number was wounded, and among thofe many confider¬
able chiefs ; while 87 pieces of cannon fell into his
hands, which partly confifted of the lame guns which
he had himfelf loft during his difaftrous retreat to
Agra.
Had Holkar confided merely to his effeftive force in
the field, his caufe might have now been regarded as
defperate. His boldnefs, however, and his unexampled
fuccefs, had gained him the fupport of feveral of the
native princes. Among thefe he had feduced the rajah
of Bhurtpore, an ally of the Britilh, and the chief of
the celebrated call of the Jauts, the moft warlike tribe
in upper India. General Lake was therefore obliged
to concentrate his army, and to employ it in the reduc¬
tion of Bhurtpore, a fortrefs which experience has pro¬
ved to have been the ftrongeft and moft impregnable
in the whole peninfula. While thus employed, the dif-
perfed troops of Holkar had time to rendezvous in dif-
tant quarters ; and were fuccefsful in cutting off hie
fupplies of provifions, and in plundering the lurround-
ing diftr'nfts, by that predatory mode of warfare, foe
which the Mahrattas have always been celebrated.
The reduftion of Bhurtpore, thus defended by the
indefatigable efforts of Holkar, by its intrepid garrifon,
and its own natural ftrengtb, proved the moll arduous
enterprife which the Britilh troops had ever under¬
taken in Afia. The fuecefs of the Sefieged in repelling
four different affaults, animated them with frelh courage
and intrepidity. The rajah and his whole tribe were
united by the ties of blood, as well as of civil authority.
They had claim to a high cnjl among the natives,
which they knew muff be forfeited forever by uncondi¬
tional fubmiffion : Unfortunately thefe were the only
terms which General Lake, in the peremptory inftruc-
tions which were given for its reduction, was permit- ^
ted to accept. The rajah, therefore, having collected in
tht?
I N D r 238 ] I N D
the fort, his women, his children, and his treafures, refol-
ved to bury them all with himfelf under its ruins, rather
than fubmit to terms which were deemed as difgraceful
to his religion and his rank, as they were mortifying to
his feelings as a foldier.
Compelled by the orders of his fuperior, and un¬
daunted by all the pad difafters which the troops had
already fullered, General Lake refolved to hazard ano¬
ther attempt. In the account given of it in his difpateh
to the governor-general, dated 22d February, he ob-
ferves, that “ it appeared our failure on the 20th was
to be accounted for, in a great meafure, by the occur¬
rence of unexpected accidents and delays, as part of the
corps who formed the tiorming party had furmounted
the principal difficulty, and had nearly gained the fum-
mit of the baflionj where, I was informed, a few hours
more battering would make the afcent perfedly eafy.
I determined to make another attempt yefterday.
“ The party for this fervice confided of the whole
European force, and the two battalions of the native
infantry of the Bengal army j and the greater part of
his majedy’s 55th and 86th regiments, the grenadier
battalion, and the dank companies of the id battalion
3d regiment, from the Bombay divifion. The whole
moved on to the attack about three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, under the command of the honourable Briga¬
dier Monfon. The troops, mod confident of fuccefs,
commenced the attack, and perfevered in it for a con-
fiderable time, with the mod determined bravery; but
their utmod exertions were not fufficient to enable them
to gain the top of the breach. The badion, which
ivas the point of attack, was extremely deep ; the re-
fidance oppofed to them u'as vigorous, and as our men
could only mount by fmall parties at a time, the ad¬
vantages were very great on the fide of the enemy.
Difcharges of grape, logs of wood, and pots filled w ith
combudible materials, immediately knocked dowm thofe
who wrere afcending; and the whole party, after hav¬
ing engaged in an obdinate conted for two hours, and
fuffering very fevere lofs, was obliged to relinquiffi the
attempt, and to retire to our trenches.” The lofs of
the Britidi army in this lad aflault, and that of the
20th, amounted to 300 killed, and 1564 wounded :
its w'hole lofs during the different attacks, amounted to
upwards of 3000 of the braved of our troops ; while
the unconditional furrender of the place, though the ul¬
timate objeCl of all thefe perilous attempts, was never
attained.
The rajah, however, again propofed the terms he
had formerly offered ; and confented to pay three lacks
of rupees to the army, and the expences of the war.
Hodages w’ere given for the regular difeharge of thefe
fums, at different indalments. Thus the lad prince in
India who redded the Britiffi arms, was found to have
made the mod glorious defence of his independence,
and to have fecured for himfelf the mod honourable
terms. Holkar himfelf, after having been often beat¬
en, was at lad delerted by aimed the whole of his
troops, and was obliged to efcape with a retinue fo
fcanty, as was hardly fufficient for the protection of his
perfon. In this manner, an arduous campaign of 11
months wras completed, after occafioning a greater lofs
of blood and treafure than had, perhaps, ever been in¬
curred by the fubjugation of any fingL; chief Nor did
this daring and magnanimous prince deign to render
i 2
fubmiffion, or to fue for peace, till the marquis of Wei- India
ledy had returned to Europe ; till he had beheld the . i!
downfall of all the leading men of his nation ; and till. fil'-“Ctmen^
like another Galgacus, he had fecured to himfelf the
honour of being the lad prince who had dared to up¬
hold the dandard of independence in his native coun¬
try.
Thus ended the conted between the Britiffi govern¬
ment and the Mahratta dates ;—a combination of mili¬
tary chiefs who had fuddenly emerged from obfcurity,
and rofe to the highed rank among the native powers.
Their growing influence had invariably been hodile
both to the Mohammedan and Britiffi power. Their
vicinity was the fertile fource of intrigue, dratagem,
and war : By their downfall, the India Company has
obtained a full afcendency over the peninfula; time and
future experience will drew whether this new authority
ffiall better promote the peace and profperity of that
populous country.
India Company. See Company.
India Rubber. See Caoutchouc.
INDIAN, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing be¬
longing to the Indies, Ead or Wed.
Indian Berry. See Menispermum,’
Indian, Bread. See Jatropha,
Indian Com, or Maize. See Zea, Botany
Indian Crejfes. See TROPiEOLUM, f Index.
Indian Fig. See Cactus,
Indian Pagod-tree. See Ficus, J
Indian Ink. See Ink.
Indian Reed. See Canna, Botany Index.
INDICATION, in Phyfic, whatever ferves to di¬
rect the phyfician how to ail.
INDICATIVE, in Grammar, the fird mood or
manner of conjugating a verb, by which we firnply
affirm, deny, or afk fomething: as, amant, “ they love;”
non amant, “ they do not love ;” amant ne ? “ do they
love ?” See Grammar.
INDICTION, in Chronology, a cycle cf 15 years.
See Cycle.
INDICTMENT, in Law, one of the mbdes of pro-
fecuting an offender. See Prosecution.
In Engliffi law, it is a written accufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to, .
and prefented upon oath by, a grand jury. To this
end, the ffieriff of every county is bound to return to Blackjl.
every feffion of the peace, and every commiffion of oyer Comment\
and terminer, and of general gaol-delivery, twenty-four
good and lawful men of the county, feme out of every
hundred, to inquire, prefent, do, and execute all thofe
things, which on the part of our lord the king ftrall
then and there be commanded them. They ought to
be freeholders ; but to what amount is uncertain :
which feems to be cafus omijfus, and as proper to be
fupplied by the legiflature as the qualifications of the
petit jury ; which were formerly equally vague and un¬
certain, but are now fettled by feveral acts of parlia¬
ment. However, they are ufually gentlemen of the
beft figure in the county. As many as appear upon
this pannel, are fworn upon the grand jury, to the
amount of twelve at the leaft, and not more than twenty-
three ; that twelve may be a majority. Which num¬
ber, as well as the conftitution itfelf, we find ex- wilk, Z.L
a£Uy deferibed fo early as the laws of King Ethelred : Ann. Let.
Exeunt feniores duodecim thani, et preejelius cum eis, utn-r
jurent
I N D [2
ln&\&.ratr&.jurent fuper [an&uarium quod eis in matins datur, quod
nolint ullum innocentum accufare, nee aliquem noxium
celare. In the time of King Richard I. (according to
Hoveden), the procefs of elefting the grand jury, or¬
dained by that prince, was as follows: Four knights
were to be taken from the county at large, who chofe
two more out of every hundred j which two affociated
to themfelves ten other principal freemen, and thofe
twelve were to anfwer concerning all particulars re¬
lating to their own diftrift. This number was probably
found too large and inconvenient j but the traces of
' this inftitution hill remain, in that fome of the jury
muft be fummoned out of every hundred. This grand
jury are previoufly inftru&ed in the articles of their in¬
quiry, by a charge from the judge who prefides upon
the bench. They then withdraw to fit and receive in¬
dictments, which are preferred to them in the name of
the king, but at the fuit of any private profecutor; and
they are only to hear evidence on behalf of the profe-
cution for the finding of an indiftment is only in the
nature of an inquiry or accufation, which is afterwards
to be tried and determined j and the grand jury are only
to inquire upon their oaths, whether there be fufficient
caufe to call upon the party to anfwer it. A grand
jury, however, ought to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the truth of an indictment, fo far as their evidence goes;
and not to reft fatisfied merely with remote probabili¬
ties ; a doCtrine that might be applied to very oppref-
live purpofes.
The grand jury are fworn to inquire only for the bo¬
dy of the county, pro corpora comitatus ; and therefore
they cannot regularly inquire of a faCt done out of that
county for which they are fworn, unlefs particularly
enabled by aCt of parliament. And to fo high a nicety
was this matter anciently carried, that where a man was
wounded in one county, and died in another, the offen¬
der was at common law indictable in neither, becaufe
no complete aft of felony was done in any one of them :
but by ftatute 2d and 3d Edw. VI. c. 24. he is now in¬
dictable in the county where the party died. And by
ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 21. if the ftroke or poifoning be
in England, and the death upon the fea or out of Eng¬
land, or vice verfa, the offenders, and their acceffories,
may be indifted in the county where either the death,
poifoning, or ftroke, fhall happen. And fo in fome
other cafes ; as particularly, where treafon is commit¬
ted out of the realm, it may be inquired of in any
county within the realm, as the king fhall direft, in
purfuance of ftatutes 26 Hen. VIII. c. 13. 3 3. ; Hen.
VIII. c. 23. 35. ) Hen. VIII. c. 2. 5. 6. ; Edw. VI.
c. xi. And counterfeiters, wafhers, or minifhers, of
the current coin, together with all manner of felons and
their acceffories, may, by ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 6.
(confirmed and explained by 34 and 35 Hen. VIII.
c. 26. § 75, 76.) be indifted and tried for thofe offen¬
ces, if committed in any part of Wales, before the juf-
tices of gaol-delivery and of the peace, in the next ad¬
joining county of England where the king’s writ run¬
neth : that is, at prefent in the county of Hereford or
Salop j and not, as it fhould feem, in the county of
Chefter or Monmouth : the one being a county pala¬
tine where the king’s writ did not run ; and the other
a part of Wales, in 26 Hen. VIII. Murders alfo,
whether committed in England, or in foreign parts, may,
by virtue of the ftatute 33 Hen. VIIL c. 23. be inqui-
59 ] 1 N D
red of and tried by the king’s fpecial commiflion in any 1
{hire or place in the kingdom. By ftatute 10 and II
W. III. c. 25. all robberies, and other capital crimes,
committed in Newfoundland, may be inquired of and
tried in any county in England. Offences againft the
black aft, 9 Geo. I. c. 2 2. may be inquired of and
tried in any county of England, at the option of the
profecutor. So felonies, in deftroying turnpikes, or
works upon navigable rivers, erefted by authority of
parliament, may, by ftatutes 8 Geo. II. c. 20. and 13
Geo. III. c. 84. be inquired of and tried in any adja¬
cent county. By ftatute 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plundering
or ftealing from any veffel in diftrefs or wrecked, or
breaking any fhip contrary to 12 Ann. ftatute 2. c. 18.
may be profecuted either in the county where the faft
is committed, or in any county next adjoining*, and if
committed in Wales, then in the next adjoining Eng-
liih county: by which is underflood to be meant, fuch
Englifh county as, by the ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. above
mentioned, had before a concurrent jurifdiftion of felo¬
nies committed in Wales. Felonies committed out of
the realm, in burning or deftroying the king’s Ihips,
magazines, or ftores, may, by ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 24.
be inquired of and tried in any county of England, or
in the place where the offence is committed. By ftatute
13 Geo. III. c. 63. mifdemeanors committed in India
may be tried upon information or indiftment in the
court of king’s-bench in England j and a mode is mark¬
ed out for examining witneffes by commiftion, and tranf-
mitting their depofitions to the court. But, in general,
all offences muft be inquired into, as well as tried, in
the county where the faft is committed. Yet if larceny
be committed in one county, and the goods carried into
another, the offender may be indifted in either; for
the offence is complete in both. Or he may be indift¬
ed in England for larceny in Scotland, and carrying
the goods with him into England, or vice verfa; or
for receiving in one part of the united kingdom goods
that have been ftolen in another. But for robbery,
burglary, and the like, he can only be indifted where
the faft was aftually committed : for though the carry¬
ing away and keeping of the goods is a continuation of
the original taking, and is therefore larceny in thefecond
county, yet it is not a robbery or burglary in that jurif¬
diftion. And if a perfon be indifted in one county for
larceny of goods originally taken in another, and be
thereof convifted, or Hands mute, he fhall not be ad¬
mitted to his clergy ; provided the original taking be
attended with fuch circumftances as would have oufted
him of his clergy by virtue of any ftatute made previous
to the year 1691.
When the grand jury have heard the evidence, if
they think it a groundlefs accufation, they ufed former¬
ly to endorfe on the back of the bill, Ignoramus ; or,
We know nothing of it : intimating, that though the
fafts might poflibly be true, that truth did not appear
to them. But now they affert in Engliflr more ab-
folutely, Not a true bill; or (which is the better way)
Not found; and then the party is difeharged without
farther anfwer. But a frefti bill may afterwards be
preferred to a fubfequent grand jury. If they are fa¬
tisfied of the truth of the accufation, they then indorfe-
upon it, “ A true billanciently, Eilta vera. The
indiftment is then faid to be found, and the party
ftands indifted. But to find a bill,, there muft at leaft
twelve
IND [240] IND
Indi&mciit. twelve of the jury agree : for fo tender is the law
of England of the lives of the fubjefts, that no man
can be convibted at the fuit of the king of any capi¬
tal offence, unlefs by the unanimous voice of twenty-
four of his equals and neighbours •, that is, by twelve
at leaft of the grand jury, in the firft place, affent-
ing to the accufation j and afterwards by the whole pe¬
tit jury of twelve more, finding him guilty upon his
trial. But if twelve of the grand jury alfent, it is a
good prefentment, though fome of the reft difagree.
And the indi&ment, when fo found, is publicly deli¬
vered into court.
Indictments muft have a precife and fiifficient cer¬
tainty. By ftatute I Hen. V. c. 5. all indictments
mult fet forth the Chriftian name, furname, and addi¬
tion of the ftate and degree, myftery, town, or place,
and the county of the offender ; and all this to identify
• his perfon. The time and place are alfo to be afcer-
tained, by naming the day and townlhip in which the
faCt was committed : though a miftake in thefe points
is in general not held to be material, provided the
time be laid previous to the finding of the indiClment,
and the place lo be within the jurifdiClion of the court;
unlefs where the place is laid, not merely as a venue,
but as part of the defeription of the fad. But fome-
times the time may be very material, where there is
any limitation in point of time afligned for the pro-
fecution of offenders ; as by the ftatute 7 Will. III.
e. 3. which enaCls, that no profecution (hall be had
for any of the treafons or mifprifions therein mention¬
ed (except an affaftination defigned or attempted on
the perfon of the king), unlefs the bill of indictment
be found within three years after the offence commit¬
ted : and, in cafe of murder, the time of the death
muft be laid within a year and a day after the mortal
ftroke was given. The offence itfelf muft alfo be fet
forth with clearnofs and certainty; and in fome crimes
particular words of art muft; be ufed, which are fo ap¬
propriated by the law to exprefs the precife idea which
it entertains of the offence, that no other words, how¬
ever fynonymous they may feem, are capable of doing
it. Thus, in treafon, the fads muft be laid to be done
“ treafonably, and againft his allegiance ;” anciently,
proditorie et contra ligeantice fuce debitum ; elfe the in¬
diClment is void. In indiClments for murder, it is
neceffary to fay that the party indiCled “ murdered,”
not “ killed” or “ flew” the other ; which, till the
late ftatute, was expreffed in Latin by the word mur-
dravit. In all indiClments for felonies, the adverb
“ felonioufly,”>/f’/««/Ve, muft; be ufed ; and for burg¬
laries alfo, burglariter, or, in Englifh, “ burglarioufly:”
and all thefe to afcertain the intent. In rapes, the
word rapuit, or “ raviflied,” is neceffary, and mull
not be expreffed by any periphraiis, in order to render
the crime certain. So in larcenies alfo, the words fe-
lonice cepit et afportavit^ “ felonioufly took or carried
away,” are neceffary to every indiClment; for thefe
only can exprefs the very offence. Alfo, in indiClments
for murder, the length and depth of the wound fhould
in general be expreffed, in order that it may appear to
the court to have been of a mortal nature : but if it
goes through the body, then its dimenfions are imma¬
terial, for that is apparently fufficient to have been
the caufe of the death. Alfo, where a limb, or the
like, is absolutely cut off, there fucji defeription is need-
lefs. Laftly, in indiClments, the value of the thing Inclicftrre*t
which is the fubjeCl or inftrument of the offence muft II
fometimes be expreffld. In indiClments for larcenies
this is neceffary, that it may appear whether it be grand
or petit larceny ; and whether entitled or not to the be¬
nefit of clergy. In homicides of all forts it is neceffary;
as the weapon with which it was committed is forfeited
to the king as a deodand. For the manner of procefs
upon an indiClment, fee Process.
Indictment, in Scots Law, the name of the fum-
mons, or libel, upon which criminals are cited before
the court of juftieiary to Hand trial. See Law
Index.
Plea to Indictment. See Plea.
INDIES, East and West. See India and Ame¬
rica.
INDIGENOUS, oi indigen a, denotes a native of a
country, or that which was originally born or pro¬
duced in the country where it is found. In this fenfe,
particular fpecies of animals and plants are faid to be
indigenous in the country where they are native, in op-
pofition to Exotic.
INDIGESTION, a crudity or want of due coClion
of the food in the ftomach. See Digestion.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave t®
fome of their gods.
There are various opinions about the origin and fig-
nification of this word. Some pretend it was given
to all the gods in general ; and others, only to the de¬
migods, or great men deified. Others fay, it was gi¬
ven to fuch gods as were originally of the country, or
rather fueh as were the gods of the country that bore
this name ; and others again hold it was aferibed to
fuch gods as were patrons and proteClors of particular
cities. Laftly, others hold mdigetes to be derived from
inde genitus or in loco degens, or from inde and ago, for
dego, “ I live, I inhabit ;” which laft opinion feems the
moll probable.
In effect it appears, I. That thefe indigetes were alfo
called local gods (dii locales^), or topical gods, w hich is
the fame thing. 2. The indigetes were ordinarily men
deified, who indeed were in effe£t local gods, being
efteemed the protedlors of thofe places where they
were deified ; fo that the fecond and third opinions are
very confident. 3. Virgil joins patrii with indigetes,
as being the fame thing, Georg, i. ver. 498. “ Dii patrii,
indigetes.'1'1 4. The gods to whom the Romans gave the
name indigetes were, Faunus, Vefta, Alneas, Romulus,
all the gods of Italy ; and at Athens, Minerva, fays
Servius ; and at Carthage, Dido. It is true, we meet
with Jupiter indiges: but that Jupiter indiges is Aeneas,
not the great Jupiter ; as we may fee in Livy, lib. i.
cap. 3. in which laft; fenfe Servius affures us, indiges
comes from the Latin in diis ago, “ I am among the
gods.”
Among thefe indigetes there is none more ce¬
lebrated, or more extenfively worlhipped, than Her¬
cules.
INDIGO, a dye prepared from the leaves and fmall
branches of the Indigofera TinBoria. See the next
article.
INDIGOFERA, the Indigo Plant, a genus of
plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and ir. the na¬
tural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacecc,
See Botany Index.
This
F _E 11 SIA^ ^
PLATE CCLXXXJV
E.AfifJu
’///rw/jr-
!
i
'
PLATE CCLXXXV.
EJlfi feLf /iP/Gii Jj/i f
mmt m. i?
i.11 i I
I N D t 241 ] I N D
Imligofera. This plant requires a fmooth rich foil, well tilled,
and not too dry. The feed of it, which, as to figure
and colour, refembles gunpowder, is fown in little
furrows that are about the breadth of the hoe, two
or three inches deep, at a foot’s diftance from each
other, and in as ftraight a line as poffible. Continual
attention is required to pluck up the weeds, which
would foon choke the plant. Though it may be
fown in all feafons, the fpring is commonly preferred.
Moifture caufes this plant to {hoot above the furface
in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of two
months. When it begins to flower, it is cut with
pruning-knives j and cut again at the end of every fix
weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lafts about
two years, after which term it degenerates ; it is then
plucked up, and planted afrefli. As this plant foon
exhaufts the foil, becaufe it does not abforb a fufficient
quantity of air and dew to moiften the earth, it is of
advantage to the planter to have a vaft fpace which
may remain covered with trees, till it becomes ne-
celfary to fell them in order to make room for the in¬
digo.
Indigo is diftinguiflted into two kinds, the (rue and
the bajlard. Though the firft: is fold at a higher
price on account of its fuperiority, it is ufually advan¬
tageous to cultivate the other, becaufe it is heavier.
The firft will grow in many different foils; the fecond
fucceeds beft in thofe which are moft expofed to the
rain. Both are liable to great accidents. Sometimes
the plant becomes dry, and is deftroyed by an infeft
frequently found on it; at other times, the leaves,
which are the valuable part of the plant, are devoured
in the fpace of 24 hours by caterpillars. This laff
misfortune, which is but too common, has given
occafion to the faying, “ that the planters of in¬
digo go to bed rich, and rife in the morning totally
ruined.”
This production ought to be gathered in with great
precaution, for fear of making the farina tljat lies on
the leaves, and is very valuable, fall off by {baking it.
When gathered, it is thrown into the fteeping-vat,
which is a large tub filled with water. Here it under¬
goes a fermentation, which in 24 hours at furtheft is
completed. A cock is then turned to let the water run
into the fecond tub, called the mortar or pounding tub.
The fteeping-vat is then cleaned out, "that freftr plants
may be thrown in ; and thus the work is continued
without interruption.
The water which has run into the pounding-tub is
found impregnated with a very fubtile earth, which
alone conftitutes the dregs or blue fubftance that is
the objeft of this procefs, and which muft be feparated
from the ufelefs fait of the plant, becaufe this makes
the dregs fwim on the furface. To effect this, the
water is forcibly agitated with wooden buckets, that
are full of holes and fixed to a long handle. This
part of the procefs requires the greateft precautions.
If the agitation be difcontinued too foon, the part
that is ufed in dyeing, not being fufficiently feparated
from the fait, would be loft. If, on the other hand,
the dye were to be agitated too long after the com¬
plete feparation, the parts would be brought together
again, and form a new combination ; and the fait re¬
ading on the dregs would excite a fecond fermenta¬
tion, that would alter the dye, fpoil its colour, and
Vol. XI. Part X.
make what is called burnt indigo. Thefe accidents Indigofc-ra,
are prevented by a clofe attention to the leaft alte- Indiv’du^;
rations that the dye undergoes, and by the precaution
which the workmen take to draw out a little of it
from time to time in a clean veffel. When they per¬
ceive that the coloured particles colleft by feparating
from the reft of the liquor, they leave off {baking the
buckets, in order to allow time to the blue dregs to
precipitate to the bottom of the tub, where they
are left to fettle till the water is quite clear.—
Holes made in the tub, at different heights, are
then opened one after another, and this ufelefs water
is let out.
The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having
acquired the confiftence of a thick muddy liquid,
cocks are then opened, which draw it oft' into the
fettler. After it is ftill more cleared of much fuper-
fluous water in this third and laft tub, it is drained
into facks ; from whence, when water no longer filters
through the cloth, this matter, now become of a thicker
confiftence, is put into chefts, where it entirely lofes
its moifture. At the end of three months the indigo
is fit for fale.
It is ufed, in waffling, to give a bluifti colour to
linen : painters alfo employ it in their water-colours ;
and dyers cannot make fine blue without indigo. The
ancients procured it from the Eaft Indies ; in modern
times, it has been tranfplanted into America. The
cultivation of it, fucceflively attempted at different
places, appears to be fixed at Carolina, St Domingo,
and Mexico. That which is known under the name
of Guatimala indigo, from whence it comes, is the moft
perfedt of all.
There are two kinds of indigo prepared in the
Eaft Indies, particularly on the coaft of Coroman¬
del, at Pondicherry, &c. Of thefe the worft kind
is ufed for giving the body of colour to the dyed
fubftance, the other being employed only to give it a
glofs afterwards. The fineft is prepared on the coaft
of Agra, Mafulipatam, and Ayanoo, but efpecially in
the ifland of Java ; but this laft, being extremely dear,
is very little ufed by the dyers. The beft ought to X
float on the furface of water ; its colour ought to be a
very dark blue inclining to violet, bright and fpark-
ling, efpecially when broken. It may be tried by
diffolving a little in a glafs of water : if pure, it will
mix equably with the liquor ; but if otherwife, will
feparate and fall to the bottom. Another method of
trying the goodnefs of this fubftance is by fire ; for the
pure indigo will be entirely confumed, while the ex¬
traneous particles will remain. The pounded indigo
is much more fubjeft to adulteration than fuch as is
fold in cakes or tablets; as the allies or dirt with
which it is mixed are very apt to feparate from the
pure colouring fubftance when Handing in a liquid
ftate, as it muft always do before the moifture is eva¬
porated : whence, on breaking a bit of indigo fo adul¬
terated, the extraneous matter will be perceived in
ftrata of a different colour.
INDIVIDUAL, a particular being of any fpecies,
or that w hich cannot be divided into two or more be¬
ings equal or alike.
The ufual divifion in logic is made into genera, or
into genufes; thofe genera into fpecies; and thofe fpe¬
cies into individuals.
* - H h
INDIVISIBLE,
I N D [ 242 ] I N D
liKlivifible INDIVISIBLE, among roetaphyficlans.—A thing
^ ^ |l ^ is faid to be abfolutely indivijible that is a fimple being,
,)Ccefen" an<^ con^^s °f no parts into which it may be divided.
»  t— ‘ Thus, God is indivifible in all refpe&s j as is alfo the
human mind 5 not having exteniion, or other properties
of body.
INDIVISIBLES, in Geometry, the elements or princi¬
ples into which any body or figure may be ultimately
refolved ; which elements are fuppofed to be infinitely
final! : thus, a line may be faid to confift of points, a
furface of parallel lines, and a folid of parallel and fi-
irilar furfaces.
INDORSEMENT, in Law, any thing written
on the back of a deed •, as a receipt for money re¬
ceived.
There is like wife an indorfcment, by way of align¬
ment, on bills of exchange and notes of hand j which
is done by writing a perfon’s name on the back thereof.
INDOSTAN, or Hindostan, Prsper India, or
the Empire of the Great Mogul. See Hindostan.
INDUCTION, in Logic and Rhetoric, a confe-
quence drawn from feveral propofitions or principles
firil laid down. See Logic j and Oratory, N° 32.
Induction, in Law, is putting a clerk or clergy¬
man in poffeflion of a benefice or living to which he
is collated or prefented. See the article Parson.—
Induftion is performed by a mandate from the bifliop
to the archdeacon, who ufually iffues out a precept
to other clergymen to perform it for him. It is
done by giving the clerk corporal polTefllon of the
church, as by holding the ring of the door, tolling a
bell, or the like •, and is a form required by law, with
intent to give all the parifluoners due notice and fuf-
ricient certainty of their new minifter, to whom their
tythes are to be paid. This therefore is the invefti-
ture of the temporal part of the benefice, as inflitu-
tion is of the fpiritual. And when a clerk is thus
prefented, inftituted, and indufled into a re&ory, he
is then, and not before, in full and complete poffeffion j
and is called in law perfona imperfonata, or parfon im-
parfovjiee.
INDULGENCES, in the Romilh church, are a
remiffion of the puniihment due to fins, granted by
the church, and fuppofed to fave the finner from pur¬
gatory.
According to the doflrine of the Romilh church,
all the good works of the faints over and above thofe
which were neceffary towards their own juftification,
are depofited, together with the infinite merits of Jefus
Chrifl, in one inexhauftible treafury. The keys of this
were committed to St Peter, and to his fuccelfors the
popes, who may open it at pleafure, and by tranf-
ferring a portion of this fuperabundant merit to any
particular perfon, for a fum of money, may convey
to him either the pardon of his own fins, or a releafe
for any one in whom he is interefted, from the pains
of purgatory. Such indulgences were firft invented
in the nth century, by Urban II. as a recompenfe
for thofe who went in perfon upon the glorious enter-
prife of conquering the Holy Land. They were af¬
terwards granted to thofe who hired a foldier for that
-purpdfe; and in procefs of time were bellowed on
luch as gave money for aceomplifhing any pious work
enjoined by the pope.
The power of granting indulgences has been great- Indulgm-
]y abufed in the church of Rome. Pope Leo X. in ce!i-
order to carry on the magnificent Itru&ure of St Pe- w—
ter’s at Rome, publilhed indulgences, and a plenary
remiffion, to all fuch as Ihould contribute money to¬
wards it. Finding the project take, he granted to
Albert eleftor of Mentz, and archbilliop of Magde¬
burg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and
the neighbouring parts, and farmed out thofe of other
countries to the higheft bidders ; who, to make the bell
of their bargain, procured the ableft preachers to cry
up the value of the ware. The form of thefe indul¬
gences was as follows : “ May our Lord Jefus Chrift Robertfon't
have mercy upon thee, and abfolve thee by the merits CWcr V.
of his moll holy paffion. And I, by his authority,vo1-s9’
that of his bleffed apoftles Peter and Paul, and of the
moft holy Pope, gfanted and committed to me in fhefe
parts, do abfolve thee, fiill from all ecclefiaftical cen-
fures, in whatever manner they have been incurred j
then from all thy fins, tranfgreffions, and excefles, how
enormous foever they may be, even from fuch as are
referved for the cognizance of the holy fee, and as
far as the keys of the holy church extend : I remit to
you all puniihment which you deferve in purgatory on
their account 5 and I rellore you to the holy facra-
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and
to that innocence and purity which you pofleffed at
baptifm j fo that when you die, the gates of puniih¬
ment lhall be Ihut, and the gates of the paradife of
delight lhall be opened : and if you lhall not die at
prefent, this grace lhall remain in full force when you.
are at the point of death. In the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Gholt.”
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences
defcribed their benefits and the neceflity of purchafing
them, are fo extravagant, that they appear almolt in¬
credible. If any man (faid they) purchafes letters of
indulgence, his foul may reft fecure with refpefl to
its falvation. The fouls confined in purgatory, for
whofe redemption indulgences are purchafed, as foon
as the money tinkles in the cheft, inftantly efcape from
that place of torment, and afcend into heaven. That
the efficacy of indulgences was fo great, that the moll
heinous fins, even if one ffiould violate (which was
impoffible) the mother of God, would be remitted
and expiated by them, and the perfon be freed both
from punilhment and guilt. That this was the un-
fpeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile man to
himfelf. That the crofs erefted by the preachers of
indulgences was equally efficacious with the crofs of
Chrift itfelf. “ Lo ! the heavens are open j if you
enter not now, when will you enter ? For twelve pence
you may redeem the foul of your father out of purga¬
tory ; and are you fo ungrateful, that you will not
refcue your parent from torment ? If you had but one
coat, you ought to ftrip yourfelf inftantly, and fell it,
in order to purchafe fuch benefits,” &c.
It was this great abufe of indulgences that contri¬
buted not a little to the firft reformation of religion
in Germany, where Martin Luther began firft to de¬
claim againft the preachers of indulgences, and after¬
wards againft indulgences themfelves : but fince that
time the popes have been more fparing in the exercife
of this power ; however, they ftill carry on a great
trade
I N E
[ 243 ] 1 N F
Indulgen¬
ces
II
[nebmnts.
trade with them to the Indies, where they are pur-
chafed at two rials a-piece, and fometimes more.
The pope likewife grants indulgences to perfons at
the point of death ; that is, he grants them, by a brief,
power to cboofe what confeffor they pleafe, who is
authorifed thereby to abfolve them from all their fins
in general.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of
prefenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by
the pope. Of this kind is the indult of kings and fo-
Vereign princes in the Romilh communion, and that
of the parliament of Paris granted by feveral popes.
By the concordat for the abolition of the pragmatic
fanftion, made between Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516,
the French king has the power of nominating to bifiiop-
rics, and other confiftorial benefices, within his realm.
At the fame time, by a particular bull, the pope granted
him the privilege of nominating to the churches of
Brittany and Provence. In 1648 Pope Alexander VIII.
and in 1668 Clement IX. granted the king an indult
for the blflioprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which
had been yielded to him by the treaty of Munfter; and
in 1668 the fame Pope Clement IX. granted him an
indult for the benefices in the counties of Roufillon,
Artois, and the Netherlands. The cardinals like¬
wife have an indult granted them by agreement between
Pope Paul IV. and the facred college in 1555, which
is always confirmed by the popes at the time of their
eleftion. By this treaty the cardinals have the free
difpofal of all the benefices depending on them, and
are empowered likewife to beftow a benefice in commen-
dam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, or cuftom, paid to the
king of Spain for all fucb commodities as are imported
from the Weft Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, a large river of Afia, which rifes in the
mountains which feparate Tartary from India, and
difcharges itfelf into the Indian ocean. See Hindos-
tan and India.
INEBRIANTS, are defined to be fuch things as
aifeft the nerves in a particular and agreeable manner,
and through them alter and difturb the fund!ions of
the mind. They are properly divided into native and
artificial ; the former chiefly in ufe among the orien¬
tal and other nations, the latter principally throughout
Europe.
Natural Inebriantx, are, I. Opium; in ufe all over
the eaft, and of which the Turks, through cuftom,
fwallow a drachm. 2. Peganum harnaala, Syrian rue.
The feeds are fold in Turkey for this purpofe; and
with thefe, as Bellonius relates, the Turkifh emperor
Solyman kept himfelf intoxicated. 3. Mafiac of the
Turks, or bangue of the Perfians; prepared from the
duft of the male-flower of hemp, or from the leaves.
4. Bangue of the Indians, from the leaves of the hibif-
cus fabdariffa. 5. Seeds of various fpecies of the datura,
or thorny apple. 6. Pinang, or betel of the Indians.
7. Roots of black henbane. 8. The hyofcyamus phy-
la)oide=. 9. Berries of the deadly nightftiade. 10. Leaves
of millfoil, are ufed by the Dalekarlians to render their
beer intoxicating. 11. Tobacco, and feveral others lefs
material are mentioned; fuch as clary, faffron, and
darnel.
Artificial Inebriants, are fermented liquors from fari¬
naceous feeds; wines, and fpirits drawn by dillillation. Inebri
With thefe is ranked the neftar of the gods, and the I!
anodyne medicine of Homer, commonly called nspen- Infi‘n
thes; and the fpells by which Medea and Circe pro¬
duced their inchantments.
INERTIA of Matter, in Philofophy, is defined
by Sir Ifaac Newton to be a paflive principle by which
bodies perfift in their motion or reft, receive motion
in proportion to the force imprefling it, and refift as
much as they are refifted. It is alfo defined by the
fame author to be a power implanted in all matter,
whereby it refifts any change endeavoured to be made
in its ftate. See Mechanics.
INESSE is applied to things which are adlually
exi fling.
Authors make a difference between a thing in ejfe,
and a thing in pqffe : a thing that is not, but may be,
they fay is m poffe, or polentia ; but a thing apparent
and vifible, they fay is in cjfe, that is, has a real be¬
ing eo inf anti; whereas the other is cafual, and at beft
but a poftibility.
INFALISTACIO, an ancient punllhment of fe¬
lons, by throwing them among the rocks and Ends,
cuftomarily ufed in port-towns. It is the opinion of
fome writers, that infali/latus did imply fome capital
puniftiment, by expofing the malefactor upon the land
till the next tide carried him away; of which cuftom,
it is faid, there is an old tradition. However, the pe¬
nalty feems to take its name from the Norman falefc;
ovfa/efa, which fignified not the fands, but the rocks
and cliffs adjoining, or impending on the fea-fhore.
Commiftfeloniam ob quam fuit fufpenfus, ut/cgatus, vel
alio modo morti damnatus, &e. vel apud Dover infali-
ftatus, apud Southampton fubmerfust &c.
INFALLIBLE, fomething that cannot err, or be
deceived.
One of the great controverfies between the Prote-
ftants and Papilts, is the infallibility which the latter
attribute to the pope ; though, in faCl, they them-
felves are not agreed on that head, fome placing this
pretended infallibility in the pope and a general coun¬
cil.
INFAMY, in Law, is a term which extends to
forgery, perjury, grofs cheats, &c. by which a perfon
is rendered incapable of being a witnefs or juror, even
though he is pardoned for his crimes.
INFANCY, the firft part of life.—Fred. Hoffman
fays, that the human fpecies are infants until they be¬
gin to talk, and children to the age of puberty.—Ana¬
tomy difcoVers to us, that during infancy there is much
imperfeClion in the human frame ; e. g. its parts.are
difproportioned, and its organs incapable of thofe
functions which in future life they are defigned to'per¬
form. The head is larger in proportion to the bulk
of the body than that of an adult. The liver and
pancreas are much larger in proportion than in ad¬
vanced life ; their fecretions are more in quantity alfo,
The bile is very inert ; the heart isftronger and larger
than in future life ; the quantity of blood fent through
the heart of an infant, in a given time, is alfo more
in proportion than in adults. Though thefe circum-
ftances have their important ufefulnefs, yet the imper-
feCHon attending them fubje&s this age to many in¬
juries and dangers from Avhich a more per fed ftate is
H h 2 exempted.
INF [ 244 1 INF
Infancy,
Infant,
exempted. Dr Percival obferves, in his Ejftnjs Med.
and Exp. that of all the children who are born alive,
two-thirds do not live to be two years old.
Infants have a larger proportion of brain than adults,
hence are moil fubjeft to nervous diforders j and hence
the diagnoftics of difeafes are in many refpedts obfcure
or uncertain, as particularly thofe taken from the pulfe,
which, from the irritability of the tender bodies of in¬
fants, is fuddenly affe&ed by a variety of accidents too
numerous, and leemingly too trivial, to gain our atten¬
tion. However, no very great embarrafi'ment anfes to
the practitioner from hence : for the diforders in this
Hate are generally acute, lefs complicated than thofe in
adults, and are more eafily difcovered than is general¬
ly apprehended.
INFANT, denotes a young child. See Infancy.
Infants, among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
were fwaddled as foon as they were born, in a manner
fimilar to that praHifed by the moderns. The Jews
circumcifed and named their infant children on the 8th
day from the birth. Upon the birth of a fon, the
Grecians crowned their doors with olives—of a daugh¬
ter, with wool. The infant was walked in 'warm water,
and anointed with oil—by the Spartans with wine $ it
was then dreffed, and laid in a balket, or on a fhield if
the father was a warrior, particularly among!! the Spar¬
tans. At five days old they ran with it round the fire,
and the mother’s relations lent prefents. The Greeks
named their children on the tenth day, the Romans on
the ninth : The naming was attended with facrifices
and other demonftrations of joy. The maternal office
of fuckling their own children was never declined, wrhen
circu mifances would permit. How much different is
this from the unnatural delicacy obferved by modern
mothers, a delicacy which to the child is cruelty ! The
40th day was a day of folemnity for the mother. The
names of children were regilfered both by the Greeks
and Romans. See Register.
For an account of the cuftom of expofing infants, fee
Exposing.
Infants were kept from crying in the ftreets by
means of a fponge foaked in honey. Nurfes had alfo
their bugbears and terrible names to frighten the chil¬
dren into peace :—The figure with which they were
principally intimidated was Mog^aZvxeiov, a fort of raw-
head and bloody bones.
Infant, in Law, is a perfon under 21 years of age 5
whofe capacities, incapacities, and privileges, are vari¬
ous.
1. In criminal matters. The law of England does
in fome cafes privilege an infant under the age of 21,
as to common mifdemeanors ; fo as to efcape fine, im-
prifonment, and the like : and particularly in the cafes
of omiffion, as not repairing a bridge, or a high way,
and other fimilar offences j for, not having the com-
„ mand of his fortune till the age of 21, he wants the ca-
Commeat- to do thofe things which the law requires. But
where there is any notorious breach of the peace, a
not, battery, or the like, (which infants when full-
grown are at leal! as liable as others to commit) ; for
thofe, an infant above the age of 14 is equally liable
to fuffer as a perfon of the full age of 21.
With regard to capital crimes, the law is ftill more
minute and circumfped! ; diftinguilhing with greater
nicety the feveral degrees of age and diferetioa* .By
4
the ancient Saxon law, the age of twelve years was
eftablilhed for the age of poffible diferetion, when fid!
the underftanding might open ; and from thence till
the offender was 14, it was eetas pubertati proximo, in
which he might, or might not, be guilty of a crime,
according to his natural capacity or incapacity. This
wras the dubious llage of diferetion ; but, under twelve,
it w'as held, that he could not be guilty in will, neither
after fourteen could be fuppofed innocent, of any ca¬
pital crime which he in fa<R committed. But by the
law, as it now Hands, and has Hood at leaff ever fince
the time of Edward III. the capacity of doing ill, or
contracting guilt, is not fo much meafured by years
and days, as by the flrength of the delinquent’s under-
flanding and judgment. For one lad of 11 years old
may have as much cunning as another of 14 ; and in
thefe cafes our maxim is, that mahtia fupplet cctatem.
Under feven years of age, indeed, an infant cannot
be guilty of felony ; for then a felonious diferetion is
almoff an impoffibility in nature : but at eight years,
old, he may be guilty of felony. Alfo, under 14,
though an infant lhall be pmma facie adjudged to be
doli incapax, yet if it appear to the court and jury that
he was doli capax, and could difeern between good and
evil, he may be convi&ed and fuffer death. Thus a
girl of 13 has been burnt for killing her miflrefs : and
one boy of ten, and another of nine years old, who had
killed their companions, have been fentenced to death,
and he of ten years aCtually hanged ; becaufe it ap¬
peared upon their trials, that the one hid himfelf, and
the other hid the body he had killed; which hiding
manifeffed a confcioufnefs of guilt, and a diferetion
to difeern between good and evil. And there was an
inHance in the laff century, where a boy of eight years
old was tried at Abington for firing two barns ; and it
appearing that he had malice, revenge, and cunning,
he was found guilty, condemned, and hanged accord¬
ingly. Thus alfo, in very modern times, a boy of ten
years old was convifted on his own confeffion of mur¬
dering his bedfellow ; there appearing in his whole be¬
haviour plain tokens of a mifehieveus difpofition ; and,
as the fparing this boy merely on account of his tender-
years might be of dangerous confequence to the pub¬
lic, by propagating a notion that children might com¬
mit fuch atrocious crimes with impunity, it was unani-
njoully agreed by all the judges, that he was a proper
fubjed of capital punilhment.. But, in all fuch cafes,
the evidence of that malice, which is to fupply age,
ought to be Hrong and clear beyond all doubt and con-
tradiftion..
2. In civil matters. The ages of male and female are
different for different purpofes. A male at 12 years old
may take the oath of allegiance *, at 14 is at the years
of diferetion, and therefore may confent or difagree to
marriage, may choofe his guardian, and, if his difere¬
tion be aftually proved, may make his teHament of his
perfonal effate ; at 17 may be an executor ; and at 21
is at his own difpofal, and may aliene his land, goods,
and chattels. A female alfo at feven years of age may
be betrothed or given in marriage ; at nine is entitled
to dower ; at 12 is at years of maturity, and therefore
may confent or difagree to marriage, and, if proved
to have fufficient diferetion, may bequeath her perfonal
effate ; at 14 is at years of legal diferetion, and may
choofe a guardian ; at 17 may be executrix; and at 2s
may
Infant.
INF [ 245 ] INF
Infant, may clifpofe of hcrfelf and her lands. So that full age
—sr—1 in male or female is 21 years, which age is completed
on the day preceding the anniverfary of a perfon’s
birth ; who till that time is an infant, and fo ftyled in
law. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women
were never of age, but fubjeft to perpetual guardian-
ihip, unlefs when married, nifi, conmenijfent in manum
viri; and when that perpetual tutelage wore away
in procefs of time, we find that, in females as well as
males, full age was not till 25 years. Thus by the
conftitution of different kingdoms, this period, which
is merely arbitrary, and juris pojitivi, is fixed at dif¬
ferent times. Scotland agrees with England in this
point; (both probably copying from the old Saxon
conftitutions on the continent, which extended the age
of minority ad annum vigejimumpnmum, et eo ufque ju-
venes fub tutelam reponuntj : but in Naples perfons are
of full age at 18 ; and in France, with regard to mar¬
riage, not till 30 ; and in Holland at 25.
The very difabilities of infants are privileges ; in
. order to fecure them from hurting themfelves by their
own improvident a&s. An infant cannot be fued but
under the protection, and joining the name, of his
guardian ; for he is to defend him againfi; all attacks as
well by law as otherwife : but he may fue either by his
guardian, or prochein amyy his next friend who is not his
guardian. This prochein amy may be any perfon who
will undertake the infant’s caufe ; and it frequently hap¬
pens, that an infant, by his prochein amy, inftitutes a
fuit in equity againft a fraudulent guardian.
With regard to eftates and civil property, an infant
hath many privileges. In general, an infant fhall lofe
nothing by noneclaim, or negleCt of demanding his
• right ; nor fhail any other laches or negligence be
imputed to an infant, except in fome very particular
cafes.
It is generally true, that an infant can neither aliene
his lands, nor do any legal aCI, nor make a deed, nor
indeed any manner of contraCl, that will bind him.
But ft ill to all thefe rules there are fome exceptions :
part of which were juft now mentioned in reckoning
up the different capacities which they affume at differ¬
ent ages : and there are others, a few of which it may
not be improper to recite, as a general fpecimen of the
whole. And, firft, it is true, that infants cannot aliene
their eftates ; but infant truftees, or mortgagees, are
enabled to convey, under the direction of the court of
chancery or exchequer or other courts of equity, the
eftates they hold in truft or mortgage, to fueh perfon
as the court (hall appoint. Alfo it is generally true,
that an infant can do no legal aCl : yet an infant, who
has an advowfon, may prefent to the benefice when it
becomes void. For the law in this cafe difpenfes with
one rule, in order to maintain others of far greater
confequence : it permits an infant to prefent a clerk
(who, if unfit, may be rejected by the bifhop), rather
than either fuffer the church to be unferved till he
come of age, or permit the infant to be debarred of
his right by lapfe to the bifhop. An infant may alfo
purchafe lands, but his purchafe is incomplete ; for,
when he comes to age, he may either agree or difagree
to it, as he thinks prudent or proper, without alleging
any reafon ; and fo may his heirs after him, if he dies
without having completed his agreement. It is, far¬
ther, generally true, that an infant, under 21, can make Infant:
no deed but what is afterwards voidable : yet in fome jnfat.^ate
cafes he may bind himfelf apprentice by deed indented ■ ‘ ^
or indentures, for feven years ; and he may by deed or
will appoint a guardian to his children, if he has any.
Laftly, it is generally true, that an infant can make
no other contraCI that will bind him : yet he may bind
himfelf to pay for his neceffary meat, drink, apparel,
phyfic, and fuch other neceffaries ; and likewife for his
good teaching and inftruCtion, whereby he may profit
himfelf afterwards.
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the fons and daugh¬
ters of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the
eldeft : the princes being called infantes, and the prin-
ceffes infantas.
INFANTRY, in military affairs, the whole body of
foot-foldiers, whether independent companies or regi¬
ments.—The word takes its origin from one of the in¬
fantas of Spain, who, finding that the army command¬
ed by the king her father had been defeated by the
Moors, affembled a body of foot-foldiers, and with them
engaged and totally routed the enemy. In memory of
this event, and to diftinguilh the foot-foldiers, who
V'ere not before held in much confideration, they re¬
ceived the name of infantry.
Heavy-armediNFANTET, among the ancients, were
fuch as wore a complete fuit of armour, and engaged
with broad fhields and long fpears. They were the
flower and ftrength of the Grecian armies, and. had
the higheft rank of military honour.
Light-armed INFANTRT, among the ancients, were
defigned for fkirmiflies, and for fighting at a diftance.
Their weapons were arrows, darts, or flings.
Light Infante T, among the moderns, have only
been in ufe fince the year 1656. The have no camp
equipage to carry, and their arms and accoutrements
are much lighter than thofe of the infantry. Light
infantry are the eyes of a general, and the givers of
fleep and fafety to an army. Wherever there is found
light cayalry, there ftiould be light infantry. They
ftiould be accuftomed to the pace of four miles an hour,
as their ufual marching pace, and to be able tu march
at five miles an hour upon all particular occafions.
Moft of the powers on the continent have light in¬
fantry. It is only of late years that light infantry
came to be ufed in the Britifh army : But now every
regiment has a company of U^ht infantry, whofe ftaticn
is on the left of the regiment, the right being occupied
by the grenadiers.
INFATUATE, to prepoffefs any one in favour of
fome perfon or thing that does not deferve it, fo far as
that he cannot eafily be difabufed.—The word inf a-,
tuate comes from the Latin fatuus, “ fool of fari,
“ to fpeak out,” rvhich is borrowed from the Greek gxta,
whence which fignifies the fame with votes in
Latin, or prophet in Englifh ; and the reafon is, be-
caufe their prophets or priefts ufed to be feized with a
kind of madnefs or folly, when they began to make
their predictions, pr deliver oracles.
The Romans called thofe perfons infatuati,yi\\o fan¬
cied they had feen vifions, or imagined the god Faunus,
whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to them. This
word is more generally applied by the moderns to per¬
fons who are what the vulgar call bewitched, or under
fome
InLtuate
I!
Infibula-
tion.
INF [2
fome peculiar deftiny which it appears impoflible for
them to fhun.
INFECTION, among phyficians. See Conta-
„ GION.
INFEFTMENT, in Scots Low, the folemnity of
the delivery of an heritable fubjeft to the purchafer.
INFERIiE, facrifices offered by the Romans to
the Dii Manes, or the fouls of deceafed heroes or other
illuftrious perfons, or even any relation or perfon whofe
memory was held in veneration. Thefe facrifices con-
fifted of honey, water, wine, milk, the blood of vic¬
tims, variety of balfamic unguents, chaplets, and loofe
flowers. The viftims upon thefe occafions were gene¬
rally of the fmaller cattle, though in ancient times they
facrificed Haves or captives : But what a Ihocking view
does this give us of their fentiments of human nature,
as if nothing but murder, cruelty, and human blood,
could fatisfy or prove acceptable to a human foul !
The facrifices were ufually black and barren. The al¬
tars on which they were offered were holes dug in the
ground.
The honey, water, wine, &c. were ufed as libations,
and were poured on the tombs of children by children,
on thofe of virgins by virgins, and on tliofe of married
men by wnmen. The inferice were offered on the pth
and 30th days after interment amongft the Greeks, and
repeated in the month Anthefterion. The whole of this
article applies equally to the Greeks and the Romans.
INFIBULATION, in antiquity. It was a cu-
ftom among the Romans to infibulate their finging
boys, in order to preferve their voices : for this ope¬
ration, which prevented their retracing the prepuce
over the glans, and is the very reverfe to circumcifion,
kept them from injuring their voices by premature and
prepofterous venery ; ferving as a kind of padlock, if
not to their inclinations, at leaf! to their abilities. It
appears by fome paffages in Martial, that a lefs decent
life was made of infibulation among the luxurious Ro¬
mans : for fome ladies of diftindtion, it feems, took
this method of confining their paramours to their own
embraces. Juvenal alfo hints at fome fuch pradlice. Cel-
fus, a chafte author, fays infibulation was fometimes
pradlifed for the fake of health, and that nothing de-
itroys it more than the filly pradlice this operation feems
intended to prevent. This pradtice is not perhaps like¬
ly to be revived ; if, however, any one who has fuffered
in his conftitution by prepofterous venery, fhould be
able to get children, and ftiould be inclined to prevent
the fame misfortune in them by infibulation, the me¬
thod of doing it is thus : The fkin which is above the
glans is to be extended, and marked on both Tides with
ink, where it is perforated, and then fuffered to retradt
itfelf. if the marks recur upon the glans, too much
,of the Ikin has been taken up, and v'e muft make the
marks farther *, if the glans remain free from them,
they (how the proper place for affixing a fibula : then
pafs a needle and thread through the fkin where the
marks are, and tie the threads together; taking care
to move it every day, until the parts about the perfd-
rations are cicatrifed : this being effedled, take out the
thread, and put in the fibula ; which the lighter it is
the better.
Authors have not determined what the fibula of the
/ancient furgeons was, though no doubt it was for differ-
1
InfiLmla-
lion
+5 ] INF
ent purpofes. In the prefent cafe, the fibula feems to
mean a ring of metal, not unlike what the country peo¬
ple put through the nofes of fwine. _ "
INFIDEL, a term applied to fuch perfons as are - n
not baptized, and that do not believe the truths of the
Chriftian religion. See Deist.
INFIDELITY, in a general fenfe, denotes want of
faith or belief in regard to any fubjedt or tranfadlion.
Religious InFIDELITT fignifies a difbeliefof Chrifti-
anity.
Of all the methods (fays an elegant modern ef-
fayift *) which the vanity of man has deviled with a # Knox's
view to acquire diftindtion, there is none eafier than^y/,
that of profeffing a difbelief of the eftablifiied religion.^0 i6*
That which (hocks the feelings of thofe with whom
we converfe, cannot fail of attradling notice ; and as
the vain are ufually confident, they utter their doubts
with an air fo oracular and decifive, as induces the
fimple to think them profoundly wife. Audacity, with
little ingenuity, will attradt the eyes of fpedfators, and
this will fufficiently anfvver the purpofe of many among
the profeffed unbelievers. One might be diverted, if
one were not hurt, at feeing a circle of filly admirers,
gaping and fixing their eyes on fome half-learned and
impudent prater, who throws out oblique infinuations
againft the Bible, the clergy, or the facrament. Thefe
are fertile topics of wit and ingenuity ; but it might
mortify the vanity of fome very vain writers and talk¬
ers, if they were to recoiled!, what is undoubtedly true,
that it is a fpecies of wit and ingenuity which not only
the vileft, but the moft ftupid and illiterate of man¬
kind, have frequently difplayed in all its poffible per-
fedlion.
There is indeed no doubt, but that vanity is one of
the principal caufes of infidelity. It muft be the foie
caufe of communicating it to others, by writing or
converfation. For let us fuppofe the cafe of a very hu¬
mane, judicious, and learned man, entertaining doubts
of the truth of Chriftianity .' if he cannot clear his
doubts by examination, he will yet recoiled! that doubts
are no certainties ; and, before he endeavours to pro¬
pagate his fcepticifm, he will a(k himfelf thefe que-
ilions : “ Am I quite convinced that what I doubt of
cannot poflibly be true ? If I am convinced of it, am I
fure that the publication of my opinions will not do
more harm than good ? Is not the difturbing of any
long-eftabliffied civil conftitution attended with confu-
fion, rebellion, bloodflred, and ruin ? And are not the
majority of men more ftrongly attached to the religion
than the government of their forefathers? Will it ferve
my country to introduce difeontent of any fpecies ?
May not thofe innovations in religion, which difeon¬
tent may introduce, lead to all the evils which arc
caufed by frenzy and fanaticifm ? Granting that I
were able to make a party formidable enough to cruflt
oppofition and to exterminate Chriftianity, {fill am I
certain that I ad!, in this inftance, like a good member
of fociety ? For is not this fyftem, whether well or ill
founded, friendly to fociety ? I muft confefs it ; its
greateft enemies have acknowledged it. What motive
then can induce me to divulge my doubts of its authen¬
ticity ? Not the good of mankind ; for it is already
allowed by unbelievers, that the good of mankind is
interefted in the belief of its divine original. Is it for
my
INF [ 247 ] INF
InfkMity. my own good, and with a view to be convinced ? I
-—v—^ will not deceive inyfelf: my motive, I fwfpeft, is of
another kind j for do I read thofe books which have
been already written to fatisfy fimilar doubts ? No¬
thing but the vanity of appearing to be wifer than my
credulous neighbours can induce me to interrupt the
happinefs of their belief. But vanity of this fort,
which tends to diflurb fociety, to injure the national
morals, and to rob many thoufand individuals of a co¬
pious fource of fwect and folid comfort, mull be pro¬
nounced extreme wickednefs, even according to the
obvious diftates of natural religion. I thall aft the
part of a good citizen and a good man, by conforming
to a fyftem whofe beneficial influence I feel and con-
fefs, and by endeavouring to acquire a belief in that
which has for fo many centuries been eftablithed,
and which promifes to foothe me in diftrefs with the
fweetefl; confolations, and to brighten the difmal hour
of death, by the hope of a more glorious and happy
Hate of exiftence. At all events, I (hall have the
fatisfaftion of having commanded myfelf fo far, as not
to have run the hazard of endangering the welfare of
my fellow-creatures, either here or hereafter, by in¬
dulging a degree of vanity, which, in a creature fo
weak and fo fhort-lived as myfelf, is a folly very in-
eonfiftent with the fuperior wifdom which I feem to
arrogate.
“ I will venture to repeat (continues our author), that
all writers againft Chriftianity, however they may af-
feft even the extremes of benevolence, honour, philo-
fophy, and enlargement of mind, are aftuated by vani¬
ty and wickednefs of heart. Their motives are as mean,
felfiih, narrow, and in every refpeft unjuftifiable, as
the tendency of their writings is mifchievous. Their
malice is often impotent, through the foolilh fophiltry
of their arguments 5 but, if ever it be fuccefsful, it is
highly injurious : and indeed, confidering their motives
and the probable confequences of their endeavours, the
infidel writer is a greater enemy to fociety, and confe-
quently guiltier, according to all the principles of fo-
cial union, than the thief or the traitor. Perfecution
would, however, only promote his caufe, and his proper
punifliment is contempt.
“ It is certainly no derogation from the charafter of
a man of fenfe, to conform, even while he is fo unfortu¬
nate as to doubt their truth, to the opinions- of his
country. His conformity will probably lead him to a
train of aftions and of thought, which, in due time,
will induce him to believe. But, if that fhould not
happen, yet he will aft, as very wife and very great
men have afted, in paying a refpeftful deference to the
avowed conviftion of others. The moft intelligent and
powerful men of ancient Rome, not only appeared to
believe a very abfurd and hurtful fyftem, butaffifted in
all its ceremonies as priefts- Even Socrates, who evi¬
dently entertained fome notions adequate to the dig¬
nity of the one great and fupreme Being, yet thought
it was a duty w'hich he ow-ed to his country, fo far to
conform to the wretched eflablilhment, as to order in
his dying words a facrifice to iEfculapius. This ex¬
ternal conformity to the national religion ought not to
be confounded with hypocrify. If indeed it is carried
to extremes, or zealoufly affefted, it certainly is very
blameable and contemptible deceit; but while it keeps
within the bounds of reafon and moderation, it ought
to be called a decent deference to the opinions of the Infidelity,
majority, arifing from humility, and from a defire to
maintain the tranquillity of the ftate, and to continue
an innocent and ufeful fyftem, which has, and will al¬
ways greatly contribute to leffen the quantity and de¬
gree both of moral and of natural evil.
“ The eafieft, after all, or at leaft the moft effeftual
method of appearing in any charafter, is really to be
what we wifli to appear. But belief, you will fay, is
not in our power, and how' can we believe what appears
to us incredible ? Certainly you cannot while it ap¬
pears incredible. But let me alk you, whether you
have taken any pains to believe, or have at once and
at a glance perfuaded yourfelf, that the Chriftian re¬
ligion is totally falfe ? It is probable that a great num¬
ber of fceptical writers never gave themfelves the
trouble to read thofe Scriptures which they warmly
oppofe. They hear objeftions, they read objeftiens,
and they find, that from men of reputed wit and inge¬
nuity the objeftions often originate. They alfo wilh-
to be reputed men of wit and ingenuity, and there¬
fore eagerly adopt the language and fentiments of the
order. Perhaps the vanity and pride of this clafs
of men wflll render all attempts to convince them
abortive ; but to modeft doubters, and to thofe whofe
good fenfe and good difpofitions lead them to wifti to
adopt the religion of their country, it may not be ufe-
lefs to fuggeft advice, with a view' to facilitate their
conviftion.
“ The chief thing required is to free themfelves from
the pride of human realbn. Humility (and furely our
blindnefs and imperfeftions are fufficient to render us
humble, if we would be reafonable), humility will
open our hearts, and belief will find admiflion. Sin¬
cere endeavours, feconded by prayers, will never fail
to help our unbelief. But, alas ! a fine, gay, fpirited,
liberal, and enlarged modern philofopher, would be
alhamed to be found on his knees, or with a Teftament
in his poffeflion. There is fcarcely any vicious aft, or
any vicious book, which would put him fo much to the
blufli.
“ A modeft well-meaning man might, however, one
fliould think, diveft himfelf of thofe prejudices which
prevent the poflibility of belief, by the following foli-
loquy : ‘ I find myfelf placed in a world abounding
with evil and mifery. Under the immediate preffure
of it, I feel my heart inclining, like the needle to the
north, by its natural tendency, to the Deity for fup-
port. Man, of all animals, is the only one who has the
fenfe of religion. Feeling this diftinftive propenfity
of my nature, I look around to difeover to what ob-
jeft, and in what manner, that part of my fellow crea¬
tures, who live in the fame fociety with myfelf, pay
their adoration. I find a fyftem of religion already
eftabliflied, and which has been eftablifhed in the moft
enlightened countries of the earth near 2000 years. I
refolve to examine it. It claims that refpeft from its
antiquity and univerfality. Many difficulties appear
on the firft infpeftion. My reafon is often fiartled,and
my belief wavers. But I will not yet give up a point
of fo ferious importance, without further and clofer
attention to it. I refleft, that 2coo years is a vaft
fpace in the age of the world. How many myriads
of men like myfelf have lived and died in the faith du¬
ring that time ! And were all of them fools or hypo¬
crites l
.
INF [ 248 ] INF’.
Infidelity crites ? It could not have been. Can the underftand-
i) ing of a poor individual, juft come into the world, and
^ kardiy knowing where he is, comprehend on intuition
■ —‘ an objeft of fuch magnitude, and make the mighty
difcovery which has efcaped millions of the wileft and
moft learned of mortals ? Or, fuppofmg that they all
perceived the deception, am I then at laft the only ho-
neft man who will confefs it ? I am alhamed to avow
fuch an idea to myfelf. But yet, if I rejeft what
they received, furely I avow it in the more expreflive
language of my conduct. Pride, I fear, is the foun¬
dation of my fcepticifm; and humility muft form the
bafis of my belief. I will check my own prefumption,
and reject the cavils of vain and foolilh philofophy.
Shall a poor weak creature, who cometh up like a
flower, and is cut down, who fleeth as a fliadow, and
never continueth in one ftay, prefume to pronounce de-
cifively in that little period, in which he has fcarcely
time to look about him before he dies, againft a fy-
ftem which has ftrong internal and external evidence
of divine original, which is moft ufeful and comfortable,
and which has been admitted among a great portion
of mankind during almoft 20 centuries ? No, it is the
firft wifdom to be humble. Humility will be followed
by grace, and grace by faith, and faith by falvation.
It plainly appears, that I can lofe nothing by belief,
but fome of thofe exceflive and irregular enjoyments,
which would deftroy my health and life ; but I may
poflibly gain a glory and a happinefs which fhall con¬
tinue to all eternity.”
INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor
end : in which fenfe God alone is infinite.
Infinite is alfo ufed tofignify that which has had a
beginning, but will have no end, as angels and human
fouls. This makes what the fchoolmen call infinitum
a parte pofi ; as, on the contrary, by infinitum a parte
ante, they mean that which has an end, but had no be¬
ginning.
INFINITE Quantities. The very idea of magnitudes
infinitely great, or fuch as exceed any aflignable quan¬
tities, does include a negation of limits •, yet if we
nearly examine this notion, we fhall find that fuch mag¬
nitudes are not equal among themfelves, but that there
-are really, befides infinite length and infinite area,
three feveral forts of infinite folidity; all of which are
quantitates fui generis, and that thofe of each fpecies are
in given proportions.
Infinite length, or a line infinitely long, is to be
confidered either as beginning at a point, and fo infi¬
nitely extended one way, or elfe both ways from the
fame point 5 in which cafe the one, which is a begin¬
ning infinity, is the one half of the whole, which is
the fum of the beginning and ceafing infinity ; or, as
may be faid, of infinity a parte ante and a parte pofi,
which is analogous to eternity in time and duration, in
which there is always as much to follow as is paft, from
any point or moment of time 5 nor doth the addition
or fubduflion of finite length, or fpace of time, alter
the cafe either in infinity or eternity, fince both the one
or the other cannot be any part of the whole.
INFINITESIMALS, among mathematicians, are
defined to be infinitely imall quantities.
In the method of infinitefimals, the element, by which
any quantity increafes or decreafes, is fuppofed to be
infinitely fmall j and is generally expreffed by two or
more terms, fome of which are infinitely lefs than the Infinitefi.
reft ; which being negledted as of no importance, the niais
remaining terms form what is called the dijference of
the propofed quantity. The terms that are neglefted in > ^
this manner, as infinitely lefs than the other terms of
the element, are the very fame which arife in confe-
quence of the acceleration or retardation of the gene¬
rating motion, during the infinitely fmall time in
which the element is generated : fo that the remaining
terms exprefs the elements that would have been pro¬
duced in that time, if the generating motion had con¬
tinued uniform : therefore thofe differences are accu¬
rately in the fame ratio to each other as the generating
motions or fluxions. And hence, though in this me¬
thod infinitefimal parts of the elements are neglected,
the conclufions are accurately true without even an in-*
finitely fmali error, and agree precifely with thofe that
are deduced by the method by fluxions. See Flux¬
ions.
INFINITIVE, in Grammar, the name of one of
the moods, which ferve for the conjugating of verbs.
See Grammar.
INFINITY, the quality which denominates a thing
infinite. See Metaphysics.
INFIRMARY, a kind of hofpital, where the weak
and fick are properly taken care of.
INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies
which difpofes them to kindle or catch fire. See Che¬
mistry, N° 336. p. 490.
INFLAMMATION, in Medicine and Surgenj, a
rednefs and fwelling of any part of the body, attended
with heat, pain, &c. See Medicine Index.
INFLAMMATION of Oils by concentrated Acids. See
Chemistry, N° 876 and 893.
INFLATION, formed from in and flatus j of flo,
“ I blowblowing up, the aft of ftretching or fill¬
ing any flaccid or diftenfible body with a flatulent or
windy fubftance.
INFLECTED rays. See InfieBed Rats.
INFLECTION, called alfo d/firaBion, and defies
tion, in Optics, is a property of light, by reafon of
which, when it comes within a certain diftance of any
body, it will either be bent from it, or towards it j
which is a kind of imperfeft refleftion or refraftion.
See Optics.
Inflection, or Roint of Inflection, in the higher
geometry, is a point where a curve begins to bend a
contrary way.
Inflection, in Grammar, the variation of nouns
and verbs, by declenfion and conjugation.
INFLUENCE, a quality fuppofed to flow from the
heavenly bodies, either with their light or heat j to
which aftrologers idly afevibe all fublunary events.
Alchemifts alfo, who to this aferibe the philofophers
ftone, tells us, that every thing in nature is produced
by the influence of the ftars, which, in their paflage
through the atmofphere, imbibe many of its moift
parts, the groffeft whereof they depofit in the fands and
earths w'here they fall 5 that thefe, filtrating through
the pores of the earth, defeend even to the centre,
whence they are driven, by the central fire, back again
to the furface ; and in their afeent, by a natural kind
of fublimation, as they find earths duly difpofed, they
form natural bodies, as metals, minerals, and vege¬
tables, &c. Thus, it is pretended, that chemiftry.
I N F
[ 249 ]
I N G
Informer.
Influence confiding of an artificial imitation of thefe natural ope¬
rations, and in applying aftive principles to paffive prin¬
ciples, can form natural bodies, make gold, &c.
INFORMATION, in Laxu, is nearly the fame in
the crown-office, as what in other courts is called a
declaration. See Prosecution.
Informations are of two forts; firft, thofe which are
partly at the fuit of the king, and partly at that of a
fubjeft, and fecondly, fuch as are only in the name of
the king. The former are ufually brought upon penal
ftatutes, which infli£t a penalty upon conviftion of the
offender, one part to the ufe of the king, and another
to the ufe of the informer. By the ftatute 31 Eliz.
c. 5. no profecution upon any penal ftatute, the. fuit
and benefit whereof are limited in part to the king
and in part to the profecutor, can be brought by any
common informer after one year is expired fince the
commifiion of the offence ; nor on behalf of the crown,
after the lapfe of two years longer j nor, where the for¬
feiture is originally given only to the king, can fuch
profecution be had after the expiration of two years
from the commiffion of the offence.
The informations that are exhibited in the name of
the king alone, are alfo of two kinds : firft, thofe
which are truly and properly his own fuits, and filed
ex officio by his own immediate officer, the attorney-
general : fecondly, thofe in which, though the king
is the nominal profecutor, yet it is at the relation of
fome private perfon, or common informer j and they are
filed by the king’s coroner and attorney in the court
■of king’s bench, ufually called the majler of the crown-
office, who is for this purpofe the {landing officer of the
public. The objects of the king’s own profecutions,
filed ex officio by his own attorney-general, are pro¬
perly fuch enormous mifdemeanors, as peculiarly tend
to difturb or endanger his government, or to moleft or
affront him in the regular difcharge of his royal func¬
tions. For offences fo high and dangerous, in the pu-
nifhing or preventing of which a moment’s delay would
be fatal, the law has given to the crown the power of
an immediate profecution, without waiting for any pre¬
vious application to any other tribunal : which power,
thus neceffary, not only to the eafe and fafety, but even
to the very exiftence, of the executive magiftrate, was
originally refer^d in the great plan of the Englifh con.
ftitution, wherein provifion is wifely made for the due
prefervation of all its parts. The obje£fs of the other
fpecies of informations, filed by the mafter of the crown-
office upon the complaint or relation of a private fub-
jeft, are any grofs and notorious mifdemeanors, riots,
batteries, libels, and other immoralities of an atro¬
cious kind, not peculiarly tending to difturb the go¬
vernment (for thofe are left to the care of the attorney-
general), but which, on account of their magnitude
.or pernicious example, deferve the moft public animad-
verfion. And when an information is filed, either
thus, or by the attorney-general ex officio, it muft be
tried by a petit jury of the county where the of¬
fence arifes : after which, if the defendant be found
guilty, he muft refort to the court for his punifh-
ment. See a hiftory and vindication of this mode of
profecution in the work cited on the margin, vol. iv.
p. 309—312.
INFORMER ffiiformator') in Law, a perfon that
informs againft, or profecutes in any of the king’s
Vol. XI. Part I.
Blackji.
Comment.
courts, thofe that offend againft any law or penal fta- Infonner
tute. See Information. i!
Informers were very common both in Greece and ln^enuou?‘
Rome. Every corner of the ftreets was peftered with
fwarms of turbulent rafeals, who made it their conftant
bufinefs to pick up ftorie$, and catch at every occafion to
accufe perfons of credit and reputation : Thefe by the
Greeks were called ’ZvKoQxflcct; for a more particular
account of whom, fee the article Sycophant.
Amongft the Romans, informers were of tvro forts,
mandatores and dtiatores. Thefe played into each other’s
hands; the former marking down fuch perfons as they
pretended to have found guilty of any mifdemeanor,
and the other profecuting them. What tended to in-
creafe the number of thefe peftilent fellows was, that
the informers were entitled to a fourth part of the
effe£ts of the perfon conviifted. Wicked princes re¬
warded and countenanced this mifehievous tribe 5 but
Titus fet on foot a moft diligent fearch after them,
and punifhed fuch as he found with death or banifh-
ment. Trajan alfo is praifed by Pliny for a fimilar
conduft.
INFRACTION (formed from in, and the fupine
of frango, “ I break,”) a rupture or violation of a
treaty, law, ordinance, or the like.
INFRALAPSARII, the name of a fe£l of prede-
ftinarians, who maintain, that God has created a cer¬
tain number of men only to be damned, without allow¬
ing them the means neceffary to fave themfelves, if
they would *, and they are thus called, becaufe they
hold that God’s decrees were formed infra lapfum, after
his knowledge of the fall, and in confequence thereof j
in contradiftindlion to the Supralapsarians.
INFRA-scapularis, in Anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
INFRA-Spinatus, in Anatomy. See Anatomy ibid.
INFUL A, in antiquity, was a mitre w orn by the
Roman and Grecian priefts upon the head, from
which on each fide hung a ribband. The covering
the head with a mitre was rather a Roman than a
Grecian cuftom, introduced into Italy by YEneas, who
covered his head and face at the performance of facri-
fice, left any ill-boding omen ftiould difturb the rites.
The infulse were commonly made of wool, and were
not only worn by the priefts, but were put upon the
horns of the vidlims, upon the altar and the temple.
The infulse were alfo called vittae.
INFUNDIBULIFORM, in Botany, an appella¬
tion given to fuch monopetalous or one-leaved flowers
as referable a funnel in fhape, or which have a narrow
tube at one end, and gradually widen towards the limb
or mouth.
INFUSION, in Pharmacy, an operation, whereby
the virtues of plants are drawn out, by fteeping them in
fome convenient fluid without boiling.
INGELSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, remarkable for having been the
refidence of the emperor ; feated on the river Salva,
on an eminence, from whence there is a charming pro-
fpeft. E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 49. 58.
INGENUOUS, in a general fenfe, fignifies open,
fair, and candid.
Ingenuous (mgenuusf in Roman antiquity, an
appellation given to perfons born of free parents, who
had never been Haves: for the children of the liberti,
I i or
I N G [ 250 ] I N G
Ingenuous or perfons who had obtained their liberty, were call-
H . ed libertim, not ingenui; this appellation of ingenuus
tude.~ being referved for their children, or the third genera-
(—--y-—. tion.
INGESTA, is ufed by fome authors to exprefs all
forts of aliment taken into the body.
INGLUVIES, the crop or craw of granivorous
birds, ferving for the immediate reception of the food,
where it is macerated for fome time before it is tranf-
mitted to the true ftomach.
INGOLSTADT, a handfome town of Germany,
and the ftrongeft in Bavaria, with a famous univerfity
and a handfome church. The houfes are built with
ftone, and the llreets large. It is feated on the Danube,
in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 48. 42.
INGOT, a mafs of gold or filver melted down, and
vcaft in a mould, but not coined or wrought.
INGRAFTING, in Gardening, See Grafting,
Gardening Index.
INGRATITUDE, the oppofite of gratitude. See
Gratitude.
Ingratitude is a crime fo fhameful, that there never
was a man found who would own himfelf guilty of
it j and, though too frequently pradlifed, it is fo ab¬
horred by the general voice, that to an ungrateful
perfon is imputed the guilt or the capability of all other
crimes.
The ungrateful are neither fit to ferve their Maker,
their country, nor their friends.
Ingratitude perverts all the meafures of religion and
fociety, by making it dangerous to be charitable and
good natured, (See Gratitude). However, it is
better to expofe ourfelves to ingratitude than to be
wanting in charity and benevolence.
Great minds, like Heav’n, are pleas’d with doing good ;
Though the ungrateful fubjedls of their favours
Are barren in return.
1. In a little work intitled Friendly Cautions to
Officers, the following atrocious inftance of ingratitude
is related. An opulent city in the weft of England,
little ufed to have troops with them, had a regiment
fent to be quartered there : the principal inhabitants
and wealthieft merchants, glad to ftiow their hofpita-
lity and attachment to their fovereign, took the firft
opportunity to get acquainted with the officers, in¬
viting them to their houfes, and (howing them every
civility in their power. This was truly a defirable
fituation. A merchant, extremely eafy in his circum-
ftances, took fo prodigious a liking to one officer in
particular, that he gave him an apartment in his own
houfe, and made him in a manner abfolute mailer of
it, the officer’s friends being always welcome to his
table. The merchant was a widower, and had only
two favourite daughters ; the officer in fo comfortable
a ftation call his wanton eyes upon them •, and too fa¬
tally fucceeding, ruined them both. Dreadful return
to the merchant’s mifplaced friendlhip ! The confe-
quence of this ungenerous a£lion was, that all of¬
ficers ever after were ffiunned as a public nuifance, as
a pell to fociety : nor have the inhabitants perhaps
yet conquered their averfion to a red-coat.
2. We read in Rapin’s Hiftory, that during Mon-
jyiouth’s rebellion, in the reign of James II. a certain
perfon knowing the humane difpolition of one Mrs
Gaunt, whofe life was one continued exercife of bene. Ingrati.
licence, fled to her houfe, where he was concealed and tuc’le-
maintained for fome time. Hearing, however, of the
proclamation, which promifed an indemnity and re¬
ward to thofe who difeovered fuch as harboured the
rebels, he betrayed his benefaeftrefs 5 and fuch was
the fpirit of juftice and equity which prevailed among
the minifters, that he was pardoned and recompenfed
for his treachery, while Ihe was burnt alive for her
charity ! —
3. The following inftance is alfo to be found in the
fame hiftory.—Humphry Bannifter and his father
were both fervants to and raifed by the duke of Buck¬
ingham 5 who being driven to abfeond, by an unfortu¬
nate accident befalling the army he had raifed againft
the ufurper Richard III. he without footman or
page retired to Banniller’s houfe near Shrewlbury, as
to a place where he had all the reafon in the world to
expert fecurity. Bannifter, however, upon the king’s
proclamation promifing locol. reward to him that
ffiould apprehend the duke, betrayed his mailer to John
Merton high ffieriff of Shroplhire, who fent him un¬
der a llrong guard to Salilbury, where the king then
was, and there in the market-place the duke was be¬
headed. But Divine vengeance purfued the traitor
Bannifter j for demanding the 1000I. that was the
price of his mailer’s blood, King Richard refufed
to pay it him, faying, “ He that would be falfe to
fo good a mafter, ought not to be encouraged.” He
was afterwards hanged for manflaughter, his eldeil
fon run mad and died in a hog-fty, his fteond became
deformed and lame, and his third fon was drowned in a
fmall puddle of water. Hiseldeil daughter was got with
child by one of his carters, and his fecond was feized
with a leprofy whereof lire died.—Hy?. of Eng. 8vo.
vol. i. p. 304.
The following barbarous inftances are from ancient
Hiftory.
4. When Xerxes king of Perfia was at Celene, a Herod,
city of Phrygia, Pythius, a Lydian, who had his re-h vii. c. 38.
fidence in that city, and next to Xerxes was the moft^eneija?.^£?
opulent prince of thofe times, entertained him and hisc
whole army with an incredible magnificence, and made
him an offer of all his wealth towards defraying the
expences of his expedition. Xerxes,' furprifed and
charmed at fo generous an offer, had the euriofity to
inquire to what a fum his riches amounted. Pythius
made anfwer, that having the defign of offering them
to his fervice, he had taken an exatl account of them,
and that the filver he had by him amounted to 2000
talents (about 255,000!. fterling), and the gold to
4,000,000 of darics (about 1,700,000]. fterling),
wanting 7000. All this money he offered him,
telling him, that his revenue was fufficient for the.
fupport of this houfehold. Xerxes made him very
hearty acknowledgments, and entered into a particular
friendftiip with him, but declined accepting his prefent.
The fame prince who had made fuch obliging offers
to Xerxes, having defired a favour of him fome time
after, that out of his five fons who ferved in his army,
he would be pleafed to leave him the eldeft, in order
to be a comfort to him in his old age : the king was
fo enraged at the propofal, though fo reafonable in it-
felf, that he caufed the eldeft fon to be killed before
the eyes of his father, giving the latter to underftand,.
I N G f 2
Ingratitude that It Was a favour he fpared him and the reft of his
' !! children. Yet this is the fame Xerxes who is fo much
Ingulpluis. a(]m;recj for hig humane reflexion at the head of his
numerous army, “ That of fo many thoufand men, in
loo years time there would not be one remaining ; on
which account he could not forbear weeping at the un¬
certainty and inflability of human things.” He might
have found another fubjeft of retleftion, which would
have more juftly merited his tears and affliflion, had
he turned his thoughts upon himfelf, and confidered
the reproaches he deferved for being the inftrument of
haftening the fatal term to millions of people, whom his
cruel ambition was going to facrifice in an unjult and
unneceffavy war.
Zorror. An- Bafilius Macedo the emperor, exerciling himfelf
nal. tom. iii. Jn hunting) a fport he took great delight in, a great
1^' flag running furioudy againif him, fattened one of the
branches of his horns in the emperor’s girdle, and
pulling him from his horfe, dragged him a good dif-
tance, to the imminent danger of his life ; which a
gentleman of his retinue perceiving, drew his fword
and cut the emperor’s girdle afunder, which difen-
gaged him from the beaft, with little or no hurt to his
perfon. But obferve what reward he had for his pains :
” He was fentenced to lofe his head for putting his
fword fo near the body of the emperor j” and flittered
death accordingly.
INGRESS, in Ajironomy, lignifies the fun’s enter¬
ing the firtt fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns,
efpecially Aries.
INGRIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, lying
on the gulf of Finland, being about 130 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth. It abounds in game and
filh ; and here are a great number of elks, which come
in troops from Finland in the fpring and autumn. It
was conquered by the Czar Peter the Great, and Pe-
terfburgh is the capital town. It is bounded by the
river Neya, and the gulf of Finland, on the north ; by
Great Novogorod, on the eaft and fouth } and by Li¬
vonia, on the weft.
INGROSSER, or Engrosser, in common law, is
one who buys up corn growing, or any provifions by
wholefale, before the market, to fell again. See Fore¬
stalling.
It alfo iignifies a clerk who writes records or inftru-
ments of law on Ikins of parchment. See Engros¬
sing.
INGGEN, in Anatomy, the fame with what is other-
wife called groin.
INGULPHUS, abbot of Croyland, and author of
the hittory of that abbey, was born in London about
A. D. 1030. He received the firtt part of his edu¬
cation at Weftminfter j and when he vifited his father,
who belonged to the court of Edward the Confeflfor,
he was fo fortunate as to engage the attention of Queen
Edgitha. That amiable and learned princefs took a
pleafure in examining our young fcholar on his pro-
grefs in grammar, and in difputing with him in logic ;
nor did (he ever difmifs him without fome prefent as a
mark of her approbation. From Weftminfter he went
to Oxford, where he applied to the ftudy of rhetoric,
and of the Ariftotelian philofophy, in which he made
greater proficiency than many of his contemporaries.
When he was about 21 years of age, he was intro¬
duced to William duke of Normandy (who vifited the
51 ] I N H
court of England, A. D. 1051), and made himfelf Ingidphu?,
fo agreeable to that prince, that he appointed him his fnll^lc!' ,
fecretary, and carried him with him into his own do¬
minions. In a little time he became the prime fa¬
vourite of his prince, and the difpenfer of all pre¬
ferments, humbling fome, and exalting others, at his
pleafure ; in which difficult ftation, he confefleth, he
did not behave with a proper degree of modefty and
prudence. This excited the envy and hatred of many
of the courtiers j to avoid the effects of which, he ob¬
tained leave from the duke to go in pilgrimage to the
Holy Land. With a company of 30 horfemen, he
joined Sigfrid duke of Mentz, who, with many Ger¬
man nobles, biftiops, clergy, and others, was prepa¬
ring for a pilgrimage to Jerufalem. When they were
all united, they formed a company of no fewer than
7030 pilgrims. In their way they fpent fome time at
Conftantinople, performing their devotions in the feve-
ral churches. In their pafiage through Lycia, they
were attacked by a tribe of Arabs, who killed and
wounded many of them, and plundered them of a pro¬
digious mafs of money. Thofe who efcaped from this
difafter, at length reached Jerufalem, vifited all the
holy places, and bedewed the ruins of many churches
with their tears, giving money for their reparation.
They intended to have bathed in Jordan j but being
prevented by the roving Arabs, they embarked on
board a Genoefe fleet at Joppa, and landed at Brundu-
fium, from whence they travelled through Apulia to
Rome. Having gone through a long courfe of devo¬
tions in this city, at the feveral places diftinguiftied for
fanclity, they Separated, and every one made the heft:
of bis way into his own country. When Ingulph and
his company reached Normandy, they were reduced
to 20 half-ftarved wretches, without money, clothes, or
horfes : A faithful picture of the difaftrous journeys in¬
to the Holy Land, fo common in thofe times. Ingulph
was now fo much difgufted with the world, that he re-
folved to forfake it, and became a monk in the abbey
of Fontenelle in Normandy j in which, after fome
years, he was advanced to the office of prior. When
his old mafter was preparing for his expedition into
England, A. D. 1066, he was font by his abbot, with
100 merks in money, and 12 young men, nobly mount¬
ed and completely armed, as a prefent from their abbey.
Ingulph having found a favourable opportaanity, pre-
fcnted his men and money to his prince, who received
him very gracioufty 5 fome part of the former affethon
for him reviving in his bofom. In confequence of this
he raifed him to the government of the rich abbey of
Croyland in Lincolnthire, A. D. 1076, in which he
fpent the laft 34 years of his life, governing that foeie-
ty with great prudence, and protecting their pofleffiom
from the-rapacity of the neighbouring barons by the fa¬
vour of his royal mafter. The lovers of Englilh hifto-
ry and antiquities are much indebted to this learned
abbot, for his excellent hiftory «f the abbey of Croy¬
land, from its foundation, A. D. 664, to A. D. icpr,
into which he hath introduced much of the general
hiftory of the kingdom, with a variety of curious anec¬
dotes that are nowhere elfe to be found. Inguiph died
of the gout, at his abbey, A. D. 1109, in the 79th year
of his age.
INHALER, in Medicine, a machine for breathing
in warm fleams into the lungs, recommended by Mr
I i 2 Mudge
I N J [ 252 ] I N J
Inhaler Mudge in the cure of the catarrhous cough. The
Injection t^ie ir‘ftrument holds about a pint ; and the
u-^-y-.»w handle, which is fixed to the fide of it, is hollow. In
the lower part of the veflel, where it is foldered to the
handle, is a hole, by means of which, and three others
on the upper part of the handle, the water, when it is
poured into the inhaler, will rife to the fame level in
both. To the middle of the cover a flexible tube
about five or fix inches long is fixed, with a mouth-piece
of wood or ivory. Underneath the cover there is a
valve fixed, which opens and flints the communication
between the upper and internal part of the inhaler
and the external air. When the mouth is applied to
the end of the tube in the a£t of infpiration, the air
rufhes into the handle, and up through the body of
warm water, and the lungs become, confequently,
filled with hot vapours. In expiration, the mouth
being ftill fixed to the tube, the breath, together
with the fleam on the furface of the water in the
inhaler, is forced up through the valve in the co¬
ver. In this manner, therefore, the whole abb of
refpiration is performed through the inhaler, with¬
out the neceffity, in the abl of expiration, of either
breathing through the nofe, or removing the pipe from
the mouth.
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or intereft
in lands, invefted in a perfon and his heirs. See
Descent.
INHIBITION, a writ to inhibitor forbid a judge
from further proceeding in a caufe depending before
him.
Sometimes prohibition and inhibition are put toge¬
ther, as of the fame import ; but inhibition is molt
commonly a writ iiTuing out of a higher court-chriftian
to a lower ; and prohibition out of the king’s court to
an inferior court.
Inhibition, in Scots Law, a diligence obtained at
the fuit of a creditor againfl his debtor, prohibiting
him from felling or contra-fling debts upon his eftate
to the creditor’s prejudice.
INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid
medicines into the body by means of a fyringe, tube,
clyfter-pipe, or the like.
Injection, in Surgery, the throwing in feme liquor
or medicine into a vein opened by incilion. This
prablice, and that of transfuiion, or the conveying the
arterial blood of one man, or other animal, into ano¬
ther, were once greatly prablifed, but are now laid
afide.
sjrntomical INJECTION, the filling the veffels of a
human, or other animal body, wuth feme coloured fub-
flance, in order to make their figures and ramifications
vifibJe.
1. The belt account of the method of injebling the
fanguferous veffels of animals, is that by the late
Dr Monro, publiihed in the Medical Effays, vol. i.
“ The inflrutnent with which the liquor is commonly
thrown into the veffels is a tight eafy going fyringe of
brafs, to which feveral fliort pipes are fitted, and can
be fixed by ferews, the other extremities of thefe pipes
being of different diameters without any ferew, that
they may Aide into other pipes, which are fo exablly
adapted to them at one end, that wdien they are preffed
a little together, nothing can pafs between them ; and
becaufe their cohefion is not fo great as to refill the Inje&'on.
pulhing force of the injeblion, which would drive off  
this fecond pipe, and fpoil the whole operation j there¬
fore the extremity of this fecond fort of pipes, which
receives the firft kind, is formed on the outfide into a
fquare, bounded behind and before by a riling circle,
which hinders the key that elofely grafps the fquare
part from Hiding backwards or forwards j or a bar of
brafs muft Hand out from each fide of it to be held with
the fingers. The other extremity of each of thefe fe¬
cond fort of pipes is of different diameter j and near it
a circular notch, capable of allowing a thread to be
funk into it, is formed ; by this, the thread tying the
veffel at which the injeblion is to be made, will not be
allowed to Hide off.
“ Befides this form defcrxbed, common to all this
fecond fort of pipes, wre ought to have feme of the
larger ones, with an additional mechanifm, for particu¬
lar purpofes \ as, for inftance, when the larger veffels
are injebled, the pipe fattened into the veffel ought ei¬
ther to have a valve or a flop-cock, that may be turn¬
ed at pleafure, to hinder any thing to get out from
the veffel by the pipe ; otherwife, as the injeblion, in
fuch a cafe, takes time to coagulate, the people em¬
ployed in making the injeblion mull either continue
all that while in the fame pofture ; or, if the fyringe
is too foon taken off, the injected liquor runs out and
the larger veffels are emptied. When the fyringe is
not large enough to hold at once all the liquor necef-
fary to fill the veffels, there is a neceffity of filling it
again. If, in order to do this, the fyringe was to be
taken off from the pipe fixed in the veffel, fome of the
injeblion would be loft, and what was expofed to the
air would cool and harden ; therefore fome of the pipes
ought to have a reflebled curve tube coming out of
their fide, with a valve fo difpofed, that no liquor
can come from the ftraight pipe into the crooked one,
but, on the contrary, may be allowed to pafs from the
crooked to the ftraight one \ the injtblor then, taking
care to keep the extremity of the reflebled pipe im-
merfod in the liquor to be injebled, may, as foon as he
has pufhed out the firft fyringeful, fill it again by
only drawing back the fucker ; and, repeating this
quickly, will be able to throw feveral fyringefuls into
the veffels.
“ All thefe different forts of pipes are commonly
made of brafs.
“ The liquors thrown into the veffels, with a defign
to fill the fmall capillary tubes, are either fuch as
will incorporate with water, or fuch as are oily :
both kinds have their advantages and in conveniences \
which I ffiall mention in treating of each, and fhall
conclude with that which I have found by experience
to fucceed beft.
“ All the different kinds of glue, or ichthyocolla,
fyths, common glue, &c. diffolved and pretty much-
diluted, mix eafily with the animal fluids, which is of
great advantage, and will pafs into very fmall veffels
of a well-chofen and prepared fubjebl, and often an-
fwer the intention fufficiently, where the defign is on¬
ly to prepare fome very fine membrane, on which no
veffels can be expebled to be feen fo large as the eye
can difcover whether the tranfverfe feblions of the vef¬
fels would be circular, or if their fides are collapsed.
But when the larger veffels are alfo to be prepared,
there
n
I N J [ 253 ] I N J
Injselio.'i. there is a rnanifeft difadvantage to the ufefulnefs and
beauty of the preparation ; for if nothing but the glu¬
tinous liquor is infefted, one cannot keep a fubjeff fo
long as the glue takes of becoming firm •, and there-
* fore, in diiTefting the injefted part, feveral veffels will
probably be cut and emptied. To prevent this, one
may indeed either foak the part well in alcohol, which
coagulates the glue •, but then it becomes fo brittle,
that the leaft handling makes it crack ; and if the pre¬
paration is to be kept, the larger veffels appear quite
thrivelled, when the watery part of the injection is
evaporated : or the efflux of the injection may be pre¬
vented, by carefully tying every veffel before ve are
. obliged to cut it j ftill, however, that does not hinder
the veffels to contradl when the glue is drying. If, to
obviate thefe difficulties, the glutinous liquor fhould
firft be injefted in fuch quantity as thecapillary veffels
will contain, and the common oily or waxy injection is
pufhed in afterwards to keep the larger veffels diitend-
ed, the wax is very apt to harden before it has run far
enough ; the two forts of liquors never mifs to mix ir¬
regularly, and the whole appears interrupted and bro¬
ken by their foon feparating from each other ; which
is Hill more remarkable afterwards, when the watery
particles are evaporated.
“ Spirit of wine coloured mixes with water and
oils, and fo far is proper to fill the very fmaller vef¬
fels with : but, on the other hand, it coagulates any
of our liquor it meets, which fometimes blocks up the
veffels fo much, that no more injection will pafs ; then
it fcarce will fufpend fome of the powders that prove
the moft durable colours; and as it entirely evaporates,
the veffeis mutt become very fmall and the fmall quan¬
tity of powder left, having nothing to ferve for connec¬
ting its particles together, generally is feen fo inter¬
rupted, that the fmall ramifications of veffels rather
have the appearances of random fcratches of a pencil,
than of regular continued canals.
“ Melted tallow, with a little mixture of oil of tur¬
pentine, may fometimes be made to fill very finall vef¬
fels, and keeps the larger ones at a full llretch •, but
where any quantity of the animal liquors are ftill in
the veffels, it is liable to flop too foon, and never can
be introduced into numbers of veffels, which other li¬
quors enter ; and it is fo brittle, that very little hand¬
ling makes it crack, and thereby renders the prepara¬
tion very ugly (a).
“ The method I have always fucceeded heft with,
in making what may be called fubtile m fine inje&wns,
is, firft throw in coloured oil of turpentine, in fuch a
quantity as might fill the very fmall veffels ; and, imme¬
diately after, to puffl the common coarfe injeftion into
the larger ones. The oil is fubtile enough to enter
rather fmaller capillary tubes than any colouring can j
its refmous parts, which remain after the fpirituous are Injedioi*
evaporated, give a fufficient adhefion to the particles of —
the fubflance with which it is coloured, to keep them
from feparating, and it intimately incorporates with the
coarfer injeftion *, by which, if the injection is rightly
managed, it is impofflble for the fharpeft eye to difeo-
ver that two forts have been made ufe of (b),
“ All the liquors with which the veffels of animals
are artificially filled, having ^ry faint, and near the
fame colours, would not all appear in the very Imall
veffels, becaufe of their becoming entirely diaphanous,
without a mixture of fome fubftance to impart its co¬
lour to them j and where feveral forts of even the lar¬
ged veffels of any part were filled, one fort could not
be diftinguilhed from another, unlefsthe colour of each
was different j which has likewife a good effect in
making preparations more beautiful. Wherefore ana-
tomifts have made ufe of a variety of fuch fubftances,
according to their different fancies or intentions *, fuch
as gamboge, faffron, ink, burnt ivory, &c. which can
be eafily procured from painters. My delign being
only to confider thofe that are fit to be mixed with the
injetling liquors propofed to fill capillary veffels, which
is fcarce ever to be done in any other,except the branch¬
es of the arteries and of fome veins, I ihall confine my-
felf to the common colours employed to thefe laft-nam-
ed two forts of veffels, which colours are red, green,
and fometimes blue, without mentioning the others,
which require very little choice.
11 Anatomifts have, I imagine, propofed to imitate
the natural colours of the arteries and veins in a living
creature, by filling the arteries with a red fubftance,
and the veins with a blue or green : from which, how¬
ever, there are other advantages, fuch aS the itrong
refieftion which fuch bodies make of the rays of light,
and the unaptnefs moll fuch bodies have to tranfmit
thefe fame rays, without at lealt a confiderable reflec¬
tion of the rays peculiar to themfelves ; or, in other
words, their unfitnefs to become completely pellucid j
without which, the very fine veffels, after being in¬
jected, would ftill be imperceptible. The animal or
vegetable fubftances made ufe of for colouring injec¬
tions, fuch as cochineal, laque, rod. anchufice, brazil¬
wood, indigo, &c. have all one general fault of being
liable to run into little knots which flop fome of the
veffels : their colour fades fooner when kept dry ; they
more eafily yield their tinfture when the parts are pre¬
ferred in a liquor; and rats, mice, and infeCls, will
take them for food : for which reafons, though I have
frequently fucceeded in injecting them, I rather prefer
the mineral kind, fuch as minium or vermilion for red ;
of which this laft is, in my opinion, the heft, becaufe
it gives the brighteft colour, and is commonly to be
bought finely levigated. The green-coloured powder
generally
(a) Rigierus {IntroduB. in notitiam rerum natur. &c. qto, Ha$ae, 1743* titul. Bafiamutn) gives Ruyfch’s me¬
thod of injeCting and preferring animals, which, he fays, Mr Blumentroft, prefident of the Peterfburg acade¬
my, affured him was copied from the receipt given in Ruyfch’s own hand-writing to the Czar. According to
this receipt, melted tallow, coloured with vermilion, to which, in the fummer, a little white wax was added, was
Ruyfch’s injeCting ceracia maleries.
(B) Mr Ranby’s injeCting matter, as publilhed by Dr Hales, {Hcemaft. Ex. 21.) is white rofin and tallow,
of each two ounces, melted and ftrained through linen ; to which was added three ounces of vermilion, or finely
ground indigo, which was firft well rubbed with eight ounces of turpentine varniflir
I N J
Injeiflion. generallv ufed is verdigrife j but I rather choofe that
   preparation of it called diftitled verdigrife; becaufe its
colour is brighter, and it does not fo often run into
fraall knots as the common verdigrife, but diffolves in
the oily liquors.
“ The method of preparing the inje&ion compofed
of thefe materials, is to take for the fine one, a pound
of clear oil of turpentine, which is gradually poured on
three ounces of vermilion, or diftilled verdigrife finely
powdered, or rather \^ell levigated by grinding on
marble j ftir them well with a fmall wooden fpatula till
they are exactly mixed, then (train all through a fine
linen rag. The feparation of the grofier particles is,
however, rather better made, by pouring feme ounces
of the oil upon the powder, and after ftirring them to¬
gether ftrongly, flop rubbing with the fpatula for a
fecond or fo, and pour off into a clean vefl’el the oil
with the vermilion or verdigrife fufpended in it; and
continue this fort of operation till you obferve no
more of the powder come off j and all that remains is
granulated. The coarfer injection is thus prepared :
Take tallow, t pound j wax, bleached white, 5 oun¬
ces j falad oil, 3 ounces: melt them in a fkillet put
over a lamp : then add Venice turpentine, 2 ounces j
and as foon as this is difiblved, gradually fprinkle in
of vermilion or verdigrife prepared, 3 ounces j then
pafs all through a clean, dry, warmed linen-cloth,
to feparate all the groffer particles ; and, when you
■defign to make it run far into the veffels, fome oil
of turpentine may be added immediately before it is
ufed.
“ The next thing to be confidered, and indeed what
chiefly contributes to the fuccefs of inje&ions, is the
choice and preparation of the fubjeft whofe veffels are
to be filled.
“ In choofing a fit fubjeft, take thefe few general
rules : 1. The younger the creature to be injedled is,
the injection will, ceeteris paribus, go fartheft, and vice
verfa. 2. The more the creature’s fluids have been dif-
folved and exhaufted in life, the fuccefs of the operation
will be greater. 3. The lefs folid the part defigned to
be injedted is, the more veffels will be filled. 4. The
more membranous and tranfparent parts are, the injec¬
tion (hows better 5 whereas, in the folid very hard parts
of a rigid old creature, that has died with its Veffels
full of thick ftrong blood, it is fcareely poflible to in-
jedl: great numbers of fmall veffels.
“ Therefore, in preparing a fubjeft for inje&ing,
the principal things to be aimed at are, To diffolve
the fluids, empty the veffels of them, relax the folids,
and prevent the injedlion’s 4>oagulating too foon. To
anfwer all thefe intentions, authors have propofed to
injedt tepid or warm water by the arteries, till it re¬
turns clear and untinged by the veins, and the veffels
are thereby fo emptied of blood, that all the parts ap¬
pear white ; after which, they pulh out the water by
forcing in air ; and laftly by prefling with their hands,
they fqueeze the air alfo out. After this preparation,
[ 254 1
I N J
one can indeed injedt very fuhtilely; but generally thefe tnje&ioa.
are inconveniencies attend it. For in all the parts where '—-y-—
there is a remarkable tanfeo cellulofa, it never miffes to
be full of the water, which is apt to fpoil any parts de¬
figned to be preferved either wet or dry j and fome
particles of the water feldom mifs to be mixed in the
larger as well as fmaller veffels with the oily injedlion,
and make it appear difeontinued and broken : where¬
fore it is much better to let this injedlion of water
alone, if it can be poflibly avoided, and rather to mace¬
rate the body or part to be injefted a confiderable time
in water, made fo warm (c) as one can hold his hand
eafily in it j taking care to keep it of an equal warmth
all the time, by taking out fome of the water as it cools,
and pouring in hot water in its place ; by which the
veffels will be fufficiently foftened and relaxed, the blood
will be melted down, and the injeftion can be in no
danger of hardening too focn 5 whereas, if the water
is too hot, the veffels (brink, and the blood coagu- '
lates. From time to time we fqueeze out the liquids
as much as poflible at the cut veffel by which the in¬
jedlion is to be thrown in (d). The time this mace¬
ration is to be continued, is always in proportion to
the age of the fubjedt, the bulk and thicknefs of what
we defign to injedl, and the quantity of blood we ob¬
ferve in the veflfels, which can only be learned by ex¬
perience ; at lead, however, care ought to be taken,
that the whole fubjedt, or part macerated, is per-
fedtly well warmed all through ; and that \re conti¬
nue the preffure with our hands till no more blood can
be brought away, whatever pofition we put the fubjedl
in.
When the fyringc, injedtions, and fubjedts, are all
in readinefs, one of the fecond fort of pipes is chofen _
ar, near to the diameter of the veffel by which the injec¬
tion is to be thrown as poflible j for if the pipe is too
large, it is almoft needlefs to tell it cannot be introdu¬
ced. If the pipe is much fmaller than the veffel, it is
fcarce poflible to tie theni fo firmly together, but, by
the wrinkling of the coats of the veffel, fome fmall
paffage wdll be left, by which part of the injedlion will
(pring back on the injedlor in the time of the opera¬
tion, and the neared veffels remain afterwards undi-
dended, by the lofs of the quantity that oozes out.
Having chofen a fit pipe, it is introduced at the cut
orifice of the veffel, or at an incifion made in the fide
of it j and then a waxed thread being brought round
the veffel, as near to its coats as poflible, by the help
of a needle, or a flexible eyed probe, the furgeon’s knot
is made wdth the thread, and it is drawn as firmly as
the thread can allow ; taking care that it (hall be funk
into the circular notch of the pipe all around, other-
wife it will very eafily Aide off, and the pipe will be
brought out probably in the time of the operation,
which ruins it.
“ If there have been large veffels cut, w'hich com¬
municate with the veffels you defign to injedl, or if
there are any others proceeding from the fame trunk,
which
(c) Ruyfch orders a previous maceration for a day or two in cold water j which mud have a better effedl in
melting the blood than warm water has.
(D) When Ruyfch intended to injedl the whole body, he put one pipe upwards, and another downwards, in
the defeending aorta.
I N J [ 255 ] I N J
Inje&ion. which you do not refolve to fill, let them be all care-
fully now tied up, to fave the injefted liquor, and
make the operation fucceed better in the view you then
have.
“ When all this is done, both forts of inje&ions are
to be warmed over a lamp, taking care to itir them
condantly, left the colouring powder fall to the bot¬
tom and burn (e). The oil of turpentine needs be
made no warmer than will allow the finger to remain
in it, if the fubject has been previoufly w'ell warmed
in water 5 when the maceration has not been made,
the oil ought to be fcalding hot, that it may warm
all the parts which are defigned to be injedled. The
coarfe injection ought to be brought near to a boiling.
In the mean time, having wrapt feveral folds of linen
round the parts of the fyringe which the operator is
to grip, and fecured the linen with thread, the fyringe
is to be made very hot by fucking boiling water feveral
times up (f), and the pipe within the veffe] is to be
warmed by applying a fponge dipped in boiling water
to it (g).
“,After all is ready, the fyringe being cleared of the
water, the injedtor fills it with the finer inje&ion; and
then introducing the pipe of the fyringe into that in the
veffel, he prefles them together, and either with one
hand holds this laft pipe firm, with the other gripes the
fyringe, and with his breaft pufiies the fucker ; or,
giving the pipe in the veffel to be held by an afiiftant,
in any of the ways mentioned in the defcription of thefe
forts of pipes, he gripes the fyringe with one hand, and
pufhes the fucker with the other, and confequently
throws in the injection, which ought to be done fiow-
3y, and with no great force, but proportioned to the
length and bulk of the part to be inje&ed and ftrt ngth
of the veffels. The quantity of this fine inje&ion to
be thrown in is much to be learned by ufe. The only
rule I could ever fix to myfelf in this matter was to
continue pufhing till I was fenfible of a Hop which
would require a confiderabie force to overcome. But
this will not hold where all the branches of any vefft l
are not injected j as for inftance, when the vtffels of
the thorax only are to be injected : for the aorta bears
too great a proportion to the branches fent from it,
and therefore lefs fine injedtion is requifite here. As
loon as that flop is felt, the fucker of the fyringe is to
be drawn back, that the neareft large veffels may be
emptied. Then the fyringe is taken off, emptied of
the fine injedlion, and filled with the coarfer, which is
to be pulhed into the veffels quickly and forcibly, hav¬
ing always regard to the ftrength and firmnefs of the
veffels, bulk, &c. of the part. Continue to thruft the
fucker, till a full Hop, or a fort of pufh backwards,
is felt, when you mult beware of thrufting any more,
otherwife feme of the veffels will be burft, and the
whole, or a confiderabie (hare of the preparation you
defigned, will be fpoiled by the extravafation ; but ra¬
ther immediately ftop the pipe by the turn-cock, and
take out the fyringe to clean it, and allow fufficient Injefticn.
time for the coarfe injedtion to coagulate fully before —~~v—
any part is diffedled. Ruyfcb, immediately after throw¬
ing in the injection, put the body into cold water, and
ftirred it continually for fome time to prevent the ver¬
milion to feparate from the tallow.”
II. The injedtion of the lymphatic fyftem is much
more difficult than that of the languiferous, on account
of the extreme fmallnefs of the veffels*, fo that till very
lately it w'as almoft quite impradlicable. Methods in¬
deed had been attempted for this purpofej but by rea-
fon of the improper form of the inftruments, and the
inferior Ikill of anatomifts in former times, we may
juftly look upon this as one of the moft modern im¬
provements in anatomy.
The firft thing to be confidered, when the lympha¬
tics are to be injected, is a proper method of difeover-
ing them j for this is by no means an eafy matter, on
account of their fmallnefs and tranfparency.—To find
out thefe veffels, the fubjedt muft be viewed in a proper
place, where the light is neither very ftrong nor very
weak. Mr Sheldon, who has written a treatife upon
this fubject, recommends a winter forenoon from ten to
twm; it being chiefly in the winter feafon that anatomi¬
cal preparations are made, and beeaufe at that time of
the day the light is more clear and fteady. He fays
alfo, from his own experience, that the light paffing
through the glafs of a window is better for this purpofe
than the open air, as the veffels are more diftincfly feen.
I he injedling of the veffels is likevvife rendered more
difficult in the open air by the eafe with which the hu¬
midity is evaporated from them. It will likewife be
necefiary to incline the part in various ways to the light",
as fome of the veffels are moft eafily difcoverable in one-
pofition and fome in another. The lacteal trunks under
the peritoneal coats of the inteftines, and the lympha¬
tics on the external furface of the liver, &c. particular¬
ly require this method. He difeommends the ufe of
magnifying glafl'es. “ I am perfuaded (fays he), that
thofe who attempt to find them through this medium
will not acquire that vifus eruditus which is obtained to
a furprifing degree by thofe rvho have been much expe¬
rienced in injefting lymphatic veffels. A lateral light
is likewife preferable to a horizontal, or even to an ob¬
lique Iky light.
“ I he lubje&s muft be laid upon a table of fufficient
height, which might be contrived with a ledge fixed
to the table in fuch a manner as to be water-proof5
which would be ufeful for preventing the quickfilver,
which is almoft always neceffary for injecting thefe
veffels, from being loft. The furface of the table Humid
likewife be hollowred, fo that the mercury which falls
may be collefted in the middle, where a hole with
a ftopper may be made to take out occafionally the
quickfilver w hich colle&s. Such a table would alfo be
convenient for holding w'ater for the purpofe of fteeping
membranous parts which are frequently to be injedled;
and*
(e) Ruyfch melts his tallow by the heat of warm water, into which he puts the veffel containing the in-
jedtion. 0
(F) Fie warms his fyringe by laying it on hot coals.
. (G) kle warms his pipe, by putting the body, after the pipe is fixed in the veffe], into hot water. When this,
is to be done, a cork ought to be put into the pipe, to prevent the water getting into the veffel that is to be in-
|fcCte(L.
I N J
Injection. an(j vvhich, from being expofed to the air, become
dry 5 which alfo it is inconvenient and hazardous to
move into water during the time of operation. Even a
common table with a hole cut in the middle may an-
fwer the purpofe : the hole may be round or fquare ac¬
cording to the fancy of the anatomift ; but the table
mult be conftructed of fuch materials as are not liable
to warp in warm water. Should the anatomift not be
provided with either of thefe tables, the parts muft be
laid in a tray or earthen dilh, that the quickfilver may
be faved.”
The materials for injefting thefe veflels are only
quicldilver, and the ceraceous or coarfe injedlion of ana-
tomifts; the former being always ufed in injecting the
lymphatics and ladleals, it being almoft impoffible to
fill them with another fluid in the dead body. The
ceraceous inje&ion is chiefly ufed for the thoracic
drift j and in fome particular inftances, where the
lymphatic trunks have been found larger than the
ordinary fize, a courfe injeftion has been made ufe
of.
Injeftions of the lymphatics may be made even
while the animal is alive, and that without any great
cruelty, by feeding it with milk previous to its being
ilrangled. Of all the barbarous methods of opening
the animal while alive, the moft ufeful feems to be that
of Mr Hunter, who direfts to perforate the fmall in-
teftines, and throw in ftarch-water with folutions of
' mulk, or indigo and ftarch-water. “ In a word (fays
Mr Sheldon), any gelatinous fluids rendered opaque
with fuch colours as will be abforbed, are extremely
ufeful for experiments of this kind ; for much more
may be feen by examining the veflels diftended with a
coloured fluid from natural abforption, than by anato¬
mical injeftion praftifed in the dead body.” Lieber-
kuhn firft difcovered the ampullulae by feeding chil¬
dren in whom the lafteal glands were obftrufted pre¬
vious to their death with milk ; by which means
not only the lafteal trunks became diftended with
chyle, but likewife the ampullulee. Thus abforbing
mouths of the lafteal veflels were difcovered by Lieber-
kuhn j and in a fimilar manner Afellius difcovered the
lafteals themfelves. Thus alfo Euftachius difcovered
the thoracic duft in a horfe 5 and Mr Hewfon traced
tne lafteal veflels, lymphatics, and thoracic duft, in
birds, by making ligatures on the root of the mefen-
tery, and other parts, which had been previoufly fed
with barley. Mr Hunter-likewife was enabled to ob-
lerve the lafteals of a crocodile when diftended with
chyle.
The coarfe injeftion for the lymphatics is made of
mutton-fuet and yellow refin, in the proportion of two-
thirds of relii\ to one of fuet. If required of a thick¬
er confiftence, we may add a fmall quantity of pure
wax : if of a fofter quality, we may augment the quan¬
tity of fuet : Orpiment or king’s yellow is generally
made ufe of j though others are equally proper, provi¬
ded they be fine enough.
1 he inftruments neceflary for injefting the lymphatic
veflels are the injefting tube and pipes, lancets, blow¬
pipes, knives, fciflars, forceps, needles, and thread,
ft he old injefting tube has been found in a manner en¬
tirely ufelefs, the pipe being fixed in a glafs tube two
or three feet long ; whic^ is one of the reafons why,
before the time of Hewfon, fo little of the lymphatic
[ 256 ]
I N J
fyftem could be injefted. Tubes of fuch a length are Inje&ioa.
entirely unmanageable by one perfon, and it is impofli- v~—-
ble to perform the operation properly with two. To
perform it in the belt manner, the inftrument fhould be
held in the hand like a pencil or pen. i.he inftruments
ufed by our author are tubes made either of glafs or of
brafs \ which, when filled with mercury, may be held
in the hand like a pen : a glafs tube, however, is pre¬
ferable to the metallic one. It is fomewhat in the ftiape
of a trumpet ; fix inches and a half in length, an inch
and a half broad where broadeft, and three-eighths of
an inch where narroweft. A collar of fteel half an
inch broad and three quarters of an inch lonp- is ce¬
mented to this pipe, and a fmaller tube of the fame me¬
tal is fere wed upon the end of the collar 5 the whole *
terminating in a capillary tube about an inch in length.
This laft is the moft difficult part of the whole work to
execute ^ it ffiould be drilled out of a folid piece of me¬
tal, and not made of a thin bit of plate foldered, as
thefe are apt to turn ragged in the edges, and the folder
is alfo liable to be deftroyed by the mercury. Thofe
ufed by Mr Sheldon were made by drilling a fmall hole
lengthwife through a bit of well-tempered wire. It is
cleaned by means of a very fmall piece of fteel-wire ca¬
pable of palling through the bore of the tube, ft'his
ought to be annealed left it Ihould break ; in which cafe
the broken bit could not ealily be got out. Very fmall
tubes may be made of glafs drawn out as fine as we choofe j
and though very apt to break, they are eafily repaired.
They ought to be very thin, that they may be eafily
melted. Sometimes it has been found convenient to fit
the collar with a ftop-cock.
# The brafs tube reprefented by our author is about
nine inches and a half in length, and half an inch wide
where wideft. The collar is a full quarter of an inch
broad, and three quarters of an inch long ; a fteel
piece and capillary tube being ferewed to it as in the
other.
The lancets are to be exquifitely ffiarp, in order to
cut into the lymphatic veffels. The latter are eafily in¬
flated by the fmall filver blow-pipes ufually put up in
the diffefting cafes by the London mathematical inftru¬
ment makers : diflefting knives, fine-pointed fciflars,
accurately made diflefting forceps, with ftraight or
crooked needles, are likewife fubftitiited with advan¬
tage, as not being affefted by the quickfilver.
We muft next confider the proper fubjefts for injec¬
tion. Mr Sheldon recommends, that they ftiould be as
free from fat as poffible : he has always found in the
human fubjeft thofe who died univerfally dropfieal, or
of an afeites or anafarca, to be the beft, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. in fuch there is little or no animal oil,
and but a very fmall quantity of red blood 5 both of
which, when they occur in great abundance, very muelx
impede the dilcovery of the lymphatic veflels 5 but
when the cellular veflels are loaded with water, the ab-
forbents are more readily traced, and with lefs rifle of
wounding them in difitftion : the preparations alfo, par¬
ticularly the dried ones, are more lafting. This cir-
cumftance is found to be of moft eonfequence in prepa¬
ring the ablorbent veflels of the trunk and extremities
of the human fubjeft. Of all the vifeera in young fub¬
jefts, only the liver and lungs can be injefted with
fuccefs ; and thefe may be fuccefsfully injefted even in *
the foetus. It will be moft proper to begin the opera¬
tion
I N j [2
Injection, tion upon the fubje£l immediately after death, as lymph
^ or chyle will then be more readily found in the veffels,
than when we wait a longer time. In preparing the
la&eals, previoufly diftended with milk, in the living
' fubjeft, it is proper to have the inteftines and mefentery
plunged (with the ligature upon the root of the latter)
into re&ified fpirit of wine. This procefs will coagu¬
late the chyle; and the fluid being opaque, the veffels
will be beautifully feen when we mean to prepare the
parts, by preferving them in proof-fpirit, as wet fpeci-
mens: “ In this way (fays Mr Sheldon) I have made
in the dog one of the moft natural preparations that can
be feen of tha ladleals inje&ed from their orifices by the
natural abforption.” We may alfo prepare the lafteals
by the method ufed by Mr Hunter, already mention¬
ed, by which they will be very conspicuous, by the in¬
digo abforbed from the cavity of the inteftines. By
tying the thoracic du£t near its infertion into the angle
formed between the fubclavian and jugular veins on
the left fide, or by tying thefe veins on both fides, we
may diftend almoft all the abforbents of the animal.
Thus we are enabled to purfue thefe veflels in many
parts where they have not yet been difcovered, where
they can fcarcely be traced by injeflion, and even in
fome parts where it is utterly impoflible for the injec¬
tions to reach them.
Another method, fometimes fuccefsfully ufed by our
author, was firft pra&ifed by Malpighi. In this the
part is to be fteeped in water, and the liquid changed
as long as it appears tinged with blood; fuffering the
parts afterwards to remain in the fame water till the
•putrefaction begins. As foon as this begins to take
place, the air which is extricated will diftend the lym¬
phatics, fo that they may be eafily feen, and then in¬
jected with quickfilver. It is, however, remarkable,
that this method will not in general anfwer fo well in
the human fpecies as in quadrupeds; the air having
never paffed by putrefaction into the human lacteals in
any of the fubjects which Mr Sheldon tried, though it
will take place in thofe of the horfe or afs, and ma¬
ny other animals : drawings of the lacteals may like-
wife be made in this method to very great advantage.
In fome parts of the human body alfo this method
may be employed to advantage, as the liver, heart,
&c. It may likewife be ufeful to make ligatures on
the large trunks of the veflels previous to the macera¬
tion, that thus the air may be confined as foon as it is
extricated from the coats by putrefaction. Our au¬
thor adds, that if ligatures were made upon the wrifts
and legs in articulo mortis, or immediately after death,
the lymph would be flopped in the veflels, the latter
would become diftended, and might be injected with
the greateft facility by the common method after ta¬
king off the ligature. Mr Sheldon in fuch a cafe re¬
commends the tourniquet. “ I have reafon (fays he)
to believe, that abforption goes on as long as mufcular
irritability remains ; which laft continues a cnnfiderable
time after the general life of the animal is loft.” On
this, however, we cannot forbear to remark, that mak¬
ing ligatures for fuch purpofes upon a human crea¬
ture in articulo mortis, or even immediately after death,
favours fo much of barbarity, that we cannot think it
will be often praflifed. In fome cafes, even in the
dead fubjecft, ligatures are ufeful; as when we are
fearching for the lymphatics in the fingers and toes.
Vol. XI. Part I.
7 1 . 1 N J
In thefe it is ufeful to ftroke up the parts with the Injection,
finger, by which means the final! quantity of lymph
remaining in the veflels will be forced upwards, and
flopped by the ligature ; after which the veflels may
be eafily inje&ed with quickfilver, as already men¬
tioned.
To injeft the veflels, we muft open one or more of
them, directing the point of the lancet almoft always
towards the trunk or trunks of the vefels, and taking
care not to carry the incifion through the oppofite
fide. If the vefiels happen to lie under the perito¬
neum as the lafteals, or under the pleura as the lym¬
phatics of the lungs, we may cut into their cavity
through thefe membranes. In injecting thofe of the
extremities, however, and in many other parts of the
body, it is abfolutely neceflfary to difleft the veflels we
defign to fill away from the fat and reticular fubftance
before we attempt to open them with the lancet. The
tube with the pipe affixed to it is previoufly to be filled
with mercury : the anatomift then inflates the vefiel by
means of the blowpipe, takes the tube from the affift-
ant, and introduces the fmall tube into the punfture.
In this operation it will be found neceflary not to carry
the tube farther into the veffel than isfufficient to give
the mercury a free paflfage; for, if we introduce it far¬
ther, the paflage of the mercury will be impeded by the
pipe being pufhed againft the tide of the veffel. Should
not the fluid be able to effefl a paflage, it will then be
neceflary to prefs upon the furface of it in the tube with
our fingers. If it defcend freely, and without any of it
paffing between the fide of the veflel and fmall pipe, we
have only to fill up the tube with mercury as the latter
defcends j but if it gets out, we muft then tie the vef¬
fel. This, however, fhould always be avoided if pof-
fible j becaufe, if not very dexteroufly performed, the
operator will be apt to feparate the tube from the vefi*
fel; and on this account the puncture ought always to
be very fmall, no larger indeed than is neceflary to al¬
low the pipe to get in with difficulty. As the injection
proceeds, the preffure upon the furface of the quickfil¬
ver muft be carried on higher and higher in the courfe
of the lymphatic, till we come near the gland or glands
into which the veflels terminate $ otherwife we fhall
feldom get the cells of the glands, or the veflels emer¬
ging from the oppofite fide of the glands, well injedled.
In injefting the lymphatic veffels of the extremities, it
will be ufeful to raife the part where the pipe is in-
ferted higher than the other end of the limb, and to
make the affiftant prefs with his hands along the fkin
in the courfe of the veflels, which will favour the pro-
grefs of the injection. When the veflels are fufficiently
filled, which may be known by the fw'elling of them,
and by the refiftance the mercury meets with, the affift..
ant pafles a ligature about the veflel, and ties it above
the punfture before the anatomift withdraws the injec¬
tion-pipe.
The method of inje&ing the larger trunks or thora¬
cic duel with the coarfe injedlion is exaftly fimilar to
that already deferibed for the fanguiferous veflels.
Mr Sheldon, however, recommends the ufe of fome
pipes of a particular conftrudlion invented by himfelf.
The improvement confifts in fhaping the ends of the
pipes like a pen $ taking care to make the edges and
point blunt, to avoid cutting the veflels wdien we intro¬
duce them. Thus much larger tubes than thofe com-
K k monly
I N J
[ 258 3
I N J
Jaje&ion. monly in ufe may be admitted; and there is no occafion
^ raake any bulb or rifing near the extremity of thefe
final! pipes to prevent the thread from flipping off: for
this will certainly hinder us from inferting pipes of fuch
diameter as might otherwife be done.
Having thus Ihown the method of injefling the lym¬
phatics, our author next proceeds to deferibe the me¬
thod of diffefting and preparing them either for imme¬
diate demonftration, or for prefervation for any length
of time. In the diffeftion, great care is requisite, on
account of the exquilite thinnefs of their coats: but if
this fliould happen by accident, it will then be neceflary
to introduce the pipe at the ruptured part; and having
fecured it above and below with ligatures, to fill it a-
gain as before directed. Our author recommends, for
the purpofe of diffeftion, fuch knives as are made ufe of
by the Germans and French in tracing the nerves.
They muft be made thin in the blade like lancets, and
not much larger. A variety of different (haped blades,
feme fingle and others double edged, will be neceflary
for various parts of the body ; the fault of the common
differing knives being that they are too thick in the
blade, which makes them foon blunt, and occafions the
trouble of perpetual grinding, which is not the cafe
with thofe juft recommended. A fliarp-pointed forceps
is neceffary, in order to lay fall hold of the fmalleft por¬
tion of cellular fubftance; but they ought not to be fo
fliarp as to endanger the punfluring of the veffels: nor
ftiould they by any means be bowed or ftiff in the
ipring, to prevent the fingers of the operator from being
wearied in the operation. They (hould alfo be made
in fuch a manner as to hold large as well as fmall por¬
tions of reticular fubftance. For diffeflions of this kind,
fine-pointed feiffars and lancets fixed in handles are fome-
times neceffary ; and it is frequently of ufe to plunge
the parts into water, in order to loofen the reticular
membrane connecled with the outfide of the coats of
the veffels; by which means they may be diffefled more
eafily, and with lefs danger of wounding them. The
blood may be extrafled by frequently changing the wa¬
ter. After being injefled with quickfilver, the parts
fhould not be allowed to remain long in the w'ater, be-
enufe the^volatile alkali formed by putrefaflion is apt to
change the colour of the mercury.
The diffeflion being performed, the preparation is
then to be preferved either in a wet or dry ftate, ac¬
cording to its nature. Preparations of the larger parts,
as the trunk or extremities, (hould be preferved dry;
and to dry them effeauaily, they fnould be expofed to
a free current of air, but not to the rays of the fun ;
and the veffels {hould be displayed in their natural
fituation. When fully dried, they ought then to be
yarniflied over with tranfparent fpirit or copal varnilh :
which will not only preferve them from infeas, but
render them more beautiful, and the veffels more
confpicuous. They fhould then be inclofed in glafs
cafes, where they are to be placed in a horizontal
pofition, and handled as little aspoflible.
To make preparations of the thoracic dua, we muft
in the firft place fill the aorta, vena cava fuperior, and
vena azygos or intercoftalis, with coarfe injeaion ;
then fill, ^ with the fame, the veffels below the right
crus or little mufcle of the diaphragm. The dua is
fometimes prepared with quickfilver; but Mr Sheldon
recommends to anatomifts to make drawings of any
thing new or remarkable in their preparations sf the I Je&Icn.
lymphatic veffels with quickfilver ; as moft of thofe —V—-
fpecimens, particularly fuch as are dried, become at
laft totally ufelefs, by reafon of the drying of the vef¬
fels and the efcape or blackening of the mercury ; or
from the varnifli growing more and more opaque w ith
age. The quickfilver injeflion, however, in feme
cafes is very ufeful. Thus, for inftance, if we wiftr
to demonftrate the valves in the thoracic duft, or any
other large abforbent veffel, we need only injeft the
veffels with quickfilver, diffeft and dry them, then cut
them open, and let the mercury run out: after which
the valves will appear by making feftions in the coats
of the veffels. This may be done ftill better by varnifh-
ing the veffels three or four times before the fe&ions
are made; becaufe the varnifti will ftrengthen the fides
of the veffel. In wet preparations, the valves in the
cavities of thefe parts may likewife be demonftrated
by opening them, or by inverting the veffels and fuf-
pending them in proof malt-fpirits. Thus the valves
that cover the terminations of the thoracic duft on the
infide of the angle formed between the jugular and
fubclavian veins on the left fide, and thofe which ter¬
minate the lymphatics on the right fide of the neck,
arm, and lungs, may be beautifully demonftrated. Spe¬
cimens of the la&eal veffels, of the abforbents of the
heart, lungs, liver, fpleen, diaphragm, kidneys, &c.
may be kept wet or dry, according to the particular
nature of the preparation or view of the anatomift.
Some preparations are the better for being dried and
afterwards immerfed in phials full of oil of turpentine ;
by which means the flefti will be rendered tranlparent,
the veffels diftinflly feen, and the veffels appear ex¬
tremely beautiful. The only difadvantage of this me¬
thod is, that the parts on which the veffels pafs, do
not at all preferve their natural bulk by reafon of their
(hrinking up ; and as the wet preparations are free
from this inconvenience, Mr Sheldon does not hefitate
at afligning them a decided fuperiority over the dry
ones.—Sometimes it is neceffary to fix the preparations
upon ftiff paper or pafteboard, on account of their
weight after being injefted w ith mercury. The paper
or pafteboard on which they are faftened ought to be of
various colours, according to the nature of the prepa¬
ration, in order to form a proper ground for (bowing
the lymphatic vefiels. Such finall preparations as are
preferved in fpirits, or oil of turpentine, may be kept
in bottles well clofed with (toppers; and the larger in
common preparation glades. Our author deferibes a
fimple method of (lopping the mouths of thefe prepa¬
ration glades, by which means the (topper is rendered
nearly as durable as the glafs itfelf. “ In order to
execute it, let the anatomiit take care to have the up¬
per furface of his bottles made plain, by defiring the
workmen at the glafs-houfe to flatten them in the ma¬
king. This they will eaflly do in forming the round
ones, but the flat bottles are attended with confiderable
difficulty. The right way to make them, I believe,
would be to blow them in moulds of various fizes ; the
workman ftiould likewife form the bottoms of the bot¬
tles perfectly flat, that they may (land upright and Hea¬
dy. Bottles of this form being provided for the larger
preparations, we grind the upper furface of them on
a plain plate of lead, about a quarter of an inch thick,
and tw'o feet in diameter; firft with fine emery and wa¬
ter.
I N J ‘ 2
Tnjecllon. ter, then wilh powdered rotten done, or putty fir ft wet
““'■"V”*-' with water and at laft dry $ fo that the furfaee may be
reduced to an exa£t horizontal plane, and of as fine a
polilh as plate-glafs. This will foon be done, as the
manoeuvre requires but little dexterity and the ana-
tomift ihould be provided with a cenfiderable number
of thefe glaffes prepared as above directed. To the
top of each bottle a piece of plate-glafs, cut by a dia¬
mond, is to be adapted fo as completely to cover, but
not projedt over, the edge of the bottle. When thefe
two fmooth furfaces are put upon each other, with a
drop of water between, the attradlion of cohefion is
fo confiderable, that it requires great force to feparate
them.”
Many preparations of the lymphatics, and other
parts preferved in bottles, do not require any firings
to fufpend them j particularly when fixed on pafteboard
or paper : fuch as require fufpenfion ihould be tied to
firings fixed to tbe preparation below, and to fmall
holes drilled in the fubftance of the glafs at the bottom
of the neck ; or to fmall bits of glafs that may be
fixed on the infide of the fame part. The preparation
is thus fufpended in limpid proof malt-fpirit, the
bottle being almoft completely filled ; the upper and
poliftied furface of the bottle, and the plate of glafs,
are to be wiped clean and dry 5 a drop of folution of
gum arabic is to be put on the polifhed furface of the
bottle, the top ftrongly and fteadily preffed upon it,
fo as to bring the two furfaces into as clofe contadl as
poflible j after which the bottle is to be placed in a
cool airy place to dry. A piece of wet ox-bladder,
freed from fat, and foaked in water till it becomes mu¬
cilaginous, is then to be placed over the top, tbe air
prefled out from between it and the glafs 5 after which
it muft be tied with a packthread dipped in the folu¬
tion of gum arabic. The bladder being cut off neatly
under the laft turn of the thread, is then to be dried,
the firing taken cautioufty off, and the top and neck
painted with a compofition of lamp-black mixed with
japanners gold fize : this foon dries, and leaves a fine
fmooth gloffy furface, from which the dirt can at
any time be as readily wiped off as from a mirror. By
this method large bottles are as eafily and effeclually
fecured as fmall ones ; and it is found to anfwer as well
as the hermetical fealing of glaffes, which in large vef-
fels is altogether impradlicable. If the bottoms have
any inequalities which prevent them from Handing
fteady, they may be eafily made perfectly flat by grind¬
ing them with emery on the plate above mentioned.
The tops, if w-ell gummed, will even remain perfeftly
fixed on the glaffes without the bladder : though in
the common upright ones it may be advifable to put it
on as a defence. Our author informs us, that finee
his making this difcovery, he has ufed glafs faucers j
with flat tops gummed on. In thefe veffels the prepa¬
rations, by reafon of their horizontal pofture, appear
to great advantage. Thus he has exhibited very early
abortions in their membranes, and feme other prepa¬
rations that cannot be fufpended or viewed conveni¬
ently in the perpendicular direfHon. Some very deli¬
cate preparations, particularly thofe intended to be
viewed with the microfcope, thofe of the ampullulse
lasffeae of Lieberkuhn, and of the valves of the abfor-
bents, may be preferved either in fpirits or dry in
tubes clofed in the manner juft mentioned, and will
59 1 INK
appear to great advantage. Some of the dry ones Inje&ion
may alfo be advantageouily placed in fquare oblong ^J_
boxes, made of pieces of plate or white glafs neatly i
gummed together, with narrow flips of white or co¬
loured paper, and the objects may be conveniently
viewed in this manner. With refpeft to the flopper
bottles, which are very convenient for holding fmall
preparations, our author advifes the ftoppers to be per¬
feftly well ground j that they pafs rather lower down
than the neck of the bottle, for the convenience of
drilling two holes obliquely through the inferior edge
of the fubftance of the flopper, oppofite to each other,
for the convenience of fixing threads to hold the fub-
jeft : for if the threads pafs between the neck and
rtopper, a fpace will be left 5 or if the ftopper be well
ground, the neck of the bottle will be broken in en¬
deavouring to prefs it down. On the other hand, if
any fpace be left, the thread, by its capillary attraflion,
will aft from capillary attraflion, raiie the fpirits from
the bottle, and caufe evaporation, which will likewife
take place from the chink between the ftopper and
neck.
INISTIOGE, a poll town of Kilkenny, in the pro¬
vince of Leinfter 3 63 miles from Dublin. It is alfo a
borough, and returns two members to parliament 3 pa¬
tronage in the reprefentative of Sir William Fownes.—
It has two fairs.
INITIATED, a term properly ufed in fptaking
of the religion of the ancient heathens 3 where it figni-
fies being admitted to the participation of the facred
myfteries. The word comes from the Latin initiatus,
of initiare, initiari; which properly fignifies to begin
facrificing, or to receive or admit a perfonto the begin¬
ning of the myfteries, or of ceremonies of lels import¬
ance.
The ancients never difeovered the deeper myfteries
of their religion, nor even permitted feme of their tem¬
ples to be open, to any but thofe who had been initi¬
ated. See Mystery.
INJUNCTION, in Zoiu, a writ generally grounded
upon an interlocutory order or decree out of the court
of chancery or exchequer, fometimes to give poffeffion
to the plaintiff, for want of the defendant’s appearance 3
fometimes to the king’s ordinary court, and fometimes
to the court-chriftian, to flop proceedings in a caufe,
upon fuggeftion made, that the rigour of the law, if
it take place, is againft equity and confeience in that
cafe, that the complainant is not able to make his de¬
fence in thefe courts, for want of witneffes, &c. or
that they a6t erroneoufly, denying him fome juft ad¬
vantage. The writ of injunction is directed not only
to the party himfelf, but to all and Angular his coun-
fellors, attorneys, and folicitors 3 and if any attorney,
after having been ferved with an injunction, proceeds
afterward contrary to it, tbe court of chancery will
commit the attorney to the Fleet for contempt. But
if an injunction be granted by the court of chancery
in a criminal matter, the court of king’s bench may
break it, and proteCt any that proceed in contempt
of it.
INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, re¬
putation, or goods. See Assault.
INK, a black liquor ufed, in writing, generally made
of an infufion of galls, copperas, and gum-arabic.
The properties which this liquor ought to have, are,
K k 2 - 1. To
INK [ 260 ] INK
1, To flow freely from the pen, and fink a little into
the paper, that the writing be not eafily difcharged.
2. A very deep black colour, which fhould be as deep
at fir 11 as at any time afterwards* 3. Durability, fo
that the writing may not be fubjeft to decay by age.
4. Ink fhould be dellitute of any corrofive quality,
that it may not deftroy the paper, or go through it
in fuch a manner as to render the writing illegible.
No kind of ink, however, hath yet appeared which is
poiTeffed of all thefe qualities. The ink ufed by the
ancients was poffcffed of the fecond, third, and fourth
qualities above mentioned, but wanted the firft. Dr
Lewis hath difcovered its compofition from fome paf-
fagcs in ancient authors. “ Pliny and Vitruvius (fays
he) exprefsly mention the preparation of foot, or what
we now call lattip-b/ack, and the compofition of writing-
ink from lamp-black and gum. Diofcorides is more
particular, fetting down the proportions of the two in¬
gredients, viz. three ounces of the foot to one of the
gum. It feems the mixture was formed into cakes or
rolls j which being dried in the fun, were occafionally
tempered with water, as the cakes of Indian ink are
among ns for painting.”
In Mr Dtlaval’s Treatife on Colours, p. 37. he ac¬
quaints us, that with an infufion of galls and iron filings,
he had not only made an exceedingly black and dura¬
ble ink, but by its means, without the addition of any
acid, dyed filk and woollen cloth of a good and lafling
black. This kind of ink, however, though the colour
is far fuperior to that of any other, has the inconveni¬
ence of being very eafily difcharged, either by the
fmalleft quantity of any acid, or even by fimple water j
becaufe it does not penetrate the paper in fuch a man-
tier as is neceffary to preferve it from the inftantaneous
action of the acid or of the water. During the aflion
of the infufion of galls upon the iron in making this
kind of ink, a very confiderable effervefcence takes
place, and a quantity of air is difcharged, the nature of
which has not yet been examined.
The materials ufually employed for the making of
ink are, common green vitriol, or copperas and galls •,
but almoft all of them are deficient in durability, which
is a property of fuch importance, that Dr Lewis hath
thought the fubjedt of ink-making not unworthy of his
attention. From experiments made by that author,
he infers, that the decay of inks is chiefly owing to a
deficiency of galls j that the galls are the moft perifh-
able ingredient, the quantity of thefe, which gives
the greateft blacknefs at firft (which is about equal
parts with the vitriol), being infufficient to maintain the
colour : that, far i durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much lefs than three times that of the vitriol;
that it cannot be much greater without leffening the
blacknefs of the ink : that by diminifhing the quantity
of water, the ink is rendered blacker and more durable ;
that diftilled water, rain-water, and hard fpring-water,
have the fame effedfs : that white wine produces a deep¬
er black colour than water; that the colour produced
by vinegar is deeper than that by wine 5 that proof-
ipirit extradls only a reddifh brown tinge j that the
laft-mentioned tindiure finks into, and fpreads upon,
the paper j and hence the impropriety of adding fpi-
rit of wine to ink, as is frequently diredled, to prevent
mouldinefs or freezing : that other aftringents, as oak-
4
bark, biftort, floe-bark, &c. are not fo efFedlual as
galls, nor give fo good a black, the colour produced
by moft of thefe, excepting oak-bark, being greenifh :
that the juice of floes does not produce a black colour
with martial vitriol; but that, neverthelefs, the wri¬
ting made with it becomes black, and is found to be
more durable than common ink : that inks made with
faturated folutions of iron, in nitrous, marine, or acetous
acids, in tartar, or in lemon juice, were much inferior
to the ink made with martial vitriol : that the co¬
lour of ink is depraved by adding quicklime, which
is done with an intention of deftroyfng any fupera-
bundant acid which may be fuppofed to be the caufe
of the lofs of the colour of ink : that the beft method
of preventing the effects of tin's fuperabundant acid is
probably by adding pieces of iron to engage it ; and
that this conjecture is confirmed by an inftance the
author had heard, of the great durability of the colour
of an ink in which pieces of iron had been long im-
merfed : and laftly, that a decoCtion of logwood ufed
inftead of w-ater, fenfibly improves both the beauty and
deepnefs of the black, without difpofing it to fade. The
fame author obferves, that the addition of gum-arabic
is not only ufeful, by keeping the colouring matter fuf-
pended in the fluid, but alto by preventing the ink
from fpreading, by which means a greater quantity of
it is colltCted on each flroke of the pen. Sugar, which
is fometimes added to ink, is found to be much lefs ef¬
fectual than gums, and to have the inconvenience of
preventing the drying of the ink. The colour of ink
is found to be greatly injured by keeping the ink in
vefiels made of copper or of lead, and probably of any
other metal, excepting iron, which the vitriolic acid
can diflblve.
The foregoing experiments point out for the beft
proportions of the ingredients for ink, one part of
green vitriol, one part of powdered logwood, and
three parts of powdered galls. The beft menftruum
appears to be vinegar or white wine, though for com¬
mon ufe water is fufficient. If the iiik be required to
be of a full colour, a quart, or at moft three pints, of
liquor, may be allowed to three ounces of galls, and to
one ounce of each of the other two ingredients. Half
an ounce of gum may be added to each pint of the
liquor. The ingredients may be all put together at
once in a convenient veffel, and well Ihaken four or
five times each day. In 10 or 12 days the ink will be
fit for ufe, though it will improve by remaining long¬
er on the ingredients. Or it may be made more ex-
peditioully, by adding the gum and vitriol to a decoc¬
tion of galls and logwood in the menftruura. To the
ink, after it has been feparated from the feculencies,
fome coarfe powder of galls, from which the fine duft
has been lifted, together with one or two pieces of
iron, may be added, by which its durability will be fe-
cured.
In fome attempts made by the DoCtor to endowr wri¬
ting ink with the great durability of that of the an¬
cients, as well as the properties which it has at pre-
fent; he firft thought of ufing animal glues, and then
of oily matters. “ I mixed both lamp-black (fays he)
and ivory-black with folutions of gum-arabic, made of
fuch confiftence as juft to flow fufficiently from the
pen. The liquors wrote of a fine black colour ; but
when
INK [ 261 ] INK
Ink. when dry, part of the colour could be rubbed off,
efpecially in moift weather, and a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter waffied it away entirely.
“ I trietl folutions of the animal-glues with the
fame event. Ifinglafs or fifh glue being the mofl dif¬
ficultly diffoluble of thefe kinds of bodies, I made a
decoftion of it in water, of fuch ftrength that the li¬
quor concreted into a jelly before it was quite cold :
with this jelly, kept fluid by fufficient heat, I mixed
fome ivory-black : characters drawn with this mix¬
ture on paper bore rubbing much better than the
others, but were difcharged without much difficulty
by a wet pencil.
“ It was now fufpeCled, that the colour could not
be fuffieiently fixed on paper without an oily cement.
As oils themfelves are made mifcible with watery fluids
by the intervention of gum, I mixed fome of the fofter
painters varnifh, aftermentioned, with about half its
weight of a thick mucilage of gum-arabic, working
them well together in a mortar till they united into a
* fmooth uniform mafs: this was beaten with lamp-black,
and fome water added by little and little, the rubbing
being continued till the mixture was diluted to a due
confluence for writing. It wrote freely, and of a full
brownifh black colour: the charaffers could not be dif¬
charged by rubbing, but water wafhed them out, though
not near fo readily as any of the foregoing. Inflead
of the painters varnifh or boiled oil, I mixed raw lin-
feed oil in the fame manner with mucilage and lamp¬
black ; and on diluting the mixture with water, obtain¬
ed an ink not greatly different from the other.
“ Though thefe oily mixtures anfwered better than
thofe with Ample gums or glues, it was apprehended
that their being difchargeable by water would render
them unfit for the purpofes intended. The only way
of obviating this imperfeftion appeared to be, by
ufing a paper which fhould admit the black liquid to
fink a little into its fubftance. Accordingly I took
fome of the more finking kinds of paper, and common
paper made damp as for printing ; and had the fatif-
faftion to find, that neither the oily nor the Ample
gummy mixtures fpread upon them fo much as might
have been expedited, and that the charafters were as
fixed as could be defired, for they could not be wafhed
out without rubbing off part of the fubftance of the
paper itfelf.
“ All thefe inks muff be now and then ftirred or
fhaken during the time of ufe, to mix up the black
powder, which fettles by degrees to the bottom : thofe
with oil muft be well fhaken alfo, though not ufed,
once a-day, or at leaft once in three or four days, to
keep the oil united with the water and gum ; for, if
once the oil feparates, which it is apt to do by Hand¬
ing at reft for fome days, it can no longer be mixed
with the thin fluid by any agitation. But though this
imperfeft union of the ingredients renders thefe inks
lefs fit for general ufe than thofe commonly employed,
I apprehend there are many occafions in which thefe
kinds of inconveniences will not be thought to coun¬
terbalance the advantage of having writings which we
may be affured will be as lafting as the paper they are
written upon. And indeed the inconvenience may be
in a great meafure obviated by ufing cotton in the ink-
ftand, which, imbibing the fluid, prevents the fepara-
tion of the black powder diffufed through it.
“ All the inks, however, made on the principle Ink.
w'e are now fpeaking of, can be difcharged by wafh-—•y-—^
ing, unlefs the paper admits them to fink into its fub¬
ftance. The ancients were not infenfible of this im-
perfeftion ; and fometimes endeavoured to obviate it,
according to Pliny, by ufing vinegar, inftead of water,
for tempering the mixture of lamp-black and gum. I
tried vinegar, and found it to be of fome advantage,
not as giving any improvenaent to the cement, but ^by
promoting the finking of the matter into the paper.
As this wafliing out of the ink may be prevented by
ufing a kind of paper eafy enough to be procured, it is.
fcarce to be confidered as an imperfection ; and in¬
deed, on other kinds of paper, it is an imperfection only
fo far as it may give occafion to fraud, for none of thefe
inks are in danger of being otherwife difcharged than
by defign. The vitriolic inks themfelves, and thofe o£
printed books and copperplates, are all difchargeablej
nor tan it be expeCted of the ink-maker to render
writings feeure from frauds.
“ But a further improvement may yet be made,
namely, that of uniting the ancient and modern inks
together j or ufing the common vitriolic ink inftead of
w'ater, for tempering the ancient mixture of gum and
lamp-black. By this method it fhould feera that the
writings would have all the durability of thofe of for¬
mer times, with all the advantage that refults from
the vitriolic ink fixing itfelf in the paper. Even where
the common vitriolic mixture is depended on for the
ink, it may in many cafes be improved by a fmall ad¬
dition of the ancient compofition, or of the common
Indian ink which anfwers the fame purpofe : when the
vitriolic ink is dilute, and flows fo pale from the pen,
that the fine ftrokes, on firft writing, are fcarcely vi- *
fible, the addition of a little Indian ink is the readiefb
means of giving it the due blacknefs. By this admix¬
ture it may be prefumed alfo that the vitriolic ink will
be made more durable, the Indian ink in fome meafure
covering it, and defending it from the aCIion of the air.
In all cafes, where Indian ink or other ftmilar compofi-
tions are employed, cotton fhould be ufed in the ink-
ftand, as already mentioned, to prevent the fettling of
the black powder.”
Since the invention of printing much lefs attention
than formerly has been paid to the making of ink, fo
that now the art feems to be in a great meafure loft.
This will appear from a comparifon of fome ancient
manufcripts with the writings of modern times. It
being of the utmoft importance, how’ever, that public
records, wills, and other valuable papers, which cannot
admit of being printed, fhould be written with ink of
a durable quality, this inattention feems tc- have been
very culpable, and a reftoration of the method of ma¬
king writing ink a very valuable acquifition. “ The ne-
ceffity (fays Mr Aftle*) of paying greater attention to*^,,—^ ~
this matter may readily be feen, by comparing the rolls Alpkab.
and records that have been written from the 15th Writing,
century to the end of the 17th, with the writings we
have remaining of various dates from the jth to
the 1 2th centuries. Notwithftanding the fuperior an¬
tiquity of the latter, they are in excellent preiervation $
but we frequently find the former, though of more
modern date, fo much defaced, that they are fcarcely
legible.”
Our author agrees with Dr Lewis in the opinion
that
INK [ 262 ] - INK
that the ancient inks were compofed of foot or ivory
black inftead of the galls, copperas, and gums, which
form the compolition of ours. Befides their black
inks, however, the ancients ufed various other colours,
as red, gold and lilver, purple, &c. Green ink was
frequently ufed in Latin manufcripts, efpecially in the
latter ages j and it was frequently employed in figna-
tures by the guardians of the Greek emperors till their
■wards were of age. Blue or yellow ink was feldom
ufed except in manufcripts 5 but (fays Mr Aftle) u the
yellow has not been much in ufe, as far as we can learn,
thefe 600 years.” Some kinds of charadlers, particu¬
larly the metallic, were burnifhed. Wax was ufed by
the Latins and Greeks as a varnilh, but efpecially by
the former, and particularly in the 9th century. It
continued a long time in vogue.
A treatife upon inks was publilhed by Peter Cani-
parius profeffor of medicine at Venice; of which an
■edition was printed at London in 1660. It is divided
into fix parts. The firft treats of inks made from py¬
rites, Hones, and metals •, the fecond of fuch as are
made from metals and calces j the third from foots and
vitriols ; the fourth of the different kinds of inks ufed
by the librarii or book-writers, by printers, and en¬
gravers ; likewife of ftaining or writing upon mar¬
ble, ftucco, or fcaliolia, and of encauftic modes of
■writing j alfo of liquids for painting or colouring lea¬
ther and linen or woollen cloth *, reftoring inks that
had been decayed by time; together with many me¬
thods of effacing writing, refton’ng decayed paper,
and different modes of fecret writing. The fifth treats
of writing inks made in different countries from gums,
woods, the juices of plants, &c. as well as of different
kinds of varnifhes. The fixth treats of the different
methods of extrafting vitriol, and the chemical ufes
of it.
Weckerus de Secretis, a treatife printed at Bafil in
1612, contains a number of curious particulars con¬
cerning ink. He gives alfo receipts for making gold
and filver inks, compofed both with thefe metals and
without them •, directions for making inks for fecret
writing, and for defacing them j though in this laft
part there are many particulars bordering too much on
the marvellous.
In the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1787, Dr Blag-
den gives fome account of a method of reftoring de¬
cayed inks fo as to render them legible. His expe¬
riments originated from a converfation with Mr Aftle
already quoted, on the queftion whether the inks made
eight or ten centuries ago, and which are found to
have preferved their colour very well, were made of the
fame materials now employed or not ? In order to
decide the queftion, Mr Aftle furnilhed the doCtor
with feveral manufcripts on parchment and vellum from
the 9th to the 15th centuries inclufively. Some of
thefe were ftill very black j others of different ftiades,
from a deep yellowilh brown to a very pale yellow, in
fome parts fo faint that it could fcarcely be feen. This
was tried with fimple and phlogifticated alkalies, the
mineral acids, and infufion of galls. From thefe ex¬
periments it appeared that the ink anciently employed
was of the fame nature as at prefent: the letters turn¬
ed of a reddilh or yellowilh brown with alkalies be¬
came pale, and were at length obliterated by the di¬
lute mineral acids. The drop of acid liquor, which
had been put upon a letter, changed to a deep blue
or green on the addition of phlogifticated alkalies; with
an infufion of galls, in fome cafes the letters acquired
a deep tinge, in others a flight one. “ Hence (fays the
dodtor) it is evident, that one of the ingredients was
iron, which there is no reafon to doubt was joined with
the vitriolic acid j and the colour of the more perfedt
MSS. which in fome was a deep black, and in others
a purplilh black, together with the reftitution of that
colour in thofe which had loft it by the infufion of
galls, fufficiently proved that another of the ingredients
was aftringent matter, which from hiftory appears to
have been that of galls. No trace of a black pigment
of any fort was difcovered ; the drop of acid, which
had completely extradted a letter, appearing of an uni¬
form pale and ferruginous colour, without an atom of
black powder, or other extraneous matter floating in
it.”
As this account differs very materially from the for¬
mer extradfed from Mr Aftle’s writings, fo the reafon
given for the continuance of the colour differs no lefs.
This, according to Dr Blagden, “ feems to depend very
much on a better preparation of the material upon
which the writing was made, namely the parchment
or vellum ; the blackeft letters being generally thofe
which had funk into it the deepeft. Some degree of
effervefcence was commonly to be perceived when acids
were in contadl with the furface of thefe old vellums.
I was led, however, to fufpedl, that the ancient inks
contained rather a lefs proportion of iron than the more
modern j for, in general, the tinge of colour produ¬
ced by the phlogifticated alkali in the acid laid upon
them, feemed lefs deep ; which, however, might de¬
pend in part upon the length of time they have been
kept: and perhaps more gum was ufed in them, or they
were waftied over with fome kind of varnifh, though not
fuch as gave any glofs.”
Among the fpecimens with which our author wag
favoured by Mr Aftle, there was one which differed
very materially from the reft. It was faid to be a ma-
nufcript of the 15th century : the letters were of a
full engroffing hand, angular without any fine ftrokes,
broad, and very black. None of the chemical folvents
above mentioned feemed to produce any effeft. Moft
of them feemed rather to make the letters blacker,
probably by cleaning the furface j and the acids, after
having been rubbed ftrongly upon the letters, did not
ftrike any deeper tinge with the phlogifticated alkali.
Nothing could obliterate thefe but what took off part
of the vellum j when fmall rolls of a dirty matter were
to be perceived. “ It is therefore unqueftionable (fays
the doftor) that no iron was ufed in this ink ; and,
from its refiftance to the chemical folvents, as well as
a certain clotted appearance in the letters when exa¬
mined clofely, and in fome places a flight degree of
glofs, I have little doubt that they were formed of a
footy or carbonaceous powder and oil, probably fome-
thing like our prefent printers ink •, and am not with¬
out fufpicion that they were aftually printed.”
On examining this MS. more fully, our author was
convinced that it was really a part of a very ancient
printed book. In confidering the methods of reftoring
the legibility of decayed writings, our author obferves,
that perhaps one of the beft may be to join phlogifti¬
cated alkali with the calx of iron which remains; be-
caufe
INK [ 263 ] IN K
caufe the precipitate formed by thefe two fubRanees
^ greatly exceeds that of the iron alone. On this fubjeft
Dr Blagden difagrees with Mr Bergmann; but to bring
the matter to a teft, the following experiments were
made.
I. The phlogifticated alkali was rubbed in different
quantities upon the bare writing. This, in general,
produced little effect •, though, in a few inftances, it
gave a blifilh tinge to the letters, and increafed their
intenfity *, “ probably (fays the doftor) where fome-
thing of an acid nature had contributed to the diminu¬
tion of their colour.” 2. By adding, befides the al¬
kali, a dilute mineral acid to the writing, our author
found his expectations fully anfwered ; the letters then
changing quickly to a very deep and beautiful blue.
It is but of little confequence whether the acid er phlo-
gifcicated alkali be firft added *, though upon farther
confideration the doCtor inclined to begin with the
alkali. The reafon is, that when the alkali is firlt
put on, the colour feems to fpread lefs, and thus not
to hurt the legibility of the writing fo much as wmuld
otherwife be done. His method is to fpread the alkali
thin over the writing with a feather, then to touch
it as gently as poffible upon or nearly over the letters
with the diluted acid by means of a feather or bit of
flick cut to a blunt point. The moment that the acid
liquor is applied, the letters turn to a fine blue, be¬
yond comparifon flronger than the original trace of
the letter ; and by applying a bit of blotting-paper to
fuck up the fuperfluous liquid, we may in a great mea-
fure avoid the Raining of the parchment: for it is this
fuperfluous liquor which, abforbing part of the colour¬
ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to what¬
ever it touches. Care ought, however, to be taken
not to allow the blotting paper to come in contatl
with the letters, becaufe the colouring matter may ea-
fily be rubbed off while foft and wet. Any one of the
three mineral acids will anfwer the purpofe effeftually.
Dr Blagden commonly ufes the marine. But which¬
ever of the three is ufed, it ought to be diluted fo far
as not to be in danger of corroding the parchment j
after which the degree of ftrength feems not to be a
matter of great nicety.
Another method of reftoring the legibility of old
writings is by wetting them with an infufion of galls in
white wine : but this is fubjeft to the fame inconveni¬
ence with the former, and is befides lefs efficacious.
The do&or is of opinion that the acid of the galls by
itfelf wrould be better for the purpofe than the infufion
of the whole fubftance of them ; and he thinks alfo
that a preferable kind of phlogifticated alkali might be
prepared either by purifying the common kind from
iron as much as poffible, or by making ufe of the vo¬
latile alkali inftead of the fixed. Mr Aftle mentions a
method of reftoring the legibility of decayed writings j
but fays that it ought not to be hazarded left a fufpi-
cion of deceit fliould arife.
A method has been propofed of preventing ink from
decaying by walking over the paper to be written upon
with the colouring matter of Pruffian blue, which will
not deprave it in colour, or any other refpe£t. By
writing upon it with common ink afterwards, a
ground of Prufiian blue is formed under every ftroke 5
and this remains ffrong after the black has been de¬
cayed by the weather or deftroyed by the acids. Thus
the ink will bear a larger proportion of vitriol at firft,
and will have the advantage of looking blacker when
firft written.
Indian INK, a Valuable black for water-colours,
brought from China and other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, fometimes in large rolls, but more commonly in
fmall quadrangular cakes, and generally marked with
Chinefe eharadlers. Dr Lewis, from experiments
made on this fubftance, hath fliown that it is compofed
of fine lamp-black and animal glue : and accordingly,
for the preparation of it, he defires us to mix the lamp¬
black with as much melted glue as is fufficient to give
it a tenacity proper for being made into cakes j and
thefe when dry, he tells us, anfw'ered as well as thofe
imported from the Eaft Indies, both with regard to
the colour and the freedom of w-orking. Ivory black,
and other charcoal blacks, levigated to a great degree
of finenefs, anfwered as well as the lamp-black *, but
in the ftate in which ivory-black is commonly fold, it
proved much too gritty, and feparated too haftily from
the w'ater.
Printing INK, is totally different from Indian ink,
or that made ufe of in writing. It is an oily compofi-
fition, of the confiftence of an ointment : the me¬
thod of preparing it was long kept a fecret by thofe
whofe employment it was to make it, and who were in-
terefted in concealing it j and even yet is but imper-
fedftly known. The properties of good printing ink
are, to work clean and eafily, without daubing the
types, or tearing the paper ; to have a fine black co¬
lour j to waffi eafily off the types ; to dry foon j and
to preferve its colour, without turning brown. This
laft, which is a moft neceffary property, is effe&ually
obtained by fetting fire to the oil w ith which the print¬
ing ink is made for a few' moments, and then extin-
guiffiing it by covering the veffel (a). It is made to
wafh eafily off the types, by ufing foap as an ingre¬
dient ; and its working clean depends on its having a
proper degree of ftrength, which is given by a certain
addition of rofin. A good deal, however, depends on
the proportion of the ingredients to eacli other j for if
too much foap is added, the ink will work very foul,
and daub the types to a great degree. The fame thing
will happen from ufing too much black, at the fame
time that both the foap and black hinder the ink from
drying ; while too much oil and rofin tear the paper,
and hinder it from wafhing off.—The following receipt
has been found to make printing ink of a tolerable
good quality. “ Take a Scots pint of 1 infeed oil,
and fet it over a pretty brifk fire in an iron or copper
veffel capable of holding three or four times as much.
When it boils ftrongly, and emits a thick fmoke, kindle
it with a piece of paper, and immediately take the vef¬
fel off the fire. Let the oil burn for about a minute 5
then extinguish it by covering the veffelj after it has-
grown
(a) This is mentioned by Dr Lew is in his Philofophical Commerce of Arts} but he feems not to have been
sequaiuied with the method of giving it the other neceffary properties^
INK [ 264 ] INK
grown pretty cool, add two pounds of black rolin, and
one pound of hard foap cut into thin flices. If the
oil is very hot when the foap is added, almoft the whole
mixture will run over the veflel. The mixture is then
to be fet again over the fire ; and when the ingredi¬
ents are thoroughly melted, a pound of lamp-black,
previoufly put through a lawn fieve, is to be ftirred
into it. The whole ought then to be ground on a
marble (tone, or in a levigating mill.
Though the above receipt is greatly fuperior to
any that hath been hitherto published, all of which
are capitally deficient in not mentioning the necef-
fary ingredients of rofin and foap j yet it muft be ac¬
knowledged that ink made in this manner is inferior
in point of colour, and is likewife more apt to daub
the types and make an indiftinft impreflion, than fuch
as is prepared by fome of thofe who make the ma¬
nufacture of this commodity their employment 5 fo
that either a variation in the proportion of the ingre¬
dients, a nicety in the mixture, or fome additional in¬
gredient, feems neceffary to bring it to the requifite
.perfection.
INK for the rolling Prefi, is made of linfeed oil
burnt in the fame manner as that for common printing
ink, and then mixed with Francfort-black, and finely
ground. There are no certain proportions which can
be determined in this kind of ink 5 every workman
adding oil or black to his ink as he thinks proper,
in order to make it fuit his own tafte.—Some, how¬
ever, mix a portion of common boiled oil, which has
never been burnt : but this mult necelfarily be a bad
praCtice, as fuch oil is apt to go through the paper j
a fault very common in prints, efpecially if the paper
is not very thick. No foap is added j becaufe the
ink is not cleared off from the copperplates with alka¬
line ley as in common printing, but with a brufh dip¬
ped in oil.
Ink is alfo an appellation given to any coloured
liquor ufed in writing. „ Different kinds of thefe inks
may be prepared by the directions given under the
article COLOUE-Making.
Sympathetic INK, a liquor with which a perfon may
write, and yet nothing appear on the paper after it is
dry, till fome means are ufed, as holding the paper to
the fire, rubbing it over with fome other liquor, &c.
Thefe kinds of ink may be divided into feven claffes,
with refpeCt to the means ufed to make them vifible j
viz. 1. Such as become vifible by pafling another li¬
quor over them, or by expofing them to the vapour of
that liquor. 2. Thofe that do not appear fo long as
they are kept clofe, but foon become vifible on being
expofed to the air. 3. Such as appear by drewing or
lifting fome very fine powder of any colour over them.
4. Thofe which become vifible by being expofed to
the fire. 5. Such as become vifible by heat, but dif-
appear again by cold or the moiflure of the air. 6.
Thofe which become vifible by being wetted with
water. 7. Such as appear of various colours.
I. The firft clafs contains four kinds of ink, viz. fo-
lutions of lead, bifmuth, gold, and green vitriol, or
fulphate of iron. The two firft become vifible by the
contaCl of fulphureous liquids or fumes. For the firft,
a folution of common fugar of lead in water anfwers
very well. With this folution write with a clean pen,
.and the writing when dry will be totally invifible ; but
if it be wetted with a folution of hepar fulphuris, or Ink.
of orphnent, diftblved by means of quicklime j or ex- 1 v"**
pofed to the ftrong vapours of thefe folutions, the writ¬
ing will appear of a brown colour, more or lefs deep
according to the ftrength of the fulphureous fume. By
the fame means the folution of nitrate of bifmuth will
appear of a deep black.
The fympathetic ink prepared from gold depends
on the property by which that metal precipitates from
its folvent on the addition of a folution of tin. Write
with a folution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and let
the paper dry gently in the ftiade j nothing will appear
for the firft; (even or eight hours. Dip a pencil in the
folution of tin, and draw it lightly over the invifible
chara&ers, they will immediately appear, of a purple
colour.
Charaflers written with a folution of green vitriol,
will likewife be invifible when the paper is dry 5 but if
wetted with an infufion of galls, they will immediately
appear as if written with common ink. If, inftead of
this infufion, a folution of an alkaline prufliate be ufed,
the writing will appear of a deep blue.
II. To the fecond clafs belong the folutions of all
thofe metals which are apt to attrafl oxygen from the
air, fuch as lead, bifmuth, filver, &c. The fympathe¬
tic ink of gold already mentioned belongs alfo to this
clafs *, for if the characters written with it are long ex¬
pofed to the air, they become by degrees of a deep
violet colour, nearly approaching to black. In like
manner, characters written with a folution of nitrate of
filver are invifible when newly dried, but being expefed
to the fun, appear of a gray colour like Hate. To this
clafs alfo belong folutions of fugar of lead, nitrates of
copper and of mercury, acetate of iron, and muriate of
tin. Each of thefe has a particular colour when ex-
poled to the air ; but they corrode the paper.
III. The third clafs of fympathetic inks contains
fuch liquids as have fome kind of glutinous vifeofity,
and at the fame time are long in drying •, by which
means, though the eye cannot difeern the characters
written with them upon paper, the powders ftrewed
upon them immediately adhere, and thus make the
wwiting become vifible. Of this kind are urine, milk,
the juices of fome vegetables, weak folutions of the de-
liquefcent falts, &c.
IV. This clafs, comprehending all thofe that be¬
come vifible by being expofed to the fire, is very ex-
tenfive, as it contains all thofe colourlefs liquids in
which the matter diflblved is capable of being reduced,
or of reducing the paper, into a fort of charcoal by a
fmall heat. Sulphuric acid diluted with as much water
as will prevent it from corroding the paper makes a
good ink of this kind. Letters written with this fluid
are invifible when dry, but inftantly on being held near
the fire appear as black as if written with the fineft; ink.
Juice of lemons or onions, a folution of fal-ammoniac,
green vitriol, &c. anfwer the fame purpofe.
V. The fifth clafs comprehends only a folution of
muriate of cobalt ; for the properties of which, fee
Chemistry, N° 1608, p. 627.
VI. This clafs comprehends fuch inks as become
vifible when charafters written with them are wetted
with v'ater. They are made of all fuch fubftances as
depofite a copious fediment when mixed with water,
diflblving only imperfeflly in that fluid. Of this kind
are
I M N [ 265 ] INN
ink, afe dried atum, fugar of lead, vitriol, &c. We have
II therefore only to write with a ftrong folution of thefe
Inn>, , falts upon paper, and the chara£lers will be invifible
when dry j but when we apply water, the fmall por¬
tion of dried fait cannot again be diffolved in the wa¬
ter. Hence the infoluble part becomes vifible on
the paper, and (hows the charafters written in white,
gray, brown, or any other colour which the precipitate
aflumes.
VII. Chara&ers may be made to appear of a fine
crimfon, purple, or yellow, by writing on paper with
folution of muriate of tin, and then palling over it a pen¬
cil dipt in a decoftion of cochineal, Brazil-wood, log¬
wood, yellow wood, &c»
Ink Stones, a kind of fmall round Hones, of a white,
red, gray, yellow7, or black colour, containing a quan¬
tity of native martial vitriol, whence they derive the
property of making ink, and from thence their name.
They are almoft entirely foluble in water, and befides
their other ingredients, contain alfo a portion of copper
and zinc.
INLAND, a name for any part of a country at a
difiance from the fea.
Inland Navigation. See Canal and {Inland) Na¬
vigation.
INLAND Trade, that kind of trade carried on be¬
tween the different parts of the fame kingdom, whether
over land, or by means of inland navigation.
INLAYING. See Veneering, Mosaic, and
Marquetry.
1NLEASED, in our old writers^ fignifies entangled
or enfnared. It is ufed in the champion’s oath.
INLISTING, in a military fenfe. See Listing.
INMATES, fuch perfons as are admitted for their
money, to live in the fame houfe or cottage with ano¬
ther man, in different rooms, but going in at the fame
door $ being ufually fuppofed to be poor, and not able
to maintain a whole houfe themfelves. Thefe are in-
•quirable in a court-leet.—No owner or occupier of a
cottage (hall fuffer any inmates therein, or more fami¬
lies than one to inhabit there, on pain of forfeiting 10s.
per month to the lord of the leet.
INN, a place appointed for the entertainment and
relief of travellers.
Inns are licenfed and regulated by jufiices of the
peace, who oblige the landlord to enter into recogni¬
zances for keeping good order. If a perfon who keeps
a common inn, refufes to receive a traveller into his
houfe as a gueft, or to find him victuals and lodging
on his tendering a reafonable price for them, he is li¬
able to an aftion of damages, and may be indifted and
fined at the king’s fuit. The rates of all commodities
fold by innkeepers, according to our ancient laws,
may be affeffed : and innkeepers not felling their hay,
oats, beans, &c. and all manner of vi&uals, at reafon¬
able prices, without taking any thing for litter, may
be fined and imprifoned, &c. by 21 Jac. I. c. 2f.
Where an innkeeper harbours thieves, perfons of in¬
famous charafler, or fuffers any diforders in his houfe,
or fets up a new inn where there is no need of one, to
the hinderance of ancient and well-governed inns, he
is indictable and fineable j and by fiatute, fuch inn
may be fuppreffed Adlion upon the cafe lies againft
any innkeeper, if a theft be committed on his gueft
by a fervant of the inn, or any other perfon not be-
. Vol. XL Part L '
longing to the gueff j though it is otherwife where the
gueft is not a traveller, but one of the fame town or
village, for there the innkeeper is not chargeable 5 nor
is the mailer of a private tavern anfwerable for a rob¬
bery committed on his gut ft: it is faid, that even though
the travelling gueft does not deliver his goods,
into the innkeeper’s poffeflion, yet if they are ftolen,
he is chargeable. An innkeeper is not anfwerable for
any thing out of his inn, but only for fuch as'are
within it ; yet, where he of his own accord puts th<J
gueft’s hoife to grafs, and the horfe is ftolen, he is
anfwerable, he not having the gueft’s orders for putting
fueh horfe to grafs. The innkeeper may juftify the
flopping of the horfe, or other thing of his gueft, for
his reckoning, and may retain the fame till it be paid.
Where a perfon brings his horfe to an inn, and leaves
him in the liable, the innkeeper may detain him till
fuch time as the owner pays for his keeping: and if
the horfe eats out as much as he is worth, after a
reafonable appraifement made, he may fell the horfe
and pay himfelf: but when a gueft brings feveral
horfes to an inn, and afterwards takes them all away
except one, this horfe fo left may not be fold for pay¬
ment of the debt for the others ; for every horfe is to
be fold, only to make fatisfaftion for what is due for his
own meat.
Inns. Our colleges of municipal or common law
profeffors and ftudents, are called inns i the old Englifti
Word for houfes of noblemen, biihops, and others of
extraordinary note, being of the fame fignification with
the Firench word hotels.
Inns of Court are fo called, as fome think, becaufe
the ftudents there are to ferve ahd attend the courts of
judicature ; or elfe, becaufe anciently thefe colleges
received none but the Tons of noblemen, and better fort
of gentlemen, w ho were here to be qualified to ferve the
king in his court 5 as Fortefcue affirms. And, in his
time, he fays, there were about 2000 ftudents in the
inns of court and chancery, all of whom were filii nobi-
hum, or gentlemen born. But this cuftom has gra¬
dually fallen into difulb ‘ fo that in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke does not reckon above
1000 ftudents, and the number at prefeht is very con-
fiderably lefs; for which Judge Blackftone affigns the
following reafohs. 1. Becaufe the inns of chan¬
cery, being now almoft totally filled by the inferior
branches of the profeffion, are neither commodious nor
proper for the refort of gentlemen of any rank or fi¬
gure ; fo that there are very rarely any young ftudents
entered at the inns of chancery. 2. Becaufe in the inns
of court all forts of regimen and academical fuperin-
tendance, either with regard to morals or ftudies, are
found hnpra&icable, and therefore entirely negle&ed.
Laftly, becaufe perfons of birth and fortune, after ha¬
ving finiftied their ufual courfes at the tmiverfities, have
feldom leifure or refolution fufficient to enter upon a
new fcheme of ftudy at a new place of inftnnftion 5
wherefore few gentlemen now refort to the inns of
court, but fuch for whom the knowledge of praftice is
abfolutely neceffary in fuch as are intended for the pro¬
feffion.
Our inns of court, juftly famed for the produftion
of men of learning in the law, are governed by ma¬
ilers, principals, benchers, Rewards, and other offi¬
cers : and have public halls for exercifes, readings, &c.
LI .which
INK [ 266 ] INN
I»a» tvliich the ftudents are obliged to attend and perform
. | for a certain numbers of years, before they can be ad-
fr.ms a en. mjtte(j to pieaci at the bar. Thefe focieties have not,
however, any judicial authority over their members j
but inftead of this they have certain orders among
themfelves, which have by confent the force of laws.
For lighter offences perfons are only excommoned, or
put out of commons ; for greater, they lofe their cham¬
bers, and are expelled the college; and when once ex¬
pelled out of one fociety, they are never received by
any of the others. The gentlemen in thefe focieties
may be divided into benchers, outer-barrifters, inner-
barrifters, and Undents.
The four principal inns of court, are the Inner
Temple and Middle Temple, heretofore the dwelling
of the Knights Templars, purchafed by fome profeffors
of the common law about 300 years ago 5 Lincoln’s
Inn and Gray’s Inn, anciently belonging to the earls
of Lincoln and Gray. The other inns are the two Ser¬
jeants Inns.
INNS of Chancery were probably fo called, becaufe
anciently inhabited by fuch clerks as chiefly ftudied
the forming of writs, which regularly belonged to the
eurfltors, who are officers of chancery.
The firft of thefe is Thavies Inn, begun in the reign
of Edward III. and fince purchafed by the fociety of
Lincoln’s Inn. Befide this, we have New Inn, Sy-
mond’s Inn, Clement’s Inn, Clifford’s Inn, anciently
the houfe of the lord Clifford $ Staple Inn, belonging
to the merchants of the ftaple; Lion’s Inn, anciently a
common inn w ith the fign of the lion j Furnival’s Inn,
and Bernard’s Inn.
Thefe were heretofore preparatory colleges for
younger ftudents ; and many were entered here, be¬
fore they were admitted into the inns of court. Now
they are moftly taken up by attorneys, folicitors, &c.
They all belong to fome of the inns of court, who
formerly ufed to fend yearly fome of their barrifters to
read to them.
INNATE ideas, thofe fuppofed to be ftamped on
the mind, from the firft moment of its exiftence, and
which it conftantly brings into the world with it: a
doftrine which Mr Locke has taken great pains to re¬
fute.
INNERKEITHING. See Inverkeithing.
INNERLOCHY. See Inverlochy and Fort-
William.
INNIS. See Inch.
INNISCLOCHRAN, or the Stoney Island, an
iiland in Lough Ree, in the river Shannon, between
the counties of Weftmeath and Rofcommon, at which
place a monaftery was founded by St Dermond, about
the beginning of the 6th century.
INNISFAIL, (derived from Inis Bheal, that is,
the ifland of Bheal”)^ one of the ancient names of
Ireland, fo denominated from Bea/, the principal ob¬
ject of adoration among the ancient inhabitants of the
Britilh ifles, Innisfail has been erroneoufly tranllated
the IJland of Defmy, as Bheal was fometimes taken for
'Fate or Providence.
INNISFALLEN, an ifland in the lake of Killar-
ney, in the county of Kerry and province of Munfter:
in it are the ruins of a very ancient religious houfe,
founded by St Finian, the patron faint of thefe parts,
and to him th© cathedral of Aghadoe is alfo dedicated.
The remains of this abbey are very extenfive, its fitua- Tnnisfallea
tion romantic and retired. Upon the diffolution of re- . !•
ligious houfes, the poffeflions of this abbey were grant- ^nnifl‘ir^aiii?
ed to Captain Robert Collam. The ifland contains *
about 12 acres, is agreeably wooded, and has a number
of fruit-trees. St Finian flouriftied about the middle of
the 6th century ; he was furnamed in Irifti Lobhar, his
father’s name was Conail the fon of Efchod; defcended
from Kian the fon of Alild, king of Munfter. There
was formerly a chronicle kept in this abbey, which is-
frequently cited by Sir J. Ware and other antiquaries
under the title of the Annals of Innifallen. They
contain a flcetch of univerfal hiftpry, from the creation
of the world to the year 430 or thereabouts, but from
thence the annalift has amply enough profecuted the
affairs of Ireland down to his own times. He lived to
the year 1215. Sir J. Ware had a copy of them,
whereof there is an imperfect tranfcript among the
MSS. of the library of Trinity-college, Dublin. They
were continued by another hand to the year 1320.
Bifhop Nicholfon, in his Irifti hiftorical library, in¬
forms us, that the duke «f Chandos had a complete co¬
py of them down in 1320 in his poffeflion. Thefe an¬
nals tell us, that in the year 1180, the abbey, which
had at that time all the gold and filver and richeft
goods of the whole country depofited in it, as the plac6
of greateft fecurity, was plundered by Mildwin fon of
Daniel O’Donoghoe, as was alfo the church of Ard-
fert, and many perfons were flain in the very ceme¬
tery by the M’Cartys \ but God, as it is faid in this
chronicle, puniflied this impiety by the untimely end
of fome of the authors of it.
INNISHANNON, a town in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter, 134 miles from Dublin j fi-
tuated on the river Bandon, and fix miles from Kin-
Tale. The river is navigable to Collier’s quay, about
half a mile below the place. On the wreft fide of the
town is a ftrong bridge. This place was formerly wall¬
ed, and of fome note, as appears by the foundations of
feveral caftles and large buildings difcovered in it.
The town of Innilhannon, together with its ferry, were
granted to Philip de Barry by Henry V. by letters
patent, anno 1412.
INNI SHIRK AN, an ifland fituated between Cape
Clear ifland and Baltimore bay, in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter. In this ifland ftocd the caftle
of Dunelong, poffeffed by the O’Drifcolls, which was
furrendered after the defeat of the Spaniards to Cap¬
tain Harvey on 23d Feb. 1602. There was afterwards
a regular fortification erefted on part of the ifland,^
which wras garrifoned in Queen Anne’s time, but it has
been for feveral years difmantled j about a mile to the
fouth are the remains of an ancient abbey, founded
1460, for Francifcans, by Florence O’Drifcoll. This
ifland has very good land, and is vaftly preferable to
that of Cape Clear ifland. To the north-weft of Inni-*
fhirkan ifland lies Hare ifland, a large fruitful fpot j.
and near it are four fmall iflands called the Schemes:
alfo along the coaft, in the following order from eaft to
weft, are Horfe ifland, containing 100 acres j Caftle
ifland, containing 119 acres 5 Long ifland, containing
316 acres j and weft of all thefe is a fmall Jpot called ?
Goat ifland. All thefe iflands, together with the
adjacent coaft, produce large crops of fine Englilk.
barley,
INNISK1LLING,
TNG [ 267 ] INC
Innifldlling INNISKILLING, a borough town of Ireland, in
11 the county of Fermanagh and province of Ulfter, lying
Inocula- ^etvveen three lakes. It is about 24 miles eaft of Bal-
, , Ivfhannon. and 79 north-weft of Dublin, this place giv¬
ing title of vifcount to the family of Cole. Its inhabi¬
tants diftinguifhed themfelves in feveralconfiderable en¬
gagements in the wars of Ireland at the revolution, out
of which a regiment of dragoons, bearing the title of
the Innjki/lencrs, was moftly formed. They form the
6th regiment of dragoons in the Britilh army.
INNOCENTS DAY, a feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on December 28. in memory of the
xnaffacre of the innocent children by the command of
Herod king of Judea. See JESUS Chrijl; and Jews,
N° 24 par. ult. The Greek church in their kalendar,
and the Abyflinians of Ethiopia in their offices, com¬
memorate 14,000 infants on this occafton.
INNUENDO (of innuo, “ I nod or beckon”), is a
word frequently ufed in writs, declarations, and plead¬
ings, to afcertain a perfon or thing which was named,
but left doubtful, before: as, he {innuendo the plain¬
tiff) did fo and fo : mention being before made of an¬
other perfon.—In common converfation or writing, an
innuendo denotes an oblique hint or diftant reference, in
contradiftinftion to a diredl and pofitive charge.
INO, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Cadmus and
Harmonia, who nurfed Bacchus. She married Atha-
mas king of Thebes, after he had divorced Nephele,
by whom he had two children Phryxus and Helle. Ino
became mother of Melicerta and Learchus 5 and foon
conceived an implacable hatred againft the children of
Nephele, becaufe they were to afcend the throne in
preference to her own. Phryxus and Helle were in¬
formed of Ino’s machinations, and they efcaped to
Colchis on a golden ram. Juno, jealous of Ino’s prof-
peri ty, refolved to difturb her peace $ and more parti¬
cularly becaufe (he was of the defcendants of her great-
eft enemy, Venus. Tifiphone was fent by order of
Juno to the houfe of Athamas ; and (he filled the whole
palace with fuch fury, that Athamas taking Ino to be
a lionefs and her children "whelps, purfued her and dafh-
ed her fon Learchus againft a wall. Ino efcaped from
the fury of her hufband j and from a high rock (he
threw herfelf into the fea with Melicerta in her arms.
The gods pitied her fate j and Neptune made her a
fea deity, which was afterwards called Leucothoe.
Melicerta became alfo a fea god, known by the name
of Palemon.
INO A, feftivals in memory of Ino, celebrated yearly
with fports and facrifices at Corinth. An anniverfary
facrifice was alfo offered to Ino at Megara, where (lie
was firft worfhipped under the name of Leucothoe.-—
Another in Laconia, in honour of the fame. It was
ufual at the celebration to throw cakes of flour into a
pond, which if they funk were prefages of profperity,
but if they fwam on the furface of the waters they were
inaufpieious and very unlucky.
INOCARPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
INOCULATION, or Budding, in Gardening, is
commonly pra&ifed upon all forts of ftone fruit j as nec¬
tarines, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, as alfo up¬
on oranges and jafmines : and indeed this is preferable
to any fort of grafting for moft forts of fruit. For the
method of performing it, fee Gardening Index.
Inoculation, in a phyfieal fenfe, is ufed for the
tranfplantation of diftempers from one iubjedt to an-
other, particularly for the engraftpient of the fmallpox j
which, though of ancient ufe in the eaftern countries, is
but a modern practice among us, at leaft under the dl-
reflion of art.
It is well obferved by the baron Dimfdale, that acci¬
dent hath furnithed the art of medicine with many va¬
luable hints, and feme of its greateft improvements have
been received from the hands of ignorance and barbs-
rifm. This truth is remarkably exemplified in the prac¬
tice of inoculation of the fmallpox : but to the honour
of the Britiffi phyficians, they meafured not the value
of this pra&ice by the meannefs of its origin, but by its
real importance and utility 5 they patronifed a barba¬
rous difeovery with no lefs zeal and affedftion than if
it had been their own. Indeed the whole nation
might be faid to have adopted the pradlice j fqr the
greateft encouraged it by becoming example?, and the
wifeft were determined by the general event of the me¬
thod.
The time and place in which the art of inoculating
for the fmallpox was firft formed, are equally unknown.
Accident probably gave rife to it. Pylarini fays, that
among the Turks it was hot attended to except amongfl
the meaner fort. Dr Ruffel informs us in the Philofo-
phical Tranfa&ions, vol. Iviii. p. 142. that no mention
is made of it by any of the ancient Arabian medical
writers that are known in Europe j and the phyficians
who are natives in and about Arabia affert, that nothing
is to be found regarding it in any of thofe of a more
modern date. He farther fays, that he engaged fome
of his learned Turkifli friends to make inquiry ; but
they did not difeover any thing on this fubjedt of inocu¬
lation either in the writings of phyficians, hiftorians, or
poets. Until the beginning of the 18th century, all the
accounts we have of inoculating the fmallpox are mere¬
ly traditional. The filence on this fubjeft, obferved
amongft writers in the countries where the pradtice ob¬
tained, Dr Ruffel fuppofes, with great probability, to
be owing to the phyficians there never countenancing
or engaging in it. It is alfo remarkable, that before
Pylarini’s letter to the Royal Society in 1701, nor yet
for feveral years after, this pradtice is not noticed by
any of the moft inquifitive travellers. On this Dr Ruf¬
fel very juftly obferves, that cuftoms, the moft common
in diftant countries, are often the leaft apt to attradf the
obfervation of travellers, who, engaged in other pur-
fuits, muft be indebted to accident for the knowledge of
fuch things as the natives feldom talk of, upon the be¬
lief that they are known to all the world.
The firft accounts we have in the learned world con¬
cerning inoculation, are from two Italian phyficians,
viz. Pylarini and Timoni, whofe letters on the fubjedt
may be feen in the Phil. Tranf. abridgtd, vol. v. p. 370,
&c. The firft is dated A. D. 1701 j the next is dated
A. D. 1713. Whether our inquiries are extended a-
broad or confined to our own country, inoculation hath
been pradtifed under one mode or other time immemo¬
rial •, in Great Britain and its adjacent ifles we have
well authenticated accounts, extending farther backward
than any from the continent. Dr Williams of Haver-
fordweft, who wrote upon inoculation in 1725, proves,
that it had been pradfifed in Wales, though in a form
fome what different, time out of mind. Mr Wright, a
L 1 a furgeon
I N O r 268 1 I N O
Tnocula- furgeon in the fame place, fays, that buying the fmall-
tlon‘ pox is both a common practice, and of long (landing in
that neighbourhood. He fays, that in Pembrokefhire
there are two large villages near the harbour of Milford,
more famous for this cuftom than any other, viz. St
Iftimael’s and Marloes. The old inhabitants of thefe
villages fay, that it hath been a common practice $ and
that one William Allen of St HhmaePs, who in 1722
was <)o years of age, declared to fome perfons of good
fenfe and integrity, that this practice was ufed all his
timej that he well remembered his mother telling him,
that it was a common pra&ice all her time, and that
fhe got the fmallpox that way $ fo that at lead we go
back 160 years or more.
In the Highlands of Scotland and fome of the adja¬
cent ides, Hr Alexander Monro fenior informs us, that
the cuftom through ages pad hath been, to put their
children to bed with thofe who laboured under a fa¬
vourable fmallpox, and to tie worded threads about
their children’s wrids, after having drawn them through
variolous pudules.
According to the refult of Dr Ruffel’s inquiries, the
Arabians affert, that the inoculation of the fmallpox
has been the common cudom of their ancedors, and
that they have no doubt of its being as ancient as the
difeaie itfelf. It is remarkable, that buying the fmall¬
pox is the name univerfally applied in all countries to
the method of procuring the difeafe : it is true that
there are other terms •, but in Wales and Arabia, as
well as many other countries, this is the ufual appella¬
tion. From the famenefs of the name, and the little
diverfity obfervable in the manner of performing the
operation, it is probable that the practice of inoculation
in thefe countries was originally derived from the fame
fource. From its extenfive fpread, it is probably of
great antiquity too.
In the year 1717, Lady Mary Wortley Montague,
wife of the Engliih ambaflador at Condantinople, had
her fon inoculated there at the age of fix years 5 he had
but few pudules, and foon recovered. In April 1721,
inoculation was fuccefsfully tried on feven condemned
criminals in London, by permifiion of his majedy. In
1722, Lady Mary Wortley Montague had a daughter
of fix years old inoculated in this ifland ; foon after
which, the children of the royal family that had not
had the fmallpox were inoculated with fuccefs ; then
followed fome of the nobility, and the praftice foon
prevailed. And here we date the commencement of
inoculation under the direflion of art.
From the example of the royal family in England,
the practice was adopted in Germany, particularly in
Hanover, and its adjacent countries.
After Mr Maitland had fucceeded with thofe he had
inoculated in and about London, he introduced the
praflice into Scotland in the year 1726.
Sweden foon followed the example of the Britifh.
RuiLa lately engaged one of our principal promoters and
improvers of this art And now there are not many
countries that do not more or lefs praftife it.
D fferent Modes of INOCULATION. The practice of
inoculation having obtained in every part of the world,
it may be giateful, at lead to curiofity, to have a ge¬
neral account of the different modes that are and have
been adopted in that practice.
Inoculation with the blood of variolous patients hath
been tried without effe£l j the variolous matter only Inoculiu
produces the variolous difeafe. tion.
The application of the variolous matter takes place ' » —
in a fenfible part only j the a&ivity of the virus is fuch,
that the fmalleft atom, though imperceptible to any of
our fenfes, conveys the difeafe as well as the larged
quantity. Hence the mod obvious method is the prick
of a needle or the point of a lancet dipped in the mat¬
ter of a variolous pudule.
Cotton or thread is ufed, that is previoufly rubbed
with powdered variolous fcabs j this thread is drawn
with a needle through the cutis, but not left in. This
is the method in fome parts of the Ead Indies. The
Indians pafs the thread on the outfide of the hand,
between any of the fingers, or between the fore finger
and thumb. The LhelTalian women inoculate in the
forehead and chin.
Some abrade the fcarf-fkin, and rub in the powder¬
ed dry fcabs which fall from the pudules of patients
with the fmallpox.
Many of the Greek women make an oblique punc¬
ture with a needle, on the middle of the top of the
forehead, on each cheek, the chin, each metacarpus,
and each metatarfus j then drop in each a little of the
pus jud taken warm from a patient, and brought in a
ftrvant’s bofom. Others in Greece make feveral little
wounds with a needle in one, two, or more places, in
the (kin, till fome drops of blood enfue •, then the
operator pours a drop of warm pus fre(h from a pu-
dule, and mixes it with the blood ^s it iflues out >
then the wound is covered by fome with a bandage,
by others with half a walnut (hell placed with its con¬
cave fide over each orifice.
The Chinefe convey a pellet of variolated cotton,
with the addition of a little mu(k, into the nodrils of
the patient; they collect dry pudules, and keep them
in a porcelain bottle well corked •, and when they ino¬
culate, they mix a grain of mu(k with three or four,
grains of the dry feales, and roll them in cotton.
This method may be called moderation.
About Bengal, in the Ead Indies, the perfon who.
intends to be inoculated, having found a houfe where
there is a good fort of the fmallpox, goes to the bed of
the fick perfon, if he is old enough j or if a child, ta
one of his relations, and (peaks to him as follows: “ I
am come to buy the Imallpox.” The anfwer is, “ Buy
if you pleafe.” A fum of money is accordingly given,
and one, three, or four pudules, for the number mult
always be odd, and not exceeding five, extrafied whole,
and full of matter. Thefe are immediately rubbed on,
the (kin of the outfide of the hand between the fore»
finger and the thumb 5 and this fuffices to produce the
difeafe. The fame cudom obtains in Algiers, Tunis,
Tripoli, and other countries.
Very fimilar to the cudom among the people about
Bengal, &c. is that in Arabia, where on fome fiefliy
part they make feveral pundlures with a needle im¬
brued in variolous matter, taken from a pufiule of a
favourable kind. Here they buy the fmallpox too, as.
follows: the child to be inoculated carries a few railins,
dates, fugar-plums, or fuch like ; and (bowing them
to the child from whom the matter is to be taken,
a(ks how many pocks he will give in exchange ? The
bargain being made, they proceed to the operation ‘f
but this buying, though dill continued, is not thought,
necefiary
I N O r 269 ] IN Q ,
Inocula- neceflary to the ruccels of the operation. The Arabs
tion- fay that any flefhy part is proper j hut generally they
i-nfert the matter between the fore-finger ami thumb
on the eutfide of the arm.
The Georgians infert the matter on the fore-arm.
The Armenians introduce the matter on the two
thighs. In Wales the practice may be termed infric¬
tion of the fmallpox. There fame of the dry puftules
are procured by purchafe, and are rubbed hard upon
the naked arm or leg.
The praftice in feme places is to prick the fkin be¬
tween fome of the fingers by means of two fmall needles
joined to one another •, and after having rubbed a
little of the matter on the fpot, a circle is made by
means of feveral punctures of the bignefs of a common
puftule, and matter is again rubbed over it. The ope¬
ration is finilhed by drefhng the wound with lint.—An¬
other cuftom is to mix a little of the variolous matter
with fugar, and give it to be drank in any agreeable
liquor.
Incilions have been made in the arms and legs, and
thread, cotton, or lint, previoufly dipped in the vari¬
olous matter, was lodged in them. The practice of
fome is to bathe the feet in warm water, and then fe-
cure lint dipped in the variolous matter on the inftep,
or other part of the foot, where the fkin is thin. Ci¬
thers apply a fmall bliftering plafter j and when the
fcarf fkin is elevated and flipped off, the variolous mat¬
ter is applied to the furface of the true fkin, and con¬
fined there by a little lint or plafter. Scratching the
fkin with a pin or needle, and then rubbing the part
with lint, previoufly dipped in variolous matter, is the
cuflom in fome places..
In the Highlands of Scotland they rub fome part
of the fkiq with fn fh matter, or dip worfled in vario¬
lous matter, and tie it about the children’s wrifls.
They obferve, that if frtfh matter is applied a few days
fuccefhvely, the infection is more certain than by one
application.
We have thus given the hiflory of inoculation for
the fmallpox, which not many years ago was jultly re¬
garded as one of the greateft difeoveries which had
been made for the benefit of mankind, and would flill
be regarded as fuch had it not given plate to one flill
more valuable and important, the vaccine inoculation or
cowfiox, which nowr promifes to banifh the fmallpox
from the world. For an account of this, fee Vaccina¬
tion. It weuld be quite unneceffary to enter info the
detail of the advantages to be derived from inoculation
for the fmallpox, and the methods of performing or pre¬
paring for it formerly praftifed. But, as a curious part
of the hiftory of this practice, we {hall juft barely men¬
tion fome of the objections which have been urged a-
gainft it.
It has been faid that inoculation for the fmallpox is
unlawful that it is bringing a diftemper on ourfelves,
and thus ufurping the facred prerogative of God ; that
the decrees of God have fixed the commiflion of every
difeafe, and our precautions cannot prevent what he
hath determined ; that we fhould not do evil that good
may come ; that the patient may dkq and then his laft
moments are diftrefled, and the future reflections of
bis friends are grievous ; that fear is a dangerous paflion
in the fmallpox, but inoculation increafes the caufes of
fear, by leffening our faith and trull in God 3 that ino-
3
culation does not exempt from future irtfeCtion 3 that Inocufa-
other difeafes are communicated with the matter of the u<?n
fmallpox by inoculating it ; that perhaps the difeafe jnqU1plt;on..
may never attack in the natural w ay 3 that it requires c——y——^
much thought to know what we fhould do with regard
to inoculation 3 that it endangers others, and that the
praftice of inoculation comes from the devil.
INORDINATE proportion. See Proportion,
Inordinate.
INOSCULATION, in Anatomy, the fame with
Anastomosis.
INPROMPTU, or Impromptu. See Impromptu.
INQUEST, in Scots Law, the fame with Jury.
INQUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tribunal
in feverpl Roman Catholic countries, ereCted by the
popes for the examination and punifhment of heretics.
This court was founded in the 12th century by Fa¬
ther Dominic and his followers, who were fent by Pope
Innocent III. w ith orders to excite the Catholic princes
and people to extirpate heretics, to fearch into their
number and quality, and to tranfmit a faithful account
thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inqtnjitors ;
and this gave birth to the formidable tribunal of the
inquifition, which was received in all Italy and the do¬
minions of Spain, except the kingdom of Naples and
the Low Countries.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of herefy,
Judaifm, Mahometanifm, fodomy, and polygamy 3 and
the people fland in fo much fear of it, that parents
deliver up their children, hufbands their wives, and
mafters their fervants, to its officers, without daring
in the leaf! to murmur. The prifoners are kept for a
long time, till they themfelves turn their own accu-
fers, and declare the caufe of their imprifonment 3 for
they are neither told their crime nor confronted with
witneffes. As foon as they are imprifoned, their
friends go into mourning, and fpeak of them as dead,
not daring to folicit their pardon, left they fhould be
brought in as accomplices. When there is no ffiadow
of proof againft the pretended criminal, he is dilchar-
gt‘d, after fuffering the moft cruel tortures, a tedious,
and dreadful imprifpnment, and the lofs of the great-
eft part of his effe&s. The fentence againft the pri-
foners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary
folemnity. In Portugal, they eredf a theatre capable of
holding 3000 perfons ; in which they place a rich al¬
tar, and raife feats on each fide in the form of an
amphitheatre. There the prifoners are placed 3 and
over againft them is a high chair, whither they are
calk 1, one by one, to hear their doom, from one of the
inquifitors.
The unhappy people know what they are to fuf-
fer by the clothes they wear that day. Thofe who
appear in their own clothes are difeharged upon pay¬
ment of a fine 3 thofe who have a fanto benito, or
ftrait yellow coat without fleeves, charged with St
Andrew’s crofs, have their lives, but forfeit all their
effedts : thofe who have the refemblance of flames
made of red ferge, fewed upon their fanto benilo, with¬
out any crofs, are pardoned, but threatened to b©
burnt if ever they relapfe : but thofe who, befideg
thefe flames, have on their fanto benito their own pic¬
ture, furrrounded with figures of devils, are condemned
to expire in the flames. The inquifitors, who are ec~
elefiaftiesjj do not pronounce the fentence of death j.
INS [ 270 ] J N S
'fhquifitioa but forFA and" read an aft, in which they fay, that
Infefts cr^m^na^ being convicted of fuch a crime, by his
^ ' . own confeflion, is with much reluftance delivered to
the fecular power to be puniihed according to his de¬
merits : and this writing they give to the feven judges
who attend at the right fide of the altar, who immedi¬
ately pafs fentence. For the conclufion of this herrid
fcene, fee Act of Faith.
INSCRIBED, in Geometry. A figure is faid to
be infcribed in another, when all its angles touch the
fide or planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, a title or writing affixed to any
thing, to give fome farther knowledge of it, or to trans¬
mit fome important truth to pofterity.
Antiquaries are very curious in examining ancient
infcriptions found on Hones and other monuments of
antiquity. Sanchoniathon, contemporary, as it is faid,
with Gideon, drew moft of the memoirs whereof his
hiftory is compofed from infcriptions which he found
in temples and on columns, both among the Heathens
and the Hebrews.
_ it appears, indeed, that the ancients engraved upon
pillars the principles of fciences, as well as the hitlory
of the world. Thofe mentioned by Herodotus Ihow,
that this was the firft way of inftrufting people, and of
tranfmitting hiftories and fciences to pofterity. This
is confirmed by Plato in his Hippias 5 wherein he fays,
that Pififtratus engraved on ftone pillars precepts ufe-
ful for hufbandmen. Pliny affures us, that the firft
public monuments were made of plates of lead \ and
that the treaties of confederacy concluded between
the Romans and the Jew's were written upon plates
of brafs; that (fays he) the Jews might have fome-
thing to put them in mind of the peace and confede¬
racy concluded with the Romans. The Greeks and
Romans were great dealers in infcriptions, and were
extremely fond of being mentioned in them : and
hence it is that we find fo many in thofe countries of
ancient learning, that large volumes have been com¬
pofed, as the colleftion of Gruter, &c. Since Gruter’s
colleftion, Th. Reinefius has compiled another huge
volume of infcriptions. M. Fabretty publilhed ano¬
ther volume at Rome in 1699, wherein he has correft-
ed abundance of errors which had efcaped Gruter, Rei¬
nefius, and other antiquaries, &c. and added a great
number of infcriptions omitted by them Since all
thefe, Grasvius has publiffied a complete colleftion of
infcriptions, in three vols. folio.
INSCRUTABLE, Unsearchable, in Theology,
ds ufually underftood of the fecrets of Providence, and
the judgments of God, which cannot be found out, or
into which human reafon cannot penetrate.
Academy of INSCRIPTIONS. See Academy.
INSECTS, Insecta, in Natural Hiftory, a fmaller
fort of animals, commonly fuppofed to be exfanguious ;
and diftinguiffied by certain incifures, cuttings, or in¬
dentings in their bodies. The word is originally La¬
tin, formed of in, and feco, “ I cut j” the reafon of
which is, that in fome of this tribe, as ants, the body
feems to be cut or divided into two $ or becaufe the
bodies of many, as worms, caterpillars, &c. are com¬
pofed of different circles, or rings, which are a fort of
incifurae. See Entomology.
i\ oxious Insects; Meant of defraying them, or pre¬
venting their Increafe, J.he following remedies we
find collefted in the Gentleman’s Magazine for Gfto- T«re£ts.
ber 1790.—Of thofe fubftances which have been ge- '
nerally obferved to be efficacious in driving away or in
deftroying infefts, mercury, and its various preparations,
may be reckoned one of the moft generally ufeful.
Sulphur is alfo ufeful. Oils of all kinds have been of¬
ten and defervedly recommended. Tobacco is notlefa
remarkable for its utility. Of the application of thefd
in order.
1. Mercury is known to kill or drive away lice from
the human body ; and it may probably be of equal ef¬
ficacy in ridding other animals of their infefts. For
inftance, ftieep having a fmall quantity of mercurial
ointment rubbed on their Ikins, on the fides, between
the fore-legs and the body, it may kill or drive away
the infeft peculiar to them. Sulphur is recommended to
be added to the mercurial ointment. Thus not only the
infeft peculiar to them, but alfo the fcab, may be cured :
See the Tranfaftions of the Society for the Encourage¬
ment of Arts, London, vol. vii. viii. p. 90. In the
Tranfaftions of the fame fociety, vol. v. vi. p. 59. Mr
Ailway direfted that, in the winter, the walls, frames,
&c. of his green and hot-houfes ffiould be well waffied
with the following mixture: Take of corrofive fubli-
mate mercury four ounces, and diffolve it in twm gal¬
lons of water. Thefe houfes had been greatly infefted
with red fpiders and ants. After having been wafiied
with the above mixture, neither were to be feen next
fummer. This waffi may be ufed on old garden-walls,
and to the roots of fruit-trees infefted with infefts, if
made weaker. It may deftroy the tender leaves of
plants, though not the roots. This wafh will effeftual-
ly deftroy that difagreeable infeft the bug, and all other
infefts of a tender cuticle ; and it will not in the leaft
hurt the colour of bed-furniture or hangings. Care
muft be taken that the wafh be applied into every cre¬
vice or folding of the furniture with a painter’s brufli.
It will fometimes be neceffary to repeat the wafh, as
fome of the ova of bugs may remain concealed, not-
withftanding the utmoft care.
Some of the Weft India iflands were much infefted
with large ants, which greatly hurt the fugar-canes.
The remedy was, to diffolve corrofive fublimate mer¬
cury in rum, in the proportion of two drams to a pint
of fpirits. This folution was poured on dry powdered
fugar ; and when the fugar was dried, it was laid ia
the paths of the ants. They ate it, and were deftroy-
ed. Might not this praftice be imitated, by laying
fugar thus prepared on paper or pieces of thin boards
near the roots of fruit-trees infefted by infefts, efpe-
cially when the fruit is ripening ? The papers or boards
might be taken in during the night, or when it rained.
The fugar fhould be coloured with indigo, or other
fubftance, thereby to mark it as a fubftance to be
avoided by curious idlers.
2. We are informed that a perfon in Philadelphia em¬
ployed brimftone in the following manner. Having
cleared all round the roots of trees infefted with cater¬
pillars or other infefts, he ftrewed fome flour of brim¬
ftone round the roots, and covered it with a thin
fprinkling of fine mould, that it might not be blown
away by the wind, yet fo that the fun might operate
through, and caufe the brimftone to fumigate. Thus
he deftroyed the caterpillars. One pound he found t
fufficient for 200 trees. In that hot climate the fun
may
INS [2
Infed'* may perhaps have that effeft j but it fcarcely will in
>—v  this. He aHb employed fulphur in the following man¬
ner to drive infefts from fmall trees. He fplit the end
of a pole, and put in the flit fome matches, fet them
on fire, and held them under the parts of the trees
chiefly aflfe&ed. A pole thus armed, he found, would
anfwer for three or four trees. Brimftone thus mixed
with damp ftraw, and fet on fire, for inftance, in hop-
ground infefted with the fly, might be of ufe to drive
away the fly.
The itch i& fuppofed to proceed from a very fmall
infedl which neftles under the fldn, and proceeds no
farther into the habit $ and is therefore attended with
no dangerous confequences. Brimftone made into an
ointment with hogs-lard is a fure remedy.
Sheep are liable to an eruption on the fkin, known
By the name of theycab. The brimftone, when added
to the mercurial ointment recommended for that difor-
der in the Tranfaftions of the Society for the Encou¬
ragement of Arts, vol. vii. p. 90. might perhaps render
the application more efficacious and lefs dangerous.
3. The natives of hot countries are taught by expe¬
rience, that an undluous covering on their bodies pre¬
vents the bites of mufquitoes and all gnats. The white
inhabitants in fuch countries are not fufficiently care¬
ful in preventing the leaft ftagnant water near their
dwellings, in which the mufquitges are bred ; even in
the wafte water thrown out they are produced. Dr
Eranklin, by a careful attention to this eircumftance,
guarded his family in Philadelphia from fuch irife£ts :
one day feeing a number of mufquitoes in his li¬
brary, he found on inquiry, that one of his fervants
had taken the cover off" a tub placed near his window
for receiving rain-w'ater. On fuch an occafion the re¬
medy is eafy, viz. {hutting the room up for the day,
fo that the mufquitoes cannot come at any water, in
which time they die. Though this caution may feem
trifling to us who live in a mild climate, it is far other-
wife in hot countries.
Oil being known to be moft efficacious in deftroy-
ing infers, may not the ufe of it be extended to the
deftrudlion of worms in the bowels of horfes, where
they may occafion the violent pain they feem fome-
times to fuffer ? If the horfe was for fome time kept
faffing, and a large quantity of oil, fuppofe a pint,
was given, if worms are the caufe, the oil may in that
cafe kill them.
Flowrers, leaves, and fruit, on plants, are known to
be devoured by caterpillars. Thefe are deftroyed by
oils, which clofe the lateral pores by which they
breathe. For this purpofe it is advifed, that, on the
approach of fpring, a cloth dipped in train oil be laid
on fuch parts of the tree in which there is the leaft
appearance of them.
We are informed in the Memoirs of the Society
of Agriculture at Paris, that oil of turpentine, when
applied to animals which were covered with infefts,
deftroyed the infefts without hurting the animal. The
author tried it on feveral trees, mixed with fine earth
f6 as to incorporate them well, then adding W'ater,
ftill {lining them carefully till the whole was brought
to fome degree of fluidity. In this mixture he dipped
branches of fruit-trees on which there were infefts, and
hereby deftroyed not only the eggs but alfo the infefts,
without hurting the leaves. This compofition may be
2
i ] INS
got of by waffling, or the firft heavy ffiower. From Infefts.
thefe experiments the author thinks, that oil of turpen-
tine may with equal efficacy be employed for killing
various kinds of lice on domeftic animals.
We are informed, in the Tranfadlions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, vol. v. p. 45. that
Mr Winter, among other experiments on turnip-leed,
fteeped the feed 24 hours in a fufficient quantity of
train oil. He then drained the^oil from the feed,
which he mixed with a quantity of fine fifted earth,
and immediately fowed it in drills. When the plants
began to appear on the furface, the ground was fown
wjth foot. He found that feed fteeped in linieed oil
anfwered equally well. The turnips the leaft injured
by the fly were thofe that grew from feed fteeped as
above, which grew fo luxuriantly as to produce rough
leaves feveral days prior to the moft flourilhing of any
of his other experiments, and were the better enabled
to withftand the fly’s attack. The leaves of thefe tur¬
nips were of a darker green, and appeared twice a»
thick in bulk and luxuriancy as the other turnips,
and were a confiderable deal larger. The feed was drill¬
ed an inch and a half deep, and at a foot diftance in the
rows. Train oil is apt to kill the leaves of plants which
have been injured by infefls, but linfeed oil has not
that effeft, though equally deftrudlive to the infedts.
The train oil feems to adt both as an oil, and by its
difagreeable fmell it prevents infedls approaching it.
In this refpedt it may be fuccefsfully ufed to pre¬
vent field mice or other vermin preying on acorns,
chefnuts, or other feeds fteeped in it before they ar&
fown.
When thus giving diredlions for preventing the fly
on turnips, a late experiment ftiould be mentioned, by
the difclofing of which a perfon gained a confiderable
reward. His fecret was, running a roller over the
ground early in the morning, while the dew remained
on the ground, on the firft appearance of the fly. The
dew entangled the flies fo much, that they could not
make their efcape, and were therefore cruftied to death.
As the roller may leave the furface of the earth too
hard, fome very properly advife to fix fome boughs of
elder in a gate or hurdle, to be drawn over the field j
and if the boughs had been before fumigated with the
fmoke of tobacco, or tin&ure of afafoetida, the fuc-
cefs would be the furer. The moft certain method
of preventing the hurt done by the fly is to raife the
plants in a nurfery, and at a proper age to tranfplant
them, being carried to the ground in a wheel-barrow
filled with manure foftened with water fo as to admit
the plants. This method will fecure their more fpeedy
growth. In the nurfery the attack of the fly may be
prevented by fprinkling foot or quicklime on the ground.
The utility ©f tranfplanting turnips is evident by the
practice of tranfplanting the turnip-rooted cabbage.
They who are difcouraged from this practice by the ex¬
pence attending it, do not reflect that the hoeing is pre¬
vented, and the plants grow the better, being fet in frelh
earth.
3. Before proceeding to dlreft the ufe of the laft
means mentioned, viz. tobacco, for deftroying infe&s
in turnips,. it may be proper to mention an experiment
made by Mr Green, of her majefty’s flower-garden at
Kew. He contrived a pair of bellows fimilar to that
employed in recovering people feemingly drowned. It
INS, r 272 ] INS
rhfe&s. a cavity in the nozzle, in which fome tobacco is
~”""v put, with a live coal over it. The bellows being then
worked, the tobacco is fet on fire, and the fmoke is
directed to any particular fpot. A lady was fond of
having the molkrofe in her dreffing-room, but was
prevented having it on account of the green infers
which conftantly adhere to that plant. To remedy
this inconvenience, Mr Green had a box made large
enough to contain a pot in which a plant of the molk-
role grew. In one end of the box was a hole, to ad¬
mit the nozzle of the bellows ; the bellows was work¬
ed, and the fmoke was received into the box. When
the tobacco was confumed, the nozzle- was withdrawn,
and a cork being put into the hole, the box thus re¬
mained till morning, when the infers were all laid
dead on the earth. J&eing fwept off, the plant was in
a ftate fit for a dreffmg-room. Many plants thus in-
fefted with infefts may be too large, or other wife fo
placed as not to be put into a box. In this cafe it
occurred to the writer of thefe obfervations, that be¬
ing fprinkled with an infufion of tobacco in water
might in fome degree anfwer the fame purpofe. On
trial he found it anfwer, and he thus freed other plants
of their infedls. He alfo ufed it on trees of eafy ac-
cefs with advantage. Train oil is fo inimical to tender
plants or leaves, that it deftroys them if infefts have
in the leaft hurt them •, whereas the infufion, inftead
of killing the leaves, promoted a frefh vegetation.
Fruit trees often become the prey of infers. Thofe
againft a wall, or in efpaliers, being eafily come at,
much of the michief may be prevented by cutting off
the leaves fo foon as they are obferved to be curled ;
for then frefh eggs are laid on them, probably by but¬
terflies. If fprinkled with the infufion of tobacco, it
will prevent their coming to life. After the fruit is
formed, the infufion muft not be ufed, left the tafte
and fmell may remain. The fciffars are then the pro¬
per remedies, which ladies may employ as amufement,
and may thereby prefent fruit to their friends of their
own preferving. A lye of the afh of plants fprinkled
on the leaves may have a good effeft, as alfo on other
pot-herbs, which are often the prey of caterpillars.
As many infers, befides thofe bred on the leaves or
in the walls, may deftroy the fruit, the fugar with
the corrofive fublimate, as already defcribed, may be
laid in the way of other infects, to all which it will prove
a fpeedy death. Diligent infpeftion into their retreats
is the moft certain means of preventing the lofs fuf-
tained by fnails. Ants are prevented rifing up the trees,
by laying round the roots powdered chalk, or any other
fubftance which by entangling their feet prevents their
crofting it. Care fhould be taken to deftroy their nefts
everywhere near the garden.
Hops are now become an article of fo great confe-
quence, that it deferves our particular attention. Early
in its growth, when the vines begin toafcend the poles,
a black fly preys on its leaves, frequently in fuch num¬
bers as; by deftroying the leaves, to interrupt the
vegetation, much of the food of plants being abforbed
by the leaves. I he infufion of tobacco deftroys them,
or at leaflfdrives them away fo effe&ually, that a plant
almoft totally (tripped of its leaves has put out frelh
leaves after the ufe of it. If care be not taken, they
will again fall on the freftr leaves. As the flies lodge
en the lower fide of the leaves, they are prote&ed from
(terms of ram, and therefore the infufiotr muft be Infeftf.
driven upwards by a forcing pump. As it is faid that
the expence of tobacco is too great, perhaps lime-wa¬
ter, or even water by itfelf, driven ftrongly againft
the leaves, might drive them away. The labour at¬
tending fuch experiments in a large plantation difeou-
rages others, without reflefting, that, if fuch means
are ufed early, the flies may more eafily be got rid.oft
Free ventilation is undoubtedly beneficial to all plants j
and hence perhaps the particular advantages of drilling
corn in rows a little diftant. If alleys fomewhat larger
than common were made in the plantations of hops,
there might be fufficient fpaces left where the alleys
crofs one another to admit of fetting dramp draw, or
other materials mixed with brimftone, foot, &c. on
fire. Smoke itfelf is faid to prevent the fly ; and if fo,
it will Kill a61 more powerfully when mixed with fuch
materials. It has been obferved in Sweden, that the
hops grow' naturally among heaps of ftones or frag¬
ments of rocks. They therefore advife to cover the
ground round their roots with ftones, which will pre¬
vent the infedfs laying their eggs near the roots in the
ground, where they lay them to be protedled during
the w inter. The ftones will alfo preferve moifture at
the roots during the Cummer. A rope cannot be
drawn acrofs a plantation of hops, as it can acrofs a
field of corn, in cafe of mildew. Here water to w adi
off the clammy juice that entices and feeds infe&s
feems to be the only remedy. The plantation being
well ventilated, may at leaft prevent the frequency of
it The forcing pump will moft effectually wa(h off
this exudation.
Cruelty to INSECTS. It does not appear upon what
principle of reafon and juftice it is, that mankind have
founded their right over the lives of every creature that
is placed in a fubordinate rank of being to themfelves.
Whatever claim they may have in right of food and
felfidefence (to w-hich ought we to add the purpofes
of the naturalift, explained above ?) did they extend
their privilege no farther than thofe articles w ould rea-
fonably carry them, numberlefs beings might enjoy
their lives in peace, who are now hurried out of them
by the moft wanton and unneceffary cruelties. It is
furely difficult to difeover why it (hould be thought
lefs inhuman to crufh to death a harmlefs infe6I, whofe
fingle offence is that he eats that food which nature has
prepared for his fuftenance, than it would be were we
to kill any bulky creature for the fame reafon. There
are few tempers fo hardened to the impreflions of hu¬
manity, as not to ftmdder at the thought of the latter $
and yet the former is univerfally pra61ifed without the
leaft check of compaflion. This feems to arife from
the grofs error of fuppofing, that every creature i»
really in itfelf contemptible, which happens to be
clothed with a body infinitely difproportionate to our
own, not confidering that great and little are merely
relative terms. But the inimitable Shakefpeare would
teach ys, that
   the poor beetle that we tread upon,
In corp’ral fuff’rance, feels a pang as great
As when a giant dies- ■ ■ ■
And indeed there is every reafon to believe that the
fenfations of many infe6ts are as exquifite as thofe of
creatures of far more enlarged dimenfions, perhaps even
more
INS [ 273 ] , INS.
Infe& more fo. The millepede, for inftance, rolls itfelf
!! round upon the High tell touch, and the fnail draws
Infolvent. jn j{;S hofns upon the lead approach of our hand. Are
' not thefe the ftrongeft; indications of their fenfibility ?
and is it any evidence of ours, that we are not there¬
fore induced to treat them with a more fympathifing
tendernefs ?
Montaigne remarks, that there is a certain claim of
kindnefs and benevolence which every fpecies of crea¬
tures has a right to from us. It is to be regretted that
this general maxim is not more attended to in the affair
of education, and prelfed home upon tender minds in
its full extent and latitude. We are far, indeed, from
thinking, that the early delight which children difeover
in tormenting flies, &c. is a mark of any innate cruel¬
ty of temper, becaufe this turn may be accounted for
on other principles \ and it is entertaining unworthy
notions of the Deity, to fuppofe he forms mankind
with a propenfity to the moft deteftable of all difpofi-
tions: but moft certainly, by being unreftrained in fports
of this kind, they may acquire by habit what they
never would have learned from nature, and grow up
-into a confirmed inattention to every kind of fuffering
but their own. Accordingly the fupreme court of ju¬
dicature at Athens thought an inftance of this fort not
below its cognizance, and puniftied a boy for putting
out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhappily fallen
* into his hands.
It might be of fervice, therefore, it ftiould feem, in
order to awaken as early as poflible in children an ex-
tenfive fenfe of humanity, to give them a view of fe-
veral forts of infers as they may be magnified by the
afliftance of glaffes. and to (how them that the fame
evident marks of wifdom and goodnefs prevail in the
formation of the minuteft infeft, as in that of the moft
enormous leviathan : that they are equally furniflied
■with whatever is neceffary, not only to the preferva-
tion, but the happinefs of their beings in that clafs of
exiftence which Providence has afligned them : in a
word, that the whole conftruftion of their refpe&ive
organs diftimftly proclaims them the objects of the di¬
vine benevolence, and therefore that they juftly ought
to be fo of ours.
INSERTION, in Anatomy, the clofe conjunction
of the veffels, tendons, fibres, and membranes of the
body with fome other parts.
INSINUATION denotes a cunning and covert
way of creeping into any perfon’s favour.
INSINUATION of a Will, among civilians, is the firft
production of it, or the leaving it with the regifter, in
order to its probate. See Will.
INSIPID, Tastleless, that which has nothing in
it pungent enough to affeft the palate, tongue, &c.
and to occafion that fenfation we call tajling.
INSITION, Insitio, in Botany, denotes the fame
with engrafting *, viz. the a£t of inferting and uniting
a cyon, bud, or the like, in the fubftance of the ftock.
INSOLATION, in Pharmacy, a method of pre¬
paring certain fruits, drugs, &c. by expofing them
to the heat of the fun’s rays ; either to dry, to matu¬
rate, or to iharpen them 5 as is done in vinegar, figs,
&c.— The word comes from the Latin verb infolare,
which is ufed by Pliny and Columella, and fignifies to
expofe to the fun.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to fuch perfons as
Vol. XL Part I.
have not wherewithal to pay their juft debts. A per-
fon dying, and not leaving eftate fufficient to difeharge
thefe, is faid to die infolvent.
Trial by INSPECTION, or EXAMINATION, is
when, for the greater expedition of a caufe, in fome
point or ilfue, being either the principal queftion, or
arifing collaterally out of it, but being evidently the
object of fenfe, the judges of the court, upon the tef-
timony of their own fenfes, fliall decide the point in
difpute. For, where the affirmative or negative of a
queftion is matter of fuch obvious determination, it is
not thought neceffary to fummon a jury to decide it ;
who are properly called in to inform the confcienee of
the court of dubious faCts j and therefore, when the
faCI, from its nature, muft be evident to the court ei¬
ther from ocular demonftration or other irrefragable
proof, there the law departs from its ufual refort, the
verdiCt of 12 men, and relies on the judgment of the
court alone. As in cafe of a fuit to referve a fine for
non-age of the cognizor, or to fet afide a ftatute or re¬
cognizance entered into by an infant j here, and in
other cafes of the like fort, a writ lhall iffue to the
Iheriff, commanding him that he conftrain the faid par¬
ty to appear, that it may be afeertained by the view
of his body by the king’s juftices, whether he be of
full age or not : Ut per afpeclum corporis fuiconjlare po~
terit jujliciariis nojlris, fi prcedi&us an Jit plena; cetatis
necne. If, however, the court has, upon infpeclion, any
doubt of the age of the party (as may frequently be the
cafe), it may proceed to take proofs of the part 5 and,
particularly may examine the infant himfelf upon an
oath of voir dire, veritatem dicere ; that is, to make true
anfwers to fuch queftions as the court thall demand of
him ; or the court may examine his mother, his god-,
father, or the like.
INSPECTOR, a perfon to whom the care and con¬
duct of any work is committed.
Inspectors, in the Roman law, were fuch perfons
as examined the quality and value of lands and effeCts,
in order to the adjufting or proportioning taxes and
impofitions to every man’s eftate.
The Jews alfo have an officer, in their fynagogue,
whom they call infpeclor, pn, hha%en. His bufinels con-
fifts principally in infpeCting or overlooking the pray¬
ers and leffons, in preparing and (howing them to the
reader, and in Handing by him to fee he reads right:
and, if he makes miftakes, he is to correCt him.
INSPIRATION, among divines, &c. implies the
conveying of certain extraordinary and fupernatural
notices or motions into the foul 5 or it denotes any fu¬
pernatural influence of God upon the mind of a ratio¬
nal creature, whereby he is formed to any degree of
intellectual improvements, to which he could not, or
would not, in faCt have attained in his prefent circum-
ftances, in a natural way. Thus the prophets are faid
to have fpoken by divine infpiration.
Some authors reduce the infpiration of the facred
writers to a particular care of Providence, which pre¬
vented any thing they had faid from failing or coming
to nought •, maintaining, that they never were really
infpired either with knowledge or expreffion.
According to M. Simon, infpiration is no more than
a direftion of the Holy Spirit, which never permitted
the facred writers to be miftaken.
It is a common opinion, that the infpiration of the
M m Holy
Tnfolvent
.R .
Infpiration,
*
I N S
Infpiration. Ploly Spirit regards only the matter, not the ftyle or
w v   words j and this Teems to fall in with M. Simon’s doc¬
trine of direction.
Theological writers have enumerated feveral kinds
of infpiration ; fuch as an infpiration of fuperinten-
dency, in which God does fo induence and diredt the
mind of any perfon, as to keep him more fecure from
error in fome various and complex difcourfe, than he
would have been merely by the ufe of his natural fa¬
culties ; plenary fuperintendent infpiration, which ex¬
cludes any mixture of error at all from the performance
fo fuperintended •, infpiration of elevation, where the
faculties a£t in a regular, and, as it feems, in a com¬
mon manner, yet are raifed to an extraordinary degree,
fo that the compofure {hall, upon the whole, have more
of the true fublinje or pathetic, than natural genius
could have given ; and infpiration of fuggellion, when
the ufe of the faculties is fuperfeded, and God does,
as it were, fpeak diredtly to the mind, making fuch
difcoveries to it as it could not otherwife have obtain¬
ed, and dictating the very W'ords in w-hich fuch difco¬
veries are to be communicated, if they are defigned as
a melfage to others. It is generally allow'ed that the
New' Teftament was written by a fuperintendent infpi¬
ration ; for without this the difcourfes and dodlrines
of Chrift could not have been faithfully recorded by
the evangelifts and apoftles; nor could they have af-
fumed the authority of fpeaking the words of Chrift,
and evinced this authority by the adtual exercife of
miraculous powers : and belides, the facred workings
bear many obvious internal marks of their divine ori¬
ginal, in the excellence of their dodtrines, the fpiritu-
ality and elevation of their defign, the majefty and fim-
plicity of their ftyle, the agreement of their various
parts, and their efficacy on mankind j to which may¬
be added, that there has been in the Chriftian church,
from its earlieft ages, a conftant tradition, that the fa-
ered books were written by the extraordinary aflift-
ance of the Spirit, which muft at leaft amount to fu¬
perintendent infpiration. But it has been controvert¬
ed whether this infpiration extended to every minute
crrcumftance in their writings, fo as to be in the molt
abfolute fenfe plenary. Jerome, Grotius, Erafmus,
Epifcopius, and many others, maintain that it was not j
whilft others contend, that the emphatical manner in
which our Lord fpeaks of the agency of the Spirit
, upon them, and in which they themielves fpeak of their
own writings, will juftify our believing that their in¬
fpiration was plenary, unlefs there be very convincing
evidence brought on the other fide to prove that it
was not: and if we allow, it is faid, that there were
fome errors in the New Teftament, as it came from
the hands of the apoftles, there may be great danger of
fubverting the main purpofe and defign of it ; fince
there will be endlefs room to debate the importance
both of fadts and dodtrines.
Among the Heathens, the priefts and prieftefles
were {aid to be divinely infpired, when they gave
oracles.—The poets alfo laid claim to it 5 and to this
end they always invoked Apollo and the Mufes at the
beginning of any great work.
Inspiration, in Phyjic, is underftood of that ac¬
tion of the breaft, by which the air is admitted
within the lungs j in which fenfe, infpiration is a
C 274 ]
INS
branch of refpiration, and Hands oppofed to Exspi- Infpiratiuc
RATIONi II
This admiffion of the air depends immediately on Inl^ra'
its fpring or elafticity, at the time when the cavity nf,
the breaft is enlarged by the elevation of the tho¬
rax and abdomen, and particularly by the motion of
the diaphragm downwards : fo that the air does not
enter the lungs, becaufe they are dilated ; but thofe
dilate, becaufe the air enters within them. Nor is
it the dilatation of the breaft which draws in the
air, as is commonly thought, though this is a con¬
dition abfolutely neceffary to infpiration j but an ac¬
tual intrufion of the air into the lungs. See Respi¬
ration.
INSPISSATING, in Pharmacy, an operatiotr
whereby a liquor is brought to a thicker confiftence,
by evaporating the thinner parts.
INSPRUCK, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria, and capital of the county of Tyrol, received
its name from the river Inn, which runs by it. It has
a noble caftle or palace, formerly the refidence of the
archdukes of the houfe of Auftria, with a cathedral
where they are buried. The houfes, though built in
the German tafte, are rather handfomer 5 and the
ftreets, though narrow, are remarkably well paved.
For the defence of this city the inhabitants can place
but little confidence in their fortifications, which are
very trifling. They feem rather to depend on the na¬
tural faftneffes of their country j which appear indeed
to form a barrier, fo perfedlly inaccefiible to any ene*
my, that even the great Guftavus Adolphus, after hav¬
ing overrun with his vidtorious arms the other parts
of Germany, could never make any impreflion upon
this. It is feated in a pleafant valley, in E. Long.
II. 30. N. Lat. 47. 16.
INSTALLATION, the adt of giving vifible pof-
feffion of an order, rank, or office, by placing in the
proper feat. See INSTALMENT.
INSTALMENT, a fettling or inflating any per¬
fon in a dignity. The word is derived from the La¬
tin in, an& Jial/um, a term ufed for a feat in church, in
the choir, or a feat or bench in a court of juftice, &c. j
though Voffius is of opinion the word is of German
origin.
Instalment is chiefly ufed for the indudlion of a
dean, prebendary, or other ecclefiaftical dignitary, in¬
to the pofleffion of his ftall, or proper feat, in the ca¬
thedral church to which he belongs. This is fome-
times alfo called injlallation.
Instalment is likewife ufed for the ceremony,,
whereby the knights of the Garter are placed in their
rank, in the chapel of St George at Windfor.
INSTANT, a part of duration in which we per¬
ceive no fucceffion j or it is that which takes up the
time only of one idea in our minds.
INSTAURATION, the re-eftablilhment, or re-
ftauration of a religion, a church, or the like, to its
former ftate. The word is by fome derived from the
old Latin inftaurum, which fignified the “ ftock” of
things neceflary for the tilling and managing of
grounds 5 as cattle, tools, harnefs, &c. But the
word injiaurum is only of the middle age : injtauratio is
of much greater antiquity, and by fome derived from
injlar, “ like,” as importing a thing’s being brought
to
I N S
•In ft aura- to its former likenefs or appearance. See Restaura-
tton TIOK.
Inftinft INSTEP, in the manege, is that part of a horfe’s
^ J hind leg, which reaches from the ham to the paftern-
X
Definition. INSTINCT, a certain power or difpofition of mind,
by which, independent of all inftruftion or experience,
without deliberationj and without having any end in
view, animals are unerringly direfted to do fpontane-
oufly (a) whatever is necelfary for the prefervation of
the individual or the continuation of the kind. Such
in the human fpecies is the inftinft of fucking exerted
immediately after birth } and fuch in the inferior crea¬
tion is the inftindl by which infefts invariably depofit
their eggs in fituations moft favourable for hatching
and affording nourilhment to their future progeny.
Thefe operations are neceffary for the prefervation of
the individual and the continuation of the kind ; but
neither the infant nor the infeft knows that they are
neceffary : they both aft without having any end in
view, and aft uniformly without inftruftion and with¬
out experience.
The aftions of the inferior animals are generally
direfted by inftinft; thofe of man by reafon. This at
leait is the cafe with refpeft to men in a ftate of civi¬
lization : in the favage ftate they are probably little
lefs the flaves of inftinft than the brutes themfelves.
Different Concerning human initinfts, indeed, philofophers differ
opinions re-opinion j fome maintaining that man is en-
fpecting dowed with a greater number of inftinfts than any fpe-
human in- cies of brutes ; whilft others deny that in human na-
ftindts. ture js any pOWer or pr0penffty at all which can
properly be called inftinftive.
This diverfity of opinion may eafily be traced to its
fource. There are not many original thinkers in the
world. The greater part even of thofe who are call¬
ed phi/ofophers, implicitly adopt the opinions of certain
mafters whofe authority they deem fufficient to fupply
the place of argument ; and having chofen their re-
3 fpeflive guides, each maintains with zeal what his
The canfe matter taught, or is fuppofed to have taught. When
■nfthat Locke fo fuccefsfully attacked the doflrine of innate
difference, ideas and innate principles of fpeculative truth, he was
thought by many to have overturned at the fame time
all innate principles whatever •, to have diverted the
human mind of every paflion, affeflion, and inftinft ;
and to have left in it nothing but the powers of fenfa-
tion, memory, and intellefl. Such, we are perfuaded,
was not his intention ; nor is there any thing in his
immortal work which, when interpreted with candour,
appears to have fuch a tendency.
I N S
In our opinion, great part of the Il/Jay on Human laftimT.
Vriderjlandlng has been very generally mifunderftood. ~
Much of its merit, however, w as foon difcovered ; and
mankind, finding philofophy difencumbered of the bar¬
barous jargon of the fchools, and built upon a few felf-
evident principles, implicitly embraced every opinion
advanced, or w hich they fuppofed to be advanced, by
the illuftrious author; efpecially if that opinion was
contrary to any part of the fcholaftic fyftem which
had fo long been employed to perplex the underftand-
ing and to veil abfurdity. Hence arofe many philo¬
fophers of eminence both at home and abroad ; who
maintained, as they imagined, upon the principles of
Locke, that in the human mind there are no inftinffs,
but that every thing which had been ufually called by
that name is refolvable into aflociation and habit. This
doflrine was attacked by Lord Shafteftmry, who in¬
troduced into the theory of mind, as faculties derived
from nature, a fenfe of beauty, a fenfe of honour, and
a fenfe of ridicule ; and thefe he conlidered as the
tefts of fpeculative truth and moral reflitude. His
lordlhip’s principles were in part adopted by Mr Hut-
chifon of Glafgow, who publilhed a fyftem of moral
philofophy, founded upon a fenfe or inilinfl, to which
he gave the name of the moral fenfe } and the undoubt¬
ed merit of his work procured him many followers.
Men generally run from one extreme to another.
It being now difcovered, or at leaft fuppofed, that the
human mind is endowed wdth inftinflive principles of
a£tion, a fe£t of philofophers foon afterwards arofe,
who maintained with much vehemence that it is like-
wife endowed with inftiinflive principles of belief; and
w'ho built a fyftem of metaphyfics, if fuch it may be
called, upon a number of innate, diftindl, and inde¬
pendent fenfes. The rife of this fedl is well known.
Berkeley and Hume had adopted Locke’s doclrine
refpe£ling the origin of our ideas ; and had thence de¬
duced confequences fuppofed to be dangerous in them¬
felves, but which, it was thought, could not be denied
without refufing the principles from which they were
inferred. The foundation of the inftinftive fyftem be¬
ing thus laid, the fyftem itfelf was rapidly carried to a
height far beyond what feems to have been the inten¬
tion of its excellent author *, and reafon was well nigh,
baniftied from the regions of philofophy. For fuch a
proceeding it is not difficult to aflign the caufe. The
inftinftuve fcheme requires much lefs labour of invefti-
gation than the fyftems of Locke and the ancients;
for upon the principles of it, when carried to its ut-
moft extent, every phenomenon in human nature is
thought to be fufficiently accounted for, by fuppofing
M m 2 it
1 275 ]
(a) As nothing is of greater importance in the philofophy of mind than accurate definitions, it may not be
improper to obferve, that through the whole of this article the word fpontaneous is to be taken in the fenfe in
which it is ufed in the following extrafts from Hales'1 s Origin of Mankind: “ Many analogical motions in ani¬
mals, though I cannot call them voluntan/, yet I fee them fpontaneous: I have reafon to conclude, that thefe
are not limply mechanical.'''' “ The fagacities and inftinfts of brutes, the fpontaneoufnefs of many of their motions,
are not explicable, without fuppofing fome aftive determinate powrer connefted to and inherent in their fpirits,
of a higher extraftion than the bare natural modification of matter.” If this be attended to, our definition
of inftinft: will be found perfeftly confonant to that which has been given by the author of Ancient Metaphi/-'
Jics. “ Inftinft (he fays) is a determination given by Almighty Wifdom to the mind of the brute, to aft in
fuch or fuch a way, upon fuch or fuch an occafion, without intelligence, without knowledge of good or ill,
and without knowing for what end or purpofe he afts.”
. 4
fftftind:
INS [2
InflirxfL it eSTeft of a particular inftinft implanted in the
~ v ^" mind for that very purpofe. Hence in fome popular
works of philofophy we have a detail of fo many dittinft
internal fenfes, that it requires no fmall ftrength of
memory to retain their very names : befides the moral
fe>fe, we have the fenfe of beauty, the fenfe of deformity,
the fenfe of honour, the hoarding fenfe, and a thoufand
others which it is needlefs here to mention.
This new fyftem, which converts the philofophy of
mind into mere hillory, or rather into a collection of
faCts and anecdotes, though it has made a rapid pro-
grels, is not yet univerfally received. It has been op-
pofed by many fpeculative men, and by none with
greater ikill than Dr Prieftley j who maintains, with
the earlielt admirers of Locke, that we have from na¬
ture no innate fenfe of truth, nor any inftinCtive prin¬
ciple of action •, that even the aCtion of fucking in
new-born infants is to be accounted for upon principles
of mechanifm 5 and that the defire of the fexes is mere¬
ly aifociation.
Whillt men, eminent for candour as well as for fci-
tonfounded ence, have thus been difputing the limits between in-
and with°n an^ reafon in the human mind, and endeavour-
siechanifin. afcertain the aCtlons which refult from each, two
writers of name, treating of that fubjeCt, have lately
advanced opinions, which, if admitted as juft, muft
render the tliipute henceforth ridiculous, and put an
end for ever to all moral inquiries. Mr Smellie, in a
work which he calls The Philofophy of NaturalHflory,
affirms, that between infinBive and rational motives no
diftinCtion exifts, but that the reafoning faculty itfelf
is the neceffary refult of inftiixffi ; and Dr Reid, in his
Ffj'ays on the ABive Powers of Man, by attributing to
inf inB the aCIion of breathing, feems to confound that
g principle with mere mechanifm.
Thefe three That reafon, inftinft, and mechanifm, are all ef-
prmciples fentially diiTerent from one another, has hitherto been
d'ftin'HiiiT unIverfalIy allowed ; and it appears not to be a talk of
ed from * much difficulty to point out in what refpeCl each of
each other, them differs from the other two. Aftions performed
with a view to accomplifh a certain end are called ra¬
tional adlions, and the end in view is the motive to their
performance. InfinBive aftions have a caufe, viz. the
internal impulfe by which they are fpontaneoufly per¬
formed j but they cannot be faid to have a motive, be-
76 1 INS
caufe they are not done with any vievd to confequences. InftinA.
A&ions automatic have likewife a caufe $ but that caufe ^ v"—«
is not internal impulfe, but mere mechanifm, by which
they are performed without any fponianeity of the
agent. Thus, a man gives charity in order to relieve
a perfon from want j he performs a grateful adlion as
a duty incumbent on him ; and he fights for his coun¬
try in order to repel its enemies. Each of thefe ac¬
tions is performed from a motive, and therefore they
are all rational aftions. An infant is impelled to fuck
the breaft, but heNknows not that it is neceffary for his
prefervation ; a couple of young favages go together,
for the firft time, without any view to offspring or any
determinate idea of enjoyment. Thefe addons have no
motive, and therefore are not rational: but as they are
performed by a fpontaneous exertion of the agents, they
are not to be attributed to mere mechanifm j they are
therefore infinBive actions. A man breathes without
any motive, without any Ipontaneous exertion of his
own, and that as well when he is afleep as when he is
awake. The adion of breathing therefore is neither
rational nor inftindivefbut merely automatic or mecha¬
nical. All tin’s leems to be very plain. To talk of the
motives of adions performed by inftind, in an argu¬
ment intended to prove that between reafon and in-
Hind there is no difference, is either to beg the quef-
tion or to pervert language. If the author of the
Philofophy of Natural Hiftory choofes to call the Ittl-
pulfe which prompts the infant to fuck by the name of
motive, he only ufes an Englifti word improperly ; if
it be his intention to affirm that fuch a motive is not
totally and effientially different from that which prompts
a man to give charity or to fight for his country, he
affirms what all mankind know to be falfe (b).
Having thus afeertained what we mean by inftind,
we fliall now proceed to inquire, Whether or not there
be any inftindive principles in man ? But in order to
proceed upon fure grounds, it will be proper to confi-
der, in the firft place, fuch adions of the inferior ani¬
mals as are generally allowed to be inftindive ; for an
attempt has lately been made to prove, that even thefe
adions are the offspring of reafon influenced by mo¬
tives $ and that infinB, as we have defined it, is a mere
imaginary principle, which has no exiftence either in
man or brute.
It
(b) I he author of Ancient Metaphyfcs, whofe learned work contains more good fenfe on this fubjed than
any other book which we have feen, thus diftinguifhes between reafon and inftind : “ With refped to the
mere animal, it is evident, that he putfues nothing but what is conducive either to the qwefervation of the ani¬
mal life or to the continuation of the kind. On the other hand, the objed which the intelledual mind purfues,
is the fair and the handfome; and its happinefs confifts in the contemplation of thefe. And though it purfue
alfo what is ufeful 'md. profitable iox the being and well-being of the animal life, yet it is for the fake, not
of the animal life itfelf, but of the to or beautiful $ which therefore is the ultimate objed of its purfuit in
all things.
“ Another material difference in pradice betwixt the animal and intelledual mind is, that every adion of
intelled proceeds from an opinion formed concerning what is good or ill, beautiful or the contrary, in the adion.
When we do fo, we are faid to ad from will, which is always determined by fome opinion formed of the kind I
have mentioned : whereas, when we ad from mere appetite or inclination, without deliberation or opinion form¬
ed, we ad as the. brute does always $ lor he has no will, but is prompted to adion by natural impulie, or as
the Greeks call it.
“ A third very material difference is, that intelled, in all its operations, propofes ends, and devifes means
to accompliffi thefe ends j whereas the inftind of the brute proceeds without confideration either of ends or
means.”
4
INS [ 277 ] INS
tn!Hn&. It has been faid that caterpillars, when fhaken off a
u-— tree in every direftion, inftantly turn round towards
6 the trunk and climb up, though they had never for-
ofinftind rnerly been on the furface of the ground. This is a
in animals, ftriking inffance of inftinft. On the tree, and not
upon the ground, the caterpillar finds its food. If
therefore it did not turn and climb up the trunk it
would inevitably periih ; but furely the caterpillar
knows not that fuch an exertion is neceffary to its
prefervation ; and therefore it a£ls not from motives,
but from blind impulfe. The bee and the beaver are
endowed with an inftinsff which has the appearance of
forefight. They build magazines, and fill them with
provifions ; but the forefight is not theirs. Neither
Ijees nor beavers know any thing of futurity. The
folitary wafp digs holes in the fand, in each of which
fne depofits an egg. Though five certainly knows not
that an animal is to proceed from that egg, and ftill
lefs, if poffible, that this animal muft be nourifhed with
other animals, five collects a few fmall green worms,
which five rolls up in a circular form, and fixes in the
hole in fuch a manner that they cannot move. When
the wafp-worm is hatched, it is amply flored with the
food which nature has deftined for its fupport. The
green worms are devoured in fuccefhon 5 and the num¬
ber depofited is exactly proportioned to the time ne-
ceffary for the growth and transformation of the wafp-
worm into a fly ; when it illues from the hole, and is
capable of procuring its own nourifhment. This in-
ftindt of the parent-wafp is the more remarkable, that
five feeds not upon flelh herfelf. Birds of the fame
fpecies, unlefs when retirained by peculiar circumflan-
ces, uniformly build their nefts of the fame materials,
and in the fame form and fituation, though they in¬
habit very different climates j and the form and fitua¬
tion are always exactly failed to their nature, and cal¬
culated to afford them (heller and protection. When
danger, or any other circumflance peculiar to certain
countries, renders a deviation from the common form
or fituation of nefts neceflary, that deviation is made
in an equal degree, and in the very fame manner, by
all the birds of one fpecies ; and it is never found to
extend beyond the limits of the country where alone
it can ferve any good purpofe. When removed by
neceflity from their eggs, birds return to them wilh
hafte and anxiety, and fhift them fo as to heat them
equally and it is worthy of obfervation, that their
hafte to return is always in proportion to the cold of
the climate. But do birds reafon, and all of the fame
fpecies reafon equally well, upon the nature and ex¬
tent of danger, and upon the means by which it can
beft be avoided? Have birds any notion of equality, or
do they know that heat is neceffary for incubation ?
No : in all thefe operations men recognifethe intentions
of nature j but they are hid from the animals themfelves,
and therefore cannot operate upon them as motives.
Of the inftimft of animals we (hall give one inftance
more in the elegant and perfpicuous language of Dr
Reid. “ Every manufafluring art among men (fays
that able writer) was invented by feme man, improved
by others, and brought to perfeftion by time and ex¬
perience. Men* learn to work in it by long praftice,
which produces a habit. The arts of men vary in every
age and in every nation, and are found only in thofe
men who have been taught them. The manufactures
of animals differ from thofe of men in many ftriking Inftindt.
particulars. No animal of the fpecies can claim the
invention ; no animal ever introduced any new im¬
provement, or any variation from the former practice j
every one of the fpecies has equal Ikill from the be¬
ginning, without teaching, without experience, and
without habit; every one has its art by a kind of in-
fpiration. I do not mean that it is infpired with the
principles or rules of the art, but with the ability of
working in it to perfection, without any knowledge of
its principles, rules, or end. The work of every ani¬
mal is indeed like the works of nature, perfeCt in its
kind, and can bear the moft critical examination of the
mechanic or the mathematician j of which a honey¬
comb is a ftriking inftance.
“ Bees, it is well known, conftruCt their combs with Remark-
fmall cells on both fides, fit both for holding their (tore able in-
of honey and for rearing their young. There are ftance m
only three poffible figures of the cells, which can make bv'' '
them all equal and fimilar, without any ufelefs inter- <
dices. Thefe are the equilateral triangle, the fquare,
and the regular hexagon. Of the three, the hexagon
is the moft proper, both for convenience and ftrength.
Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells regular
hexagons. As the combs have cells on both fides, the
cells may either be exa&ly oppofite, having partition
againft partition, or the bottom of a cell may reft
upon the partitions between the cells on the other fide,
which will ferve as a buttrefs to ftrengtben it. The
la ft way is the beft for ftrength accordingly the bot¬
tom of each cell refts againft the point where three
partitions meet on the other fide, which gives it all
the ftrength poffible. The bottom of a cell may ei¬
ther be one plane, perpendicular to the fide partitions j
or it may be compofed of feveral planes, meeting in a
folid angle in the middle point. It is only in cne of
thefe two Mays that all the cells can be fimilar without
lofing room. And, for the fame intention, the planes,
of which the bottom is compofed, if there be more
than one, muft be three in number, and neither more
nor fewer. It has been de.monftrated, that by making
the bottoms of the cells to confift of three planes
meeting in a point, there is a having of material and
labour no way inconfiderable. I he bees, as if ac¬
quainted with thefe principles of foiid geometry, follow
them moft accurately: the bottom of each cell being
compofed of three planes, M’hich make obtufe angles
■with the fide partitions and with one another, and
meet in a point in the middle of the bottom ; the three
angles of this bottom being fupported by three partitions
on the other fide of the comb, and the point of it
by the common interfe&ion of thefe three partitions.
One inftance more of the mathematical Ikill difplayed
in the ftrufture of a honey-comb deferves to be men¬
tioned. It is a curious mathematical problem, at what
precife angle the three planes which compofe the bottom
of a cell ought to meet, in order to make the greateft
poflible faving of material and labour. This is one of
thofe problems belonging to the higher parts of ma¬
thematics, which are called problems of maxima and
minima. The celebrated MlLaurin refolved it by a
fluxionary calculation, which is to be found in the
Tranfaflions of the' Royal Society of London, and de¬
termined precifely the angle required. Upon the
pioft exaff menfuration which the fubjedt could admit,
1
Inftinft.
1 N 5 t 27
he afterwards found, that it is the very angle in which
"""v the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey¬
comb do actually meet.
Shall we allc here, Who taught the bees the pro¬
perties of folids, and to refolve problems of maxima and
minima ? If a honey-comb were a work of human art,
every man of common fenfe would conclude, without
hefitation, that he who invented the conftruftion muft
have underftood the principles on which it was con-
ftru&ed. We need not fay that bees know none of
thefe things. They work mod geometrically without
any knowledge of geometry; fomewhat like a child,
who by turning the handle of an organ makes good
mufic without any knowledge of mufic. The art is not
in the child, but in him who made the organ. In like
manner, when a bee makes its combs fo geometrically,
the geometry is not in the bee, but in that great Geo¬
metrician who made the bee, and made all things in
' s number, weight, and meafure.”
Which can- We have given a full detail of the ftru&ure of a
founded011" ^0ney"C°mb’ becauk 11 an effe& inftinft which
with the cannot he confounded with the operations of reafon.
operations The author of T/ie Natural Hijiory of Animals, juftly
of reafon. offended with that theory which treats of inf indive mo-
lives, which reprefents the human mind as a bundle of
8 ] INS
inftinfls, and of which the objefl: feems to be to de- fcft.ii cl,
grade mankind to the level of brutes, has very laudably —*
exerted his endeavours to deteft its weaknefs, and to
expofe it to contempt. But in avoiding one extreme,
he feems to have run into the other ; and whilft he
maintains the rights of his own fpecies, he almoft raifes
the brutes to the rank'of men. “ It is better (he fays)
to {liare our rights with others than to be entirely de¬
prived of them.” This is certainly true 5 and no good
man will hefitate to prefer his theory to that of Ids an-
tagonift ; but we fee no neceffity for adopting either j
the phenomena may be accounted for without degrad¬
ing reafon to the level of inftincf, or elevating inftinft
to the dignity of reafon.
We fhall readily allow to Locke (c), that fome ofonfune^
the inferior animals feem to have perceptions of parti-occafions
cular truths, and within very narrow limits the facultytIie infcr‘or
of reafon : but we fee no ground to fuppofe that their ?n'rna,srea''
natural operations are performed with a view to confe-.^y
quences; and therefore cannot perfuade ourfelves with form their
this hiftonan of theirs, that thele operations are the re-natural°pe»
fult of a train of reafoning in the mind of the animal. !'atl?,1s b7
He acknowledges indeed, that their reafoning andmfl;lna'
thinking powers are remarkably deficient when com¬
pared with thofe of men ; that they cannot take fo full
(c)‘ For if they have any ideas at all, and are not mere machines, as fome w'ould have them, we cannot
deny them to have fome reafon. _ It feems as evident to me, that fome of them do, in certain inftances, reafon,
as that they have fenfe j but it is only m particular ideas, juft as they received them from the fenfes. They
are the beft of them tied up within thofe narrow bounds, and have not, as I think, the faculty to enlarge them
by any kind of abftraftion. Ejfay on Human Underjlanding, book ii. chap. xi.
• ^ *.nn?arn 3 °h^ervation, and ferVes to account far many phenomena which later writers have de¬
rived from mftina. J he author of The Philofophy of Natural Hiftory had “ a cat that frequented a clofet,
the door ot which was faftened by a common iron latch. A window was fituated near the door. When the
door was ftiut, the cat gave herfelf no uneafinefs. As foon as Ihe tired of her confinement, fhe mounted on
the lole of the window and with her paw dexteroufly lifted the latch and came out.” This nraftice which
we are told continued for years, muft have beert the confequence of what Locke calls reafoning in particular
rueas. It could not be the effe.a of inftina j for inftinft is adapted only to a ftate of nature, in which cats
have neither latches to lift nor doors to open ; and as it is not faid that the animal attempted to lift the
latches of other doors, we are not authorifed to infer that this particular aftion was the confequence of rea¬
soning in ideas enlarged by abftraaion : the cat had repeatedly feen one door opened by an exertion which
;,e ;V-eTbl\°f Yet that animals have no power of enlarging their ideas, is a pofition, of
lfhA^"luC}i, tT.8-h f ,s advanced by Locke, we are by no means confident. It is well known that
crows feed upon feveral kinds of fhell-fifh when within their reach j and that they contrive to break the {hell
by railing the fi{h to a great height, and letting it drop upon a ftone or a rock. This may perhaps be confidered
dlre£L.ng the animal to the proper means of acquiring its food. But what is to be thought of
the following fact, which was communicated to us by a gentleman whofe veracity is unqueftioned, and who,
oemg totally unacquainted with the theories of philofophers, has of courfe no favourite hypothefis to fupport >
In tne Ipnng of the year 1791, a pair of crow s made their neft in a tree, of which there are feveral planted
round Ins garden ; and in his morning-walks he had often been amufed by witneffing furious combats between
tnem and a cat. Or.e morning the battle raged more fiercely than ufual, till at laft the cat gave way and took
iheifer under a hedge,, as it to wait a more favourable opportunity of retreating to the houfe. The crows
continued tor a fliort time to make a threatening noife j but perceiving that on the ground they could do
nothing more than threaten, one of them lifted a ftone from the middle of the garden, and perched with it on
a tree planted in the hedge, where ftie fat watching the motions of the enemy of her young. P As the cat c ept
, » < ge’ :he r°W a?‘ri,!,,n.ied her by flying from branch ,0 branch and from tree to tree;
he l tjaft puts ventured to quit her hiding-place, the crow, leaving the tree, and hovering over her in
and it In rfr°m.7 hlSh on her back. That the crow on this occafion reafoned, is felf-evident;
which (he had 6 j r e^'-ent that the ideas employed in her reaioning w-ere enlarged beyond thole
brokl bv f ,r ,Tn rre?fes: r13^ herf'nfe- (he perceived, that the thcll of a fith Is
falfof aXn/) M but coula her, that a cat would be wounded or driven off the field bv the
her power of reafonhT ^ ^ ** Pr£feryed “ ller <he ntufl have inferred the 'other
INS [279
IViftin#. a review of the pafV, nor look forward with fo penetra- creation
■—~v ' ting an eye to the future 5 that they do not accumu¬
late obfervation upon obfervation, or add the expe¬
rience of one generation to that of another : that their
manners do not vary nor their cuftoms fluctuate like
ours } and that their arts always remain the fame,
without degeneracy and without improvement. “ The
crow (he obferves) always builds its neft in the fame
way } every hen treats her young with the fame mea-
fure of affection •, even the dog, the horfe, and the fu¬
gacious elephant, feem to a£t rather mechanically
than w'ith defign. From fuch hafty obfervations as
thefe, it has been inferred (he fays), that the brutes
are directed in their actions by fome rayfterious in¬
fluence, which impels them to employ their powers un¬
intentionally in performing a&ions beneficial to them-
felves, and fuitable to their nature and circumftances.”
And are theie obfervations indeed hafty ? and is this
inference ill founded ? To us the matter appears quite
btherwife. If the arts of brutes and other animals
have always remained the fame without degeneracy,
and without improvement j and if they be at the fame
time the refult of reafoning, they muft either be fo
perfect that they cannot be improved, or fo imperfect
that they cannot degenerate. That the ftrudture of
a honey-comb is imperfedt, no man has ever imagined.
We have feen, that as far as we are capable of dif-
cerning the end which it is intended to ferve, it is the
moft perfeft ftrudlure poflible : and therefore, if it be
the refult of the reafoning of the bee, the author muft
retradft his aflertion refpefting the extent of the rea¬
foning and thinking pow'ers of inferior animals j and
inftead of faying that they are remarkably deficient
Avhen compared with thofe of men, affirm that they are
infinitely more perfefl. No human art has yet ar*
rived at fuch perfedtion as that it might not be im¬
proved ", no architect has ever built a town, or con-
ftrudted a magazine, which he could mathematically
demonftrate to be of the very belt poffible form for the
end intended, and fo abfolutely perfedl as to be inca¬
pable of improvement.
But the fame author proceeds to affirm, that “ the
laws of analogical reafoning do not juftify the idea
that the brutes adl, on any occafion, abfolutely with¬
out defign.” Nay, he fays, it feems more probable,
“ that the inferior animals, even in thofe inftances in
wffiich wre cannot diflinguijh the motives which adluate
them, or the views with which they proceed, yet ad!
with defign, and extend their views, if not a great
way, yet at leaft a certain length forward ; than that
they can be upon any occafion, fuch as in rearing of
their young, building nefts, &.c. adluated merely by
feeling, or overruled by fome myrterious influence,
under which they are nothing but infenfible inftru-
ments.” This laft phrafe is ambiguous. If by in¬
fenfible inftruments it be meant that the brutes are
confidered by the advocates for inftindt as mere ma¬
chines without the faculties of fenfation and fponta-
neity, the author is combating a phantom of his own
10
The laft-
mentioned
polition
controvert¬
ed.
] INS
for we believe an opinion fo abfurd is not Inftiiafi.
now maintained by any man, (fee Brute.). But if ’■'■'"V™-*"1
by infenfible inftruments be meant fuch inftruments as
act fpontaneouily without being confcious of the end
to which their adtions lead, he appears not only to be
egregioufly miftaken in his conjecture refpedting the
defign of brutes, but alfo to have advanced an hypo-
thefis contradidtory and inconfiftent. ^
If it be true, that the inferior animals act with de~Maintain
Jtgn, even in thofe inftances in which we cannot di-eeband.
ftinguiflr their motives, their views may indeed extend
but a little way when compared with infinity : but cer¬
tainly they extend farther than ours } for there is no
ufeful work of man conftrudted with fuch Ikill, but
that, after it is finiihed, another man of equal educa¬
tion will be able to diftinguiffi the general defign of
the artift. But if the inferior animals, on all occa-
fions, adt with defign, we fliould be glad to know the
defign of the bees in forming the qells of their combs
in the manner which we have fo largely deferibed. Do
thefe little animals indeed know that a comb, confifting
on both fides of hexagonal cells, with the bottom of
each compofed of feveral planes meeting in a certain fo-
lid angle, and fo formed as that the bottom of a cell
on the one fide fliall reft upon the partitions between
the cells on the other fide, is in all refpedts the moft
proper both for holding their ftores of honey and for
rearing their young ? And do they likewflfe know, that
its excellence arlfes from the precife figure and pofition
of the cells, by which there is a very confiderable faving
of labour and materials, whilft the comb at the fame
time has the greateft poffible ftrength, and the greatelt
poffible capacioufnefs ? If they know all this, and adt
with a view to thefe ends, it muft indeed be confefled
that bees are rational creatures, and that their thinking
and reafoning powers far furpafs thofe of men $ for
they have from the earlieft ages made difeoveries in the
higher mathematics, which there is reafon to believe
were altogether unknowm to the human race till the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, and which at this mo¬
ment are beyond the comprehenfion of nine-tenths of
mankind in the moft enlightened nation on earth. If
this be a conclufion too abfurd to be admitted, there
is no other alternative but either to fuppofe that by this
artificial ftrudture of their cells the bees+ave fome other
end in view, which we cannot diftinguifti ", or to ac¬
knowledge that they are overruled by fome myfte-
rious influence, under which they are nothing but
fpontaneous agents, unconfcious of the end to which
their operations tend. Which of thefe conclufions is
the moft rational, we will not offer fuch an infult to
the underftanding of our readers, as to fuppofe the
meaneft of them capable of entertaining a doubt. That
a honey-comb is eonftrudled with defign, we muft rea¬
dily admit; but the defign is not in the bees, but in
the Creator of the bees, who directs their operations to
their own good, by what the author with great pro¬
priety terms a rnyfterious influence (d).
But he thinks it an unanfwerable argument in fup-an 0j,jpC„
port tion to it
(d) Though this way of acting is undoubtedly myfterious, “ yet it ftiould not appear extraordinary even
to a man who is not a philofopher, as we fee examples of it daily in our own fpecies : For a man under the di-
re&ion of another of fuperior underftanding, will ufe means to accomplifh an end, without having any idea of
either j
INS [ 280 ] INS
Inftindt. port of his theory, that in the performance of thofe
^ ^ " afiions, in which animals are faid to be guided by un¬
erring inftincl, different individuals difplay different
modes of conduct 5 and in his opinion, to talk of in-
ftin&ive principles which admit of improvement, and
accommodate themfelves to circumftanees, is merely to
introduce new terms into the language of philofophy j
for he affirms, that no fuch improvement or accommo¬
dation to circumftances can ever take place without
a comparifon of ideas and a deduftion of inferences.
It is probable that the author here alludes to thofe
animals which, in their rnoft important operations, are
known to act differently in different countries. Thus
the oftrich in Senegal, where the heat is exceffive, ne-
gle£ts her eggs during the day, but fits upon them in
the night. At the Cape of Good Hope, however,
where the degree of heat is lefs, the oftrich, like other
birds, fits upon her eggs both day and night. In
countries infefted with monkeys, many birds, which in
other climates build in bullies and clefts of trees, fuf-
pend their nefts upon flender twigs, and thus elude the
13 rapacity of their enemies,
viated. ft may be thought, that a determination of the mind
of the brute to aft fo varioufly upon different occafions,
can hardly be conceived without judgment or intelli¬
gence. But before our author had fo confidently af¬
firmed that fuch accommodation to circumftances can
never take place without a comparifon of ideas and a
deduction of inferences, he would have done well to
confider how nature afts in other organized bodies, fuch
as the vegetable. We fee that a vegetable, reared in
the corner of a dark cellar, will bend itfelf towards the
light which comes in at the window; and if it be
made to grow in a flower-pot, with its head down¬
wards, it will turn itfelf into the natural pofition of a
plant. Can it be fuppofed, that the plant, in either
cafe,, does what it does from any judgment or opinion
that it is beft, and not from a neceffary determination
01 its nature ? But, further, to take the cafe of bodies
unorganized, how fliall we account for the phenomena
w'hich cherniftry exhibits to us ? When one body
unites with another, and then, upon a third being pre-
iented to it, quits the firft, and unites itfelf with it,
fhall.vve fuppofe that this preference proceeds from any
predileftion or opinion that it is better to cleave to the
one than to the other, from any comparifon of ideas
or deduct ion of inferences ? Or (hall we not rather fay,
tnat it proceeds from an original law of nature impref-
ied upon it by that Being who mediately or immedi¬
ately direfts every motion of every the rainuteft atom
in.the univerfe ? And if fo, why may not inftinft be an
original determination of the mind of the animal, of
which it is part of the nature or effence to accommo¬
date itfelf to. certain circumftances, on which depends
ihe prefervation of the individual, or the continuation
of the kind .? Indeed it cannot be otherwife, if we have
defined inftinft properly ; for no man ever fuppofed,
that when animals work inftinftively, they aft for no
purpofe. It is only affirmed that the purpofe is not
known to them. It is known, however, to the Author
of inftinft ; who knows likewife that the fame purpofe Inftimft.
muft in different climates be promoted by different ^—v—
means, and who accordingly determines the operations
of animals of the fame fpecies to be different under dif.
ferent circumftances.
But though we cannot agree with this author whenlnftindUn-
he affirms that no accommodation to circumftances cancaPabfeof
ever take place without a comparifon of ideas, we rea-imProvc-
dily admit that no faculty which is capable of improve-ment’
ment by obfervation and experience can in propriety
of fpeech be termed inftinft. Inftinft being a pofitive
determination given to the minds of animals by the
Author of nature for certain purpofes, muft neceffarily
be perfeft when viewed in conneftion with thofe pur¬
pofes : and therefore to talk, as Mr Smellie does, of
the improvement of inftinft, is to perplex the under-
ftanding by a perverfion of language. There is not,
however, a doubt, but that reafon may copy the works
of inftinft, and fo far alter or improve them as to ren¬
der them fubfervient to other purpofes than thofe for
which they were originally and inftinftively performed.
It was thus in all probability that man at firft learned
many of the moft ufeful arts of life.
“ Thy arts of building from the bee receive 5
Learn of the mole to plough, the worm to weave 5
“ Learn of the little nautilus to fail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.’’
But the arts thus adopted by men are no longer the
works of inftinft, but the operations of reafon influ¬
enced by motives. This is fo obvioufly and undeniably
true, that it has compelled the author laft mentioned to
confefs, in that very feftion which treats of inftinfts
improveable by experience, that “ what men or brutes
learn by experience, though this experience be founded
on inftinft, cannot with propriety be called inftinftive
knowledge, but knowledge derived from experience and
obfervation. Inftinft (he fays) ftiould be limited to
fuch aftions as every individual of a fpecies exerts with¬
out the aid either of experience or imitation.” This
is a very juft diftinftion between inftinft and experi¬
ence 'f but how to reconcile it with the fundamental
principle of the author’s theory we know not. It would
certainly be a very, arduous talk 5 but it is a talk from
which.we are happily relieved, as his theory and ours
have little refemblance.
Having thus proved, we hope to the fatisfaftion ofxhequef-
our readers, that there is fuch a principle as inftinft intion, Whe-
the inferior animals, and that it is eflentially differentth£r there
from, human reafon ; let us return to our own fpecies,°c"
and inquire whether there be any occafions upon which on which "
man afts inftinftively, and what thofe occafions are. man aefts
'Ibis is a queftion of fume difficulty, to which a com-in!tiaft've'
plete and fatisfaftory anfwer will perhaps never be gi-*' i exami-
ven, and to which we have not the vanity to thinkneC”
that fuch an anfwer will be given by us. The prin¬
ciple of (ijjbciation (to be^explained afterwards under
the article Metaphysics) operates fo powerfully in
man, and at fo early a period of life, that in many
~afes it feems to be impoffible to diftinguilh the effefts
of
erther ; and indeed, in my opinion, by far the greater part of mankind
governed m that way.” Ancient Metaphyfics, vol. Hi. p. 352.
are deftined by God and nature to be
INS [2
In{lin&. of habit from the operations of nature. Yet there
u—v—-"' are a few cafes immediately connected with the prefer-
vation of the individual and the propagation of the
kind, in which by a little attention thefe things may
be diftinguifhed. We have already given an inftance
in the fucking of a child, which we believe to be an
operation performed by inftinft. Dr Prieflley, how¬
ever, thinks differently. “ The aflion of fucking
(fays he), I am confident, from my own obfervations,
is not natural, but acquired.” What obfervations they
were which led him to this conclufion he has not told
us, and w'e cannot imagine *, but every obfervation
which we ourfelves have made, compels us to believe
that an attempt to fuck is natural to children. It has
been obferved by the author of the Philofophy of Na¬
tural Hiftory, that the inftinft of fucking is not excited
by any fmell peculiar to the mother, to milk, or to
any other fubltance ; for that infants fuck indifcrimi-
nately every thing brought into contaft with their
mouths. He therefore infers, that the dejire of fuck¬
ing is innate, and coeval with the appetite for air. The
obfervation is certainly juft : but a difciple of Dr
Prieftley’s may objeft to the inference 5 for “ in fucking
and fwallowing our food, and in many fuch inftanees,
it is exceedingly probable (fays the doctor), that the
actions of the mufcles are originally automatic, having
been fo placed by our Maker, that at firft they are fti-
mulated and contract mechanically whenever their ac¬
tion is requifite.” This is certainly the cafe with re-
fpeft to the motion of the mufcles in the aftion of
breathing 5 and if that adtion be of the fame kind and
proceed from the very fame caufe with the adtion of
fucking, and if a child never (how a delire to fuck but
when fomething is brought into contadt with its mouth,
Dr Prieftley’s account of this operation appears to us
much more fatisfadtory than that of the authors who
i6 attribute it to inftindt.
fiftances of . ®ut adtions of breathing and fucking feem to
human ac- differ effentially in feveral particulars. They are in-
d.lM b ^ee<^ Performed by means of air ; but in the form-
inftiudbve. 6r’ a C^ld for many mont}ls exerts no fpontaneous
effort, whilft a fpontaneous effort feems to be abfolute-
ly neceffary for the performance of the latter. Of this
indeed we could not be certain, were it true that infants
never exhibit fymptoms of a wi/h to fuck but when
fomething is adtually in contadl with their mouths ;
for the mere aSi of fucking then might well be fup-
pofed to be automatic and the effedt of irritation : But
this is not the cafe. A healthy and vigorous infant,
within ten minutes of its birth, gives the plaineft and
moft unequivocal evidence of a defire to fuck, before
any thing be brought into adlual contadt with its
mouth. It ftretches out its neck, and turns its head
from fide to fide apparently in queft of fomething: and
that the objedt of its purfuit is fomething which it may
fuck, every man may fatisfy himfelf by a very convincing
experiment. When an infant is thus ftretching out
its neck and moving its head, if any thing be made to
touch any part of its face, the little creature will in-
ftantly turn to the objedt, and endeavour by quick
alternate motions from fide to fide to feize it with its
mouth, in the very fame manner in which it always
feizes the breaft of its nurfe, till taught by experience
to diftinguilh objedts by the fenfe of fight, when thefe
alternate motions, being no longer ufeful, are no longer
VoL. XI. Part I.
81 ] INS
employed. If this be not an inftance of pure inftindt, Inftindt,
we know not what it is. It cannot be the refult of“V—
affociation or mechanifm ; for when the ftretching of
the neck takes place, nothing is in contadt with the
child’s mouth, and no affociation which includes the
adt of fucking can have been formed. Affociations of
ideas are the confequences of fimultaneous impreflions
frequently repeated j but when the child firft declares,
as plainly as it could do were it poffefled of language,
its with to fuck, it has not received a fingle impreftion
with which that wifh can poflibly be affociated.
Were Dr Prieftley to weigh thefe fadts, of the truth
of 'which we are certain, we doubt not that his well-
known candour would make him retradt the affertion,
that all the adtions which Dr Reid and others refer to
inftindt, are either automatic or acquired. The greater
part of thofe adtions, as well as of the apparently in-
ftindtive principles of belief, we have no doubt are
acquired : but we are perfuaded that a child fucks its
nurfe as a bee builds its cell, by inftindt ; for upon no
other hypothefis can we account for the fpontaneous
efforts exerted in both thefe operations : and we think
it no difgrace to our fpecies, that in fome few cafes we
ftiould adt from the fame principle with the inferior
creation, as nothing feems more true than that,
———Reafon raife o’er inftindt as we can 5
In this ’tis God that works, in that ’tis man.
We have faid, that, in the favage ftate, the fexes go
together for the firft; time by inftindt, without any
view to offspring, and perhaps with no determinate idea
of enjoyment. This opinion, we believe, has been
generally maintained ; but it is controverted by Dr-
Hartley. “ Here (fays he) we are to obferve, firft,
that when a general pleafurable ftate is. introduced,
either by direct impreflions or by affociated influences,
the organs of generation muft fympathize with this
general ftate, for the fame reafons as the other parts
do. They muft therefore be affedted with vibrations
in their nerves, which rife above indifference, into the
limits of pleafure, from youth, health, grateful ali¬
ment, the pleafures of imagination, ambition, and fym-
pathy, or any other caufe which diffufes grateful vi¬
brations over the whole fyftem.—Secondly, as thefe
organs are endued with a greater degree of fenfibility
than the other parts, from their make, and the peculiar
ftrudture and difpofition of their nerves, whatever thefe
be, we may expedt that they ftiould be more affedted by
thofe general pleafurable ftates of the nervous fyftem
than the other parts.—Thirdly, the diftenfion of the
cells of the vefculce feminales and of the finufes of the
uterus, which take place about the time of puberty,
muft make thefe organs more particularly irritable
then.” His fourth obfervation refpedts a ftate widqly
different from that of nature, and therefore is nothing
to the purpofe : but his fifth is, that “ the particular
ftiame which regards the organs of generation, may,
when confidered as an affociated circumftance, like
other pains, be fo far diminilhed as to fall within the
limits of pleafure, and add confiderably to the fum
total.”
To this excellent and able writer we may allow the
truth of thefe obfervations (though fome of them
might certainly be controverted) ; and yet deny his
eoncluuon, that “ they are fufficient to account for the
N n general
INS [ 282 ] INS
Inftindt. general defires which are obfervable in young perfons,
and that thofe defires are of a factitious nature.” For
fuppofing every thing which he mentions to take place
by mere mechanifm and aflociation ; that the organs
of generation are irritated, and certain cells and finufes
dittended j the only inference which can be fairly drawn
from fuch premifes is, that at the age of puberty young
men and women mult from thefe caufes experience cer¬
tain feelings and wants which they knew not before 5
but furely mechanifm and affociation cannot teach them
the ufe of the organs of generation, or point out the
only means by which their new feelings can be grati¬
fied : and therefore, as we fee thefe means invariably
purfued by all animals rational and/ irrational, without
experience and without inftruClion, we muft refer the
mutual defire of the fexes to a higher principle than
mere mechanifm and afibciation j and that principle
can be nothing but inftinCl:.
Befides thele, we think the action of eating may
be attributed to infiinCt. It is certainly performed by
a fpontaneous exertion of the proper organs j and that
exertion is firft made at a time of life when we have no
conception of the end which it ferves to accomplilh,
and therefore cannot be influenced by motives. It
muft indeed be confefled, that the firlt aft of chewing
is performed by a child, not for the purpofe of maltica-
ting food, but to quicken the operation of nature in the
cutting of teeth : and perhaps it may be faid, that the
pleafing fenfation of tafte, which is then firit experi¬
enced, and afterwards remembered, prompts the child
to continue at intervals the exertion of chewing after
all his teeth are cut; fo that though the aft of eating
is not performed with a view to the maftication of food
or the nourilhment of the body, it may yet be perform¬
ed, not from any inftinftive impulfe, but merely from
an early and deep-rooted afiociation. But in anfwer to
this it is fufficient to alk, Who taught the infant that
the aft of chewing will quicken the operation of nature
in the cutting of teeth ? Not reafon, furely, nor expe¬
rience j for an infant knows nothing of teeth or the
manner in. which they grow : and if it be granted,
that for this purpofe it was originally impelled by fome
internal, and myfterious influence to perform the aftion
of chewing, we are not inclined to deny that the opera¬
tion may be continued for other purpofes by means of
afibciation.
In human works, though laboured on with pain,
A thoufand movements fcarce one purpofe gain j
In God’s, one Angle can its end produce,
et ferves to fecond too fome other ufe.
"Ibis is found philofophy confirmed by obfervation and
daily experience : but though in the works of God, one
principle produces many confequences, and though
perhaps there is not a principle which falls under our
cognizance more fruitful than that of aflbciation, yet
if it.be not fufficient to account for the /j-j/? att of
chewing, we cannot refer to it alone as to the fource
of that opeiation. Should it be faid, that the gums of
aii imant are at the period of cutting teeth fo irritable,
that the moment any thing is applied to them the jaws
perform a motion merely automatic, which we miitake
for the fponlaneous effeft of inftinft ; ftill We would
alk, What prompts the child to apply every thing to its
mouth ? Does the irritation of the gums contraft the
mufcles of the arm ? By a bigot for mechanifm this
might be faid, were it true that the arm of an infant,"v
like a piece of clock-work, is always fo regularly moved
as to bring its hand direftly into contaft with its gums :
but this is far from being the cafe $ an infant makes
many unfuccefsful efforts to reach its mouth, and does
not accompliffi its purpofe till after repeated trials.
Perhaps it may be alleged (for when men adopt a fa¬
vourite hypothefis they will allege any thing in its fup-
port), that infants are taught to carry things to their
mouths by the pleafing fenfation received from the ap.
plication of their nurfes breads, and continue the prac¬
tice from habit and affociation. But it is certain that
they do not begin this praftice till teeth are forming
in their gums j and then they ufe fuch things as they
themfelves carry to their mouths very differently from
the brealls of their nurfe : they conftantly chew and bite
their rattles, though they very feldom bite their nurfes.
As this praftice cannot be begun from a principle of
affociation, fo it appears to us that it cannot be con¬
tinued upon fuch a principle. Were the fenfation ex¬
perienced by an infant when chewing a hard fubllance
a .pleafing fenfation, the remembrance of the pleafure
might as a motive prompt it to repeat the operation ;
but it is obvious, that by prefiing a gum, through
which a tooth is making its way, againft any thing
hard, the infant muft experience a painful fenfation j
and therefore the influence which impels it to continue
this operation, muft be fomething more powerful than
pleafure or pain. ^
Thefe three aftions, then, by which infants fuck, by There may
which they chew their food, and by which mankindb®
are propagated, have undeniably their origin in in-
ftinft. There may be many other human aftions whichTt is
which derive their origin from the fame fource 5 butimpeffible *
in a ftate of civil fociety it is very difficult, if notto<iiftin"
impoffible to diftinguith them from the effefts of early gulfllIrQ.m
habit. y
Such, however, is the prefent impatience of that la¬
bour without which effefts cannot be traced to their
caufes, that every phenomenon in human nature, which
to former philofophers would have occafioned difficul¬
ty, is now thought to be Efficiently accounted for by
referring it to fome inftinft as its particular caufe ; and
he who can provide himfelf with a fufficient number
of thefe inftinfts, for the reality of which he offers no
proof, feats himfelf in the philofopher’s chair, and
dreams that lie is diftating a fyftem of feience, whilft
he is only retailing a colleftion of anecdot.es. A phi- Atfions er-
lofopher of this fchool has lately carried the doftrineroneoufly
of inftinftive principles fo far, as to attribute the fu- attributed
periority of man over the other animals, chiefly to thetoinft*n^
great number of inftinfts with which his mind is en¬
dowed $ and among thefe he reckons (not, we believe, as
charafteriftic of our fpecies in contradiftinftion to other
animals,but as part of the inftinftive bundle in the large-
nefs of which our fuperiority confifts) “ the voiding of
urine and excrement, fneexing, rctrciRion of the mufcles
upon the application of any painful ftimulus, the moving
of the eyelids and other parts of the body.” Thefe (he
fays) are effefts of original inftinfts, and effential to the
exiftence of young animals. With this writer inftinft
is fometimes reprefented as looking into futurity, and
afting upon motives which have hitherto been conlider-
ed as the province of reafon and the charafteriflic of
man ;
INS [
tn(Vtn&. man : here the fame inftin£t is confounded with ir-
ritation and mechanifm ; and if this mode of philofo-
phifing continue in fafhion, we flrall not be furpriled
to find men, hearts, birds, and vegetables, confidered by
fome other writer as nothing more than different fpeeies
of the fame genus of beings, that are all actuated by the
great and univerfal principle of inllinQ:. If fneezing and
the retraclion of the mufcles upon the application of any
painful rtimulus be adtions of inrtindf, there cannot be a
doubt, upon the received principles of philofophy, but
that the contraftion of the leaves of the fenfitive plant
upon the application of any ftimulus proceeds likewife
from inftindt: nay, a piece of leather muft be endowed
with inftindl} for it too retradls upon the application of
the painful ftimulus of fire. All thefe are evidently
fimilar effedts produced by the fame or fimilar caufes j
for in the operations of fneezing and retradfing the
xnufcles upon any painful application, there is not the
leaft fpontaneous exertion on our part, no co-operation
of mind more than in the contradfion of the leather
and the plant. With refpedt to the voiding of urine
and excrement, it is obvious, that at firft thefe opera¬
tions are performed without any effort of fpontaneity j
and that a voluntary power over the mufcles which
are fubfervient to them is very gradually acquired.
Urine and excrement irritate the bladder and guts,
which are fupplied with branches of the fame nerves
that fupply the abdominal mufcles. But it is well
known that the irritation of one branch of a nerve
brings on a contradlion of the mufcles which are fup¬
plied by the other branches. Urine and excrement
therefore are evidently expelled by the mechanical
contradlions of the organs of excretion 5 and to attri¬
bute thefe evacuations to inJlinB, is equally abfurd as to
fay, that water or any other foft fubftance pent up in a
veffel, and preffed equally on all fides, makes its efcape
by inJiinB through the eafieft paffage. It is difficult
to guefs what the author means by the inftindlive
motion of the eyelids and other parts of the body.
There is a motion of the eyelids which is voluntary,
and another which is involuntary. The former pro¬
ceeds from fome motive, to exclude too great a glare
of light, or to guard the eye againft a forefeen mif-
chief, and is therefore the refillt of reafon as diftin-
guifhed from inttin^l ; the latter is obvioufly the effe&
of affociation, which took place in early infancy and
produced a habit. Infants for feveral days after birth
do not wink with their eyes upon the approach of one’s
hand or any other fubftance j but after having experi¬
enced pain from too much light or any other thing
■which hurts the eye, and that pain having at firft pro¬
duced an automatic motion of the eyelids, the motion
comes in time to be fo clofely affociated with its caufe,
that the very appearance of the latter produces the
former. In all this there is no inftintt, nor any thing
which refembles inftirnft : in the one cafe, the motion
of the eyelids is in the ftrifteft fenfe voluntary and ra¬
tional *, and in the other, it is either automatic or the
effeft of habit.
“ The love of light (fays the fame writer) is exhi¬
bited by infants at a very early period. I have re¬
marked evident fymptoms of this attachment on the
third day after birth. When children are farther
advanced, marks of the various paffions generally
. appear. The paffion of fear is difcoverable at the
283 ] INS
age of two months. It is called &rth by approach¬
ing the hand to the child’s eye, and by any fudden ~
motion or unufual noife.” It has likewife been faid,
that “ an infant may be put into a fright by an angry
countenance, and foothed again by imiles and blan-
dilhments 5” and “ that all thefe are cafes of pure in-
ftimft.” In reply to which, we fcruple not to ai-
fert with Dr Prieftley, that an infant (unlefs by an
infant be meant a child who has a good deal of experi¬
ence, and of courfe has made many obfervations on
the connexions of things) “ is abfolutely incapable of
terror. I am pofitive (fays he), that no child ever
ffiowed the leaft fymptom of fear or apprehenfion
till he had actually received hurts and had felt pain j
and that children have no fear of any particular per-
fon or thing, but in confequence of fome connexion
between that perfon or thing and the pain they have
felt. If any inftinX of this kind were more necef-
fary than another, it would be the dread of fire. But
every body muft have obferved, that infants ffiow no
fign of any fuch thing j for they will as readily put
their finger to the flame of a candle as to any thing
elfe, till they have been burned. But after fome pain¬
ful experience of this kind, their dread of fire, though
undeniably the effeX of affociation, becomes as quick
and as effeXual in its operations as if it were an original
inftinXive principle.” We moreover do not hefitate to
fay, with the fame great philofopher, that if it were
poffible always to beat and terrify a child with a
placid countenance, fo as never to afiume that ap¬
pearance but in thofe circumftances, and always to
foothe him with what we call an angry countenance,
this conneXion of ideas would be reverfed, and we
ftiould fee the child frightened with a fmile and de¬
lighted with a frown. In faX, there is no more
reafon to believe that a child is naturally afraid of
a frown, than that he is afraid of being in the dark;
and of this children certainly difcover no fign, till
they have either found fomething difagreeable to them
in the dark, or have been told that there is fomething
dreadful in it.
The truth of thefe obfervations is fo obvious, that we
doubt not but they will carry conviXion to the mind of
every reader. For though it fliould be granted, that
fo early as on the third day after birth children exhibit
fymptoms of uneafinefs upon the fudden exclufion of
light, it would by no means follow that the /ove of light
is in them inftinXive. Light operates upon the eye by
contaX, and communicates to the infant a fenfation of
touch. If that fenfation be pleafant, the child muft ne-
ceffarily feel fome degree of uneafinefs upon its removal,
juft as a full grown man muft feel uneafy upon being
deprived of any pofitive pleafure. But is fetifation, or
pleafure, or the removal of pleafure, pure inftinX ? No,
fur el y.
Thus difficult is it to fay in many cafes what aXions
have their origin in inftinX, and what are merely the
effeXs of early affociation. But we think it may be
fafely affirmed, that no aXion, whether of man or brute,
which is deliberately performed with a view to confe-
quences^ can with any propriety be faid to proceed from
inftinX j for fuch aXions are the effeX of reafon influ¬
enced by motives. Deliberation and inftinX are obri-
oufly incompatible. To fay with the author of the Phi¬
lofophy of Natural Hiftory, “ that, when we are ftimu-
N n 2 lated
TaftinX.
INS [ 284 1 INS
. In ft in ft. lated 'by A particular inftindl, inftead of inftantly obey¬
ing the impulfe, another inftinft arifes in oppofition,
creates hchtation, and often totally extinguilhes the ori-
gina/ motive to aftion,” is either to affirm what is ap¬
parently not true, or it is a grofs perverfion of language.
Motives oppofed to each other may create hefitation,
and a powerful motive may counterbalance a feeble in-
Itinft j but of two or more inftinfts operating at the
fame time, and oppofing each other, we have no con¬
ception. I nit in if, if we choofe to fpeak a language
that is intelligible, means a certain impulfe under the
dire&ion of Supreme Wifdom ; and it is very little pro¬
bable that iuch wildom fhould give oppofite impulfes at
the fame indant. In the natural works of animals, which
are confeffedly under the influence of inftindl, we per¬
ceive no fymptoms of deliberation ; but everyone, when
not interrupted by external violence, proceeds without
hefitation in the direft road, to an end of which the
animal itfelf knows nothing. The fame would be the
cafe with man were he under the guidance of inftinft:
and it is vain to fay that the inftinft of fear is daily
counteracted by ambition and refentment, till it be pro¬
ved that fear, ambition, and refentment, are really in-
ftincls. Of this, however, the author feems to have no
doubt. Indeed his work is fo liberally ftored with thefe
principles, fo ufeful to every man who wiffies to acquire
the name of a philofopher without the labour of invefti-
gation, that not only fear, ambition, and refentment,
but even fuperf nioh, devotion, refpetl for eminent cha-
racfers, avarice, hope, envy, benevolence, and fympathy,
are all, in his opinion, mflinbls Ample or modified,
i. he origin of fear we have already feen when examin¬
ing the inftinfls fnid to exhibit themfelves in early in¬
fancy : let us try it we cannot trace fome other indivi¬
duals of this numerous family to the fame fource of
jp early aflbeiations.
Source of The cafe then feems to be as follows. We firft per-
this error, ceive or fappofe fome real good, i. e, fome fitnefs to
promote our happinefs, in thofe things which we lover
or defire. Hence we annex to thofe things the idea of
pleafure ; with which they come, in time, to be fo
ciofely atTociated in our minds, that they cannot ever
after prefent themfelves without bringing that idea along
with them. This aflbeiation likewife often remains even
after that which firil gave rife to it is quite forgotten, or
perhaps does not exift. An inftance or two will make
this very clear. No man can be born a lover of mo¬
ney for in a ftate of nature money exifts not: no man
therefore can be born with our author’s inftindt of ava-
lice, dire&ed in the manner which the mofl common
acceptation of that word denotes. Yet how many men
are there in the world, who halve as flrong a defire for
money as if that defire were innate and inflindlivej who
account fo much money fo much happinefs j and who
make the mere pofieffion of gold and filver, without any
thought or defign of ufing them, the ultimate end of all
their adtions ? "I his is not becaufe the love of money is
born with them, for that is impoffible ; but becaufe
they firft perceive a great many advantages from the
pofleffion of money, whence they conceive a pleafure in
having it. Hence they defire it, endeavour to obtain
it, and feel an adlual pleafure in obtaining and poffeffing
it. Ihen, by dropping the intermediate fteps between
money and happinefs, they join money and happinefs
immediately together, and content themfelves with the
fantaftic pleafure of having it j making that which was Inffinfo
at firfl: purfued only as means, be to them an ultimate l——
end, in which conlifts their happinefs or mifery. The
fame might be obferved concerning the thirft after
knowledge, fame, ambition, and moft of the various
purfuits of life. Thefe are at firfl entered upon with a
view to fome farther end, but at length become habi¬
tual exerciies ; with which the idea of pleafure is fo
ciofely aflbeiated, that we continue the purfuit after
the reafon from which it was at firft begun has entirely
vaniffied from our minds. Hence alfo we may ac¬
count for another of our author’s mod fed inf intis, the
almoft diabolical feeling of envy. Mr Locke obferves,
that there are fome men entirely unacquainted with this
paffion. His obfervation we believe to be a juft one ;
for moft men that are ufed to reflection, remember the
time when they were firft under its influence ; and
though they did not, it is a thing very little likely that
the beneficent Author of nature Ihould have implanted
in the human mind even the feeds of an inftindt, which,
in the emphatic language of The Rambler, “ is mere
unmixed and genuine evil.” Envy is that pain which
arifes in the mind upon obferving the fuccefs or prof-
perity of others; not however of all others indefinitely,
but only of thofe with whom, upon fome account or
other, the envious perfon has once had a rivalffiip.
But of fuch a feeling the origin is obvious ; for when
two or more perfons are competitors for the fame
thing, the fuccefs of the one neceffarily tends to the
detriment of the other : hence the fuccefs of the one
rival is in the mind of the other ciofely aflbeiated with
pain or mifery ; and this aflociation remaining after
the rivalfhip which occafioned it has ceafed, the perfon
in whofe mind envy is thus generated, always feels pain
at the fuccefs of his rival even in affairs which have no
relation to the original competition. Thus it is, that
we are apt to envy thofe perfons who refufe to be
guided by our judgments, or perfuaded by our argu¬
ments : For this is nothing elfe than a rivallhip about
the fuperiority of judgment; and we take a fecret pride,
both to let the world lee, and in imagining ourfelves,
that in perfpicuity and ftrength of judgment we have
no fuperior.
Though the principle of aflbeiation will be moi;e
fully explained in another place, there is one obfer¬
vation which muff not be omitted here ; it is, that we
do not always, nor perhaps for the moft part, make
thefe affociations ourfelves, but learn them from others
in very early life. We annex happinefs or mifery to
certain things or adlions, becaufe we fee it done by our
parents or companions ; and acquire principles of ac¬
tion by imitating thofe whom we efteem, or by being
told, by thofe in whom we have been taught to place
confidence, that fuch conduft will promote our happi¬
nefs, and that the reverfe will involve us in mifery.
Hence the fon too often inherits both the vices and the
virtues of his father as well as his eftate; hence national
virtues and vices, difpofitions and opinions; and hence
too it is, that habits formed before the period of diftindt
remembrance are fo generally miftaken for natural in- 20
Hindis. Men per-
From the whole then of this inveftigation, we think *?rm1ra.-
ourfelves warranted to conclude, that there is an effea- Mnfti’ve1"
tial difference between mechariifm and inftindl, and be- and auto¬
tween both and reafon ; that mankind perform adlionsmatic ac¬
tions.
Ir.ftinft,
Initiuites.
ai
The danger
of refer¬
ring every
phenome¬
non in hu¬
man nature
to a parti-
:ular in-
ftindt as its
ultimate
INS r 28
by each of thefe principles, and that thofe a&ions
ought to be carefully diftinguifhed, and though the hu¬
man mind is unqueliionably endowed with a few in-
ftinfts neceffary to the prefervation of the individual
and the propagation of the race, that by far the great¬
er part of thofe aftions which are commonly faid to pro¬
ceed from inftinft are merely the effedls of early habits.
We are likewife of opinion, that the prefent falhionable
mode of referring almoft every phenomenon in human
nature to a particular inftinft as its ultimate caufe, is
hurtful to fcience, as tending to check all further in¬
quiry j and dangerous in morals, as making people im¬
plicitly follow, as the diclates of nature and tiature^s
GOB, the abfurd,fuperJUtious, or impious cujioms of their
refpeftive countries.
INSTITUTES, in literary hidory, a book contain¬
ing the elements of the Roman law.
The inftitutes are divided into four books 5 and con¬
tain an abridgement of the whole body of the civil law,
being deiigned for the ufe of ftudents. See Law
Index.
Institute, in Scots Law. When by difpofition
or deed of entail a number of perfons are called to
the fuccedion of an eftate one after another, the per-
fon firft named is called the infliiute, the others fubfi-
tutes.
National INSTITUTE of France, was founded by a de¬
cree of the new conftitution, and opened on the 'jth of
December 1795. The abolition of royalty naturally
fuggefted to the new rulers of France, that it would
likewife be proper to aboliih every thing which had the
remoteft connexion with it. Condorcet therefore pro-
pofed that the feven old academies, fuch as thofe of fci-
ences, of infcriptions, &c. which had the term royal
prefixed to the whole of them, fhould give way to the
eftablifhment of one new academy of arts and Iciences,
under the title of the National Injlitute.
The academy, or inftitute, is to confift of 288 mem¬
bers, the half of whom are to have their refidence in
Paris, and the reft in the different departments, with
24 foreign members.
This academy is divided into three claffes ; thefe are
divided each into three feftions, and each of thefe
again is to confift of 12 members.
The firft clafs confifts of 10 feflicns, which are to
prefide over mathematics, mechanical arts, aftronomy,
experimental philofophy, chemiftry, natural hiftory, bo¬
tany, anatomy and animal hiftory, medicine and fur-
gery, animal economy, and the veterinary fcience.
The fecondclafs has morality and politics for its de¬
partment, and confifts of fix feflions, viz. analyfis of
fenfations and ideas, morals, legiflature, political eco¬
nomy, hiftory, and geography.
The third clafs prefides over literature and the fine
arts, confifting of eight fedlions, viz. univerfal grammar,
ancient languages, poetry, antiquities, painting, fculp-
ture, architecture, and mufic.—Several volumes of me¬
moirs have been publilhed by each of the claffes.
The hall in which the whole claffes hold their meet¬
ings four times a year, forms part of the weft wing of
the old Louvre, which was ereCted about the year
1528. It meafures 144 feet by 40, and is capable of
accommodating upwards of 1000 perfons.
The fchools of national inftrudtion may be confider-
ed as forming a part of the fame inftitution. Thefe are,
5 ] INS
I. The primary Ichools, one of which is eftablifhed in Inftitute
every diftriCt, where children are taught the arts of ^
reading and writing, the elements of French grammar,
of arithmetic and geometry, &c. 2. The central
fchools, fituated in the capital of every department, and
one is allowed for every 300,000 inhabitants. 3. The
fchools of health, which are three in number, where
medicine and furgery are ftudied. 4. Two fchools for
oriental languages. 5. The polytechnic fchool in Paris
for the direftion of public works, an eftabliftnuenfe
which is generally admired. 6. The national inftitute,
of which we have already given feme account.
The executive department of all thefe is veiled in a
fupreme council at Paris. For the commodious execu¬
tion of fo many complicated branches, there is an ex-
tenfive office called Le Secretariat, which is divided in¬
to three departments, for the regulation of the different
kinds of inftruCtion, for weights and meafures, and for
theatres, national feafts, the ereCtion of monuments,
Sec.
By means of a permanent committee of inftruClion,
under the authority of government, many improvements
of a literary and fcientific nature have been made, fuch
as the National Bibliography, or complete catalogue of
books of all deferiptions ; the annihilation of all dia-,
leCls, which were incredibly numerous in France 5 the
eftabliftunent of the Confervatoire des Arts et Metiers ;
of the board of longitude, the general fchool of the
oriental languages, the national mufeum of antiquities,
the new-modelling of the grand national library, the
augmentation of the mufeum of. natural hiftory, the
ecole des mines, and the fociety of natural hiftory in
Paris.
INSTITUTION, in general, fignifies the eftablifli-
ing or founding fomething.—In the canon and common
law, it fignifies the invefting a clerk with the fpiritua-
lities of a reftory, &c. which is done by the biffiop,
who ufes the following formula : “ I inftitute you rec¬
tor of fuch a church with the cure of fouls, and receive
your care and mine.”
Institutions, in literary matters, denote a fyftem
of the elements or rules of any art or fcience.
Thus phyfical or medical inftitutions are fuch as
teach the neceflary prcecognita to the practice of medi¬
cine, or the cure of difeaies.
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is fubfervi-
ent to a caufe in producing any effeft.
Mathematical, Philofophica^Szc. INSTRUMENTS. See
Astronomy, Electricity, Geometry, Levelling,
Mechanics, Optics, Pneumatics, &c. &c.
Instrument, is alfo ufed in law, to fignify fome
public aft, or authentic deed, by means whereof any
truth is made apparent, or any right or title eftablilh-
ed, in a court of juftice.
Notorial INSTRUMENT, m Scots Law, any fa ft cer¬
tified in writing, under the hand of a notary-public.
INSUBRIUM ager, in Ancient Geography, a dif-
trift of the Tranfpadana •, fituated between the Ticinus
to the weft, the Addua to the eaft, the Padus to the
fouth, and the Orobii to the north. The people called
Infubres by Livy, Infubri by Ptolemy, and Ifombres by
Strabo. Now the duchy of Milan.
INSULAR, any thing belonging to an ifland.—
Infular fituations are preduftive of many happy confe-
quences to the inhabitants, both with refpeft to the cli¬
mate.
INS [ 286 ] INS
Infular mate, fecurity, and convenience for commerce ; for a
T li particular account of which, fee Island and Coast.
1 ' “ . INSULATED, in Architc&ure, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch columns as ftand alone, or free from any
contiguous wall, like an ifland in the fea 5 whence the
name.
Insulated, in ele&rical experiments. When any
body is prevented from communicating with the earth
by the interpolition of an ele&ric body, it is faid to be
infulated. See Electricity Index.
INSURANCE, in Law and Commerce, a contraft,
whereby one party engages to pay the Ioffes which the
other may fuftain, for a ilipulated premium or conlide-
ration. The moft common forts are, Infurance again!!
the dangers of the fsas, infurance againlt fire, infurance
of debts, and infurance of lives.
According to Beckmann, the oldeft laws and regu¬
lations refpetting infurance, are the following.
On the 28th of January 1523, five perfons who had
received an appointment for that purpofe, drew up
fome articles at Florence, which continue to be em¬
ployed on the exchange at Leghorn. Thefe interefting
regulations, and the prefcribed form of policies, which
are deemed the oldeft, were inferted by Magens, in his
treatife on infurance, publilhed at Hamburgh in Italian
and German, in the year 1753.
A fhort regulation of the 25th May 1537, by the
emperor Charles V. refpefting bills of exchange and in¬
furance, is ftill preferved, in which even the fulfilling
of an agreement is ftriftly commanded.
_ In the year 1556, Philip II. of Spain gave the Spa-
nifir merchants certain regulations refpefting infurance,
which Magens has inferted in the fore-mentioned work.
They contain fome forms of policies on ftiips going to
the Indies.
The chamber of infurance was eftabliftied at Am-
fterdam in 159^1 an account of the firft regulations of
which office was publifhed by Pontanus, in his hiftory
of that city.
. Regulations refpe&ing infurance were formed by the
city of Middleburg in Zealand, in the year 1600 j and
it appears that the firft regulations refpefting infurances
in England, were made in the following year. We
find from them, that infurers, prior to this period, had
fecured the confidence of the public fo completely, by
the honefty and reaitude of their conduft, that few oc-
* Hijl. of cafions for difputes had arifen *.
■Invent. . I. INSURANCE agamj) Lofs at Sea, is a moft benefi-
vol. 1. 382. cial inftitution, for promoting the fecurity of trade, and
preventing the ruin of individuals 5 and is now con¬
ducted by a regular fyftem of rules, eftabliftied by the
interpofition of the legillature, the decifion of the courts
of juftice, and the practice of merchants.
It is carried on to the belt advantage by public com¬
panies, or by a confiderable number of private perfons
each of whom only engages for a fmall fum, on the fame*
veffel. There are two public companies eftabliftied by
authority of parliament, viz. the London and Royal
Exchange Infurance Companies. For procuring fub-
fcription by private perfons, brokers are generally em-
-ployed, who extend the policy or contraft of infurance,
and affift at fettling Ioffes. They are entitled to an al¬
lowance for their trouble, generally 5 per cent, on pre¬
miums, and 2 per cent, on Ioffes.
The parties who engage to pay the damage are call- Infurance.
ed the mfurers or underwriters: the parties for whofe v~—'
fecurity they engage are called the injured; and the
premium is underftood to be paid when the infurance is
made.
On this fubjecl, we fhall confider, What is neceffary
to render an iniurance valid :—When the riik commen¬
ces, and when it terminates :—What conftitutes a total
or a partial lofs What proof of lofs is neceffary
and, How the lofs is adjufted.
Fuji, In order to render an infurance valid, the in-
fured muft have property really at ftake $ the voyage
muff take place under the circumftances agreed on ^
the dangers infured again!! muft not be contrary to law,
and a candid account muft be given of circumftances
which enhance the danger.
i. The condition of polleffing property was required
by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. to prevent (hips from being frau¬
dulently deftroyed when infured above their value $ and
to difcourage a praflice which had become common,
of converting policies to the purpofe of mere wagers.
In tranfadfions of this kind, as the infured had no pro-
perty, and could claim no indemnification for partial
damage j fo the infurers, having loft their wager by
the (hip’s being loft, could claim no abatement, though
part was laved: accordingly, the policies contained
claufes of interett or no intereft, free from average, and
without benefit of falvage. All fuch policies are de¬
clared invalid.
This reftriflion does not extend to privateers, nor
to Ihips trading to the Spaniffi or Portuguefe planta¬
tions.
Infurances are commonly made as intereft (hall ap¬
pear j and it is incumbent on the infured to prove the
value of his property, 1 he value of the goods may
be proved by the invoices; and the coquet muft be
produced, if required, to inftnnft that the goods were
aftually Ihipped. It is admitted to value the ffiip at
prime coft and charges, deducing the freights that
have been drawn fince purchafed, if the proprietors
choofe to (land to that rule ; but they are not reftrifted
to it. Sometimes the value of the {hip or goods is ex-
preffed in the policy ; and this value muft be admitted,
although it be higher than the true one : but it is in- *
cumbent on the infured to prove that he had property
at ftake ; and, if the property be trifling in comparifon
of the fum infured, the infurance will be fet afide, as an
evafion of the ftatute.
Expefted profits, and bounty on the whale fiftiery,
if fpeeified in the policy, may be infured.
When the value is lels than the fum infured, the
owners may claim a return of premium for the excefs.
_ If there be feveral policies on the fame fubjeff, of
different dates, the earlieft one is valid, and the others
muft be vacated. If they be of the fame date, they
muft be vacated in equal proportions.
When a policy is vacated, in whole or in part, the
Underwriters have a right to retain f per cent, for their
trouble.
In the cafe of a cargo intended for A, but after¬
wards fent to B, both expefted it, and infured, and B
claimed for the value on its being loft. The under¬
writers anfwered, that it was a double infurance, and
they ought only to pay their proportion. Judgment
wa*
I N S
[
infurance. was given, finding them liable for the whole, and re-
u. ^ ■■ ferving to them any demand competent againft the un¬
derwriters who infured for A.
Fraudulently to call away or defiroy a (hip infured
above its value, is felony.
2. If the (hip does not proceed on the voyage, or if,
being warranted to depart with convoy, it departs
without convoy, the infurance muft be vacated.
If the extent of a trading voyage be uncertain, the
longed one in contemplation is defcribed in the policy,
and it is agreed that part of the premium (hall be re¬
turned, if the voyage be (hortened. In like manner, in
time of war, when infurance is made without condition
of convoy, it is agreed that part of the premium be re¬
turned in cafe it fail with convoy.
When a (hip is warranted to depart with convoy, it is
tmderdood from the ufual place of convoy (e. g. the
Downs),, and it is infured till it arrive there.
The common proof of failing with convoy is the pro-
duftion of failing orders but, if a (hip be prevented by
the weather from receiving the failing orders, other
proof may be admitted.
A (hip was infured from the Thames to Halifax,
warranted to fail from Portfmouth with convoy. The
convoy had failed before the (hip arrived there, and the
underwriters declined to infure it, without convoy, for
the reft of the voyage. They were found liable to re¬
turn part of the premium, retaining only in proportion
to the accuftomed rate from London to Portfmouth.
This decifion feems to eftablifti the following principle,
that, when the voyage performed is only part of that
defcribed in the policy, and when the rilk can be pro¬
portioned, the underwriters are bound to return part
of the premium, though there be no agreement for that
purpofe.
But, if a (hip, infured only againft the hazards of
the fea, be taken by the enemy, the infured have no
right to claim a return of premium, though the capture
happen foon, under pretence that little fea-hazard was
incurred.
If a (hip deviates from the voyage defcribed in the
policy, without neceflity, it fets afide the infurance.
An intention to deviate is not fufhcient to fet it afide j
there muft be an a61ual deviation ; and, even in that
cafe, the infurers are liable for damages fuftained-before
deviation.
It is no deviation to go out of the way to the accuf¬
tomed place of convoy, nor to the neareft place where
necefiary repairs may be had. Deviation, for the pur¬
pofe of fmuggling, if without the knowledge of the
owners, does not fet afide the infurance, nor when the
jnafter is forced by the crew to return.
In infurance to the Eaft Indies, and home, the in-
- furers are underftood to take the rifk of detention in the
country, and of country voyages.
3. Infurance of prohibited goods, againft the rilk of
feizure by the government, is unlawful and invalid.
The infurers, infured, brokers, and all accefibries, are
liable to the fine of 500I.
4. If the infured have any information of more than
common danger, they muft reveal every fuch circum-
ftance to the infurers, otherwife the policy is fet afide.
This rule is eftabliftied for the prefervation of good
faith} and there are feveral ftrong decifions in fupport
87 ] INS
of it. If a (hip be fpoke to leaky at fea, CTif ihsi® be
a report of its being loft, thefe circumftances muft be
communicated to the infurers. Even the concealment
of a falfe report of lofs vitiates the infurance j and, if
the (hip be afterwards loft, though in a dift'erent man¬
ner, the infurer will recover nothing. In a voyage
from Carolina to London, another (hip had failed ten
days after that which was infuredr and arrived feven
days before the infurance was made ; and the conceal¬
ment of this circumftance, though the fa£t was not pro¬
ved to the fatisfadlion of the jury, was confidered asfuf-
fici^nt to fet it afide. Alfo, during the continuance of
the American wrar, a (hip being infured from Portugal,
by the month, without condefcending on the voyage,
failed for North America, and was taken by a provin¬
cial privateer. The infurers refufed to pay, becaufe the
hazardous deftination was concealed $ and it was only
upon proof of the infured being equally ignorant of it
that they were found liable.
But the infured are not obliged to take notice of
general perils, which the infurers are underftood to
have in contemplation $ dangerous navigation, Weft
Indian hurricanes, enterprifes of the enemy, and the
like.
Infurance is not fet afide by a miftake in the name
of the (hip or mafter, or the like.
Infurance may be made on an uncertain (hip ; on any
(hip that the goods may be loaded on j on any (hip that
A (hall fail in from Virginia. In this laft cafe, the po¬
licy is not transferred to a (hip which A goes on board:
during the voyage.
Secondly, If a (hip be infured at and from a port,
the infurance commences immediately if the (hip be
there, or at its arrival there. If it be damaged when
preparing for a voyage, the infurers are liable j but
not if the voyage be laid afide for feveral years, with
confent of the owners. Infurance from a port com¬
mences when the (hip breaks ground •, and, if it fet
fail, and be driven back and loft in the port, the in¬
furers are liable.
Infurance on goods generally continues till they be
landed j but if they be fold after the (hips arrival, and
freight contrafled to another port, the infurance is con¬
cluded. Goods fent on board another (hip or lighter
are not at the rilk of the infurer j but goods fent aftiore
in the long boat are.
Infurance on freight commences when the goods are
put on board.
Goods from the Eaft Indies, infured to Gibraltar,
and to be reftiipped from thence to Britain, were put
on board a ftore-lhip at Gibraltar, to wait an opportu¬
nity of reftiipping, and w ere loft : The cuftom of put-
ting goods aboard a ftore-lhip being proved, the infurers
were found liable.
Lofs of fails aftiore, when the (hip is repairing, is
comprehended within the infurance. What is neceffa-
rily underftood, is infured, as W’ell as what is exprefled j
the eflential means, and intermediate fteps, as well as
the end. Ships performing quarantine are at the riik
of the infurer.
Thirdly, The infurers are liable for a total lof? when
the fubjedt perifties through any of the perils infured
againft. Barratry, though it properly fignifies running
away with the (hip, extends to any kind of fraud in
the
Infurance.
INS' [2
kifurance. tire mafter or mariners. Infurance againft detention of
v princes does not extend to (liips that are feized for tranf-
grefling the laws of foreign countries.
The infurers are alfo liable for a total lofs, when
damage is fuftained, and the remaining property aban¬
doned or veiled in the infurers.
If a fliip be ftranded, or taken, and kept by the ene¬
my, or detained by any foreign power, or feized for
the fervice of the government, the proprietors have a
right to abandon.
But, if a fliip be taken by the enemy, and be re¬
taken, or makes its efcape, before adlion againfl: the
infurers j have the infured a right to abandon, or mull
they only claim for the damages fuftained as an ave¬
rage lofs ? There are oppofite decifions, according as
the circumftances of the cafe were ftrong. When the
fliip was long detained, the goods perifliable, the voy¬
age entirely loft, or fo difturbed, that the purfuit of it
was not worth the freight, or when the damage ex¬
ceeds half the value of the thing, they have been found
entitled to abandon j Gofs againft Withers, 2 Bur¬
row, 683.). But, if the voyage be completed with lit¬
tle trouble or delay, they are not entitled ; (Hamilton
againft Mendez, 2 Burrow, 1198.).
The infured cannot claim, as for a total lofs, on
an offer to abandon, when the lofs is, in its nature,
only partial ; for, if this were permitted, they might
devolve the lofs occafloned by bad markets on the in¬
furers.
And, in all cafes, the infured have their option to
abandon, or not. They may retain their property if
they pleafe, and claim for an average lofs 5 and they
niuft make their option before they claim.
If the goods be fo much damaged, that their value
is lefs than the freight, the infurers are accountable as
for a total lofs.
The infurers are liable for general average, when
the property is charged with contribution ; and for par¬
ticular average, when the property is damaged, or part
of it deftroyed.
If the damage be fuftained through the fault of the
fhip, the owners of the goods may have reeourfe, either
againft the matters or infurers ; and, if the infurers be
charged, they ftand in the place of the owners, and
have recourfe againft the mafter.
^ In order to prevent the infurers from being troubled
with frivolous demands for average, it is generally fti-
pulated, that none fhall be charged under 5 per cent,
or feme other determined rate 5 and corn, flax, fruit,
fifli, and like perifhable goods, are warranted free from
average, unlefs general, or the fhip be ftranded.
In order to encourage every effort to fave the fliip,
the infurers are liable for charges laid out with that de-
fign, although the fubjedt perifh. Thus, they may be
charged with more>chan the fum infured.
In cafe of goods being damaged, the proportion of
the fum infured, for which the underwriters are liable,
is regulated by the proportion of the prices which the
found and damaged goods fetch at the port of deftina-
tion. The prime coft of the goods is not confidered,
nor the neceflxty of immediate fale, in confequence of
damage. Although the damaged goods fell above
prime coft, the infurers are liable.
Fourthly, If a fhip be loft, and the crew faved, the
lofs is proved by the evidence of the crew.
88 ] , INS
If damage be fuftained, the extent is proved by an Infurance.
examination of the fubjefl damaged, at the ftiip’s ar- v***»-j
rival; and the caufe by the evidence of the crew.
If the ftiip be ftranded, evidence muft be taken at
the place where ftranded.
Documents of lofs muft be laid before the under¬
writers, with all convenient fpeed j and, if thefe be
fufficiently clear, the lofs ftiould be immediately fettled.
The underwriters generally grant their notes at a month
or fix weeks date for their proportions.
If a fliip be not heard of for a certain time, it is pre¬
fumed loft ; and the underwriters are liable to pay the
fums infured, the property being abandoned to them in
the event of the ftiip’s return. Six months are allowed
for a voyage to any part of Europe, a year to America,
and two years to the Eaft Indies.
By the ordinance of Hamburgh, if a ftiip be three
months beyond the ufual time of performing, a voy¬
age, the underwriters may be defired to pay 92 per
cent, on an abandon. If they decline it, they are al¬
lowed 14 months more, and then they muft pay the full
value.
A ftiip infured againft the hazards of the fea, but not
againft the enemy, if never heard of, is prefumed loft
at fea.
Fifthly, In order that the manner of fettling Ioffes
may be underftood, we muft explain what is meant by
covering property. We mentioned already, that infu-
rances for greater fums than the infured had really at
flake, were contrary to law : but fome latitude is al¬
lowed in that icfpedl j for if the owner were to infure
no more than, the exadt value of his property, he would
lofe the premium of infurance, and the abatement, if
any was agreed on.
For example, if he has goods on board to the value
of 100I. and infures the fame at 5 per cent, to abate
2 per cent, in cafe of lofs ; then, if a total lofs hap¬
pen, he recovers 98I. from the infurers, of which 5I.
being applied to re-place the premium, the nett fum
faved is only 93I. j but, if the value on board be only
93I. and the fum infured 100I. he would be fully in-
demnified for the lofs j and his property, in that cafe,
,is faid to be covered.
lo find how much ftiould be infured to cover any
fum, fubtradl the amount of the premium and abate¬
ment (if any) from 100I. As the remainder is to 100I.
fo is the value to the fum which covers it.
In cafe of a total lofs, if the fum infured be not
greater than that which covers the property, the in¬
furers muft pay it all. If greater, they pay what
covers the property, and return the premium on the
overplus.
Partial Ioffes are regulated by this principle, that
whereas the owner is not fully indemnified, in cafe of a
total lofs, unlefs he covers his property, therefore he
ftiould only be indemnified-for a partial lofs in the fame
proportion ; and, ir it be not fully infured, he is cohfi-
dered as infurer himfelf, for the part not covered, and
muft bear a fuitable proportion of the lofs. Therefore,
the value of the property is proved, and the fum requi¬
red to cover it computed. If that fum be all infured,
the underwriters pay the whole damage 5 if only part
be infured, they pay their (hare, wliich is computed by
the following rule : .As the fum which covers the pro¬
perty is to the fum infured, fo is the whole damage to
the
INS r 2^9 ] INS
Infitrance. the part for which the infurers are liable.—For example,
‘ ^ if the value of the proj^rly be 360I. the fum infured
300I. the premium 8 per cent, and abatement 2 per
cent, then the fum which thould be infured to cover
the property is 400I. ; and, if damage be fuitained to
the extent of 200I. the owners will recover 150I.
If a voyage is infured out and home, the premium
outward mutt be confidered as part of the Value on the
homeward property, and the fum neceflary to cover it
computed accordingly. For example, to infure 100I.
out and home, at 5 per cent, each voyage, abatement
1 per cent, we compute thus :
93 : loo :: L. 100 : L. 107 : 10 : 6, to be infured
outward, premium on L. 107 : 10 : 6 outwards, at 5
per cent. L. 5 : 7 : 6 : 93 : 100 :: L. 105 : 7 : 6 :
L. 113 : 6s. to be infured home j the premium on
which is L. 5 : 13 : 6 } and, if the fhip be loft on the
homeward voyage,
From the fum infured home L. 113 6 O
Subtradt the difcount, 2 per cent. 2 S 3
Sum for which the infurers are liable L.m — 9
Infurance out hi. 5 7 6
Infurance home 5 !3 3
   11 — 9
Covered property L. 100  
II. INSURANCE again]} Fire. There are feveral of¬
fices in Britain for this purpt>fe, of which the Sun fire-
office is the mott confiderable. Infurances are divided
into common, hazardous, and doubly hazardous, ac¬
cording to the nature of the fubjedl infured. When
the fum infured is high, there is a higher premium
per cent, demanded j and money, papers, jewels, pic¬
tures, and gun-powder, are not comprehended. If a
fubjedt be wrong defcribed, in order that it may be in¬
fured at a lower premium, the policy is void. The be¬
nefit of a policy is transferred, by indorfement, to the
reprefentatives of the perfon in whofe favour it was
made •, and it may be transferred to other houfes when
the infured changes his habitation. If infurance be
made on the fame fubjedt in different offices, it mutt
be fpecified, by indorfement, on the policy ; and, in
cafe of lofs, the offices pay proportionally. The in¬
furers pay all expences in attempting to extinguilh
fire, or to fave goods, though not fuccefsful. If the
value of a fubjedt be infured in part, and damage be
futtained, the infurers pay the whole, if it does not ex¬
ceed the fum infured.
III. Insurance of Debts. See Bottomry.
IV. In virtue of INSURANCE for Lives, when the
perfon dies, a fum of money becomes payable to the
perfon on whofe behalf the policy of infurance was
granted. One of the principal infurance-offices of this
kind is that of the Amicable Society for a perpetual
infurance, kept in Serjeant’s-inn, Fleet ftreet, London.
This fociety at Serjeant’s-inn requires an annual
payment of 5I. from every member during life, pay¬
able quarterly. T. he whole annual income hence ari-
fing is equally divided among the nominees, or heirs,
of fuch members as die every year ; and this renders
the dividends among the nominees in different years,
more or lefs, according to the number of members
who have happened to die in thofe years. But this
VOL. XI. Part I,
fociety engages that the dividends fhall not be lefs than Infurane&.
150I. to each claimant, though they may be more.—- ——y—
None are admitted whofe ages are greater than 45,
or lefs than 1 2 j nor is there any difference of contri¬
bution allowed on account of difference of age.—This
fociety has fubfitted ever fince 1706, and its credit
and ufefulnefs are well eftabliflied. Its plan, however,
is liable to feveral obje&ions. Firtt, it is evident,
that regulating the dividends among the nominees, by
the number of members who die every year, is not equi¬
table 5 becaufe it makes the benefit which a member is
to receive to depend, not on the value of his contribu¬
tion, but on a contingency ; that is, the number of
members that lhall happen to die the fame year with
him. Secondly, its requiring the fame payments from
all perfons under 45, is alfo not equitable j for the pay¬
ment of a perfon admitted at 12 ought not to be more
than half the payment of a perfon admitted at 45.
Thirdly, its plan is fo narrow', as to confine its ufefui-
nefs too much. It can be of no fervice to any perfon
whofe age exceeds 45. It is likewife by no means pro¬
perly adapted to the circumftances of perfons who want
to make affurances on their lives for only one year, or a
fhort term of years. For example : the true value of
the aflurance of 150I. for five years, on the life of a
perfon whofe age is 39, may be found, by the firit rule,
to be nearly three guineas per annum, fuppofing inte-
reft at 3 per cent, and the probabilities of the duration
of human life, as they are given in Dr Halley’s Table
of Obfervations. But fuch an affurance could not be
made in this fociety without an annual payment of 5!*
Neither is the plan of this fociety at all adapted to the
circumftances of perfons who wmnt to make affurances
on particular furvivorftiips. For example : a perfon
poffeffed of an eftate or falary, which mutt be loft with
his life, has a perfon dependent upon him, for whom he
dcfires to fecure a fum of money payable at his death*
But he defires this only as a fecurity againft the danger
of his dying firft, and leaving a wife, or a parent, with¬
out fupport. In thefe circumftances he enters himfelf
into this fociety ; and, by an annual payment of 5I, en¬
titles his nominee at his death to 150I. In a few years,
perhaps, his nominee happens to die j and having then
loft the advantages he had in view, he determines to
forfeit his former payments, and to withdraw from the
fociety. The right method, in this cafe, would have
been to have taken from fuch a perfon the true value of
the fum affured, “ on the fuppoiition of non-payment,
provided he fhould furvive.” In this way he would
have chofen to contrail with the fociety : and had he
done this, he would have paid for the affurance (fup-
pofmg intereft at 3 per cent, his age 30, the age of his
nominee 30, and the values of lives as given by M. de
Moivre) 3I. 8s. in annual payments, £0 begin imme¬
diately, and to be continued during the joint duration
of his own life, and the life of his nominee.
The Equitable Society for Affurances on Lives and
Survivor Ihips, which meets at Blackfriars Bridge, is
one of the molt important of the kind. It was efta-
bliIhed in the year 1762, in confequence of propofals
made, and lectures recommending the defign, which
had been read by Mr Dodfon, author of the Mathema¬
tical Repofitory. It affures any fums, or reverlionary
annuities, on any life or lives, for any number of years,
as well as for the whole continuance of the lives ^ and
I N T
Sura affured 100I.
Infurance.
INS [ 290 ]
in any manner that may be befl adapted to the views of
the perfons allured. For inftance, any perfons wno de¬
pend on incomes which mult be loft when they die, or
who are only tenants for lite in eftates, may, if they
want to borrow money, be enabled to give fufficient
fecurity, by alluring fuch fums as they want to bor¬
row, and affigning the policy. In the fame way cler¬
gymen, and others who hold places of profit, having
families whofe fubfiftence depends on the continuance
of their lives ; fuch as enjoy annuities for the lives of
others ; any perfon entitled to an eftate, legacy, &c.
after another perfon, provided he furvives ; hulbands
may provide annuities for their wives, if they leave
them widows 5 parents may, by affuring the lives of
their children, when infants, till they attain a given
age, fecure for them, (hould they live till that age, fums
neceffary for apprenticelhips, &c. •, perfons apprehenfive
of being left without fupport inoldage,may herepurehaie
annuities, if willing to wait for the commenceraent of
the payment of thefe till they are 55 or 60 years of age.
In fine, there are no kinds of alfurances on lives and
furvivorlhips, which this fociety does not make, follow¬
ing the rules given by tbe belt mathematical writers
on life annuities, particularly Mr Simfon’s. In or¬
der to gain fucb a profit as may render it a perma¬
nent benefit to the public, and enable it to bear the ex-
pences of management, it takes the advantage of mak¬
ing its calculations at fo low an intereft as 3 per cent,
and from tables of the probabilities and values of lives
in London, where, as in all great towns, the rate of
human mortality is much greater than it is in common
•among mankind.
This fociety, finding in the month of June i/77»
that their affairs were in a flourifhing condition, came
to a refolution to reduce their annual premiums one-
tenth •, and they adopted new tables in tbe year 1782,
founded on the probabilities of life at Northampton, in-
ft«ad of thofe which were framed from the London bills
of mortality. It was afterwards thought proper to
make an addition, for greater fecurity, of 15 per cent,
to the true value of the aflurances, as calculated from
the table of mortality at Northampton. To make a
fuitable recompenfe to the allured for the payments they
had formerly made, which had been greater than the
new rates required, an addition of il. 10s. was made to
their claims far every premium they had paid. The re-
fult of this rfteafure was, that in 1785 the bufinefs of
the fociety was nearly doubled, the fums allured a-
mounting to 720,00c!. In confequence of a minute in-
veftigation, the fociety took off the > 5 per cent, charged
on premium' in *782, and added il. per cent, more to
the affurer’s claims, for every payment made before the
lit of January 1786. Bufinefs ftill increafing, they
made another addition of il. per cent, in 1791 J and in
the fubfequent year a f rther addition of 2l. per cent, by
which the claims of fuch as affured in 1770 came to be
more than doubled, and thole of a prior date were ftill
higher. By fuch integrity and confequent increafe of
bufinefs, the fums affured amounted, on the 31ft of De¬
cember 1792, to the aftonilhing fum of three millions
fterling •, and exaftly three years after, they amounted
to about one million more.
The rates of affuram e, as reduced to their real va¬
lues in 1786, according to which all bufmefs is now
tranfacled, are the following.
Age.
*5
20
25
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
One year. \ Seven years.
£- '•
o 17
<1-
7
TO
!3
l6
o
6
!5
5
18
15
11
3
1
1
7 1
3 1
4! 1
8 2
8 2
1 ! 3
o j 3
1 4
2 ! 5
j.
2
9
12
I4
18
4
10
o
12
7
10
d.
11
5
x
11
10
1
IC
8
o
1
10
Whole life.
s.
xS
3
8
13
19
7
*7
d.
7
7
1
4
10
x 1
11
10 10
6 4
7
16
Int'urance
11
Intendant.
The other offices in London for the affurances of lives
are,
The Royal Exchange Affurance, which was em¬
powered to allure lives by virtue of its fecond charter,
bearing ddte the 29th of April 1721 5 the Weftminfter
Society was eftablilhed in 1792, for affuring lives and
annuities j and the Pelican Life Office was inftituted in
1797, which makei a new Ipecies of affurance, by way
of endowment for daughters, when they have attained
the age of 21 years.
Re-lNSURANGE is a fecond contraft, made by anyin-
furer, to transfer the rifkhe has engaged for to another.
It is in general forbidden by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. but is
permitted to the reprefentatives of an infurer in caie of
his death, or his affignees in cafe of his bankruptcy j
and it mult be mentioned in the policy that it is a re-
infurance.
INTAGLIOS, precious Hones, on which are en¬
graved the heads of great men, inscriptions, and the
like *, fuch as we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, &c,
INTEGER, in Arithmetic, a whole number, in con-
tradiftindlion to a fradlion,
INTEGRAL, or Integrant, in Philofcphy, ap¬
pellations given to parts of bodies which are of a fimilar
nature with the whole : thus filings of iron have the
fame nature and properties as bars of iron.
Bodies may be reduced into their integrant parts by
triture or grinding, liraation or filing, lolution, amal¬
gamation, &c. See Grinding.
Integral Calculus, in the new analyfis, is the re-
verfe of the differential calculus, and is the finding of
the integral from a given differential ", being fimilar to
the inverfe method of fluxions. See Feuxions.
INTEGUMENTS, in Anatomy, denote the com¬
mon coverings which inveft ihe body j as the cuticula,,
cutis, &c See Anatomy.
INTEGUMENT is alio extended to the particular
membranes which inveft certain parts of the body ; as-
the coats or tunics of the eye.
INTELLECT, a term ufed among philofophers, to
fignify that faculty of the foul ufualiy called the un¬
derfunding. See Logic and Metaphysics.
INTENDANT, one who has the conduct, infpec-
tion, and management of any thing. See SUPERIN¬
TEND ANT.
This is a title frequent among the French : they
have intendants of the marine, who are officers in the fea-
poits,
Iittendant
II
Intercef-
lion.
I N T [29
ports, vhofe bufinefs it is to take care tlie ordinances
and regulations relating to fea aftairs be obferved : in-
tendants of the finances, who have the direction of the
revenues : intendanis of provinces, who are appointed by
the king to take care of the adminiftration of juftice,
policy, and finances in the province : alfo intendants of
buildings, of Jioufes, &.c.
INTENDMENT, in Law, is the intention, defign,
or true meaning, of a perfon or thing, which frequent¬
ly fupplies what is not fully expreffed ; but though the
intent of parties in deeds and contracts is much regard¬
ed by the law, yet it cannot take place againft the rules
of law.
INTENDMENT of Crimes; this, in cafe of treafon
where the intention is proved by circumftances, is pu-
niihable in the fame manner as if it was put in execu¬
tion. So, if a perfon enter a houfe in the night-time,
with an intent to commit burglary, it is felony ; alfo,
an affault, with an intent to commit a robbery on the
highway is made felony, and punifhed with tranfporta-
tion, 7 Geo. II. c. 21.
INTENT, in the civil law, fignifies to begin, or
commence, an a&ion or procefs.
INTENTION, in Medicine, that judgment or me¬
thod of cure which a phyfician forms to himfeif from a
due examination of fymptoms.
Intention, in Phyfics, the increafe of the power or
energy of any quality •, as heat, cold, &c. by which it
Hands oppofed to remiffion, which fignifies its decreafe
®r diminution.
Intention, in Metaphijlies, denotes an exertion of
the intelleftual faculties with more than ordinary vi¬
gour •, when the mind with earneftnefs fixes its view on
any idea, confiders it on all fides, and will not be called
off by any folicitation.
INTERAMNA, in Ancient Geography, fo called
from its fituation between rivers, or in an ifland in the
river Nar •, a town of the Cifapennine Umbria. Inter-
amnates the people •, furnamed Nartes by Pliny, to
diftinguifh them from the people of other Interamnae.
Now Term : a town in the pope’s territory in Umbria.
E. Long. 13. 38. N. Lat. 42. 40.
Interamna, a town and colony of the Volfci in
Latium, on the confines of Samnium, at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Liris and Melpis j and for diffinc-
tion fake called Lirinas. The town is now in ruins.
Interamna, or Interamnia Freetutiariorum (Ptole¬
my) ; a town in the territory of the Praetutiani, a part
of the Picenum. Nowr Teramo, in the Abruzzo of
Naples. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 42. 40.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the
odd day inferted m leap-year j which was fo called
from cnlo, calare, “ to proclaim,” it being proclaimed
by the priefts with a loud voice.
INTERCAT I A, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Vaccaei in the Hither Spain. Here Scipio AEmilia-
nus flew a champion of the barbarians in Angle com¬
bat j and was the firft who mounted the wall in taking
the town. It was fituated to the fouth-eaft of Afturia j
now faid to be in ruins.
INTERCESSION (intercefiio'), was ufed in ancient
Rome, for the aft of a tribune of the people, or other
magiftrate, by which he inhibited the afts of other
magiftrates •, or even, in cafe of the tribunes, the de¬
crees of the fenate. Veto was the folemn word ufsd
Intel eft.
r ] I N T
by the tribunes when they inhibited any decree of the laterceffion
fenate or law propofed to the people. The general
law of thefe interceffions was, that any magiftrate
might inhibit the afts of his equal or inferior ; but the
tribunes had the foie prerogative of controlling the
afts of every other magiftrate, yet could not be corn-
trolled themfelves by any.
INTERCESSOR (from inter and cedo, “ I go be¬
tween”), a perfon who prays, expoftulates, or inter¬
cedes, in behalf of another. In the Roman law, inter-
ceffor was the name of an officer, Whom the governors
of provinces appointed principally to raife taxes and
other duties.
Intercessor, is alfo a term heretofore applied to
fuch biftiops as, during the vacancy of a fee, admini-
ftered the bilhoprick, till a fuccefior to the deceafed
biffiop had been elefted. The third council of Car¬
thage calls thefe interventors.
INTERCOLUMNIATION-, in ArchiteBure, de¬
notes the fpace between two columns, which is always
to be proportioned to the height and bulk of the co¬
lumns.
INTERCOSTAL, in Anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch mufcles, nerves, arteries, and veins, as li«
between the ribs.
INTERDICT, an ecclefiaftical cenfure, by which
the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine
fervice in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This cen¬
fure has been frequently executed in France, Italy, and
Germany j and in the year 1170, Pope Alexander III.
put all England under an interdift, forbidding the cler¬
gy to perform any part of divine fervice, except bapti-
fing of infants, taking confeffions, and giving abfolutioa
to dying penitents. But this cenfure being liable to the
ill confequences of promoting libertinifm and a negleft
of religion, the fucceeding popes have very feldom made
ufe of it.
There was alfo an interdift of perfons, who were
deprived of the benefit of attending on divine fervice.
Particular perfons were alfo anciently interdifted of fire
and water, which fignified a banilhment for fome par¬
ticular offence •, by their cenfure no perfon was allow¬
ed to receive them, or allow' them fire or water } and
being thus wholly deprived of the two necefiary ele¬
ments of life, they were doubtlefs under a kind of civil
death.-
INTEREST, is the premium or mbney paid foe
the loan or ufe of other money.
Many good and learned men have in former times
very much perplexed themfelves and other people by
raifing doubts about the legality of iniereft in faro con-
fdent ice. It may not be amifs here to inquire upon
what grounds this matter does really ftand.
The enemies to intereft in general make no diftinc-
tion between that and ufury, holding any increafe of
money to be indefenfibly ufurious. And this they
ground as well on the prohibition of it by the law of
Mofes among the Jews, as alfo upon what is laid down
by Ariftotle, That money is naturally barren J and to
make, it breed money is prepofterous, and a perverfion
of the end of its inftitution, wdiich was only to ferve
the purpofes of exchange, and not of increafe. Hence
the fchool-divines have branded the praftice of taking
intereft, as being contrary to the divine law both na¬
tural and revealed j and the canon law has proferibed
O o 2 * tha
I N T
Intereft.
the taking any the leaft increafe for the loan of money
as a mortal fin.
But, in anfwer to this, it may be obferved, that the
Mofaical precept was clearly a political, and not a mo¬
ral, precept. It only prohibited the Jews from ta¬
king ufury from their brethren the Jews ; but in ex-
prefs words permitted them to take it of a firanger :
which proves that the taking of moderate ufury, or a
reward for the ufe, for fo the word fignifies, is not ma-
lum in fe, fince it was allowed where any but an If-
raelite was concerned. And as to Ariftotle’s reafon,
deduced from the natural barrennefs of money, the
fame may with equal force be alleged of houfes, which
never breed houfes j and twenty other things, which
nobody doubts it is lawful to make profit of, by letting
them to hire. And though money was originally ufed
only for the purpofes of exchange, yet the laws of any
Hate may be well juftified in permitting it to be turn¬
ed to the purpofes of profit, if the convenience of fo-
eiety (the great end for which money was invented)
fhall require it. And that the allowance of moderate
intereft tends greatly to the benefit of the public, efpe-
eially in a trading country, will appear from that ge¬
nerally acknowledged principle, that commerce cannot
fubfift without mutual and extenfive credit. Unlefs
money therefore^ can be borrowed, trade cannot be
carried on : and if no premium were allowed for the
hire of money, few perfons would care to lend it ; or
at leaft. the eafe of borrowing at a ftiort warning (which
is the life of commerce) would be entirely at an end.
Ihus, in the dark ages of monkilh fuperftition and ci¬
vil tyranny, when intereft was laid under a total in-
terdia, commerce was alfo at its loweft ebb, and fell
entirely into the hands of the Jews and Lombards :
but when men’s minds began to be more enlarged, when
true religion and real liberty revived, commerce grew
again into credit j and again introduced with itfelf its
infeparable companion, the doctrine of loans upon in¬
tereft.
And, really, confidered abftra&edly from this its
ufe, fince all other conveniences of life may be either
bought or hired, but money can only be hired, there
fee *ns no greater impropriety in taking a recompenfe
or price for the hire of
[ 292 1
I N T
or price for the hire of this, than of any other conve¬
nience. If one borrow 100I. to employ in a bene¬
ficial trade, it is but equitable that the lender Ihould
have a proportion of the gains. To demand an exor¬
bitant price is equally contrary to confcience, for the
loan of a herfe, or the loan of a fum of money : but a
reasonable equivalent for the temporary inconvenience
which the owner may feel by the want of it, and for
the hazard of his lofing it entirely, is not more immoral
in one cafe than it is in the other. And indeed the
abfolute prohibition of lending upon any, even moderate
intereft, introduces the very inconvenience which it
feems meant to remedy. The neceflity of individuals
will make borrowing unavoidable. Without fome pro¬
fit by law, there will be but few lenders: and thofe
principally bad men, who will break through the law,
and take a. profit; and then will endeavour to indem¬
nify them (elves from the danger of the penalty, by
making that profit exorbitant. Thus, while all de¬
grees of profit were difcountenanced, we find more
complaints of ufury, and more flagrant inftanees of
®pprefiion, than in modern times when money may be
eafily had at a low intereft, A capital diftinaion muft Intereft.
therefore be made between a moderate and exorbitant '—“V——
profit j to the former of which we ufually give the
name of interej}, to the latter the truly odious appella¬
tion of ufury ; the former is m ceflary in every civil
ftate ; if it were but to exclude the latter, which ought
never to be tolerated in any well regulated fociety ^ 
For, as the whole of this matter is well fummed up by
Grotius, “ if the compenfation allowed by law does
not exceed the proportion of the hazard run, or the
want felt, by the loan, its allowance is neither repug¬
nant to the revealed nor to the natural law : but if it
exceeds thofe bounds, it is then oppreflive ufury j and
though the municipal laws may give it impunity, they
never can make it juft.”
We fee, that the exorbitance or moderation of in¬
tereft, for the money lent, depends upon two circum-
ftances j the inconvenience of parting with it for the
prefent, and the hazard of lofing it entirely. The in¬
convenience to individual lenders can never be eftima-
ted by laws; the rate therefore of general intereft muft
depend upon the ufual or general inconvenience. This
refults entirely from the quantity of fpecie or current
money in the kingdom : for, the more fpecie there is
circulating in any nation, the greater fuperfluity there
will be, beyond what is neceffary to carry on the bu-
finefs or exchange and the common concerns of life.
In every nation, or public community, there is a certain
quantity of money thus neeelfary ; which a perfon well
Ikilled in political arithmetic might perhaps calculate
as exa<ftly as a private banker can the demand for run¬
ning .cafh in his own (hop : all above this neeefiary
quantity may be fpared, or lent, without much incon¬
venience to the refpe&ive leaders ; and the greater this
national fuperfluity is, the more numerous will be th«
lenders, and the lower ought the rate of the national
intereft to be; but where there is not enough, or bare¬
ly enough, circulating cafh to anfwer the ordinary
ufes of the public, intereft will be proportionably high ;
for lenders will be but few, as few can fubmit to the
inconvenience of lending.
So alfo the hazard of an entire lofs has its weight in-
the regulation of intereft : hence, the better the fecu-
rity, the lower will the intereft be ; the rate of intereft
generally in a compound ratio, formed out of
the inconvenience and the hazard. And as, if there
w'ere no inconvenience, there Ihould be no intereft; but
what is equivalent to the hazard ; fo, if there were no
hazard, there ought to be no intereft, fave only what
arifes from the mere inconvenience of lending. Thus,
if the quantity of fpecie in a nation be fuch, that the
general inconvenience of lending for a year is compu¬
ted to amount to three per cent, a man that has money
by him will perhaps lend it upon good perfonal fecu-
rity at five per cent, allowing two for the hazard run ;
he will lend it upon landed fecurity, or mortgage, afc
four per cent, the hazard being proportionably lefs ;
but he will lend it to the ftate, on the maintenance of
which all his property depends, at three per cent, tho
hazard being none at all.
But foraetimes the hazard may be greater than the
rate of intereft allowed by law will compenfate. And
this gives rife to the pra&ice, 1. Of bottomry, or re-
fpondentia. 2. Of policies of infurance. See Bot>
tomry, and Insurants.
Upoa-;
\
I N T r 293 ] 1 N T
Intereft Upon the two principles of inconvenience and ha¬
zard, compared together, different nations have at dif-
Inteiim. feren^ tjmes eftablithed different rates of intereff. The
Romans at one time allowed centiffirvee, one per cent,
monthly, or twelve per cent, per annum, to be taken
for common loans: but Juftinian reduced it to trientes,
or one-third of the as or ceritijfimce, that is four per
cent. $ but allowed higher intereft to be taken of mer¬
chants, becaufe there the hazard was greater. So too
Grotius informs us, that in Holland the rate of intereft
was then eight per cent, in common loans, but twelve
to merchants. Our law eftablifhes one ftandard for all
alike, where the pledge or fecurity itfelf is not put in
jeopardy •, left, under the general pretence of vague
and indeterminate hazards, a door ftiould be opened to
fraud and ufury ; leaving fpecific hazards to be provid¬
ed againft by fpecific infurances, or by loans upon
refpondentia or bottomry. But as to the rate of legal
intereft, it has varied and decreafed for 200 years paft,
according as the quantity of fpecie in the kingdom has
increafed by acceftions of trade, the introduction of
paper-credit, and other circumltances. The ftatute
37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. confined intereft to ten per cent,
and fo did the ftatute 13 EHz. c. 8. But, as through
the encouragements given in her reign to commerce,
the nation grew more wealthy ; fo, under her fucceffor,
the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 17. reduced it to eight per
cent. 5 as did the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. to fix ; and
laftly, by the ftatute 12 Ann. flat. 2. c. 16. it was
brought down to five per cent, yearly, which is now
the extremity of legal intereft that can be taken. But
yet, if a contraCI which carries intereft be made in a
foreign country, our courts will direCI the payment of
intereft according to the law of that country in which
the contraft was made. Thus Irith, American, Turk-
ifli, and Indian intereft, have been allowed in our courts
to the amount of even 1 2 per cent. For the modera¬
tion or exorbitance of intereft depends upon local cir-
cumftances j and the refufal to enforce fuch contraCIs
would put a ftop to all foreign trade. And, by ftat.
14 Geo. III. c. 79. all mortgages and other fecuri-
ties upon eftates or other property in Ireland or the
plantations, bearing intereft not exceeding fix per cent,
lhall be legal j though executed in the kingdom of
Great Britain : unlefs the money lent fhall be known
at the time to exceed the value of the thing in pledge ;
in which cafe alfo, to prevent ufurious contraCIs at
home under colour of fuch foreign fecurities, the bor¬
rower fhall forfeit treble the fum fo borrowed.
For the method of computing intereft, fee Arith¬
metic, feCt. iv. p. 640, and Algebra, fed. xx.
p. 658.
IN 1 EEJECT ION, in Grammar, an indeclinable
part of Ipeech, fignifying fome paffion or emotion of the
mind. See Grammar.
INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind
of confeffion of the articles of faith, obtruded upon
the Proteftants after Luther’s death by the emperor
Charles V. when he had defeated their forces ; fo called
becaufe it was only to take place in the interim (mean
time) till a general council fhould have decided all
points in difpute between the Pioteftants and Roma-
nifts It retained moft of the dodrine* ond ceremonies
ef the Romanifts, excepting that of marriage, which
3
was allowed to the clergy, and communion to the laity Interim
under both kinds. Moft of the Proteftants rejeded it. ^ ^
There were two other interims 5 one of Leipfic, the
other of Franconia.
INTERLOCUTOR, in Scots Law, is the decifion
er judgment of a court before the final decree is paffed'
and extraded.
INTERLOCUTORY decree, in Englifh Law.
In a fuit in equity, if any matter of fad be ftrongly
controverted, the fad is ufually dircded to be tried at
the bar of the court of king’s bench, or at the affizes,
upon a feigned iffue. If a queftion of mere law arifes
in the courle of a caufe, it is the pradice of the court
of chancery to refer it to the opinion of the judges o£
the court of king’s bench, upon a cafe Hated for that
purpofe. In fuch cafes, interlocutory decrees or or¬
ders are made.
INTERLOCUTORY Judgments are fuch as are given in
the middle of a caufe, upon iome plea, proceeding on
default, which is not intermediate, and does not final¬
ly determine or complete the fuit. But the inter¬
locutory judgments moft ufually fpoken of, are thofe
incomplete judgments, whereby the right of the plain¬
tiff is eftablifhed, but the quantum of damages fuftain-
ed by him is not afcertained, which is the province of
a jury. In fuch a cafe a w rit of inquiry iffues to the
fheriff, who fummons a jury, inquires of the damages,
and returns to the court the inquifition fo taken, where¬
upon the plaintiff’s attorney taxes cofts, and figns final
judgment.
INTERLOCUTORY Order, that which decides not the
caufe, but only fettles fome intervening matter relating
to the caufe. As where an order is made in chancery,
for the plaintiff to have an injundien, to quit poffef-
fion till the hearing of the caufe j this order, not be¬
ing final, is called interiocutomj.
INTERLOPERS, are properly thofe who, with- .
out due authority, hinder the trade of a company or
corporation lawfully eftablifhed, by dealing in the lame
way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the
theatre between the ads of a play, to amufe the fpec-
tators while the adors take breath and Ihift their drefs,
or to give time for changing the fcenes and decora¬
tions.
In the ancient tragedy, the chorus fung the inter¬
ludes, to (how the intervals between the ads.
Interludes, among us, ufually confift of longs, dances,
feats of adivity, concerts of mufic, &e.
Ariftotle and Horace give it for a rule, that the in*
terludes ftiould confift of fungs built on the principal
parts of the drama : but fince the chorus has been laid
down, dancers, buffoons, &c. ordinarily furnifh the
interludes.
IN 1 ERMENT, the ad of interring, i. e. burying
or laying a deceafed perfon in the ground.
Ariftotle afferted, that it was more juft to aflift the
dead than the living. Plato, in his Republic, does
not forget amongft other parts of juftiee, that which
concerns the dead. Cicero eftablifhes three kinds of
juftice ; the firft refpeds the gods, the fecund the
manes or dead, and the third men. Thefe princi¬
ples ftem to be drawn from nature ; and they appear
at leaft to be neceffary for the fupport of fociety, fines
I N T [ 294 ] I N T
rib us Philo
fophorum,
lib. viii.
Interment, at all times civilized nations have taken care to bury
their dead, and to pay their laft refpects to them. See
Burial.
We find in hiftory'feveral traces of the refpeft which
the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Syrians entertain-
ed for the dead. The Syrians embalmed their bodies
with myrrh, aloes, honey, fait, wax, bitumen, and re-
finous gums; they dried them alfo with the fmoke of
the fir and the pine tree. The Egyptians preferved
theirs with the refm of the cedar, with aromatic fpices,
and with fait. Thefe people often kept fuch mum¬
mies, or at leaft their effigies, in their houfes $ and at
grand entertainments they were introduced, that by re¬
citing the great attions of their anceftors they might
be better excited to virtue. See FuNEEAL Rites.
The Greeks, at firft, had probably not the fame ve¬
neration for the dead as the Egyptians. Empedocles,
therefore, in the eighty-fourth Olympiad, reilored to
life Ponthia, a woman of Agrigentum, who was about
* Diogenes to be interred*. But this people, in proportion as they
Laertius de grew civilized, becoming more enlightened, perceived
w/ff etpM?~ the neceffity of eftabliffiing laws for the proteftion of
the dead.
At Athens the law' required that no perfon ffiould
be interred before the third day •, and in the greater
part of the cities of Greece a funeral did not take
place till the fixthor feventh. When a man appeared
to have breathed his laft, his body was generally waffied
by his neareft relations, with v'arm water mixed wdth
wine. They afterwards anointed it with oil $ and co¬
vered it with a drefs commonly made of fine linen,
according to the cuftom of the Egyptians. This drefs
was white at Meffina, Athens, and in the greater part
of the cities of Greece, where the dead body was
crowmed with flowers. At Sparta it was of a purple
colour, and the body was furrounded with olive leaves.
The body was afterwards laid upon a couch in the en¬
try of the houfe, where it remained till the time of
the funeral. At the magnificent obfequies with which
Alexander honoured Hepheftion, the body was not
burned until the tenth day.
The Romans, in the infancy of their empire, paid
as little attention to their dead as the Greeks had done.
Acilius Aviola having fallen into a lethargic fit, was
fuppofed to be dead} he was therefore carried to the
funeral pile j the fire was lighted up •, and though he
cried out he was ftill alive, he periftied for want of
fpeedy affiftance. The praetor Lamia met with the
fame fate. Tubero, who had been praetor, was fa-
ved from the funeral pile. Afclepiades a phyfician,
who lived in the time of Poropey the Great, about
one hundred and twenty years before the Chriftian
era, returning from his country-houfe, obferved near
the walls of Rome a grand convoy and a crowd of
people, who were in mourning affifting at a funeral,
and ftrowing every exterior fign of the deepeft grief.
Having alked what was the occafion of this concourfe,
no one made any reply. He therefore approached the
pretended dead body \ and imagining that he perceived
figns of life in it, he ordered the byftanders to take
away the flambeaux, to extinguiftr the fire, and to pull
down the funeral pile. A kind of murmur on this a-
rofe throughout the whole company. Some laid that
they ought to believe the phyfician, while others turn¬
ed both him and his profeffion into ridicule. The rela-
2
tions, however, yielded at length to the remomftrances Interment,
of Afclepiades j they confented to defer the obfequies -y——'
for a little j and the confequence was, the reftoration of
the pretended dead perfon to life. It appears that
thefe examples, and ieveral others of the like nature,
induced the Romans to delay funerals longer, and to
ena£t laws to prevent precipitate interments.
At Rome, after allowing a fufficient time for mourn¬
ing, the neareft relation generally doled the eyes of
the deceafed ; and the body was bathed with warm
water, either to render it fitter for being anointed with
oil, or to reanimate the principle of life, which might
remain fufpended without manifefting itfelf. Proofs
were afterwards made, to difcover whether the perfon
was really dead, which were often repeated during the
time that the body remained expofed j for there were
perfons appointed to vifit the dead, and to prove their
fituation. On thefecond day, after the body had been
waffied a fecond time, it was anointed with oil and
balm. Luxury increafed to fuch a pitch in the choice
of foreign perfumes for this purpofe, that under the
confullhip of Licinius Craffus and Julius Caffiar, the
fenate forbade any perfumes to be ufed except fueh
as were the preduftion of Italy. On the third day
the body was clothed according to its dignity and con¬
dition. The robe called the praetexta was put upon
magiftrates, and a purple robe upon confuls 5 for con¬
querors, who had merited triumphal honours, this
robe was of gold tiffue. For other Romans it was
white, and black for the'lower clafles of the people.
Thefe dreffes were often prepared at a diftance, by
the mothers and wives of perfons ftill in life. On
the fourth day the body was placed on a couch, and
expofed in the veftibule of the houfe, with the vifage
turned towards the entrance, and the feet near the
door ; in this fituation it remained till the end of the
week. Near the couch were lighted wax-tapers, a
fmall box in which perfumes were burnt, and a veffel
full of water for purification, with which thofe who
approached the body befprinkled themfelves. An old
man, belonging to thofe who furniffied every thing
necelTary for funerals, fat near the deceafed, with feme
domeftics clothed in black. On the eighth day the
funeral rites were performed j but to prevent the body
fre n corrupting before that time, fait, wax, the refi-
nous gum of the cedar, myrrh, honey, balm, gyp-
fum, lime, afphaltes or bitumen of Judea, and feve-
ral other fubftances, were employed. The body was
carried to the pile with the face uncovered, unlefs
wounds or the nature of the diieafe had rendered it
loathfome and difgufting. In fuch a cafe a mafk was
ufed, made of a kind of plafter \ which has given rife
to the expreffion of funera larvata, ufed in feme of
the ancient authors. This was the laft method of
concealment which Nero made ufe of, after having
cauled Germanicus to be poifoned : for the effect of
the poifon had become very fenfible by livid fpots and
the blaeknefs of the body ; but a ftiower of rain hap¬
pening to fall, it wafhed the plafter entirely away, and
thus the horrid crime of fratricide was difeovered.
The Turks have, at all times, been accuflomed t®
wafh the bodies of their dead before interment; and
as their ablutions are complete, and no part of the
body ^efeapes the attention of thofe who affift at fuch
melancholy ceremonies, they can eahly perceive whether
one
I N T r 295 ] X N T
Interment, one be really dead or alive, by examining, among
'—~Y— other methods of proof, whether thz fphin&er ant has
loft its power of contraflion. If this mufcle remains
ftill contra&ed, they warm the body, and endeavour to
recal it to life j otherwife, after having waftied it with
water and foap, they wipe it with linen cloths, walh
it again with rofe-water and aromatic fubftances, co¬
ver it with a rich drefs, put upon its head a cap orna¬
mented with flowers, and extend it upon a carpet
placed in the veftibule or hall at the entrance of the
houfe.
In the primitive church the dead were walhed and
then anointed ; the body was wrapped up in linen,
m* clothed in a drefs of more or lets value according
• to circumftances, and it was not interred until after
being expofed and kept fome days in the houfe. The
cuftom of clothing the dead is preferved in France only
for princes and eccleliaftics.
In other countries, more or lefs care is taken to pre¬
vent fudden interments. At Geneva, there are people
appointed to infpeft all dead bodies. Their duty eon-
fifts in examining whether the perfon be rtally dead,
and whether one die'd naturally or by violence. In the
north, as well as at Genoa, it is ufual not to bury the
dead till three days have expired. In Holland, peo¬
ple carry their precautions much farther, and delay the
funerals longer. And in England bodies generally re¬
main unburied three or four days.
Premature INTERMENT. Notwithftanding the cuf-
toms above recited ; ftill, in many places, and on ma¬
ny occafions in all places, too much precipitation at¬
tends this laft office 5 or if not precipitation, a negleft
of due precautions in regard to the body. In general,
indeed, the moft improper treatment that can be ima¬
gined is adopted, and many a perfon made to defcend
into the grave before he has fighed his laft breath. I he
hiftories related by Hildanus, by Camerarius, by Hor-
fiius, byMacrobius in his Somnium Scipionis, by Plato
in his Republic, by Valerius Maximus, and by a great
many modern authors, leave us no doubt refpefting the
dangers of fuch mifconduft or precipitation. It muft
appear aftonilhing that the attention of mankind has
been after all lb little roufed by an idea the moft ter¬
rible that can be conceived on this fide of eternity. If
nature recoils from the idea of death, with what hor¬
ror muft ffie ftart at the thought of death anticipated,
precipitated by inattention—a return of life in darknefs,
diftraftion, and defpair—then death repeated under
agonies unfpeakable ! To revive nailed up in a coffin !
The brain can fcarce fuftain the refledtion in our cool-
eft fafeft moments.
According to prefent ufage, as foon as the fem-
blance of death appears, the chamber of the fick is
defex*ted by friends, relatives, and phyficians 5 and the
apparently dead, though frequently living, body, is
committed to the management of an ignorant and un¬
feeling nurfe, whofe care extends no farther than lay¬
ing the limbs ftraight, and fecuring her accuftomed
perquifites. The bed-clothes are immediately removed,
and the body is expofud to the air. This, when cold,
muft extinguiffi any fpark of life that may remain, and
which, by a different treatment, might have been
kindled into flame ; or it may only continue to reprefs
it, and the unhappy perfon afterwards revive amidlt
the horrors of the tomb.
The difference between the, end of a weak life and Interment,
the commencement of death, is fo fimall, and the un- ~~~'r
certainty of the figns of the latter is fo well eftablilhed
both by ancient and modern authors who have turned
^their attention to that important object, that we can
fcarcely fuppofe undertakers capable of diftinguiffiing
an apparent from a real death. Animals which fleep .
during winter fhow no figns of life ; in this cafe, circu¬
lation is only fufpended : but were it annihilated, the
vital fpirit does not fo eafily lofe its aflion as the other
fluids of the body ; and the principle of life, which
long lurvives the appearance of death, may re-animate
a body in which the aftion of all the organs feems to
be at an end. But how difficult is it to determine
whether this principle may not be revived ? It has
been found impolnble to recal to life fome animals fuf-
focatcd by mephitic vapours, though they appeared
lefs afftHed than others who have revived. Coldnefs,
heavinefs of the body, a leaden livid colour, with a
yellownefs in the vifage, are all very uncertain flgns:
Mr Zimmerman obferved them all upon the body of a
criminal, who fainted through the dread of that pu-
niffiment which he had merited. He was fhaken, drag¬
ged about, and turned in the fame manner as dead bo¬
dies are, without the leaft figns of refiftance ; and yet
at the end of 24 hours he was recalled to life by means
of volatile alkali.
A direflor of the coach-office at Dijon, named Coli-
net, was fuppofed to be dead, and the news of this
event was fpread through the whole city. One of his
friends, who was defirous of feeing him at the moment
when he was about to be buried, having looked at him
for a confiderable time, thought he perceived fome re¬
mains of fenfibility in the muff les of the face. He
therefore made an attempt to bring him to life by fpi-
rituous liquors, in which he fucceeded j and this direc¬
tor enjoyed afterwards for a long time that life which
he owed to his friend. This remarkable circumftance
was much like thofe of Empedocles and Afclepiadesi
Thefc inftances would perhaps be more frequent, were
men of Ikill and abilities called in cafes of fudden death,
in which people of ordinary knowledge are often de¬
ceived by falfe appearances.
A man may fall into a fyncope, and may remain in
that condition three or even eight days. People in this
fituation have been known to come to life when depo-
fited among the dead. A boy belonging to the hof-
pital at Cafiel appeared to have breathed his laff : he
was carried into the hall where the dead were expofed,
and was wrapped up in a piece of canvas. Some time
after, recovering from his lethargy, he recollected the
place in which he had been depofited, and crawling
towards the door knocked againft it with his foot.
This noife was luckily heard by the eentinel, who foon
perceiving the motion of the canvas called for affiffance.
The youth was immediately conveyed to a warm bed,
and foon perfectly recovered. Had his body been con¬
fined by clofe bandages or ligatures, he would not
have been able, in all probability, to make himfelf be
heard : his unavailing efforts would have made him
again fall into a fyncope, and he would have been thus
buried alive.
We muft not be aftonilhed that the fervants of an
hofpital Ihould take a fyncope for a real death, fince
even the moft enlightened people have fallen into errors
of
I N T f 2
Interment of tKe fame kind. Dr John Schmid relates, that a
v«i" y—y0ung gjrl^ feven years of age, after being afflicted for
tome weeks with a violent cou^h, was ail of a hidden
freed from this troublefome malady, and appeared to
be in perfedl health. But fome days after, while play¬
ing with her companions, this child fell down in an in¬
fant as if (truck by lightning. A death-like pale-
nefs was diffufed over her face and arms ; (he had no
apparent pulfe, her temples were funk, and ffle fflowed
no figns of fenfation when fflaken or pinched. A phy-
fician, who was called, and who believed her to be
dead, in compliance with the repeated and prelhng re-
queit of her parents, attempted, though without any
hopes, to recal her to life ; and at length, after feveral
Vain efforts, he made the foies of her feet be fmartly
rubbed with a brufh dipped in rtrong pickle. At the
end of three quarters of an hour ffle was obferved to
hgh . (lie was then made to fwallow lome fpirituous
liquor 5 and ffle was foon after reftored to life, much
to the joy of her difconfolate parents.—A certain man
having undertaken a journey, in order to fee his bro¬
ther, on his arrival at his houfe found him dead. This
news affedted him fo much, that it brought on a mod
dreadful fyncope, and he himfelf was fuppofed to be in
the like fituation. After the ufual means had been
employed to recal him to life, it was agreed that his
body fliould be differed, to difcover the caufe of fo
fudden a death j but the fuppofed dead perfon over¬
hearing this propofal, opened his eyes, ftarted up, and
immediately betook himfelf to his heels.—-Cardinal
Dfpinola, prime minifter to Philip II. was not fe for¬
tunate ; for we read in the Memoirs of Amelot de la
Houffai, that he put his hand to the knife with w'hich
he was opened in order to be embalmed. In (hort,
almoft every one knows that Vefalius, the father of
anatomy, having been fent for to open a woman fub-
jeft to hyfterics, who was fuppofed to be dead, he per¬
ceived, on making the firft incilion, by her motion and
cries, that (lie was ftill alive j that this circumftance
rendered him fo odious, that he w'as obliged to fly ; and
that he was fo much affecled by it, that he died foon
after. On this occafion, we cannot forbear to add an
event more recent, but no lefs melancholy. The abbe
Prevoft, fo well known by his writings and the Angu¬
larities of his life, was feized with a fit of the apoplexy
m ffle foreft of Chantilly, on the 23d of Odober 1763.
His body was carried to the nearelt village, and the
officers of juftice were proceeding to open it, when a
cry which he fent forth affrightened all the affiftants
and convinced the furgeon that the abbe was not dead •
but it was too late to fave him, as he had already re¬
ceived the mortal wound.
Even in old age, when life feems to have been gra¬
dually drawing to a clofe, the appearances of death m-e
often fallacious. A lady in Cornwall, more than 80
years of age, who had been a confiderable time decli-
ning, took to her bed, and in a few days feemingly ex¬
pired m the morning. As ffle had often defired not to
be buried till ffle had been two days dead, her requeft
was to have been regularly complied with by her rela¬
tions. All that faw her looked upon her as'dead, and
the report was current through the whole place; nay
a gentleman of the town aftually wrote to his friend in
the ifland of Scilly that ffle was deceafed. But one
of thofe who were paying the laft kind office of huma-
96 ]
I N T
I^ond.
Chrov.
vpl. 'V.
mty to tier remains, perceived fome warmth about the Interment,
middle of the back ; and acquainting her friends with  
it, they applied a mirror to her mouth : but, after re¬
peated trials, could not obferve it in the lead ftain-
ed 5 her under jaw was likewife fallen, as the common
phrafe is j and, in (hort, ffle had every appearance of
a dead perfon. All this time (lie had not been dripped
or dreffed ; but the windows were opened, as is ufual in
the chambers of the dtcealed. In the evening the heat
feemed to increafe, and at length Hie was perceived to
breathe.
In diort, not only the ordinary (igns are very uncer¬
tain, but we may lay the fame of the diffnefs of the
limbs, which may be convulfive 5 of the dilation of the
pupil of the eye, which may proceed from the fame
caufe $ of putrefaction, which may equally attack fome
parts of a living body ; and of feveral others. Haller,
convinced of the uncertainty of all thefe figns, pro¬
poses a new one, which he confiders as infallible. “ If
the perfon (fays he) be dill in life, the mouth will im¬
mediately dmt of itfelf, becaufe the contraction of the
mufcles of the jaw will awaken their irritability.”
The jaw, however, may be deprived of its irritability
though a man may not be dead Life is preferved a
long time in the paffage of the intediues. The fign
pointed out by Dr Fothergill appears to deferve more
attention : If the air blown into the mouth (fays this
phyfician) paffes freely through all the alimentary
channel, it affords a drong prefumption that the irrita¬
bility of the internal fphin&ers is dedroyed, and con-
fequently that life is at an end.” I hefe figns, which
deferve to be confirmed by new experiments, are doubt-
lefs not known to undertakers.
The difficulty of difiinguidiing a perfon apparently
dead from one who is really fo, has, in all countries
where bodies have been interred too precipitately, ren¬
dered it neceffary for the law to affid humanity. Of
feveral regulations made on this fubjeCl, we fflall quote
only a few of the mod recent $ fueh as thofe of Arras
in 1772 j of Mantua in 1774 j of the grand duke of
Tuicany in 1775 j of the fenechauffee of Sivrai, in
Poitou, in 1777 j and of the parliament of Metz in
the fame year. To give an idea of ffle red, it will be
fufficient to relate only that of Tufcany. By this edi£f,
the grand duke forbids the precipitate interment of
perfons who die fuddmly. He orders the magiftrates
of health to be informed, that phyficians and lurgeons
may examine ffle body •, that they may uie every en¬
deavour to recal it to life, if poffible, or to difcover the
caufe of its death j and that they diall make a report
of their procedure to a certain tribunal. On this1 oc¬
cafion, the magidrate of health orders the dead not to
be covered until the moment they are about to be bu¬
ried, except fo far as decency requires j obferving al¬
ways that the body be not clofely confined, and that
nothing may comprefs the jugular veins and the caro¬
tid arteries. He forbids people to be interred accord¬
ing to the ancient method 5 and requires that the arms
and the hands (hould be left extended, and that they
diould not be folded or placed crofs-wife upon the
bread. He forbids, above all, to prefs the jaws one
againd the other j or to fill the mouth and noilrils with
cotton, or other duffing. Ladly, he recommends not
to cover ffle vifage with any kind of cloth until the
body is depofited in its coffin.
Wf,
TNT C 297 ] I N T
Interment We (hall conclude this article by fubjolning, from
11 Dr Hawes’s Addrefs to the Public on this fubjeft, a few
ndon° a" ^ie cal'es 1° wbich this fallacious appearance of death
■ . ^ . is moft likely to happen, together with the refpeftive
modes of treatment which he recommends.
In apopleftic and fainting fits, and in thofe arifing
from any violent agitation of mind, and alfo when
opium or fpirituous liquors have been taken in too
great a quantity, there is reafon to believe that the
appearance of death has been frequently miftaken for
the reality. In thefe cafes, the means recommended
by the Humane Society for the Recovery of Drowned
Perfons fhould be perfevered in for feveral hours 5 and
bleeding, which in fimilar circumftances has fometimes
proved pernicious, (hould be ufed with great caution.
(See the article Drowning). In the two latter in-
ftances it will be highly expedient, with a view of coun-
terafting the foporific effects of opium and fpirits, to
convey into the ftomach, by a proper tube, a folution
of tartar emetic, and by various other means to excite
Vomiting.
From the number of children carried off by con*
vulfions, and the certainty arifing from undoubted
fads, that fome who have in appearance died from that
caufe have been recovered ; there is the greateft rea¬
fon for concluding, that many, in confequence of this
difeafe, have been prematurely numbered among the
dead ; and that the fond parent, by neglecting the
means of recalling life, has often been the guiltlefs exe¬
cutioner of her own offspring. To prevent the com-
miffion of fuch dreadful miftakes, no child, whofe life
has been apparently extinguilhed by convulfions, ftiould
be configned to the grave till the means of recovery
above recommended in apoplexies, &c. have been tried $
and, if pofiible, under the direction of fome Ikilful prac¬
titioner of medicine, who may vary them as circum¬
ftances (hall require.
When fevers arife in weak habits, or when the cure
of them has been principally attempted by means of
depletion, the confequent debility is often very great,
and the patient fometimes finks into a ftate which
bears fo clofe an affinity to that of death, that there is
reafon to fufpeCt it has too often deceived the byftand-
ers, and induced them to fend for the undertaker when
they fhould have had recourfe to the fuccours of medi¬
cine. In fuch cafes, volatiles, eau de luce for example,
fhould be. applied to the nofe, rubbed on the temples,
and fprinkled often about the bed ; hot flannels, moiff-
ened with a ftrong folution of camphorated fpirit, may
likewife be applied over the breaft, and renewed every
quarter of an hour \ and as foon as the patient is able
to fwallow, a teafpoonful of the ftrongeft cordial fhould
be given every five minutes.
1 he fame methods may alfo be ufed with propriety
in the fmallpox when the puftules fink, and death ap¬
parently enlues ; and likewife in any other acute dif-
eafes, when the vital functions are fufpended from a li-
milar cafe.
INTERMITTENT, or Intermitting, Fever;
iuch fevers as go off and foon return again, in oppofi-
tion to thofe which are continual. See Medicine
Index.
INTERPOLATION, among critics, denotes a
fpunous paffage infcrted into the writings of fome an¬
cient author.
Vol. XL Part I.
Interpolation, in the modern algebra, is ufed for Interpola-
finding an intermediate term of a feries, its place in the
feries being given. This method was firit invented by irtenV?^
Mr Briggs, and applied by him to the calculation of tiorr
logarithms, &c. See Algebra. u—y—j
INTERPOSITION, the fituation of a body be¬
tween two others, fo as to hide them, or prevent their
aClion.
The eclipfe of the fun is occafioned by an interpofi-
tion of the moon between the fun and us j and that of
the moon by the interpofition of the earth between the
fun and moon. See Eclipse.
INTERPRETER, a perfon who explains the
thoughts, words, or writings, of fome other, which
before were unintelligible.—The word interpret, ac¬
cording to Ifidore, is compofed of the prepofition ?h-
ter, and partes, as fignifying a perfon in the middle
betwixt two parties, to make them mutually under-
Itand each others thoughts : others derive it from in¬
ter, pnes, i. e.fdejujfor; q. d. a perfon who ferves
as fecurity between two others who do not underhand
one another.
There have been great debates about interpreting
Scripture. The Romanifts contend, that it belongs ab-
folutely to the church : adding, that where fire is fi-
lent, reafon may be confulted •, but where Ihe fpeaks,
reafon is to be difregarded. The Proteftants generally
allow reafon the fovereign judge, or interpreter j though
fome among them have a ftrong regard to fynods, and
others to the authority of the primitive fathers. Laft-
ly, others have recourfe to the Spirit within every per¬
fon to interpret for them ; which is what Bochart calls
rg Tryivy.xlag.
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the
throne is vacant in eleClive kingdoms j for in fuch as
are hereditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as an
interregnum.
INTERREX, the magiftrate who gov erns during
an interregnum.
This magiftrate was eftahliihed in old Rome, and
was almoft as ancient as the city itfelf: after the death
of Romulus there was an interregnum of a year, du¬
ring which the fenators were each interrex in their
turn, five days a-piece.
After the eftablilhment of confuls and a common¬
wealth, though there were no kings, yet the name and
funCHon of interrex was ftill preferved : for, when the-
magiftrates wrere abfent, or there w^as any irregularity
in their eleCtion, or they had abdicated, fo that the
comitia could not be held ; provided they were un¬
willing to create a dictator, they made an interrex,
whofe office and authority was to lalt five days 5 after
which they made another. To the interrex wras de¬
legated all the regal and confular authority, and he
performed all their functions. He affembled the fe-
nate, held comitia or courts, and took care that the
eleCtion of magiftrates was according to rules. Indeed
at firft it was not the cuftom of the interrex to hold
comitia, at leaft we have no inftanee of it in the Ro¬
man hiftory. The patricians alone had the right of
electing an interrex 5 but this office fell with the repu¬
blic, when the emperors made themfelves mafters of
every thing.
INTERROGATION, Erotesis, a figure of rhe¬
toric, in which the paffion of the Ipeaker introduces a
P p thing
1 N T [298] I N T
Interroga- thing by way of queftion, to make its truth more con-
* ij1* fpicuous.
Interval ^ interrogation is a kind of apoltrophe which the
^.—y—— fpeaker makes to himfelf j and it mull be owned, that
this figure is fuited to exprefs moft paffions and emo¬
tions of the mind j it ferves alio to prefs and bear
down an adverfary, and generally adds an uncommon
brilknefs, addion, force, and variety, to difeourfe.
Interrogation, in Grammar, is a point which
ferves to diftinguith fuch parts of a difeourfe, where the
author (peaks as if he were alking queftions. Its form
is this (?).
INTERROGATORIES, in Law, are particular
queftions demanded of witneffes brought in to be exa¬
mined in a caufe, efpecially in the court of chancery.
And thefe interrogatories muft be exhibited by the par¬
ties in fuit on each fide j which are either dire£I for the
party that produces them, or counter, on behalf of the
adverfe party ; and generally both plaintiff and defend-
dant may exhibit direft, and counter or crofs interro¬
gatories. They are to be pertinent, and only to the
points neceffary ; and either drawn or perufed by coun¬
sel, and to be figned by them.
INTERSCENDENT, in Algebra, is applied to
quantities, when the exponents of their powers are ra¬
dical quantities. Thus, x\/1,x\/n, &c. are interfeend-
ent quantities.
INTERSECTION, in Mathematics, the cutting
©f one line, or plane, by another •, or the point or line
wherein two lines, or two planes, cut each other.
The mutual interfeftion of two planes is a right line.
The centre of a circle is in the interfeftion of two dia¬
meters. The central point of a regular or irregular
figure of four fides, is the point of interfeflion of the two
diagonals.
The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the inter-
fedlions of the equator and ecliptic.
INTERSPINALES. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
INTERVAL, the diftance or fpace between two
extremes, either in time or place. The word comes
from the Latin intervallum, which according to Ifidore,
fignifies the fpace inter faffam & murum, “ between
the ditch and the wall others note, that the ftakes
or piles, driven into the ground in the ancient Roman
bulwarks, were called valla ; and the interftiees or va¬
cancy between them, intervalla.
Interval, in Mujic. The diftance between any
given found and another, ftribtly fpeaking, is neither
meafured by any common ftandard of extenfion nor
duration 5 but either by immediate fenfation, or by
computing the difference between the numbers of vi¬
brations produced by two or more fonorous bodies,
in the a£t of founding, during the fame given time.
As the vibrations are flower and few'er during the fame
inftant, for example, the found is proportionally lower
or graver ; on the contrary, as during the fame period
the vibrations increafe in number and velocity, the
founds are proportionably higher or more acute. An
interval in muiic, therefore, is properly the difference
between the number of vibrations produced by one fo¬
norous body of a certain magnitude and texture, and of
thofe produced by another of a different magnitude and
texture, in the fame time.
Intervals are divided into confonant and diffonant.
Aconfonant interval is that whofe extremes, or whofe Interval
higheit and loweft founds, when fimullaneoufly heard, !1
coalefce in the ear, and produce an agreeable fenfation inUlSue-
called by Lord Kames a tertium quid. A diffonant in¬
terval, on the contrary, is that whofe extremes, fimul-
taneouily heard, far from coalefcing in the ear, and
producing one agreeable fenfation, are each of them
plainly diftinguilhed from the other, produce a grating
effedf upon the fenfe, and repel each other with an ir¬
reconcilable hoftility. In proportion as the vibra¬
tions of different fonorous bodies, or of the fame fonor¬
ous body in different modes, more or lefs frequently
coincide during the fame given time, the chords are
more or lefs confonant. When thefe vibrations never
coincide at all in the fame given time, the dilcord is
confummate, arid confequently the interval abfolutely
diffonant. But for a full account of thefe, fee Mu¬
sic.
INTESTATE, in Law, a perfon that dies without
making a will.
INTESTINA, in the Linncean Sy/lem, one of the
orders of worms. See Helminthology Index.
INTESTINES, INTESTINA, in Anatomy, the^v/Lr
or bowels ; thofe hollow, membranous, cylindrical parts,
extended from the right orifice of the ftomach to the
anus ; by which the chyle is conveyed to the ladfteals,
and the excrements are voided. See Anatomy,
N°93- ...
IN I ONA1 ION, in Mufc, the aflion of founding
the notes in the fcale with the voice, or any other gi¬
ven order of mufical tones. Intonation may be either
true or falfe, either too high or too low', either too
{harp or too flatand then this word intonation, attend¬
ed with an epithet, muft be underftood concerning the
manner of performing the notes.
in executing an air, to form the founds, and pre-
ferve the intervals as they are marked with juftnefs
and accuracy, is no inconfiderable difficulty, and
fcarcely pradticable, but by,the afiiftance o{ one com¬
mon idea, to which, as to their ultimate teft, thefe
founds and intervals muft be referred : thefe common
ideas are thofe of the key, and the mode in which the
performer is engaged \ and from the word lone, which
is fometimes ufed in a fenfe almoft identical with that
of the liey, the word intonation may perhaps be deri¬
ved. It may alio be deduced from the word diatonic,
as in that fcale it is moft frequently converfant; a icale
which appears moft convenient and moft natural to the
voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of
fuch intervals as are greater or leffer than thofe of the
diatonic order ; becaufe, in the firft cafe, the glottis
and vocal organs are modified by gradations too large ■,
or too complex, in the fecond.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, any
work that fortifies a poll againft an enemy who at¬
tacks. It is generally taken for a ditch or trench with
a parapet. Intrenchments are fometimes made of fal-
cines with earth thrown over them, of gabions, hogf-
heads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men from
the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an aflemblage of events or circum-
ftances, occurring in an affair, and perplexing the per-
fons concerned in it. In this fenfe, it is uled to fignify
the nodus or plot of a play or romance •, or that point
wherein the principal charafters are moft embarraffed
through
I N T
Intuitive
evidence.
Intrigue through the artifice rind oppofition of certain perfons, or
the unfortunate falling out of certain accidents and cir-
cumftancesi %
In tragedy, cotnedy, or an epic poem, there are
always two defigns. The firft and principal is that of
the hero of the piece : the fecond contains the defigns
of all thofe who oppofe han. Tliefe oppofite caufes
produce oppofite effects, to wit, the efforts of the hero
for the execution of his defign, and the efforts of thofe
who thwart it. As thofe caufes and defigns are the be¬
ginning of the action, fo thefe efforts are the middle,
and there form a knot or difficulty which wre call the
intrigue, that makes the greateft part of the poem. It
lafts as long as the mind of the reader Or hearer is fuf-
pended about the event of thofe oppofite efforts : the
folu tion or cataftrophe commences when the knot be¬
gins to unravel, and the difficulties and doubts begin to
clear up.
The intrigue of the Iliad is twofold. The firfl com¬
prehends three days fighting m Achilles’s ahfence, and
confifts on the one fide in the refiftance of Agamemnon
and the Greeks, and on the other in the inexorable
temper of Achilles, J he death of Patroelus unravels
this intrigue, and makes the beginning of a fecond.
Achilles refolves to be revenged* but Hector oppofes
his defign \ and this forms the fecond intrigue, which
is the laft day’s battle.
In the ALneid there are alfo two intrigues. The firft
is taken up in the voyage and landing of Aeneas in
Italy j the fecond is his eftabliftiment there: the op¬
pofition he met with from Juno in both thefe under¬
takings forms the intrigue.
As to the choice of the intrigue, and the manner
of unravelling it, it is certain they ought both to
fpring naturally from the ground and fubjeft of the
poem. Boffu gives us three manners of forming the
intrigue of a poem : the firft is that already mentioned ;
the fecond is taken from the fable and defign of the
poet; in the third the intrigue is fo laid, as that the
iolution follows from it of courfe.
INTRINSIC, a term applied’to the real and ge¬
nuine values and properties, &e. of any thing, in op¬
pofition to their extrinfic or apparent values.
IN I RODUCTION, in general, fignifies any thing
which tends to make another in fome meafure known
before we have leifure to examine it thoroughly j and
hence it Nufed on a great variety of occa4>ns. Thus
we fpeak of the introduftion of one perfon to another;
the introduction to a book, &c,—It is alfo ufed to
fignify the aCtual motion of any body out of one place
into another, when that motion has been occafioned
by fome other body.
Introduction, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° 26.
INTUITION, among logicians, the aCt whereby
the mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of
two ideas, immediately by themfelves, without the
intervention of any other ; in which cafe the mind per¬
ceives the truth as the eye does the light, only by be¬
ing direded towards it. See Logic, N° 25, 27.
Intuitive evidence, is that which refults from
Intuition. Dr Campbell diftinguiffies different forts
of intuitive evidence ; one refulting purely from intel-
leCtion, or that faculty which others have called intui¬
tion ; another kind arifing from confcioufnefs ; and a
third fort from that new--named faculty Common SENSE,
r 299 1
I N
which this ingenious writer, as well as feveral others, Intuitive
contends to be a diftinft original fource of knowledge ; tVK;cncC
whilft others refer its fuppofed office to the intuitive invj!tory
power of the underftanding.   v—Lj
INVALID, a perfon w'ounded, maimed, or difabled
for aCtion by age.
At Chelfea and Greenwich are magnificent HjOSPl-
tals, or rather colleges, built for the reception and
accommodation of invalids, or foldiers and leamen worn
out in the fervice. 1
We h ave alio twenty independent companies of in¬
valids, difperfed in the leveral forts and garrifons.
At Paris is a college of the fame kind, called les
Inva/ides, which is accounted one of the fineft build¬
ings in that city.
INVECTED, in Heraldry, denotes a thing fluted
or furrowed. See Heraldry.
1NVEC 1 IVE, in Rhetoric, differs from reproof, as
the latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for
the good of the perfon reproved ; whereas the in¬
vective is the work of an enemy, and entirely defigned.
to vex and give uneafinefs to the perfon againit whom
it is direCted.
INVEN ITON, denotes the aCt of finding any thing
new, or even the thing thus found. I hus we fay, the
invention of gunpowder, of printing, &c. The alcove is
a modern invention owing to the Moors»
The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, are of a
Greek invention ; the Tufcan and Compofite of Latin
invenyon. Janfon ab Almeloveen has written a: O-
nomafticon of inventions; wherein are Ihown, in an al¬
phabetical order, the names of the inventors, and the
time, place, &c. where they are made. Pancirollus
has a treatife of old inventions that are loft, and new
ones that have been made; Polydore Virgil ha- alfo
publiffied eight books of the inventors of things, De
Inventonbus Rerum.
Invention is alfo ufed for the finding of a thing
hidden. The Romiffi church celebrates a feaft on the
4th of May, under the title of Invention of the Holy
Crofs.
INVENTION is alfo ufed for fubtility of mind, or fome-
wnat peculiar to a man’s genius, which leads him to a
difeovery of things new; in which lenfe we fay, a man
of invention.
Invention, in Painting, is the choice which the
painter makes of the objeCts that are to enter the com-
pofition of his piece. See PAINTING.
Invention, in Poetry, is applied to whatever the
poet adds to the hiftory of the lubjeCt he has choien ;
as well as to the new turn he gives it. See Poetry.
Invention, in Rhetoric, fignifies the finding out
and chooiing of certain arguments which the orator is
to ufe for the proving or illuftrating his point, moving
the paffions or conciliating the minds of his hearers.
Invention, according to Cicero, is the principal part
of oratory : he wrote four books De Inventione, where¬
of we have but two remaining. See Oratory.
INVENTORY, \w Law, a catalogue or fchedule
orderly made, of aR the deceafed perfon’s goods and
chattels at the time of his death, with their value ap-
praifed by different perfons, which every executor or
adminiftrator is obliged to exhibit to the ordinary at
fuch time as he ffiall appoint.
By 21 Hen. VIII. c. v. executors and adminiftrators
P p 2 are
I N V [ 300 ] I N V
Inventory are to deliver in upon oath to the ordinary, indented
inventories, one part of which is to remain with the
keiihino-. ordinary, and the other part with the executor or ad-
——-y—-L miniftrator ; this is required for the benefit of the cre¬
ditors and legatees, that the executor or adminiftrator
may not conceal any part of the perfonal eflate from
them. The ftatute ordains, that the inventory /hall be
exhibited within three months after the perfon’s de-
ceafe ; yet it may be done afterwards; for the ordinary
may difpenfe with the time, and even with its being
ever exhibited, as in cafes where the creditors are paid,
and the will is executed.
INVERARY, the county town of Argylefliire, iu
Scotland, pleafantly fituated on a fmall bay formed by
the junftion of the river Ary with Loch-fine, where
the latter is a mile in width and 60 fathoms in depth.
Here is a cattle, the principal feat of the dukes of Ar-
gyle, chief of the Campbells. It is a modern building
of a quadrangular form, with a round tower at each
corner 5 and in the middle rifes a fquare one glazed on
every fide to give light to the ftaircafe and galleries,
which has from without rather a heavy appearance.
This cattle is built of a coarfe lapis ollaris brought from
the other fide of Loch-fine •, and is of the fame kind
with that found in Norway, of which the king of
Denmark’s palace is built. The founder of the cattle,
the late Duke Archibald, alfo formed the defign of an
entire new town, upon a commodious elegant plan, be¬
coming the dignity of the capital of Argylethire, a
country molt admirably fituated for fitheries an^ navi¬
gation. The town hath been rebuilt agreeable to the
original defign ; and the inhabitants are well lodged in
houfes of ttone, lime, and Hate. They are fully em¬
ployed in arts and manufadtures, and plentifully fup-
plied in the produce of fea and land.—The planting
around Inverary is extenfive beyond conception, and
admirably variegated *, every crevice, glen, and moun¬
tain, difplaying tafte and good fenfe.
The value of the immenfe wood at this place, for
the various purpofes of bark, charcoal, forges, paling,
furniture, houfe and (hip building, is thus eftimated
by Mr Knox : “ Some of the beech are from 9 to 12
feet in circumference, and the pines from 6 to 9 ; but
thefe being comparatively few, we fltall ftate the me¬
dium girth of 2,000,000 trees planted within thefe laft
hundred years, at 3 feet, and the medium value at 4s.
which produces 400,000!. \ and this, for the moft
part, upon grounds unfit for the plough, being chiefly
compofed of hills and rock.” One of thefe hills rifes
immediately from the houfe a great height, in the form
of a pyramid, and is clothed to the fummit with a
thick wood of vigorous ornamental trees. On this
fummit or point Archibald duke of Argyle built a
Gothic tower, or obfervatory, where he fometimes
amufed himfelf. The afeent by the road feems to
be half a mile, and the perpendicular height about 800
feet.
INVERBERVIE, or Bervie, a town of Scotland,
in Kincardinelhire or the Mearns, and a royal borough,
13 miles north-eaft from Montrofe. It lies between
two fmall hills, which terminate in high cliffs towards
the fea ; it is but a fmall place, the inhabitants of which
are chiefly employed in making thread.
INVERKEITHING, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Fife, fituated on the northern (hore of the
1
frith of Forth, in W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 56. 5. It Inver*.
vms much favoured by William, who granted its firft keithin^
charter. He extended its liberties confiderably, and jn
in the time of David I. it became a royal refidence.1
The Francifcans had a convent in this town ; and, ac¬
cording to Sir Robert Sibbald, the Dominicans had
another. The population in 1801 amounted to 2228 ;
and they are employed in the herring filhery, the coal,
and coafting trade. It has a confiderable trade in coal
and other articles.
INVERLOCHY, an ancient caftle in the neigh¬
bourhood of Fort-William in Invernefslhire. It is
adorned with large round towers j and, by the mode of
building, feems to have been the work of the Englifli
in the time of Edward I. who laid large fines on the
Scotch barons for the purpofe of ere&ing new cattles.
The largeft of thefe towers is called Cumiti’s. But
long prior to thefe ruins, Inverlochy, according to
Boece, had been a place of great note, a moft opulent
city, remarkable for the vaft refort of French and Spa¬
niards, probably on account of trade. It was alfo a
feat of the kings of Scotland, for here Achaius in the
year 790 figned (as is reported) the league offenfive
and defenfive between himfelf and Charlemagne. In
after-times it was utterly deftroyed by the Danes, and
never again reftored.
In the neighbourhood of this place were fought two
fierce battles, one between Donald Balloch brother to
Alexander lord of the Ifles, who with a great power
invaded Lochaber in the year 1427 : he was met by
the earls of Mar and Caithnefs; the laft was flain, and
their forces totally defeated. Balloch returned to the
ifles with vaft booty. Here alfo the Campbells under
the marquis of Argyle, were in February 1645, de¬
feated by Montrofe. Fifteen hundred fell in the atlion
and in the purfuit, with the lofs only of three to the
royalifts.
INVERNESS, capital of a county of the fame
name in Scotland, is a parliament-town, finely feated
on the river Nefs, over which there is a ftone bridge of
feven arches, in W. Long. 4. N. Lat. 57. 36. It is
large, well built, and very populous, being the moft
northerly town of any note in Britain. As there are
always regular troops in its neighbourhood, there is a*
great air of politenefs, a plentiful market, and more
money and bufinefs ftirring than could have been expe£t>
ed in fuch a remote part of the ifland. The country in
the neighbourhood is remarkably well cultivated ; and
its produce clearly (hows that the foil and climate are
not defpieable. The falmon-fiihery in the Nefs is very
confiderable, and is let to London fifhmongers. Some
branches both of the woollen, linen, and hemp manu¬
facture, are alfo carried on here •, and, in confequence
of the excellent military roads, there is a great propor¬
tion of inland trade. But befides all this, Invernefs is
a port with 20 creeks dependent upon it, part on the
Murray frith to the eaft, and part on the north of the
town, reaching even the fouth border of the county of
Caithnefs. Invernefs has feveral good fchools 5 and an
academy was ereCted feme years ago on an extenfive
and liberal plan. The inhabitants fpeak the Erfe and
Englifli language promifeuoufly. On an eminence near
the town are the remains of a caftle, where, according
to fome hiftorians, the famous Macbeth murdered
Duncan his royal gueft.
Inverness- Shir^
I N V [ 301 3 I N V
Invernefs- /NVERNESS-S/iire, a county of Scotland, bounded on
the north by Rofsfhire j on the eafl by the {hires of
Nairne, Murray, and Aberdeen 5 on the fouth, by
thofe of Perth and Argyle ; and on the 'weft, by the
Atlantic ocean. Its extent from north to fouth is
above 50 miles j from call to weft about 80.—The
northern part of this county is very mountainous and
barren. In the diftrift of Glenelg are feen the ruins
of feveral ancient circular buildings, fimilar to thofe
in the Weftern Ifles, Sutherland, and Rofs-lhire ; con¬
cerning the ufes of which antiquarians are not agreed.
In their outward appearance, they are round and ta¬
pering like glafs-houfes. In the heart of the wall,
which is perpendicular within, there are horizontal
galleries going quite round and connefled by flairs.
Thefe afcend toward the top, which is open. They
are all built of ftone, without lime or mortar of any
kind. They have no opening outward, except the
doors and the top 5 but there are feveral in the infide,
as windows to the galleries. From Bernera barracks,
in this diftricf, proceeds the military road to Inver¬
nefs.
This county is nearly divided by water, fo that by
means of the Caledonian canal uniting Loch Nefs,
Loch Oich, Loch Lochy, and Lochiel or Loch Eil,
a communication will be opened between the eaftern
and weftern feas. This great undertaking is now
(1807) going forward. In this tradl, Fort George,
Fort Auguftus, and Fort William, form what is call¬
ed the Chain of Forts acrofs the iiland. By means
of Fort George on the eaft, all entrance up the frith
towards Invernefs is prevented j Fort Auguftus curbs
the inhabitants midway ; and Fort William is a check
to any attempts in the weft. Detachments are made
from all thefe garrifons to Invernefs, Bernera barracks
oppofite to the ifle of Skye, and Caftle Duart in the ifle
of Mull.
The river Nefs, upon which the capital of the Ihire
is fttuated, is the outlet of the great lake called I^och
Nefs. This beautiful lake is 22 miles in length, and
for the moft part one in breadth. It is Ikreened on the
north-weft by the lofty mountains of Urquhart and
Mealfourvony, and bordered with coppices of birch
and oak. The adjacent hills are adorned with many
extenfive forefts of pine } which afford Ihelter to the
cattle, and are the retreat of flags and deer. There is
much cultivation and improvements on the banks of
Loch Nefs ; and the pafture-grounds in the neighbour¬
ing valleys are excellent.—From the fouth, the river
Fyers cfeicends towards this lake. Over this river
there is built a ftupendous bridge, on two oppofite
rocks; the top of the arch is above 100 feet from the
level of the water. A little below the bridge is the
celebrated Fall of Fyers, where a great body of water
darts through a narrow gap between two rocks, then
falls over a vaft precipice into the bottom of the chafm,
where the foam rifes and fills the air like a great cloud
of fmoke.
Loch Oich is a narrow lake, ftretching about four
miles from eaft to weft. It is adorned with fome fmall
wooded iftands, and is (urrounded with ancient trees.
Near this is the family feat <f Glengary, furrounded
by natural woods of full grown fir, which extend nine
or ten miles along the banks of the river Gary, The
waters of Loch Oich flow through Loch Nefs into the Invernsfs-
eaftern fea.—Loch Lochy tranfmits its waters in an op- . fllire* ^
pofite direction, this being the higheft part of the vaft ~
fiat trad! that here ftretches from fea to fea. This ex¬
tenfive lake is above ten miles in length, and from one
to two in breadth. From the weft, the waters of Loch
Arkek defcend into this lake. Out of it runs the river
Lochy, which about a mile below its iffue from the
lake receives the Spean, a confiderable river, over which
there is a magnificent bridge, built by General Wade,
about two miles above the place where it falls into the
Lochy. Thefe united ftreams traverfing the plains of
Lochaber, after a courfe of five or fix miles, fall into
Loch Eil.
A few miles to the fouth-eaft of Loch Lochy is
Glenroy or King’s Vale. The north-eaft end of this
valley opens on Loch Spey. A fmall river paffes along
the bottom of the vale, accompanied by a modern road.
On the declivity of the mountains, about a mile from
the river, on either hand, are feen feveral parallel roads
of great antiquity. On the north-weft fide, five of thefe
roads run parallel and clofe by each other. On the
oppofite fide there are three other roads exadlly fimilar.
Thefe roads are 30 feet broad, all perfedlly horizontal,
and extend eight or nine miles in length. Their def-
tination or ufe has baffled the conjedlures of antiqua¬
ries.—Not far from Fort Auguftus foars the pointed
fummit of Bennevis, which is efteemed the higheft
mountain in Britain, rifing more than 4300 feet above
the level of the fea.—In the diftridls of Moydart, Ara»
faick, Morer, and Knoydart, there are numerous bays
and creeks, along the eoaft, many of which might be
excellent fifhing ftations.
The fouthern part of this county is very mountain¬
ous, and is fuppofed to be the moft elevated ground in
Scotland. From its numerous lakes many ftreams de~
fcend toward both feas. In the extenfive diftridl call¬
ed Badenoch lies Loch Spey, the fource of the great
river Spey, which proceeding eaftward with an increa-
fing ftream, enters the {hire of Murray at Rothie-
murchus, after having expanded into a fine lake. Not
far from this is feen the lofty top of Cairngorm ; a
mountain celebrated for its beautiful rock-cryftals of
various tints. Thefe are much efteemed by lapidaries ;
and fome of them, having the luftre of fine gems, bring
a very high price. Limeftone, ircn-cre, and fome tra¬
ces of different minerals, are found in the county ; but
no mines have yet been worked with much fuccefs.
Its rivers and lakes afford abundance of falmon and
trout. The extenfive plains which furround the lakes
are in general fertile ; and the high grounds feed many
Iheep and black cattle, the rearing and felling of which
forms the chief trade of the inhabitants.—By the pre-
fent fpirited exertions of the gentlemen in this populous
county, the commerce and the induftry of the inhabi¬
tants have of late been greatly increafed ; and to faci¬
litate the communication with other parts, application
has been made to parliament for leave to levy a tax on
the proprietors of land for improving the roads and
erefting bridges in this extenfive (hire. The common¬
alty in the high parts of the county and on the weftern
fhore fpeak Gaelic ; but the people of falhion in Inver¬
nefs and its vicinity ufe the Englifh language, and pro¬
nounce it with remarkable propriety.
The
I
I N V r 302 ] I N V
Invernefs-
fhire
Inverfion.
The following is a view of the population of the dif¬
ferent parities in the county at two different periods *.
* Statijl.
Hi/l. vol.xx.
Pari/Jjes.
I Abernethy
Alvie
Arderfier
Bolefkine
5 Conveth or Kiltarlify
Croradale
Croy
Daviot
Durris
10 Glenelg
Invernefs
Kilmanivaig
Kilmalie
Kilmorack
15 Kinguflie
Kirkhill
Laggan
Moy
Petty
20 Urquhart
Population Population irt
in ‘755- 1790—1798.
1670 1769
1021 IOII
428 1298
1961 1741
1964 2495
3063 3OOO
I9°I I552
2176 1697
IJ20 1365
l8l6 2746
9730 10,527
2995 24OO
3°93 4°31
2830 2318
1983
1360 1570
1460 1512
1693 1813
1643 1518
J943 2355
\
Continental part
IJlands.
2J
' Bracadale
Diurinifh
Kilmuir
Sky <j Portree
Sleat
Snizort
__ Strath
Barry
South 0ift
30 North Uift
31 Harris
Total iflands
Total
46,167 48,701
1907 2250
2568 300O
1572 2065
1385 1980
3250 1788
1627 1808
943 1579
11,252 14,470
1150 1604
2209 34^0
1909 3218
1969 2536
18,489 25,278
651656 73J979
64,6 56
Increafe 9323
Invocation.
INVERTED, in Mujic, is derived from the Latin Inverted
prepofition in, and vertere, “ to turn any thing a con*
trary way.”
It fignifies a change in the order of the notes which
form a chord, or in the parts uEich compofe harmony j
which happens by fubftituting in the bafs, thofe founds
which ought to have been in the upper part 5 an opera¬
tion not only rendered practicable, but greatly facilita¬
ted by the refemblance which one note has to another
in different o£taves 5 whence we derive the power of
exchanging one odave for another with fo much pro¬
priety and fuccefs, or by fubllituting in the extremes
thofe which ought to have occupied the middle Ration}
and vice verfa. See Music.
INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the fearch-
ing or finding out any thing by the tracks or prints of
the feet j whence mathematicians, fchoolmen, and gram¬
marians, come to ufe the term in their refpedtive re-
fearches.
INVEST. ING a PLACE, is when a general, having
an intention to befiege it, detaches a body of horfe to
poffefs all the avenues } blocking up the garrifon, and
preventing relief from getting into the place, till the
army and artillery are got up to form the fiege.
INVESTITURE, in Lew, a giving livery of feifitl
or poffetfion. There was anciently a great variety of
ceremonies ufed upon inveflitures j as at firft they were
made by a certain form of words, and aftenvards by
fuch things as had the greateft rtfemblance to the thing
to be transferred : thus, where lands were intended to
pafs, a turf, &c. was delivered by the granter to the
grantee. In the church, it was cuflomary for princes
to make inveftiture of ecclefiaitical benefices, by deli¬
vering to the perfon they had chofen a patloral Raff and
a ring.
INVISIBLE lady, an amufing experiment in
coujlics', which was exhibited in this country, firfl by a
Frenchman, and ofterwards by others*, in which, from
the conflruef ion of the apparatus, a lady who converfed,
fung and played on mufical inflruments, feemed to be
enclofed in a hollow metallic globe, of about a foot in.
diameter. See SCIENCE, Amufemcnts of,
INULA, Elecampane } a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clafs } and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofitce, See Botany
Index.
INUNDATiE, the name of the 15th order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method } confiRing
of plants which grow in the water. See Botany,
INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the
rule of three. See Arithmetic, N° 13.
INVERSION, the aft whereby any thing is invert¬
ed or turned backwards. Problems in geometry and
arithmetic are often proved by inverfion} that is, by a
contrary rule or operation.
Inversion, in Grammar, is where the words of a
phrafe are ranged in a manner not fo natural as they
might be. Eor an inRance : “ Of all vices, the moR
abominable, and that which leaR becomes a man, is
impurity.” Here is an inverfion ; the natural order
being this : Imparity is the moR abominable of all
vices, and that which leaR becomes a man.—An inver¬
fion is not always difagreeable, but fometimes has a
good effeft.
p. 309.
INUNDATION, a fudden overflowing of the dry
land by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, iprings,
or rains.
INVOCATION, in Theo/ogy, the aft of adoring
God, and efpecially of addrefling him in prayer for his
afliflance and proteftiori. See the articles Adoration
and Prayer.
The difference between the invocation of God and of
the faints, as praftifed by the Papifls, is thus explained
in the catechifm of the council of 1 rent. “ We beg
of God (fays the catechifm), to give us good things,
and to deliver us from evil } but we pray to the faints,
to intercede with God and obtain thofe things which
w7e Rand in need of. Hence w'e ufe different forms in
praying to God and to the faints : to the former we fay,
hear
3
J O A [ 3°3 1 J O A
Invocation hear us, have mercy on us; to the latter we only fay,
j 11^ pray for «x.” The council of Trent exprefsly teaches,
. that the faints who reign with Jefus Chrilt offer up their
prayers to God for men •, and condemn thole who main¬
tain the contrary dodtrine. The Proteftants reject and
cenfure this practice as contrary to Scripture, deny the
truth of the fa£t, and think it highly unreifonable to
fuppofe that a limited finite being (hould be in a manner
omniprefent, and at one and the fame, time hear and at¬
tend to the prayers that are offered to him in England,
China, and Peru \ and from thence infer, that if the
faints cannot hear their requefts, it is inconfiflent
with common fenfe to addrefs any kind of prayer to
them.
Invocation, in Poetry, an addrefs at the beginning
of a poem, wherein the poet calls for the afliftance of
fome divinity, particularly of his mufe, or the deity of
poetry.
INVOICE, an account in writing of the particulars
of merchandife, with their value, culfoms, charges, &c.
tranfmitted by one merchant to another in a diftant
country.
INVOLUCPtUM, among botanifts, expreffes that
fort of cup which furrounds a number of flowers toge¬
ther, every one of which has befide this general cup its
own particular perianthium. The involucrum confifls
of a multitude of little leaves difpofed in a radiated man¬
ner. See Calyx.
INVOLUTION, in Algebra, the railing any quan¬
tity from its root to any height or power affigned.—See
Algebra.
10, in fabulous hiffory, daughter of Inachus, or ac¬
cording to others of Jalus or Pirene, was priellefs of Ju¬
no at Argos. Jupiter became enamoured of her ; but
Juno, jealous of his intrigues, difcovered*the object of
his afh dtion, and furprifed him in the company of lo.
Jupiter changed his miltrefs into a beautiful heifer; and
the goddefs, who well knew the fraud, obtained from
her hufband the animal whofe beauty Ihe had conde-
fcended to commend. Juno commanded the hundred¬
eyed Argus to watch the heifer ; but Jupiter, anxious
for the fituation of lo, fent Mercury to deftroy Argus,
and to reftore her to liberty. lo, freed from the vigi¬
lance of Argus, was now perfecuted by Juno, who fent
one of the Furies to torment her. She wandered over
the greateft part of the earth, and croffed over the fea,
till at laft flie flopped on the banks of the Nile, fiillex-
pofed to the unceafing torments of the Fury. Here Ihe
entreated Jupiter to reftore her to her natural form ;
and when the god had changed her from a heifer into a
woman, fire brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards fhe
married Telegonus king of Egypt, or Ofiris accord¬
ing to others j and fire treated her fubjedts with fuch
mildnefs and humanity, that after death file received
divine honours, and was worfhipped under the name of
IJis. According to Herodotus, lo was carried away
by Phoenician merchants, who wilhed to make repri-
fals for Europa who had been ftolen from them by the
Greeks.
JOAB, general of the army of King David, defeat¬
ed the Syrians and the other enemies of David, and
took the fort of Zion from the Jebufites, who, thinking
it impregnable, committed it to the care of the lame
and blind, whom they placed on the walls. He fig-
naltzed himfelf in all David’s wars, but was guilty of
bafely murdering Abner and Amafa. He procured Joat»
a reconciliation between Abfalom and David j and af- JJ,
terwards flew Abfalom, contrary to the exprefs orders'*0311 Arc'
of the king. He at length joined Adonijah’s party j
and was put to death by the order of Solomon, 1014
B. C.
JOACHIMITES, in Church-Hflory, the difciples
of Joachim a Ciftertian monk, who was an abbot of
Flora in Calabria, and a great pretender to infpira-
tion.
The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain
ternaries: The Father, they faid, operated from the
beginning till the coming of the Son ; the Son, from
that time to theirs, which was the year 1260 j and
from that time the Holy Spirit was to operate in his
turn. They alfo divided every thing relating to men,
to dodlrine, and the manner of living, into three claf-
fes, according to the three perfons in the Trinity :
The firit ternary was that of men ; of whom the firlt
clafs was that of married men, which had lafted du¬
ring the whole period of the Father ; the fecond was
clerks, which had lafted during the time of the Son j
and the laft was that of the monks, in which there was
to be an uncommon effufion of grace by the Holy Spi¬
rit : The lecond ternary was that of dodlrine, viz. the
Old Teftament, the New, and the everlalting Gofpel j.
the firft they afcribed to the Father, the fecond to the
Son, and the third to the Holy Spirit : A third ternary
confifted in the manner of living, viz. under the Father,
men lived according to the flefti ; under the Son, they
lived according to the flefti and the fpirit ; and under
the Holy Ghoft, they were to live according to the fpi¬
rit only.
JOAN, Pope, called by Platina John VIII. is faid
to have held the holy fee between Leo IV. who died in
855, and Benedict III. who died in 858. Marianus
Scotus fays, Ihe fat two years five months and four days-
Numberlefs have been the controverfies, fables, and
conjectures, relating to this pope. It is faid that a
German girl, pretending to be a man, went to Athens,
w here Ihe made great progrefs in the fciences ; and af¬
terward came to Home in the iame habit. As file had
a quick genius, and fpoke with a good grace in the pub¬
lic difputations and leflures, her great learning was ad¬
mired, and every one loved her extremely ; fo that af¬
ter the death of Leo, fhe was chofen pope, and per¬
formed all offices as fuch. Whilft ffie was in pofleffion
of this high dignity, ftie was got with child j and as file
was going in a folemn proceffion to the Lateran church,
Ihe was delivered of that child, between the Colifeum
and St Clement’s church, in a moil public ftreet, be¬
fore a crowd of people, and died on the fpot, in 857.
By way of embellifliing this ftory, may be added the
precaution reported to have been afterward taken to.
avoid fuch another accident. After the eleftion of a
pope, he-was placed on a chair with an open feat, call¬
ed the groping chair, when a deacon came moft devout¬
ly behind and fatisfied himfelf of the pontiff’s fex by
feeling. This precaution, however, has been long
deemed unneceffary, becaufe the cardinals, it is alleged,
take care to become fathers before they arrive at the
pontificate.
JOAN d' Arc, or the Maid of Orleans, whofe heroic
behaviour in reanimating the expiring valour of the
French nation, though by the nioft fuperftitious means,
(pretending
JOE [ 304 ] JOG
Joan d’Arc (pretending to be infpired), deferved a better fate. She
1) was burnt by the Englifh as a forcerefs in 1421, aged
. ' , 24. See France, N° ioi.
JOANNA, St, or Hinzuan, one of the Comora
iflands in the Indian ocean. E. Long. 44. 15. S. Lat.
12. 30. See Hinzuan.
JOB, or Book of JOB, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, containing a narrative of a feries of mif-
fortunes which happened to a man whofe name avas
Job, as a trial of his virtue and patience ; together
with the conferences he had with his cruel friends on
the fubjeft of his misfortunes, and the manner in which
he was reftored to eafe and happinefs. This book is
filled with thofe noble, bold, and figurative expreflions,
which conftitute the very foul of poetry.
Many of the Jewifh rabbins pretend that this rela¬
tion is altogether a fiflion ; others think it a fimple
narrative of a matter of fa£t jutl as it happened : while
a third fort of critics acknowledge, that the ground¬
work of the (lory is true, but that it is written in a poe¬
tical {train, and decorated with peculiar circumfiances,
to render the narration more profitable and entertain-
ing-
The time is not fet down in which Job lived. Some
have thought that he was much ancienter than Mofes,
becaufe the law is never cited by Job or his friends, and
becaufe it is related that Job himfelf offered facrifices.
Some imagine that this book was written by himfelf j
others fay, that Job wrote it originally in Syriac or A-
rabic, and that Mofes tranflated it into Hebrew ; but
the rabbins generally pronounce Mofes to be the au¬
thor of it 5 and many Chriftian writers are of the fame
opinion.
JOBBER, a perfon who undertakes jobs, or fmall
pieces of work.
In fome ftatutes, jobber is ufed for a perfon who
buys and fells for others. See Broker.
JOBBING, the bufinefs of a jobber.
Stock-JOBBING, denotes the practice of trafficking in
the public funds, or of buying and felling ftock with a
view to its rife or fall. The term is commonly applied
to the illegal praftice of buying and felling ftock for
time, or of accounting for the differences in the rife or
fall of any particular ftock for a ftipulated time, whe¬
ther the buyer or feller be poffeffed of any fuch real
ftock or not. See Stock-BROKER.
JOCASTA, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Me-
nceceus, who married Laius king of Thebes, by whom
ihe had Oedipus. She afterwards married her fon Oedi¬
pus, without knowing who he was, and had by him
Eteocles, Polynices, &c. When {lie difcovered that
the had married her own fon and been guilty of inceft,
ihe hanged herfelf in defpair. She is called F.picafa
by fome mythologifts.
JOCKEY, in the management of horfes; the perfon
who trims up, and rides about horfes for fale.
JOEL, or the Prophecy of JOEL, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament. Joel was the fon of Pethuel,
and the iecond of the twelve leffer prophets. The ftyle
of this prophet is figurative, ftrong, and expreffive. He
upbraids the Ifraelites for their idolatry, and foretels the
calamities they ftiould fuffer as the punilhment of that
fin : but he endeavours to fupport them with the com¬
fort that their miferics fhould have an end upon their
reformation and repentance. Some writers, interring Joel
the order of time in which the minor prophets lived II
from the order in which they are placed in the Hebrew', °Sue:>'
copies, conclude that Joel prophefied before Amos, who
was contemporary with Uzziah, king of Judah. Arch-
biftiop Uffier makes this inference from Joel’s foretelling
that drought, chap. iv. 7, 8, 9. If we confider the main
defign of Joel’s prophecy, we (hall be apt to conclude,
that it was uttered after the captivity of the ten tribes j
for he directs his dilcourfe only to Judah, and fpeaks
diftinctly of the facrifices and oblations that were daily
made in the temple.
JOGHIS, a feci of heathen religious in the Eaft In¬
dies, who never marry, nor hold any thing in private
property ; but live on alms, and pradtife ftrange feveri-
ties on themfelves.
They are fabject to a general, who fends them from
one country to another to preach. They are, properly,
a kind of penitent pilgrims ; and are luppofed to be a
branch of the ancient Gymnofophifts.
They frequent, principally, fuch places as are con-
fecrated by the devotion of the people, and pretend to
live feveral days together without eating or drinking.
After having gone through a courfe of difeipline for a
certain time, they look on themfelves as impeccable,
and privileged to do any thing j upon which they give
a loofe to their paffions, and run into all manner of de¬
bauchery.
JOGUES, or Yoogs, certain ages, eras, or periods,
of extraordinary length, in the chronology of the Hin¬
doos. They are four in number ; of which the follow¬
ing is an account, extrafted from Halhed’s Preface to
the Code of Gentoo Laws, p. xxxvi.
1. The Suttee Jogue (or age of purity) isfaid to have
lafted three million two hundred thoufand years 5 and
they hold that the life of man was extended in that age
to one hundred thoufand years, and that his ftature was
21 cubits.
2. The Tirtah Jogue (in which one-third of mankind
was corrupted) they fuppofe to have confifted of two
million four hundred thoufand years, and men lived to
the age of ten thoufand years.
3. The Dwcipaar Jogue (in which half of the human
race became depraved) endured one million fix hundred
thoufand years, and the life of man was then reduced
to a thoufand years.
4. The Collee Jogue (in which all mankind are cor¬
rupted, or rather leffened, for that is the true meaning
of Collee') is the prefent era, which they fuppofe ordained
to fubfift four hundred thoufand years, of which near
five thoufand are already paft 5 and the life of man in
that period is limited to one hundred years.
Concerning the Indian chronology, we have already
had occafion to be pretty copious; fee Hindoos, N° 19,
22. We {hall here, however, fubjoin Dr Robertfon’s
obfervations on the above periods, from the Notes to
his Hiflorical Difquifuion concerning India.
“ If (fays he *) we fuppofe the computation of time* p. 3<d».
in the Indian chronology to be made by folar or even
by lunar years, nothing can be more extravagant in it-
felf, or more repugnant to our mode of calculating the
duration of the world, founded on facred and infallible
authority. From one circumftance, however, which
merits attention, we may conclude, that the informa¬
tion
J O H f 305 ] J O H
jogues, tion wliich we have hitherto received concerning the
John. chronology of the Hindoos is very incorrect. We have,
,"'"v as far as I know, only five original accounts of the dif¬
ferent Jogues or eras of the Hindoos. The firft is given
by M. Rogers, who received it from the Brahmins on
the Coromandel ooaft. According to it, the Suttee
Jogue is a period of one million feven hundred and
twenty-eight thoufand years ; the Tirtah Jogue is one
million two hundred and ninety-fix thoufand years*, the
Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and fixty-four thou-
fand.sThe duration of the Collee Jogue he does not fpe-
cify (Porte Ouverte, p. xyg).-). The next is that of M.
Bernier, who received it from the Brahmins of Be¬
nares. According to him, the duration of the Suttee
Jogue was two million five hundred thoufand years j that
of the Tirtah Jogue, one million two hundred thoufand
years ; that of the Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and
fixty-four thoufand years. Concerning the period of
the Collee Jogue he is likewife filent (Voyages, tom.
ii. p. 160.). The third is that of Colonel Dow ; ac¬
cording to which the Suttee Jogue is a period of four¬
teen million of years, the Tirtah Jogue one million and
eighty thoufand, the Dwapaar Jogue feventy-two thou¬
fand, and the Collee Jogue thirty-fix thoufand years ;
(H]t. ofHindoJl. vol. i. p. 2.). The fourth account is
that of M. le Gentil, who received it from the Brah¬
mins of the Coromandel coalt ; and as his information
was acquired in the fame part of India, and derived
from the fame fource with that of M. Rogers, it agrees
with his in every particular *, (Mem. de P Academ. des
Sciences pour 1772, tom. ii. part. i. p. 176.). The fifth
is the account of Mr Halhed, which has been already
given. From this difcrepancy, not only of the total
numbers, but of many of the articles in the different ac¬
counts, it is manifeft that our information concerning
Indian chronology is hitherto as uncertain, as the whole
fyftem of it is wild and fabulous. To me it appears
highly probable, that when we underfiand more tho¬
roughly the principles upon which the faftitious eras or
jogues of the Hindoos have been formed, that we may
be more able to recoacile their chronology to the true
mode of computing time, founded on the authority of
the Old Teftament; and may likewife find reafon to
conclude, that the account given by their aftronomers
of the fituation of the heavenly bodies at the beginning
of the Collee Jogue, is not eftablilhed by aftual obfer-
vation, but the refult of a retrofpe&ive calculation.”
JOHN, St, the Baptist, the forerunner of Jefus
Chriff, was the fon of Zacharias and Elizabeth. He
retired into a defert, where he lived on locufts and
wild honey j and about the year 29 began to preach
repentance, and to declare the coming of the Mefiiah.
He baptized his difciples, and the following year
Chrift himfelf was baptized by him in the river Jor¬
dan. Some time after, having reproved Herod An-
fcipas, who had a criminal correfpondence wdth Here¬
dias his brother Philip’s wife, he was caff into prifon,
where he was beheaded. His head was brought to
Heredias; who, according to St Jerome, pierced his
tongue with the bodkin fhe ufed to fallen up her hair,
to revenge herfelf after his death for the freedom of
his reproofs.
John, St, the apoftle, or the evangelift, was the
brother of St James the Great, and the fon of Zebedee.
He quitted the bufinefs of fifhing to follow Jefus, and
Vol. XI. Parti.
was his beloved difciple. Fie was witnefs te the actions
and miracles of his Mailer *, was prelent at his transfi¬
guration on Mount Tabor; and was with him in the
garden of olives. He was the only apollle who follow¬
ed him to the crofs j and to him Jefus left the care of
his mother. He was alfo the firlt apollle who knew
him again after his refurreflion. Fie preached the
faith in Alia j and principally relided at Epheius, where
he maintained the mother of our Lord. He is faid to
have founded the churches of Smyrna, Pergamus, Thy-
atira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Fie is alio
faid to have preached the gofpel among the Parthians,
and to have addreffed his firil epillle to that people. It
is related, that, when at Rome, the emperor Domitian
caufed him to be thrown into a caldron of boiling oil,
when he came out unhurt ; on which he was banilhed
to the ille of Patmos, where he wrote his Apocalypfe.
After the death of Domitian he returned to Ephefus,
where he compofed his Gofpel, about the year 96 j and
died there, in the reign of Trajan, about the year 100,
aged 94.
Gofpel of St JOHN, a canonical book of the New Tef-
tament, containing a recital of the life, actions, doc-'
trine, and death, of our Saviour Jefus Chrilt, written
by St John the apollle and evangelilt.
St John wrote his Gofpel at Ephefus, after his return
from the ifle of Patmos, at the defire of the Chrillians
of Alia. St Jerome fays he would not undertake it,
but on condition that they fliould appoint a public fall,
to implore the affillance of God j and, that the fall be¬
ing ended, St John, filled with the Holy Gholt, broke
out into thefe words : “ In the beginning was the
Word,” &c. The ancients afilgn two reafons for this
undertaking: the firfl is, becaufe, in the other three
Gofpels, there was wanting the hiilory of the begin¬
ning of Jefus Chrill’s preaching till the imprifonment
of John the Baptill, which therefore he applied himfelf
particularly to relate. The fecond reafon was, in or¬
der to remove the errors of the Cerinthians, Ebionites,
and other fe£ls. But Mr Lampe and Dr Lardner
have urged feveral reafons to Ihow that St John did
not write againft Cerinthus or any other heretics in
his Gofpel.
Revelation of St John. See Apqcalypse.
JOHN of Salifbury, bilhop of Chartres in France,
was born at Salilbury in Wiltlhire, in the beginning of
the 12th eentury. Where he imbibed the rudiments of
his education is unknown : but we learn that in the
year 1136, being then a youth, he was fent to Paris,
where he lludied under feveral eminent profeffors, and
acquired confiderable fame for his application and pro¬
ficiency in rhetoric, poetry, divinity, and particularly
in the learned languages. Thence he travelled to
Italy: und, during his refidence at Rome was in high
favour with Pope Eugenius III. and his fucceffor
Adrian IV. After his return to England, he became
the intimate friend and companion of the famous Tho¬
mas Becket, archbilhop of Canterbury, whom he at¬
tended in his exile, and is faid to have been prefent
when that haughty prelate was murdered in his cathe¬
dral. What preferment he had in the church during
this time does not appear ; but in 1176 he was pro¬
moted by King Henry II. to the bilhopric of Chartres
in France, where he died in 1182. This John of Salif¬
bury was really a phenomenon. He was one of the firft
Q q reftorers
J O H [ 306 1 - J O H
John, reftorcrs of the Greek and Latin languages in Europe j
a claffical fcho’ar, a philofopher, a learned divine, and
an elegant Latin poet. He wrote feveral books; the
principal of which are, his Life of St Thomas of Can-
tefbury, a colledlion of letters, and Polycraticon.
Po/>e JOHN XXII. a native of Cahors, before called
James d'Ertfe, was well fkilled in the civil and canon
law; and was eledled pope after the death of Clement V.
on the 7th of Auguft 1316. He publifhed the confti-
tutions called Clementines, which -were made by his
predeceflbr ; and drew up the other conftitutions called
Extravagar.tes. Lewis of Bavaria being elected empe¬
ror, John XXII. oppofed him in favour of his compe¬
titor 5 which made much noife, and was attended with
fatal confequences. That prince, in 1320, caufed the
antipope Peter de> Corbiero, a cordelier, to be elefted,
who took the name of Nicholas V. and was fupported
by Michael de Cefenne, general of his order 7 but that
antipope was the following year taken, and carried to
Avignon, where he begged pardon of the pope with a
rope about his neck, and died in prifon two or three
years after. Under this pope arofe the famous queftion
among the cordeliers, called the bread of the cordeliers;
which was, Whether thofe monks had the property of
the things given them, at the time they were making
ufe of them t1 for example, Whether the bread belong¬
ed to them when they were eating it, or to the pope,
or to the Roman church ? This frivolous queftion gave
great employment to the pope j as well as thofe which
turned upon the colour, form, and fluff, of their habits,
whether they ought to be white, gray, or black j whe¬
ther the cowl ought to be pointed or round, large or
fmall 5 whether their robes ought to be full, ftiort, or
long \ of cloth, or of ferge, &c. The difputes on all
thefe minute trifles were carried fo far between the mi¬
nor brothers, that feme of them were burned upon the
occafion. He died at Avignon in 1334, aged 90.
John, king of England. See England, N0 135,
147.
John of Fordoun. See Fordoun.
JOHN of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, a renowned ge¬
neral, father of Henry IV. king of England, died in
1438.
JOHN of Leyden, otherwife called Buccold. See A-
NABAPTISTS.
JOHN Sobiejhi of Poland, one of the greateft warriors
in the 17th century, was, in 1665, made grand-marlhal
of the crown j and, in 1667, grand-general of the
kingdom. His vi&ories obtained over the Tartars and
the Turks procured him the crown, to which he was
elefted in 1674. He was an encourager of arts and
fciences, and the prote&or of learned men. He died
in 1696, aged 72.
St John's Day, the name of two Chriftian feftivals 5
one obferved on June 24th, kept in commemoration of
the wonderful circumflances attending the birth of John
the Baptift ; and the other on December 27. in honour
of St John the Evangelift.
St John's Wbrt. See Hypericum, Botany Index.
John’s, St, an ifland of the Eaft Indies, and one of
the Philippines, eaft of Mindanao, from which it is
feparated by a narrow ftrait. E. Long. 125. 25. N.
Lat. 7. o.
John’s, St, an ifland of North America, in the bay
4
of St Lawrence, having New Scotland on the Imth
and weft, and Cape Breton On the eaft. The Brkuh
got poffetiion of it when Louiibourg was fw:rendered to
them, on July 26. 1738.
JOHNSON, Ben, one of the muft confiderable
dramatic poets of the laft age, whether we confider
the number or the merit of his productions. He was
born at Weftminfter in 1574, and was educated at the
public fchool there under ihe great Camden. He
was defeended from a Scottifh family ; and his father,
who loft his eftate under Queen Mary, dying before
our poet was born, and his mother marrying a brick¬
layer for her fecond hufband, Ben W’as taken from
fchool to work at his father-in-law’s trade. Not be¬
ing captivated with this employment, he went into
the Low Countries, and diftinguifhed himfelf in a mi¬
litary capacity. On his return to England, he entered
himfelf at St John’s college, Cambridge 5 and having
killed a perfon in a duel, was condemned, and narrow¬
ly efcaped execution. After this he turned adlor $ and
Shakelpeare is laid to have firft introduced him to the
world, by recommending a play of his to the ftage,
after it had been rejected. His Alchymift gained him
fuch reputation, that in 1619 he was, at the death of
Mr Daniel, made poet-laureat to King James I. and
mafter of arts at Oxford. As w^e do not find John-
fon’s economical virtues anywhere recorded, it is the
leis to be w'ondered at, that after this we find him pe¬
titioning King Charles, on his acceflion, to enlarge hig.
father’s allowance of 100 merks into pounds j and
quickly after we learn that he was very poor and fick,
lodging in an obfeure alley j on which occafion it was,
that Charles, being prevailed on in his favour, fent him
ten guineas j which Ben receiving faid, “ His majefty
has fent me ten guineas, beeaufe I am poor, and live
in an alley ; go and tell him, that his foul lives in an
alley.” He died in Auguft 1637, aged 63 years, and
was buried in Weftminfter-Abbey.—The moft com¬
plete edition of his works was printed in 1756, in
7 vols 8vo.
Johnson, Dr Samuel, who has been ftyled the
brighteft ornament of the 18th century, was born in
the city of Litchfield in Staffordflure, on the 18th of
September N. S. 1709. His father Michael wras a
bookfeller $ and muft have had fome reputation in the
city, as he more than once bore the office of chief
magiftrate. By what cafuiftical reafoning he reconciled
his confcience to the oaths required to be taken by all
who occupy fuch ftations, cannot now be known j but
it is certain that he was zealoufly attached to the exiled
family, and inftilled the fame principles into the youth¬
ful mind of his fon. So much was he in earneft in this
work, and at fo early a period did he commence it,'that
when Dr Sacheverel, in his memorable tour through
England, came to Litchfield, Mr Johnfon carried his
fon, not then quite three years old, to the cathedral,
and placed him on his Iheulders, that he might lee as
well as hear the far-famed preacher.
But political prejudices were not the only bad things
which young Sam inherited from his father : he de¬
rived from the fame fource a morbid melancholy, which,
though it neither depreffed his imagination, nor cloud¬
ed his perfpicuity, filled him with dreadful apprehen-
fions of infanity, and rendered him wretched through
John’s,
Johniun.
J O H [ 307 ] J O H
Jofinfou. life. From his nurfe he contraded the fcrofula or
v——king’s evil, which made its appearance at a very early
period, disfigured a face naturally well-formed, and
deprived him of the fight of one of his eyes.
When arrived at a proper age for grammatical in-
ftrudion, he was placed in the free fchool of Litchfield,
of which one Mr Hunter was then mailer \ a man
whom his illuftrious pupil thought “ very fevere, and
wrong-headedly fevere,” becaufe he would beat a boy
for not anfwering queflions which he could not expe£t
to be afked. He was, however, a fkilful teacher j and
Johnfon, when he flood in the very front of learning,
was fenfible how much he owed to him ; for upon be¬
ing afked how he had acquired fo accurate a knowledge
of the Latin tongue, he replied, “ My mader beat
me very well j without that^ Sir, I fhould have done
nothing.”
At the age of 15 Johnfon was removed from Litch¬
field to the fchool of Stourbridge in Worceflerfhire,
at which he remained little more than a year, and then
returned home, where he flaid two years without any
fettled plan of life or any regular courfe of fludy. He
read, however, a great deal in a defultory manner, as
chance threw books in his way, and as inclination di-
refted him through them ; fo that when in his 19th
year he was entered a commoner of Pembroke college,
Oxford, his mind was ftored with a variety of fuch
knowledge as is not often acquired in univerfities, where
boys feldom read any books but what are put into their
hands by their tutors. He had given very early proofs
of his poetical genius both in his fchool exercifes and
in other occaflonal compofitions : but what is perhaps
more remarkable, as it fliows that he muft have
thought much on a fubjeft on which other boys of
that age feldom think at all, he had before he was 14
entertained doubts of the truth of revelation. From
the melancholy of his temper thefe would naturally
prey upon his fpirits, and give him great uneafinefs :
but they were happily removed by a proper courfe of
reading j for “ his ftudies being honeft, ended in con-
viftion. He found that religion is true; and what
he had learned, he ever afterwards endeavoured to
teach.”
Concerning his refidence in the univerfity and the
means by which he was there fupported, his two prin¬
cipal biographers contradict each other ; fo that thefe
are points of which we cannot write with certaintv.
According to Sir John Hawkins, the time of his con¬
tinuance at Oxford is divifible into two periods : Mr
Bofwell reprefents it as only one period, with the ufual
interval of a long vacation. Sir John fays, that he
V'as fupported at college by Mr Andrew Corbet in
quality of afiiltant in the (ludies of his fon : Mr Bof¬
well affures us, that though he was promifed pecuniary
aid by Mr Corbet, that promife was not in any de¬
gree fulfilled. We fhould be inclined to adopt the
knight’s account of this tranfa&ion, were it not pal¬
pably inconfiftent with itsfelf. He fays, that the tw-o
young men were entered in Pembroke on the fame
day ; that Corbet continued in the college two years ;
and yet that Johnfon uras driven home in little more
than one year, becaufe by the removal of Corbet he
was deprived of his penfion. A flory, of which one
part contradi&s the other, cannot wholly be true. Sir
John adds, that “ meeting with another fource, the Johsfos.
bounty, as it is fuppofed, of fome one or more of the l—-*v—
members of the cathedral of Litchfield, he returned to
college, and made up the whole of his refidence in the
univerfity about three years.” Mr Bofwell has told us
nothing but that Johnfon, though his father was unable
to fupport him, continued three years in college, and
was then driven from it by extreme poverty.
Thefe gentlemen differ likewife in their accounts of
Johnfon’s tutors. Sir John Hawkins fays that he had
two, Mr Jordan and Dr Adams. Mr Bofwell affirms
that Dr Adams could not be his tutor, becaufe Jordan
did not quit the college till 1731 ; the year in the au¬
tumn of which Johnfon himfelf was compelled to leave
Oxford. Yet the fame author reprefents Dr Adams as
faying, “ I was Johnfon’s nominal tutor, but he was
above my mark a fpeech of which it is not eafy to
difeover the meaning, if it was not Johnfon’s duty to
attend Adams’s lectures. In moft colleges w'e believe
there are two tutors in different departments of educa¬
tion ; and therefore it is not improbable that Jordan
and Adams may have been tutors to Johnfon at the
fame time, the one in languages, the other in feience.
Jordan was a man of fuch mean abilities, that though
his pupil loved him for the goodnefs of his heart, he
would often rifk the payment of a fmall fine, rather than
attend his leflures; nor was he fludious to conceal the
reafon of his abfence. Upon occafion of one fuch im-
pofition, he faid, “ Sir, you have fconced me twopence
for non-attendance at a ledlure not worth a penny.”
For fome tranfgreffion or abfence his tutor impofed
upon him as a Chriftmas exercife the talk of tranllating
into Latin verfe Pope’s Mejjiah ; which being fliown to
the author of the original, was read and returned w ith
this encomium, “ The writer of this poem will leave it
a quellion for poflerity, whether his or mine be the ori¬
ginal.” The particular courfe of his reading while in
college, and during the vacation w hich he pa {fed at
home, cannot be traced. That at this period he read
much, we have his own evidence in what he afterwards
told the king ; but his mode of ftudy was never regu¬
lar, and at ail times he thought more than he read.
He informed Pvlr Bofwell, that what he read folidly at
Oxford was Greek, and that the lludy of which he was
moft fond was metaphyfics.
It was in the year 1731 that Johnfon left the univer¬
fity without a degree ; and as his father, who died in
the month of December of that year, had fuffered great
misfortunes in trade, he was driven out a commoner of
nature, and excluded from the regular modes of profit
and profperity. Having therefore not only a profeffion
but the means of fubfiftence to leek, he accepted, in
the month of March 1732, an invitation to the office
of under-mafter of a free fchool at Market Bofworth in
Leicefterftnre : but not knowing, as he faid, whether it
was more difagreeable for him to teach or for the boys
to learn the grammar-rules, and being likewife difguft-
ed at the treatment which he received from the patron
of the fchool, he relinquilhed in a few months a fitua-
tion which he ever afterw'ards recolledled with horror.
Being thus again without any fixed employment, arid
with very little money in his pocket, he tranllated Lo¬
be’s voyage to Abyffinia, for the trifling fum, it is far'd,
of five guineas, which he received from a bookfeller in
Q ft 2 Birmingham*
J O H [ 3^8 ] J O H
Johnfon. Birmingham. This was the firft attempt which it is
certain he, made to procure pecuniary afliftance by
means of his pen j and it muft have held forth very
little encouragement to his commencing author by pro-
felhon.
In 1735, being then in his 26th year, he married
Mrs Porter, the widow of a mercer in Birmingham j
whofe age was almoft double his 5 whofe external form,
according to Garrick and others, had never been cap¬
tivating*, and whofe fortune amounted to hardly 800I.
That the had a fuperiority of underftanding and talents
is extremely probable, both becaafe fhe certainly in-
fpired him with a more than ordinary paflion, and be-
caufe Hie was herfelf fo delighted with the charms of
his converiation as to overlook his external diladvanta-
ges, which were many and great. He now fet up a
private academy ; for which purpofe he hired a large
houfe well fituated near his native city : but his name
having then nothing of that celebrity which afterwards
commanded the attention and refpeft of mankind, this
undertaking did not fucceed. 1 he only pupils who are
known to have been placed under his care, were the
celebrated David Garrick, his brother George Gar¬
rick, and a young gentleman of fortune whofe name
was Offely. He kept his academy only a year and a
half} and it was during that time that he conftrucled
the plan and wrote a great part of his tragedy of
Irene.
The refpeflable chara£ler of his parents and his
own merit had fecured him a kind reception in the beft
families at Litchfield ; and he was particularly diftin-
guilhed by Mr Walmfley regifter of the ecclefiaftical
court, a man of great worth and of very extenfive and
various erudition. That gentleman, upon hearing part
of Irene read, thought fo highly of Johnfon’s abilities
as a dramatic writer, that he advifed him by all means
to finilh the tragedy and produce it on the ft age. To
men of genius the ftage holds forth temptations almoft:
refiftlefs. The profits arifing from a tragedy, including
the reprefentation and printing of it, and the connec¬
tions which it fometimes enables the author to form,
were in John Ton’s imagination ineftimable. Flattered,
it may be fuppofed, with thefe hopes, he fet out feme
time in the year 1737 with his pupil David Garrick
for London, leaving Mrs Johnfon to take care of the
houfe and the wreck of her fortune. The two adven¬
turers carried with them from Mr Walmfley an earneft
recommendation to the reverend Mr Colfon, then maf-
ter of an academy, and afterwards Lucafian profeffor of
mathematics in the univerfity of Cambridge ; but from
that gentleman it does not appear that Johnfon found
either protection or encouragement.
How he fpent his time upon his firfl: going to Lon¬
don is not particularly known. His tragedy was refu-
fed by the managers of that day 5 and for fome years
the Gentleman’s Magazine feems to have been his prin¬
cipal refource for employment and fupport. To enu¬
merate his various communications to that far-famed
mifcellany, would extend this article beyond the limits
which we can afford. Suffice it to fay, that his con¬
nexion with Cave the proprietor became very clofe ;
that he "wrote prefaces, effays, reviews of books, and
poems j and that he was occafionally employed in cor-
xefling the papers written by other correfpondents.
2
When the complaints of the nation againfl; the admini- Johnfot..
ftration of Sir Robert Walpole became loud, and a mo- v—■■
tion was made, February 13. 1740-1, to remove him
from his majefty’s counfels for ever, Johnfon was pitch¬
ed upon by Cave to write what was in the Magazine
in titled Debates in the Senate of Lilliput, but was under-
ftood to be the fpeeches of the moft eminent members
in both houfes of parliament. Thefe orations, which
induced Voltaire to compare Britifn with ancient elo¬
quence, were haftily Iketched by Johnfon wrhile he was
not yet 32 years old, while he was little acquainted
vdth life, while he was ftruggling, not for diftinXion
but for exiftence. Perhaps in none of his writings has
he given a more confpicuous proof of a mind prompt
and vigorous almoft beyond conception : for they were
compofed from fcanty notes taken by illiterate perfons
employed to attend in both houfes \ and fometimes he
had nothing communicated to him but the names of
the fever a 1 fpeakers, and the part which they took in
the debate.
His feparate publications which at this time attraXed
the greateft notice were, “ London, a Poem in imita¬
tion of Juvenal’s third Satire $” “ Marmor Norfolcienfe,
or an Effay on an ancient prophetical Inicription in
Monkilh Rhyme, lately difeovered near Lynne in Nor¬
folk j” and “ A complete Vindication of the Licenfers
of the Stage from the malicious and fcandalous afper-
fions of Mr Brook author of Guftavus Vafa.” The
poem, which was publifhed in 173^ by Dodfley, is uni-
verfally known and admired as the moft fpiritea inftance
in the Englifti language of ancient lentiments adapted
to modern topics. Pope, who then filled the poetical
throne without a rival, being informed that the author’s
name was Johnfon, and that he was an obfeure perfon,
replied, “ he will foon be Merrey The other two
pamphlets, which were publiftted in 1739, are filled
with keen fatire on the government: and though Sir
John Hawkins has thought fit to declare that they dif-
play neither learning nor wit, Pope was of a different
opinion ; for in a note of his preterved by Mr Bofwell,
he fayjs, that “ the whole of the Norfolk prophecy is
very humorous.”
Mrs Johnfon, who went to London foon after her
hufband, now lived fometimes in one place and fome¬
times in another, fometimes in the city and fometimes
at Greenwich : but Johnfon himfelf was oftener to be
found at St John’s Gate, where the Gentleman’s Ma¬
gazine was publiftied, than in his own lodgings. It was'
there that he became acquainted with Savage, with
whom he was induced, probably by the fimilarity of
their circumftanees, to contraX a very clofe friend-
ftiip ; and fueh were their extreme neceffities, that they
have often wandered whole nights in the icreet for
want of money to procure them a lodging. In one
of thefe noXurnal rambles, when their diftrefs was al¬
moft incredible, fo far were they from being depreffed
by their fituation, that in high fpirits and brimful or
patriot! fm, they tr aver fed St James’s Square for ie-
veral hours*, inveighed againft the minifter *, and, as
Johnfon faid in ridicule oi himfelf, his companion, and
all fuch patriots, “ refolved that they would ftand by
their country !” In 1744* publifhed the life of his
unfortunate companion 5 a work which, had he never
written any thing elfe, would have placed him very
J O H [ 309 ] J O H
Johnion. high in the rank of authors (a). His narrative is re-
markably fmooth and well difpofed, his obfervations are
juft, and his refledtions difclofe the inmoft receffes of
the human heart.
In 1749, when Drury-lane theatre was opened un¬
der the management of Garrick, Johnfon wrote a pro¬
logue for the occafion 5 which for juft dramatic criti-
cifm on the whole range of the Englifti ftage, as well
as for poetical exellence, is confeffedly unrivalled. But
this year is, in his life, diftinguifhed as the epoch when
his arduous and important work, the Diftionary of the
Englilh Language, was announced to the world by the
publication of its plan or profpedtus, addreffed to the
earl of Chefterfield. From that nobleman Johnfon was
certainly led to expeft patronage and encouragement;
and it feems to be equally certain that his lordihip ex-
pedted, when the book ftiould be publifhed, to be ho¬
noured with the dedication. The expedtations of both
were difappointed. Lord Chefterheld, after feeing the
lexicographer once or twice, fuffered him to be repul-
fed from his Moor : but afterwards thinking to con¬
ciliate him when the work was upon the eve of publi¬
cation, he wrote two papers in “ The World,” warmly
recommending it to the public. This artifice was feen
through; and Johnfon, in very polite language, rejec¬
ted his lordlhip’s advances, letting him know, that he
was unwilling the public ftiould confider him as owing
to a patron that which Providence had enabled him to
do for himlelf. This great and laborious work its au¬
thor expedted to complete in three years : but he was
certainly employed upon it feven *, for we know that
it was begun in'1747, and the laft ftieet was fent to
the prefs in the end of the year 1754. When we
confider the nature of the undertaking, it is indeed
aftonifhing that it was finifhed fo foon, fince it w as writ¬
ten, as he fays, “ with little afliftance of the learned,
and without any patronage of the great; not in the
foft obfcurities of retirement, or under the ftielter of
academic bowers, but amidft inconvenience and dif-
tradlion, in ficknefs and in forrow.” The forrow', to
which he here alludes, is probably that which he felt
for the lofs of his wife, who died on the 17th of March
O. S. 1752, the lofs of whom he continued to lament
as long as he lived.
The Didtionary did not occupy his whole time :
for while he was puftu’ng it forward, he fitted his tra¬
gedy for the ftage; wrote the lives of feveral eminent
men for the Gentleman’s Magazine ; publifhed an Imi¬
tation of the 10th Satire of Juvenal, entitled “ The
Vanity of human Wifliesand began and finifhed
“ The Rambler.” This laft work is fo well-known,
that it is hardly neceffary to fay that it was a periodi¬
cal paper, publifhed twice a-week, from the 2Cth of
March 1750 to the 14th of March 1752 inclufive : but
to give our readers fome notion of the vigour and promp¬
titude ef the author’s mind, it may not be improper to
obferve, that notwithftanding the feverity of his other
labours, all the afliftance which he received does not
amount to five papers ; and that many of the moft maf- Johnfoa.
terly of thofe unequalled effays were written on the fpur •*
of the cctaSon, and never feen entire by the author till
they returned to him from the prefs.
Soon after the Rambler was concluded, Dr Hawkef-
worth projedted “ The Adventurer” upon a fimilar
plan ; and by the afliftance of friends he was enabled
to carry it on with almoft equal merit. ’For a fhort
time, indeed, it was the moft popular work of the two $
and the papers with the fignature T, which are con¬
feffedly the moft fplendid in the whole colledlion, are
now known to have been communicated by Johnfon,
who received for each the fum of two guineas. This
was double the price for which he fold fermons to fuch
clergymen as either would not or could not compofe
their own difcourfes ; and of fermon-writing he feems
to have made a kind of trade.
Though he had exhaufted, during the time that he
was employed on the Didtionary, more than the fum
for which the bookfellers had bargained for the copy j
yet by means of the Rambler, Adventurer, fermons,
and other produdtions of his pen, he now found himfelf
in greater affluence than he had ever been before; and
as the powers of his mind, diftended by long and fevers
exercife, required relaxation to reftore them to their
proper tone, he appears to have done little or nothing
from the clofing of the Adventurer till the year 1756,
when he fubmitted to the office of reviewer in the Lite¬
rary Magazine. Of his reviews by far the moft valuable
is that of Soame Jennyns’s “ Free Inquiry into the Na¬
ture and Origin of Evil.” Never were wit and meta-
phyfical acutenefs more clofely united than in that criti-
cifm, which expofes the weaknef; and holds up to con¬
tempt the reafonings of thofe vain mortals, who prefump-
tuoufly attempt to grafp the fcale of exiftence, and to
form plans of condudt for the Creator of the univerfe.
But the furnifhing of magazines, reviews, and even
newfpapers with literary intelligence, and authors of
books with dedications and prefaces, was confidered as
an employment unworthy of Johnfon. It was therefore
propofed by the bookfellers that he fhould give a new
edition of the dramas of Shakefpeare $ a work which
he had projected many years before, and of which he
had publifhed a fpecimen which was commended by
Warburton. When one of his friends expreffed a hope
that this employjnent would furnifh him with amufe-
ment and add to his fame, he replied, “ I look upon it
as I did upon the Dictionary •, it is all work j and my
inducement to it is not love or defire of fame, but the
want of money, which is the only motive to writing
that I know of.” He iffued propofals, however, of
confiderable length ; in which he fhowed that he knew
perfectly what a variety of refearch fuch an undertaking
required : but his indolence prevented him from pur-
fuing it with diligence, and it was not publifhed till
many years afterwards.
On the 15th of April 1758 he began a new periodi¬
cal paper entitled “ The Idler,” which came out every
Saturday
^ (a) From the merit of this work Mr Bofwell has endeavoured to detraCt, by infinuating, that the perfon called
Richard Savage was an impoftor, and not the fon of the'-earl of Rivers and the countefs of Macclesfield. The
moral character of Savage was undoubtedly unworthy of fuch a biographer ; and it may be fairly queftioned whe¬
ther his intellectual or poetical character at ailentitled him to fuch refpeCtable notice.
J O H [ 310 ] J O H
Johnfon. Saturday in a weekly newfpaper, called “ the Univer-
' ' fal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette,” publilhed by New¬
berry. Of thefe effays, which were continued till the
5th of April 1760, many were written as haftily as an
ordinary letter ; and one in particular compofed at
Oxford was begun only half an hour before the de¬
parture of the poll which carried it to London.
About this time he had the offer of a living, of which
he might have rendered himfelf capable by entering
into orders. It was a re&ory in a pleafant country, of
fuch yearly value as would have been an obje£l to one
in much better circumftances j but fenfible, as it is
fuppofed, of the afperity of his temper, he declined it,
faying, “ I have not the requifites for the office, and I
cannot in my eonfcience (hear the flock which I am un¬
able to feed.”
In the month of January 1759 his mother died at
the great age of 90 j an event which deeply affe&ed
him, and gave birth to the 41ft Idler, in which he la¬
ments, that “ the life which made his own life pleafant
was at an end, and that the gate of death was fhut up¬
on his profpedts.” Soon afterwards he wrote his “ Raf-
felas Prince of Abyffinia •, that with the profits he might
-defray the expence of his mother’s funeral, and pay
fome debts which {he had left. He told a friend, that
he received for the copy 100I. and 25I. more when it
came to a fecond edition ; that he wrote it in the
evenings of one week, fent it to the prefs in por¬
tions as it was written, and had never fince read it
over.
Hitherto, notwithftanding his various publications,
he was poor, and obliged to provide by his labour for
the wants of the day that was paffing over him $ but
having been early in 1762 reprefented to the king as
a very learned and good man without any certain pro-
vifion, his majefty was pleafed to grant him a penfion,
which Lord Bute, then firlt minifter, affured him “ was
not given for any thing which he was to do, but for
what he had already doneN A fixed annuity of three
hundred pounds, if it diminifhed his diftrefs, increafed
his indolence 5 for as he conftantly avowed that he had
no other motive for writing than to gain money, as he
had now what was abundantly fufficient for all his pur-
pofes, as he delighted in converfation, and was vifited
and admired by the witty, the elegant, and the learn¬
ed, very little of his time was pafi: in folitary ftudy.
Solitude was indeed his averfion \ and that he might
avoid it as much as poffible, Sir Jofhua Reynolds and
he, in 1764, inftituted a club, which exifted long with¬
out a name, but was afterwards known by the title of
the Literary Club. It confifted of fome of the moft en-
-lightened men of the age, who met at the Turk’s Head
in Gerard-ftreet, Soho, one evening in every week at
feven, and till a late hour enjoyed “ the feaft of reafon
and the flow of foul.”
In 1765, when Johnfon was more than ufually op-
preffed with conftitutional melancholy, he was fortu¬
nately introduced into the family of Mr Thrale, one
of the moft eminent brewers in England, and member
of parliament for the borough of Southwark : and it
is but juftice to acknowledge, that to the affiftance
which Mr and Mrs Thrale gave him, to the fhelter
which their houfe afforded him for 16 or 17 years,
and to the pains which they took to foothe or reprefs
his uneafy fancies, the public is probably indebted for
fome of the moft mafterly as well as the moft popular
works which he ever produced. At length, in the
October of this year, he gave to the world his edition
of Shakefpeare, which is chiefly valuable for the pre¬
face, u-here the excellencies and defe&s of that immor¬
tal bard are difplayed with fuch judgment, as muft
pleafe every man whofe tafte is not regulated by the
ftandard of fafhion or national prejudice. In 1767 he
was honoured by a private converfation with the king
in the library at the queen’s houfe : and two years af¬
terwards, upon the eftablifhment of the royal academy
of painting, fculpture, &c. he was nominated profeffor
of ancient literature ; an office merely honorary, and
conferred on him, as is fuppofed, at the recommenda¬
tion of his friend the prefident.
In the variety of fubje&s on which h6 had hitherto
exercifed his pen, he had forborne, fince the admini-
ftration of Sir Robert Walpole, to meddle with the dif-
putes of contending faftions j but having feen with in¬
dignation the methods which, in the bufinefs of Mr
Wilkes, were taken to w-ork upon the populace, he
publifhed in 1770 a pamphlet, entitled “ The Falfe
Alarm j” in which he afferts, and labours to prove by
a variety of arguments founded on precedents, that the
expulfion of a member of the houfe of commons is equi¬
valent to exclufion, and that no fuch calamity as the
fubverfion of the conftitution ay as to be feared from an
aft warranted by ufage, Avhich is the law of parliament.
Whatever may be thought of the principles maintain¬
ed in this publication, it unqueftionably contains much
Avit and much argument, expreffed in the author’s beft
ftyle of compcfition j and yet it is known to have been
Avritten betAveen eight o’clock on Wednefday night and
tAvelve o’clock on the Thurfday night, Avhen it was
read to Mr Thrale upon his coming from the houfe of
commons. In 1771 he publifhed another political
pamphlet, entitled, “Thoughtson the late tranfaftiona
refpefting Falkland’s iflands j” in Avhich he attacked
Junius : and he ever afterwards delighted himfelf with
the thought of having deftroyed that able writer, Avhom
he certainly furpaffed in nervous language and pointed
ridicule.
In 1773 he vifited with Mr BofAvell fome of the
moft confiderable of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, and publifhed an account of his journey
in a volume Avhich abounds in extenfive philofophical
views of fociety, ingenious fentiments, and lively de-
fcription, but Avhich offended many perfons by the
violent attack which it made on the authenticity of
the poems attributed to Oflian. For the degree of
offence that was taken, the book can hardly be thought
to contain a fufficient reafon : if the antiquity of thefe
poems be yet doubted, it is owing more to the con-
duft of their editor than to the violence of John fort.
In 1774, the parliament being diffolved, he addreffed
to the eleftors of Great Britain a pamphlet, entitled
“ The Patriotof which the defign was to guard
them from impofition, and teach them to diftinguifh
true from falfe patriotifm. In 1775 he publifhed
“ Taxation no tyranny j in anfwer to the refolutions
and addrefs of the American Congrefs.” In this
performance his admirer Mr Bofwell cannot, he fays,
perceive that ability of argument or that felicity of ex-
preffion for Avhich on other occafions Jobnfon was fa
eminent. This is a Angular criticifm. To the affumed
principle
JOfl ts”] J'OH
Johnfor!. principle upon which the reafonxng of the pamphlet
—-%■  refts many have objedted, and perhaps their objec¬
tions are well founded ; but if it be admitted that
<f the fupreme power of every community has the
right of requiring from all its fubjefts fueh contribu¬
tions as are neceffary to the public fafety or public
profperity,” it will be found a very difficult talk to
break the chain of arguments by which it is proved
that the Britiffi parliament had a right to tax the Ame¬
ricans. As to the exprefiion of the pamphlet, the
reader, who adopts the maxim recorded in the “ Jour¬
nal of a tour to the. Hebrides,” that a controvertift
“ ought not to ftrike foft in battle,” mud acknow¬
ledge that it is uncommonly happy, and that the whole
performance is one of the mod brilliant as well as molt
correfl pieces of compofition that ever fell from the
pen of its author. Thefe eftays drew upon him nu¬
merous attacks, all of which he heartily defpifed ; for
though it has been fuppofed that “ A letter addreffed
to Dr Samuel Johnfon occafioned by his political pub¬
lications,” gave him great uneafinefs, the contrary is
manifeft, from his having, after the appearance of that
letter, collected them into a volume with the title of
Political Trails by the author of the Rambler.” In
1765 Trinity College Dublin had created him LL.D.
by diploma, and he now received the fame honour
from the univerfity of Oxford ; an honour with
which, though he did not boaft of it, he was highly
gratified. In 1777 he was induced, by a cafe of a
very extraordinary nature, to exercife that humanity
which in him was obedient to every call. Dr William
Dodd, a clergyman, under fentence of death for the
crime of forgery, found means to intereft Johnfon in
his behalf, and procured from him two of the mod
energetic compofitions of the kind ever feen; the one.
a petition from himfelf to the king, the other a like
addrefs from his wife to the queen. Thefe petitions
failed of fuccefs.
The principal bookfellers in London having deter¬
mined to publiffi a body of Englith poetry, Johnfon
was prevailed upon to write the lives of the poets, and
give a char after of the works of each. This talk he
undertook with alacrity, and executed it in fuch a
manner as mud convince every competent reader, that
as a biographer and a critic, no nation can produce
his equal. The work was publiffied in ten fmall vo¬
lumes, of which the fird four came abroad 1778, and
the others in 1781. While the wTorld in general was
filled with admiration of the dupendous powers of that
man who at the age of feventy-two, and labouring
under a complication of difeafes, could produce a work
which difplays fo much genius and fo much learning,
there were narrow circles in which prejudice and refent-
ment were fodered, and whence attacks of different
forts iffued againd him. Thefe gave him not the fmall-
ed didurbance. When told of the feeble, though Ihrill,
outcry that had been raifed, he faid,—“ Sir, Iconfidered
myfelf as intruded with a certain portion of truth. I
have given my opinion fincerely: let them (how where
they think me wrong.”
He had hardly begun to reap the laurels gained by
this performance, when death deprived him of Mr
Thrale, in whofe houfe he had enjoyed the mod com¬
fortable hours of his life j but it abated not in John¬
fon that care for the intereds of thofe whom his friend
had left behind him, which he thought hxmfelf bound Johnfon.
to cheriffi, both in duty as one of the executors of his
will, and from the xxobler principle of gratitude. On
this account, his vifxts to Streatham, Mr Thrale’s vil¬
la, were for fome time after his death regularly made
on Monday and protrafted till Saturday, as they had
been during his life j but they foon became lefs and
lefs frequent, and he dudioufly avoided the mention of
the place or the family. Mrs Thrale, now Piozzi, fays
indeed, that “ it gi-ew extremely perplexing and diffi¬
cult to live in the houfe with him when the mader of
it was no more $ becaufe his diflikes grew capricious,
and he could fcarce bear to have any body come to the
houfe whom it was abfolutely neceffary for her to fee.”
The perfon whom die thought it mod neceffary for her
to fee may perhaps be gueffed at without any fuperior-
dxare of fagacity and if tht fe were the viilts which
Johnfon could not bear, we are fo far from thinking his
diflikes capricious, though they may have been per¬
plexing, that if he had afted otherwife, we flxould
have blamed him for want of gratitude to the friend
whofe “ face for fifteen years had never been turned
upon him but with refpeft or benignity.”
About the middle of June 1783 his conditution
fudained a feverer ffiock than it had ever before felt,
by a droke of the palfy j fo fudden and fo violent, that
it awakened him out of a found fleep, and rendered,
him for a fhort time fpeechlefs. As uiual, his recourfe
under this affliftion was to piety, which in him was
condant, fincere, and fervent. He tried to repeat the
Lord’s prayer fird in Englifh, then in Latin, and af¬
terwards in Greek 5 but fucceeded only in the lad at¬
tempt j immediately after which he was again deprived
of the power of articulation. From this alarming at¬
tack he recovered with wonderful quicknefs, but it
left behind it fome prefages of an hydropic affeftion j
and he was foon afterwards feized with a fpalmodic
afthma of fuch violence that he was confined to the
houfe in great pain, while his dropfy increafed, not-
withdanding all the efforts of the mod eminent phyfi-
cians in I^ondon and Edinburgh. He had, however,
fuch an interval of eafe as enabled him in the dimmer
1784 to vifit his friends at Oxford, Litchfield, and
Aihbourne in Derbydxire. The Romiffi religion be¬
ing introduced one day as the topic of converfation
when he was in the houfe of Dr Adams, Johnfon
faid, “ If you join the Papids externally, they will not
interrogate you driftly as to your belief in their tenets.
No reafoning Papid believes every article of their faith.
There is one fide on which a good man might be per-
fuaded to embrace it. A good man of a timorous
difpofition, in great doubt of his acceptance with
God, and pretty credulous, might be glad of a church
where there are fo many helps to go to heaven. I
would be a Papid if I could. I have fear enough j
but an obdinate rationality prevents me. I dxall ne¬
ver be a Papid unlefs on the near approach of death,
of which I have very great terror.”
His condant dread of death was indeed fo great, that
it adoniihed all who had accefs to know the piety of his
mind and the virtues of his life. Attempts have been
made to account for it in various ways 5 but doubtlefs
that is the true account which is given in the O/la Po-
drida, by an elegant and pious writer, who now adorns
a high Ration in the church of England. “ That he
ffiould
J Q H [ 3
trshnfon. flioulJ not be confcious of the abilities with which
Providence had bleffed him was impoflible. He felt
his own powers : he felt what he was capable of ha¬
ving performed j and he faw how little, comparatively
fpeaking, he had performed. Hence his apprehenfion
on the near profpeft of the account to be made, viewed
through the medium of conftitutional and morbid me¬
lancholy, which often excluded from his fight the
bright beams of divine mercy.” This, however, was
the cafe only while death was approaching from fome
diftance. From the time that he was certain it was near,
all his fears were calmed j and he died on the 13th of
December 1784, full of refignation, ftrengthened by
1 faith, and joyful in hope.
For a juft charafter of this great man Aur limits af¬
ford not room : we muft therefore content ourfelves
with laying before our readers a very (hort iketch. His
ftature was tall, his limbs were large, his ftrength was
more than common, and his a6livity in early life had
been greater than fuch a form gave reafon to expeft :
but he was fubjeft to an infirmity of the convulfive
kind, refembling the diftemper called St Vitus’s dance $
and he had the feeds of fo many difeafes fown in his
conftitution, that a fhort time before his death he de¬
clared that he hardly remembered to have paffed one
day wholly free from pain. He poffefled very extraordi¬
nary powers of underftanding which were much cul¬
tivated by reading, and ftill more by meditation and
reflection. His memory was remarkably retentive,
his imagination uncommonly vigorous, and his judge¬
ment keen and penetrating. He read with great ra¬
pidity, retained with wonderful exaCtnefs what he fo
eafily collected, and poffeffed the power of reducing
to order and fyftem the fcattered hints on any fubjeCt
which he had gathered from different books. It w'ould
not perhaps be fafe to claim for him the higheft place,
among his contemporaries, in any Jingle department
of literature ; but, to ufe one of his own expreffions,
he brought more mind to every fubjeCt, and had a
greater variety of knowledge ready for all occafions,
than any other man that could be eafily named.—
Though prone to fuperftition, he was in all other re-
fpe&s fo remarkably incredulous, that Hogarth faid
while Johnfon firmly believed the Bible, he feemed de¬
termined to believe nothing but the Bible. Of the
importance of religion he had a ftrong fenfe, and his
zeal for its interefts were always awrake, fo that pro-
fanenefs of every kind was abaflied in his prefence.—
The fame energy which was difplayed in his literary
productions, was exhibited alfo in his eonverfation,
which was various, ftriking, and inftrudive : like the
fage in Raflelas, he fpoke, and attention watched his
lips j he reafoned, and conviction clofed his periods :
when he pleafed, he could be the greateft fophift that
ever contended in the lifts of declamation j and per¬
haps no man ever equalled him in nervous and pointed
reoartees. His veracity, from the moft trivial to the
moll folemn occafions, was ftriCt even to feverity : he
fcorned to embellifh a ftory with fictitious circum-
Itances j for what is not a reprefentation of reality, he
ufed to fay, is not worthy of our attention. As his
purfe and his houfe were ever open to the indigent, fo
was his heart tender to thofe who wanted relief, and
his foul was fufceptible of gratitude and every kind
impreflion. He had a roughnefs in his manner which
2 ] J O H
fubdued the faucy and terrified the meek : but it was only Johnfon,
in his manner ; for no man was more loved than John- Johpfton.
fon was by thole w ho knew him j and his works will
be read with veneration for their author as long as the
language in which they are written (hall be under-
flood,
JOHNSTON, Dr Arthur, was born at Cafkieben,
near Aberdeen, the flat of his anceftors, and pro¬
bably wras educated at Aberdeen, as he was afterwards
advanced to the higheft dignity in that univerfity.
The ftudy he chiefly applied himfelf to was that of
phylic, and to improve himftlf in that fcience, he tra¬
velled into foreign parts. He was tw ice at Rome j
but the chief place of his refidence was Padua, in
which univetfity the degree of M. D. was conferred
on him in 1610, as appears by a MS. copy of verfes
in the advocate’s library in Edinburgh. After lea¬
ving Padua, he travelled through the reft of Italy,
and over Germany, Denmark, England, Holland, and
other countries j and at length fettled in France •, where
he met with great applaufe as a Latin poet. Pie lived
there 20 years, and by two wives had 13 children.
After 24 years abfence, he returned into Scotland in
1632. It appears by the council books at Edinburgh,
that the doCtor had a fuit at law before that court
about that time. In the year following, it is very well
known that Charles I. went into Scotland, and made
Bilhop Laud, then with him, a member of that coun¬
cil : and by this accident, it is probable, that acquain¬
tance began between the doftor and that prelate, which
produced his “ Pfalmorum Davidis Paraphrafum Poe-
tica $” for we find that, in the fame year, the doftor
printed a fpecimen of his Pfalms at London, and dedi¬
cated them to his lordfhip.
He proceeded to perfeft the whole, which took him
up four years j and the firft edition complete was
publiftied at Aberdeen in 1637, and at London the
fame year. In 1641, Dr Johnfton being at Oxford,
on a vifit to one of his daughters who was married
to a divine of the church of England in that place,
was feized with a violent diarrhoea, of which he died
in a few days, in the 54th year of his age, not with¬
out having feen the beginning of thofe troubles that
proved too fatal to his patron. He was buried in the
place where he died ; which gave occafion to the fol¬
lowing lines of his learned friend Wedderburn in his
Sufpiria on the doftor’s death :
Scotia mcejla, dole, tanti viduata fepulch.ro
Vatis : is Angligenis contigit altus honos.
In what year Dr Johnfton was made phyfician t«
the king does not appear : it is moft likely that the
archbifliop procured him that honour at his coming in¬
to England in 1633, at which time he tranflated So¬
lomon’s Song into Latin elegiac verfe, and dedicated
it to his majefty. His Pfalms were reprinted at
Middleburgh, 1642; London, 1657; Cambridge, j
Amfterdam, 1706; Edinburgh, by WilliamjLauder,
1739 ; and laft on the- plan of the Delphin claflics,
at London, 1741, 8vo, at the expence of Auditor Ben-
fon, who dedicated them to his late majefty, and pre¬
fixed to this edition memoirs of Dr Johnfton, with
the teftimonies of various learned perfons. A labour¬
ed companion between the two tranflations of Bucha¬
nan and Johnfton was printed the lame year in Englifli,
lolaia.
1 ° L [3
Jchnfton in 8vo, entitled, A Prefatory Difcourfe to Dr John-
flon’s Pfalms, &e. and A Conclufion to it. His tranf-
^ lations of the Te Deum, Creed, .Decalogue, &c. were
fubjoined to the Pfalms. His other poetical works are
his Epigrams ; his Parerga : and his Mufce Angliccey
or commendatory Verfes upon perfons of rank in church
and date at that time.
JOIGNY, a town of France, in Champagne, and
in the diocefe of Sens, with a very handfome caftle.
It confifts of three pariihes, and is pleafantly fitua-
ted on the river Yonne, in E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat.
47. 56. . .
JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fitting
various pieces of timber together. It is called by the
French menuiferie, “ fmall work,” to diftinguifii it from
carpentry, which is employed about large and lefs curi¬
ous works.
JOINT, in general, denotes the junflure of two or
more things. The joints of the human body are call¬
ed by anatomifts articulations. See Anatomy, N° 2.
The fupplenefs to which the joints may be brought
by long praftice from the time of infancy, is very fur-
prifing. Every common pofture-mafter (hows us a
great deal of this *, but one of the moft wonderful in-
dances we ever had of it, was in a perfon of the name
©f Clark, and famous for it in London, where he was
commonly known by the name of Clark the pojlure-
majler. This man had found the way by long prac¬
tice, to diftort many of the bones, of which nobody
before had ever thought it poflible to alter the pofi-
tion. He had fuch an abfolute command of his
mufeles and joints, that he could almoft disjoint his
whole body : fo that he once impofed on the famous
Mullens by his diftortions, in fuch a manner, that he
refufed to undertake his cure : but, to the amaze¬
ment of the phyfician, no fooner had he given over
his patient, than he faw him rellore himfelf to the fi¬
gure and condition of a proper man, with no diftortion
about him.
JOINTURE, in Law, generally fignifies a fettle-
ment of lands and tenements, made 011 a woman in
eonfideration of marriage.
JOINVdLLE, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in Champagne, with the title of a principality,
and a large magnificent caftle. It is fituated on the
river Marne, in E. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 48. 20.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in ArchiteBure, thofe pieces
of timber framed into the girders and fummers, on
which the boards of the floor are laid.
JOKES, See Jesting.
IOLAI A, a feftival at Thebes, the fame as that call¬
ed Heracleia. It was inftituted in honour of Hercules
and his friend lolas, who aflifted him in conquering the
hydra. It continued during feveral days, on the firft
of which were offered folemn facrifices. The next day
horfe-races and athletic exercifes were exhibited. The
following day was fet apart for wreftling ; the viftors
were crowned with garlands of myrtle generally ufed
at funeral folemnities. They were fometimes rewarded
with tripods of brafs. The place where the exerciies
were exhibited was called lo/aion ; where there were to
be feen the monument of Amphitryon and the cenotaph
of Idas, who was buried in Sardinia. Thefe monu¬
ments were ftrewed with garlands and flowers on the
day of the feftival.
Vol. XL Part I.
S3
1 • ION
Ideas or loLAUS, in Fabulous Hi/lory, a fon of Iphx-
clus king of Theffaly, who aftifted Hercules in conquer¬
ing the hydra, and burnt with a hot iron the place ^
where the heads had been cut off, to prevent the growth
of others. He U’as reftored to his youth and vigour by
Hebe, at the requeft of his friend Hercules. Some
time afterwards Idas affifted the Heraclidae againft
Euryftheus, and killed the tyrant with his own hand.
According to Plutarch, Idas had a monument in
Bceotia and Phocis, where lovers ufed to go and bind
themfelves by the moft fdemn oaths of fidelity, conn-
dering the place as facred to love and friendfhip. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus and Paufanias, lolas died and was
buried in Sardinia, where he had gone to make a fet-
tlement at the head of the funs of Hercules by the 50
daughters of Thefpius.
JOLLOXOCHITL, an Indian ■word, fignifying
Jloxver of the heart, is the name of a plant which bears
a large beautiful flower, growing in Mexico, where
it is much efteemed for its beauty and odour j which
latter is fo powerful, that a fingle flower is fufticient to
fill a whole houfe with the moft pleafing fragrance.
ION, in Fabulous Hi/lory, a fon of Xuthusand Creufa
daughter of Erechtheus, who married Helice,the daugh¬
ter of Selinus king of Atgiale. He fucceeded to the
throne of his father-in-law ; and built a city, which he
called Helice on account of his wife. His fubjefts from
him received the name of lonians, and the country
that of Ionia. See Ionia.
Ion, a tragic poet of Chios, who flourifhed about
the 82d Olympiad. His tragedies were reprefented at
Athens, where they met with univerfal applaufe. He
is mentioned and greatly recommended by Ariftophanes
and Athenseus, &c.
IONA, Jona, or IcOLMKILL, one of the Hebrides;
a fmall, but celebrated ifland, “ once the luminary of the
Caledonian regions (as Dr Johnfon expreffes it), whence
favage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits
of knowledge and the blefiings of religion.” The
name Iona is derived from a Hebrew word fignifying
a dove, in allufion to his patron Columba, who landed
here in 565. See Columba.-—It is faid to have been
a feat of the druids before his arrival, when its name in
Irifh was Inis Drunijh, or the “ Druid Ifland.” The
druids being expelled or converted, he founded here a
cell of canons regular, who till 716 differed from the
church of Rome, in the obfervance of Eafter and in
the tonfure. After his death, the ifland retained his
name, and was called Ycolumb cill or “ Columb’s cell,”
now Icolmkill. The Danes diflodged ihe monks in the
7th century, and Cluniacs were the next order that
fettled here.
This ifland, which belongs to the parifti of Rofs in
Mull, is three miles long, and one broad : the eaft fid©
is moftly flat: the middle rifes into fmall hills 5 and
the weft fide is very rude and rocky : the whole form¬
ing a fingular mixture of rock and fertility.—There is
in the ifland only one town, or rather village, eon-
fifting of about 60 mean houfes. The population in
1798 amounted to about 330. Near the town is the
bay of Martyrs flain by the Danes, An oblong in-
clofure, bounded by a ftone dyke, and called Clachnan
Druinach, in which bones have been found, is fuppofed
to have been a burial-place of the Druids or rather
the common cemetery of the towns people. Beyond
R r the
lolas
Iona.
ION [ 314 ] ION
Iona. the town are the ruins of the nunnery of Auflin cano-
neflfes, dedicated to St Oran, and laid to be founded
by Columba : the church was 58 feet by 20, and the
eaft roof is entire. On the floor, covered deep with
cow-dung, is the tomb of the lafl; priorefs, with her
figure praying to the Virgin Mary, and this xnfcrip-
tion on the ledge : Hie jacet domina Anna Donaldi
Fer/eti jilia, quondam pnorcjfa de Jona, quee obiit an'o
m° d° ximo ejus ammam Altiffimo commendamus ; and
another inferibed, Hie jacet Mariota jilia Johan : Lauch-
lain domim de  A broad paved way leads hence to
the cathedral; and on this way is a large handfome crofs
called Mac/cane''s, the only one that remains of 360,
which were demoliflied here at the Reformation. Rei-
lig Ouran, or the burying-place of Oran, is the large
inclofure where the kings of Scotland, Ireland, and
of the ifles, and their defeendants, were buried in
three feveral chapels. The dean of the ifles, who tra¬
velled over them 1549, and whofe account has been
copied by Buchanan, and publithed at Edinburgh
1784, fays, that in his time on one of thefe chapels
(or “ tombes of ftain formit like little chapels with ane
braid gray marble or quhin ftain on the gavil of ilk
ane of the tombes,” containing, as the chronicle fays,
the remains of 48 Scotch monarchs, from Fergus II.
to Macbeth, 16 of whom were pretended to be of the
race of Alpin) was inferibed, Tumulus regum Seotice.
J. he next was inferibed, Tumulus regum Hibernice, and
contained four Irilh monarchs : and the third, inferibed
Tumulus regum Norwegice, containing eight Norwe¬
gian princes, or viceroys of the Hebrides while they
were fubjeft to the crown of Norway. Boetius fays,
that Fergus founded this abbey for the burial-place of
his fuccelfors, and caufed an office to be compofed for
the funeral ceremony. All that Mr Pennant could
difeover here were only certain flight remains, built
in a ridged form and arched within, but the inferip-
tions loft. Thefe were called Jornaire nan righ, or
“ the ridge of the kings.” Among thefe ftones are
to be feen only thefe two inferiptions in the Gaelic or
Erfe language and ancient Irifh chara&ers : Cros
Domhail fat"1 ajichy i. e. “ the crofs of Donald Long-
flianks,” and that of Urchvine 0 Gain ; and another
inferibed Hie jacent priores de Hy, Johannes, Huge-
ntus, Patricias, in decretis olim bacularius, qui obiit
an, Dom. millss™0 quingentejimo. About 300 inferip¬
tions were colleaed here by Mr Sacheverel in 1688
and given to the earl of Argyle, but afterwards loft
in the troubles of the family. The place is in a man¬
ner filled with grave-ftones, but fo overgrowm with
weeds, that few or none are at prefent to be feen, far
lefs any inferiptions read. Here alfo ftands the chapel
of St Oran, the firft building begun by Columba, which
the evil fpirits would not fuffer to ftand till fome hu¬
man victim was buried alive j for which fervice Oran
offered himfelf, and his red grave-ftone is near the
door. In this chapel are tombs of feveral chiefs, &c.
A little north-weft of the door is the pedeftal of a
erofs : on it are certain ftones that feem to have been
the fupports of a tomb. Numbers who vifit this ifland
think it incumbent on them to turn each of thefe
thrice round, according to the courfe of the fun.
They are called Clacha-brath ; for it is thought that
the brath, or end of the world, will not arrive till the
pedeftal on which they ftand is worn through. Origi¬
nally (fays Mr Sacheverel) here were three noble Iona,
globes of white marble, placed on three ftone bafons, u—r-
and thefe were turned round j but the fynod ordered
them and 60 croffes* to be thrown into the fea. The
prefent ftones are probably fubftituted in place of thefe
globes. The precinft of thefe tombs was held facred,
and enjoyed the privileges of a girth or fanauary.
Thefe places of retreat were by the ancient Scotch law,
not to (belter indiferiminately every offender, as was
the cafe in more bigotted times in Catholic countries 3
for here all atrocious criminals were excluded 3 and
only the unfortunate delinquent, or the penitent finner,
was fhielded from the inftant ftroke of rigorous juf-
tice. A little to the north of this inclofure ftands
the cathedral, built in form of a crofs, 11 5 feet long
by 23, the tranlept 70 feet : the pillars of the choir
have their capitals charged with feripture and other
hiftories j and near the altar are the tombs of two ab¬
bots and a knight. A fragment remains of the altar-
ftone of white marble veined with gray. This church
is aferibed to Maldwin in the feventh century 3 but the
prefent ftruflure is far too magnificent for that age.
Moft of the walls are built of red granite from the
Nun’s ifland in the found. Two parallel walls of a co¬
vered way about 12 feet high and 10 wide, reach from
the fouth-eaft corner to the fea. In the churchyard is
a fine crofs of a fingle piece of red granite, 14 feet high,
22 inches broad, and 10 inches thick. Near the fouth-
eaft end is Mary’s chapel. The monaftery is behind
the chapel; of which only a piece of the cloifters re¬
mains, and fome facred black ftones in a corner, cn
which contra&s and alliances were made and oaths
fworn. Eaft of it was the abbot’s gardens and offices.
North of this was the palace of the bifliop of the ifles
after the feparation of Man from them. This fee was
endowed with 13 iflands ; feveral of which were fre¬
quently taken away by the chieftains. The title of
Soder, which fome explained Soter, Zdjrg, “ the name
of Chrift, or Soder, an imaginary town,” is really de¬
rived from the diftinflion of the diocefe into the north¬
ern iflands or Nordereys (h e. all to the north of Ard-
namurchan point), and the Southern or Sudereys 3
which laft being the moft important, the ifle of Man
retained both titles.
Other ruins of monadic buildings and offices may be
traced, as vrell as fome druidical fepulchral remains.
Several abbeys w-ere derived from this, which with the
ifland w'as governed by an abbot-prefbyter, who had
rule even over biffiops. The place where Columba
landed is a pebbly beach, where a heap of earth repre-
fents the form of his (hip. Near it is a hill with a cir¬
cle of ftones called Cnoc-nar aimgeal, or “ the hill of
angels,” with whom the faint held conference 3 and on
Michaelmas day the inhabitants courfed their horfes
round it, a remain of the cuftom of bringing them there
to be bleffed. In former times, this ifland was the
place where the archives of Scotland and many valua¬
ble old manuferipts w ere kept. Of thefe moft are fup-
pofed to have been deftroyed at the Refoimation 3 but
many, it is faid, were carried to the Scotch college at
Douay in France, and it is hoped fome of them may
ftill be recovered. In the ifland of Iona a fchoolmafter
is eftabliftied 3 but there is no temple for worlhip, no
inftrudlorin religion, excepting the fchoolmafter, unlefs
it is vilited by the parifh minifter from another ifland..
JONAH,
JON r 315 ] JON
Jonah JONAH, or Prophecy of JONAH, a canonical book
Tories. t^ie Teftament j in which it is related, that Jo-
» nah (about 771 B. C.) was ordered to go and prophecy
the deftru&ion of the Ninevites, on account of their
wickednefs. But the prophet, inftead of obeying the
divine command, embarked for Tarthith ; when, a tem¬
ped; arifing, the mariners threw him into the fea : he
was fwallowed by a great fifti j and after being three
days and nights in his belly, was catl upon the land.
Hereupon being fenfible of his paft danger and furpri-
fing deliverance, he betook himfelf to the journey and
embafly to which he was appointed ; and arriving at
Nineveh the metropolis of Aflyria, he, according to
his commiflion, boldly laid open their fins and mifcar-
riages, and proclaimed their fudden overthrow : upon
which the whole city, by prayer and failing, and a
fpeedy repentance, happily averted the divine ven¬
geance, and efcaped the threatened ruin. Jonah upon
this, fearing to pafs for a falfe prophet, retired to a hill
at fome diftance from the city j where God, by a mira¬
cle, condefcended to fliow him the unreafonablenefs of
his difcontent.
JONA1HAN, the fon of Saul, celebrated in facred
hiitory for his valour, and his friendihip for David a-
gainil the intereft of his own houfe. Slain in battle
2055 B. C.
JONATHAN Maccabceus, brother of Judas, a renowned
general of the Jews. He forced Bacchides the Syrian
general, who made war with the Jews, to accept a
peace j conquered Demetrius Soter, and afterwards A-
pollonius, that prince’s general ; but, being enfnared
by Tryphon, was put to death 144 B. C.
JONES, Inigo, a celebrated Engliih architeft, was
the fon of a cloth-worker of London, and was born in
1572. He was at firft put apprentice to a joiner } but
early diftinguilhed himfelf by his inclination to drawing
or defigning, and was particularly taken notice of for
his fkill in landfcape-painting. This afterwards recom¬
mended him to the favour of William earl of Pembroke,
who fent him abroad with a handfome allowance in or¬
der to perfeft himfelf in that branch. He was no foon-
er at Rome, than he found himfelf in his proper fphere :
he felt that nature had not formed him to decorate ca¬
binets, but to defign palaces. He dropt the pencil and
conceived Whitehall. In the ftate of Venice he faw
the works of Palladio, and learned how beautiful tafte
maybe exerted on a lefs theatre than the capital of an em¬
pire. How his abilities diftinguifiied themfelves in a fpot
where they certainly had no opportunity to aft, we are
not told, though it would not be the lead: curious part
of his hiftory 5 certain it is, that, on the ftrength of his
reputation at Venice, Chriftian IV. invited him to
Denmark, and appointed him his architedl ; but on
what buildings he was employed in that country, we
are yet to learn. James I, found him at Copenhagen,
and Queen Anne took him in the quality of her ar-
chiteft to Scotland. He ferved Prince Henry in the
fame capaeity, and the place of furveyor-general of the
works was granted to him in reverfion. On the death
of that prince, with whom at leaf! all his lamented
qualities did not die, Jones travelled once more into
Italy, and, aflifted by ripenefs of judgment, perfe&ed
his tafte. To the interval between thefe voyages Mr
Walpole is inclined to aflign thofe buildings of Inigo,
which are lefs pure, and border too much upon the ba-
ftard ftyle, which one may call King James's Gothic.
Inigo’s defigns of that period are not Gothic, but have
a littlenefs of parts, and a weight of ornaments, with
which the revival of the Grecian tafte was encumbered,
and which he (hook oft' in his grander defigns. The
furveyor’s place fell, and he returned to England ; and,
as if archite&ure was not all he had learned at Rome,
with an air of Roman difintereftednefs he gave up the
profits of his office, which he found extremely in
debt j and prevailed upon the comptroller and pay-
mafter to imitate his example, till the whole arrears
were cleared.
In 1620, he was employed in a manner very unwor¬
thy of his genius : King James fet him upon difcover-
ing, that is, gueffing, w ho were the founders of Stone¬
henge. His ideas were all Romanifed j confequently,
his partiality to his favourite people, which ought rather
to have prevented him from charging them with that
mafs of barbarous clumfinefs, made him conclude it a
Roman temple.
In the fame year Jones was appointed one of the
commiffioners for the repair of St Paul’s ; but which
was not commenced till the year 1633, when Laud,
then biftiop of London, laid the firft ftone, and Inigo
the fourth. In the reftoration of that cathedral, he
made two capital faults. He firft renewed the fides
with very bad Gothic j and then added a Roman por¬
tico, magnificent and beautiful indeed, but which had
no affinity with the ancient parts that remained, and
made his own Gothic appear ten times heavier. He
committed the fame error at Winchefter, thrufting a
fcreen in the Roman or Grecian tafte into the middle
of that cathedral. Jones indeed was by no means fuc-
cefsful when he attempted Gothic. The chapel of Lin-
coln’s-Inn has none of the charafleriftics of that archi-
tefture. The cloifter beneath feems opprefled by the
weight of the building above.
The authors of the life of Jones place the ere&ing of
the Banqueting-houfe in the reign of King Charles j but
it appears, from the accounts of Nicholas Stone, that
it was begun in 1619, and finiftied in two years a
fmall part of the pile defigned for the palace of our
kings •, but Id complete in itfelf, that it Hands a model
of the moft pure and beautiful tafte. Several plates of
the intended palace at Whitehall have been given 5 but
Mr Walpole thinks, from no finiffied defign. The
four great ftieets are evidently made up from gene¬
ral hints ; nor could fuch a fource of invention and
tafte as the mind of Inigo ever produce fo much fame-
nefs. The whole fabric, however, w as fo glorious an
idea, that one forgets for a moment (fays Mr Wal¬
pole), in the regret for its not being executed, the con¬
firmation of our liberties, obtained by a melancholy
fcene that pafled before the w indows of that very Ban-
queting-houfe.
In 1623 he was employed at Somerfet-houfe, where
a chapel was to be fitted up for the Infanta, the in¬
tended bride of the prince. The chapel is ftUl in be¬
ing. The front to the river, part only of what was
defigned, and the water-gate, were eredted afterwards
on the defigns of Inigo, as was the gate at York-
ftairs.
On the acceffion of Charles, Jones was continued in
R r 2 his
JON [31
his ports under both king and queen. His fee as fur-
veyor was 8s. qd. a-day, with an allowance of 46I. a-
year for houfe-rent, belidcs a clerk, and incidental ex-
pences. What greater rewards he had, are not upon
record.
During the profperous rtate of the king’s affairs, the
pleafures of the court were carried on with much tarte
and magnificence. Poetry, painting, mufic, and archi-
tefture, were all called in to make them rational amufe-
ments. Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the celebrated
feftivals of Louis XIV. were copied from the Ihows
exhibited at Whitehall, in his time the mort polite court
in Europe. Ben Johnfon was the laureat; Inigo Jones
the inventor of the decorations ; Laniere and Fera-
bofco compofed the fymphonies 5 the king, the queen,
and the young nobility, danced in the interludes. We
have accounts of many of thofe entertainments, called
mafques; they had been introduced by Anne of Den¬
mark. Lord Burlington had a folio of the defigns for
thefe folemnities, by Inigo’s own hand, confifting of
habits, mafks, fcenes, &c. The harmony of thefe
malks was a little interrupted by a war that broke out
between the compofers, Inigo and Ben, in which who¬
ever was the aggreffor, the turbulent temper of Johnfon
took care to be moll in the wrong.
The works of Inigo Jones are not fcaree 5 Sur¬
geon’s hall is one of his bell works. One of the molt
admired is the arcade of Covent-garden, and the
church : “ Two ft ru cl arts (fays Mr Walpole), of
which I want tafle to lee the beauties. In the arcade
there is nothing remarkable : the pilafters are as ar¬
rant and homely ftripes as any plailerer would make.
The barn-roof over the portico of the church ftrikes
my eyes with as little idea of dignity and beauty, as
it could do if it covered nothing but a barn. It mull
be owned, that the defeft is not in the architect, but
in the order.—Who ever law a beautiful Tufcan build¬
ing ? Would the Romans have chofen that order for
a temple ?” The expence of building that church was
4500I. ... *
Ambrertbury in Wiltrtiire wras deligned by Jones, but
executed by his fcholar Webb. Jones was one of
the firll that obferved the fame diminution of pilafters
as in pillars. Lindfay-houfe in Lincolns Inn Fields,
which he built, owes its chief grace to this fingula-
rity. In 1618, a fpecial eommiflion was iffued to the
lord-chancellor, the earls of Worcefter, Pembroke,
Arundel, and others, to plant and reduce to uniformi¬
ty, Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, as it (hall be drawn by way
of map or ground-plot, by Inigo Jones, furveyor-
gem-ral of the works. That fquare is laid out with a
regard to fo trifling a Angularity, as to be of the exa£l
dimenfions of one of the pyramids : this would have
been admired in thofe ages when the keep at Ken-
nelworth Caflle was creeled in the form of an horfe-
ietter, and the Efcurial in the Ihape of St Laurence’s
gridiron.
Coleflnll in Berkshire, the feat of Sir Matthew
Pleydell, built in 1650, and Cobham-hall in Kent,
were Jones’s. He was employed to rebuild Caflle Arti-
by, and finifhed one front: but the civil wrar interrup¬
ted his progrefs there and at Stoke park in Nortbamp-
tonfhire. Shaftfbury-houfe, now the London Lying-
in hofpital, on the eart fide of AMerfgate-flreet, is a
6 ] JON
beautiful front. The Grange, the feat of the lord Tones,
chancellor Henley in Flamplhire, is entirely of this -—v—
mailer. It is not a large houfe, but by far one of the
belt proofs of his tafte. The hall, which opens to a
fmall veltibule with a cupola, and the ftaircafe ad¬
joining, are beautiful models of the pureit and moil
claffic antiquity. The gate of Beautort-garden at
Chelfea, deligned by Jones, was purchafed by Lord
Burlington, and tranlported to Chifwick. He drew a
plan for a palace at Newmarket j but not that wretched
hovel that Hands there at prelent. One of the molt
beautiful of his works is the queen’s houle at Green¬
wich. The firll idea of the hofpital is faid to have been
taken from his papers by his fcholar Webb. Heriot’s
hofpital in Edinburgh, and the improvements made in
his time on Glammis Caftle in Forfarlhire in Scotland,
are fpecimens of the defigns of Inigo Jones.
Inigo tailed early the misfortunes of his mailer. Fie
was not only a favourite, but a Roman Catholic: in
1646 he paid 545I. for his delinquency and fequellra-
tion. Whether it was before or after this fine, it is un¬
certain, that he and Stone the mafon buried their joint
flock in Scotland yard; but an order being publilhed to
encourage the informers of inch concealments, and four
perfons being privy to the fpot where the money w as
hid, it was taken up, and reburied in Lambeth-marlh.
Grief, misfortunes, and age, put an end to his life at
Somerfet-houfe, July 21. 1651. Several of his defigns.
have been publilhed by Mr Kent, Mr Colin Campbell,,
and Mr Ifaac Ware. Fie left in MS fome curious notes
on Palladio’s archite£lure, which are inferted in an edi¬
tion of Palladio publilhed in 1714.
Jones, Sir William, the fon of William Jones, Lfq.
an eminent mathematician, cotemporary with the great
Newton, was born in London on the 28th of Septem¬
ber 1746, and received the rudiments of his education
at Harrow fchool, under the tuition of Dr Robert Sum¬
ner, whom he has celebrated in an eulogium which will
probably be coeval, with time. From Harrow fchool
he went to Univerfity college, Oxford, w here the rapi¬
dity of his literary acquisitions excited the admiration of
all.
He travelled through France at the age of 23^
taking up his refidence for fome time at Nice, where
man, and the various forms of government, became the
favourite objects of his invelligation. A with to relieve* •
his mother from the burden of his education, made him
long fora fellowlhip in his college, but having no im¬
mediate profpedl of obtaining it, he in 1765 became
tutor to young Lord Althorpe, aftenvards Earl Spen¬
cer, in which fituation he was introduced to the belt of
company, and had alfo leifure to profecute the acquifi-
tion of knowledge, and the farther cultivation of his in¬
tellectual powers, which were objefts ever dear to
him.
He obtained next year, the fellowlhip. he expedted^
and was thus railed to a Hate which he could not help
viewing as independent. Being at Spa with his pupil
in the year 1767, he employed much of his time ia
making himfelf acquainted with the German language;,
and in the following year he was requelled by the duke
of Grafton’s under-l’ecretary, to undertake a tranflation
of a Perfian MS. of the life of Nadir Shaw, into the
French language, of which the king of Denmark w ar,
■ anxious
JON
[ 3*
Jones;
anxious to have a veriion. This, his firft publication,
appeared in 1770, with the addition of a treatife on
oriental poetry, which was very much admired, on ac¬
count of the elegance of the French ftyle and the ac-
curacy of the tranflation. For this excellent publica¬
tion it appears that he received nothing more than a di¬
ploma from his Danith majefty, conftituting him a
member of the Royal Society of Copenhagen, with
a warm recommendation to the notice of his own fove-
reign.
That he might be enabled to gratify his commenda¬
ble ambition, he now began to think ferioufly of fome
profeffion through life ; and, as he had conceived^ an
early predile&icn for the law, he made that the objeft
of his choice y and in the month of September I 770>
he entered at the Temple. Yet the ftudies of his pro-
fefiion did not prevent him from making thofe literary
advances, in which he fo much delighted, and oriental
literature Rill continued a favourite objetd. When the
life of Zoroafter by Anquetil du Perron made its ap¬
pearance, in the preliminary diicourfe to which the uni-
verlity of Oxford had oeen attacked, our author de¬
fended it in a pamphlet written with feverity and with
elegance. In 1772, he publifhed a fraall volume of
poems, being tranflations from the Afiatic poets, re¬
markable for the grace and brilliancy of their Ryle ;
and in 1774 appeared his work “ De Poeji AJiatica^
the beauty and purity of the Latin in which it is com-
pofed, exciting the admiration of men of literature both
at home and abroad. He was called to the bar in the
beginning of i774» declined to aft in that capaci¬
ty without a previous knowledge of the aftual buiinefs
of the profeflion. He was appointed a commiflioner of
bankrupts in 1776, about which period he addreffed a
letter to Lord Althorpe, in which he beautifully ex-
preffes his ardent wilh to have conRitutional liberty efla-
bliihed by conRitutional means.
His tranflation of the fpeeches of Ifaeus, on account
of his elegant ftyle, his profound critical and hiflorical
knowledge, commanded the admiration of every com¬
petent judge. Soon after this his praffice at the bar
increafed with rapidity •, but he had little reafon to
flatter himfelf with the profpect of advancement in
profeflional rank and dignity, becaufe he was known
to be convinced of the injuRice of the RritiRi caufe
refpefling the American war, which he was at no
pains to conceal ; and therefore an oppofer of the mea-
fures of thofe who had the direflion of public affairs,
had little preferment to look for. In 1780 he became
a candidate to fucceed to Sir Roger Newdigate as re-
prefentative in parliament for the univerfity of Oxford,
in which he was rei peel ably fupported \ but his politi¬
cal fentiments were ill fuited to fecure him a majority,
which made him decline the conteR prior to the elec¬
tion. He foon after publilhed a pamphlet entitled
“ An Inquiry into the legal mode of fuppreffing riots,
with a conRitutional plan of future defence/'’ recom¬
mending the propriety of making every citizen a foldier
in cafes of imminent danger. Fie next publifhed a
tranflation of feven ancient poems of the highefl repu¬
tation in Arabia, which, with an ode on the marriage
of Lord Althorpe, procured for him the higheft repu¬
tation. His effay on the laws of bailments w'as alfo
much admired, as was his fpeech at the London tavern
1782. At Jones,
7 y JON
in defence of a parliamentary reform in
Paris, he drew up a dialogue between a farmer and a ~
country gentleman on the principles of government,
publifhed in Wales by the dean of St Afaph, for
which a bill of .indictment was preferred againfl that
clergyman. In a letter to Lord Kenyon, Mr Jones
avowed himfelf to be the author, and aflerted the prin¬
ciples it contained to be perfectly agreeable to the
Britilh conRitution \ but it appears that he afterwards
relaxed confiderably in his political ardour.
After the refignation of Lord North, and appoint¬
ment of Lord Shelburne, Mr Jones was nominated one:
of the judges in the Britiih territories oLIndia, an ap¬
pointment which he had long wiffred for, as it would
afford him an opportunity of profecuting his favourite
refearches into oriental literature. He v:as chofen a
judge in March 17835 011 20th of that month
the honour of knighthood was conferred upon him.
He arrived at Calcutta in September, and entered upon
his office in December, opening the feffions with a
very elegant charge to the grand jury. Here he plan¬
ned the inRitution of a fociety fimilar to the Royal So¬
ciety of London, many valuable labours and refearches
of which are already in the hands of the public. He-
collefled materials for a complete digeR of the Hindoo
and Mahometan laws, which intereRing work he did
not live to bring to a conclufion. 1 he publication of
the “ Afiatic Refearches” occupied much of his atten¬
tion. In 1789 he tranflated an ancient Indian drama
calk d “ Sacontala,” which has been confidered as an
interefling curiofity. In 1794 he gave the world his
“ Ordinances of Menu,” a famous Indian legiflator,
containing a fyflem of duties both civil and religious.
The climate of India proving unfavourable to the
health of Lady Jones, obliged her to return to Eng¬
land, whither Sir William foon defigned to follow
her. On the 20th of April 1794, he was feired at
Calcutta with an inflammation of the liver, which let
the potvers of medicine at defiance, and on the 27th of
the fame month put a period to his exiflence without
pain or firuggle.
It may be fairly afferted that few men have died
more refpefted or regretted, as few have pafied a more-
ufeful and irreproachable life. The uncommon extent
of bis erudition has been diiplayed in all his writings,
and fcarcely any fubjefl of human refearch efcaped his
notice. He has fcarcely ever been equalled as a lin-
guifi, for he is faid to have been more or lefs acquaint-'
ed with about 28 different languages. Taffe and ele¬
gance marked all his exertions, and he might have ri-
len as a poet to the very firff rank. Great as his
knowledge was, his virtue and religion were not infe¬
rior. In whatever light we think proper to view him
as Randing in relation to fociety, he was undoubtedly
a pattern worthy of imitation.
As a permanent monument to his memory, his airec-
tionate lady publifhed his whole finiffied works in fix-
quarto volumes, in the year 1 799 5 and a marble monu¬
ment to his memory by the fame endearing friend, is
placed in the antichamber of Univerfity college,
Oxford. The EaR India Company alfo voted a mo¬
nument to his memory in St Paul’s cathedral, and a
fiatue of him to be fent out to Bengal. Memoirs of
his life were publifhed by I-ord Teignmouth, and a
fociety
/
Jones
II
Joppa.
J O P [31
foclety of gentlemen in Bengal who had been educated
at Oxford, fubferibed a fum for a prize differtation on
— his charader and merits, by ftudents in that univer-
fity.
IONIA, a. country of Afia Minor, bounded on the
Aiolia, on the ■weft by the Aegean and Ica-
rian feas, on the fouth by Caria, and on the eaft by
Lydia and part of Caria. It was founded by colonies
from Greece and particularly Attica, by the lonians
or fubjeifts of Ion. Ionia was divided into 12 fmall
ftates, which formed a celebrated confederacy often men¬
tioned by the ancients. Phefe 12 ftates were Priene,
Miletus, Colophon, Clazomenae, Ephefus, Lebedos,
Peo», Phocaea, Eiythrae, Smyrna, and the capitals of
Samos and Chios. The inhabitants of Ionia built a
temple which they called Pan Ionium from the con-
courle of people that flocked there from every part of
Ionia. Alter they had enjoyed for fome time their
freedom and independence, they were made tributary
to the power of Lydia by Croefus. The Athenians
aInfted them to lhake off the flavery of the Afiatie
monarchs ; but they foon forgot their duty and rela¬
tion to their mother-country, and joined Xerxes when
he invaded Greece. They were delivered from the
Perl!an yoke by Alexander, and reftored to their ori¬
ginal independence. Phey were reduced by the Ro¬
mans under the ditftator Sylla. Ionia has been al¬
ways celebrated for the falubrity of the climate, the
iruitfulnefs of the foil, and the genius of its inhabi¬
tants.
IONIC order. See Architecture, N°45.
Ionic Diaka, in Grammar, a manner of fpeakinsj
peculiar to the people of Ionia.
IONIC Sea was the firft of the ancient feds of phi-
loiophersj the others were the Italic and Eleatic.
I he founder of this fed was Thales, who beinF a
native of Miletus in Ionia, ocealicned his followers to
aliume the appellation of Ionic: Thales was fucceeded
y Anaximander, and he by Anaximenes, both of Mi¬
letus : Anaxagoras Clazomenius fucceeded them, and
removed his fchool from Afia to Athens, where Socra-
tes was his fcholar. It was the diftinguifhing tenet
ot this left, that water was the principle of all natural
things. ;
IONIUM mare, apart of the Mediterranean fea
at the bottom of the Adriatic. It lies between Sicily
and Greece. That part of the iEgean fea which lies
on the coafts of Ionia in Afia, is called the Sea of Io¬
nic, and not the Ionian fea. According to fome au¬
thors, the Ionian fea receives its name from lo, who
iwam acrofs there after the had been metamorphofed
into a heifer. r
r °r JoNQ.UE> in naval affairs, is a kind of
imall imp, very common in the Eaft Indies. Thefe
veffels are about the bignefs of our fly-boats j and
differ m the form of their building, according to the
different methods of naval architeaure ufed by the na
tions to which they belong. Their fails are frequently
^ afld their anchors are made of wood.
JOPPA, a fea-port town in Paleftine, lying fouth
of Cadarea; and anciently the only port to Jerufalem,
whence all the materials fent from Tyre tow-ards the
building of Solomon’s temple were 'brought hither
■arm landed, (2 Chr 11. 16.). It is faid to have been
^mlt by japhet, and from him to have taken its name
4
8 J JOS
Japho afterwards moulded into Joppa; and the very
heathen geographers fpeak of it as built before the flood.
It is now called Jaffa, fomewhat nearer to its firft ap-
pellation, and is but in a poor and mean condition
JOR, the Hebrew for a river, which, joined with
Han, concurs to form the term Jordan. See Dan
JORDANO, Lucca, an eminent Italian painter
was born at Naples in 1632. He became very earN
a difciple of Jofeph Ribera ; but going afternards to
Kome, he attached nimfelf to the manner of Pietro da
Cortona whom he aflifted in his great works. Some
of his pictures being feen by Charles II. king of
bpain, he engaged him in painting the Efeurial: in
which talk he acquitted himfelf as a great painter.
Ibe king fliowed him a pifture of Balfani, ex prefling
his concern that he had not a companion : Lucca
painted one fo exaftiy in Baffani’s manner, that it was
taken for a performance of that mailer; and for this
iervice he was knighted, and gratified with feveral ho-
nourable and valuable employments. The great works
he executed in Spain gave him ftill greater reputa¬
tion when he returned to Naples ; fo that though he
was a very quick workman, he could not fupply the
eager demands of the citizens. No one, not even
Imtoret, ever painted fo much as Jordano; and his
generofity carried him fo far as to prefent altar-pieces
to churches that were not able to purehafe them. His
labours were rewarded with great riches; which he
left to his family, when he died, in 1705.
JOSEPH, the fon of Jacob ; memorable for his
chaftity, and the honours conferred on him at the
court of Egypt, &c. He died in 1635 B. C. aged
JOSEPHUS, the celebrated hiftorian of the Jews
was of noble birth, by his father Mattathias defeended
from the high-priefts, and by hi, mother of the blood-
royal of the Maccabees; he was born A.D. 37, under
Caligula, and lived under Domitian. At 16 years of
age he betook himfelf to the fe6l of the Effenes, and
then to the Pharifees; and having been fuccefsful in a
journey to Rome, upon his return to Judsea he was
made captain general of the Galileans. Being taken
prifoner by Vefpafian, he foretold his coming to the
empire, and his own deliverance by his means. He
accompanied Titus at the liege of Jerufalem, and wrote
his . Wars of the Jews,” which Titus ordered to be
put in the public library. He afterwards lived at
Rome, where he enjoyed the privileges of a Roman
citizen, and where the emperors loaded h m with fa¬
vours, and granted him large penfions. Befidcs the
above work, he wrote, 1. Twenty books of Jevvilh an¬
tiquities, which he finiflied under Domitian. 2. Two
books againft Apion. 3. An elegant difeourfe on the
martyrdom of the Maccabees. 4. His own life. Thefe
works are excellently written in Greek.
JOSHUA, the renowned general of the Jews, who
conduaed them through the wildernefs, &c. died in
1424 B. C. aged 110.
Joshua, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
containing a hiftory of the wars and tranfaftions of
tlm perfon whofe name it bears. This book may be
divided into three parts: the firft of which is a hiftory
of the conqueft of the land of Canaan ; the fecond,
which begins at the 12th chapter, is a defeription of
that country, and the divifion of it among the tribes ;
and
Joppa
li
Jofhua.
J o U t 319 ] I P H
Joffcua and the third, comprifed in the two laft: chapters, con-
11 tains the renewal of the covenant he caufed the Ifrael-
Journa * ites to make, and the death of their victorious leader
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of 17,
or, according to others, of 27 years.
JOSIAH, king of Judah, the deftroyer of idola¬
try, and the reftorer of the true worftiip, an excellent
magillrate, and a valiant general, was llain in battle,
609 B. C.
JOT AP AT A, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Lower Galilee, diftant 40 ftadia from Gabara; a very
ftrong place, lituated on a rock, wailed round, and en-
compafled on all hands with mountains, fo as not to be
feen but by thofe who came very near. It was with
great difficulty taken by Vefpafian, being defended
by Jofephus, who commanded in it 5 when taken, it
W'as ordered to be rafed.
JOVIAN, the Roman emperor, elected by the
army, after the death of Julian the apoflate, in 363.
He at firft refufed, faying he would not command
idolatrous foldiers 5 but, upon an affurance that they
V'ould embrace Chriftianity, he accepted the throne,
and immediately {hut all the Pagan temples, and for¬
bade their facrifices. But he did not long enjoy the
dignity to which his merit had raifed him 5 being fuf-
focated in his bed by the fumes of a fire that had
been made to dry the chamber, in 364, the 33d of
his age, and the eighth month of his reign. See Con¬
stantinople, N° 67.
JOVIUS, Paul, in Italian Giovio, a celebrated
hiflorian, was born at Como in Italy, in the year 1483.
As his father died in his infancy, he was educated by
his eldeft brother Benedict Jovius, under whom he be¬
came well {killed in claffical learning j and then went
to Rome, for the fake of enjoying the benefit of the
Vatican library. He there wrote his firft piece, De
pifcibus Romanis, which he dedicated to Cardinal Lewis
of Bourbon. He received a penfion of 500 crowns
for many years from Francis I. king of France, whofe
favour he fecured by his flatteries. But, in the fol¬
lowing reign, having difgufted the conftable Montmo¬
rency, his name w'as ftruck out of the lift of penfioners.
Jovius did not fuffer his fpirits to fink under his mif-
fortune: he had obtained a high reputation in the
learned world by his writings; and having always
{flowed great refpeft to the houfe of Medicis, on whofe
praifes he had expatiated in his works, he applied to
Clement VII. and obtained the biftioprick of Nocera.
His principal piece is his hiftory, which is that of his
own time throughout the w'orld, beginning with 1494,
and extending to the year 1544. This was the chief
bufinefs of his life. For he formed the plan of it in
the year 1515 *, and continued upon it till his death,
which happened at Florence in 1552. It is printed in
three volumes folio. He is allowed to have been a man
of wit as well as learning : he was mafter of a bright
and poliftied ftyle, and has many curious obfervations:
but being a venal writer, his hiftories are not much
credited.
JOURNAL, a day-book, regifter, or account of
what pafles daily. See Diary.
Journal, in merchants accounts, is a book into
which every particular article is pofted out of the wafte-
book, and made debtor. This is to be very clearly
worded, and fairly engroffed. See BOOK-Keeping,
Journal, in Navigation, a fort of diary, or daily re- Journal
gifter of the ftiip’s courfe, winds, and weather j together .1!
with a general account of whatever is material to be re- ^'g61113,
marked in the period of a fea-voyage. ~v"
In all fea-journals, the day, or what is called the
24 hours, terminate at noon, becaufe the errors of
the dead-reckoning are at that period generally cor-
refted by a folar obfervation. The daily compact
ufually contains the ftate of the weather j the varia¬
tion, increafe, or diminution of the wind ; and the
fuitable drifting, reducing, or enlarging the quantity
of fail extended 5 as alfo the moft material incidents of
the voyage, and the condition of the (hip and her crew j
together with the difcovery of other (hips or fleets,
land, flioals, breakers, foundings, &c.
Journal, is alfo a name common for weekly effays,
newfpapers, &c. as the Gray’s Inn Journal, the Weft-
minfter Journal, &c.
Journal, is alfo ufed for the titles of feveral books
which come out at Hated times, and give abftra&s,
accounts, &c. of the new books that are publiihed, and
the new improvements daily made in arts and iciencesj
as the Journal de Spavans, Journal de Phyjique, &c.
JOURNEY, a tradl: of ground pafied over in tra¬
velling by land j properly as much as may be pafled
over in one day.
Management of a Horfe on a JOURNET. See Horse.
JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the
day only j but the word is now ufed for any one who
works under a mafter, either by the day, the year, or
the piece.
JOY, in Ethics, is that paflion which is produced
by love, regarding its objeft as prefent, either imme¬
diately or in profpedt, in reality or imagination. The
operation of joy fometimes afFefts the functions of the
body, by increafing the fecretion of perfpiration and
fome others.
JOYNERY. See Joinery.
IPECACUANHA, the root of a plant which is
well known by its ufe as an emetic. See Materia
Medica Index.
IPHICRAT ES, general of the Athenians, had that
command conferred upon him at 20 years of age, and
became famous for the exaftnefsof his military difeipline.
He made war on the Thracians j reftored Seuthes, who
was an ally of the Athenians j attacked the Lacedte-
monians, and, on many other occafions, gave fignal
proofs of his conduct and courage. Many ingenious
repartees have been mentioned of this general: a man
of good family, with no other merit than his nobility,
reproaching him one day for the meannefs of his birth
he replied, “ I {hall be the firft of my race, and thou
the laft of thine.” He died 380 B. C.
IPPIIGEN1A, a daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temneftra. When the Greeks going to the Trojan war
were detained by contrary winds at Aulis, they were
informed by one of the foothfayers, that to appeafe
the gods they murt facrifice Iphigenia Agamemnon’s
daughter to Diana. The father, who had provoked
the goddefs by killing her favourite flag, heard this
with the greateft horror and indignation ; and rather
than to ftied the blood of his daughter, he commanded
one of his heralds, as chief of the Grecian forces, to or¬
der all the affembly to depart each to his reipe&ive
home. Ulyffes and the other generals interfered, and
Agamemnon
IPS r 320 ] IRE
Iphigenia Agamemnon confented to immolate his daughter for
H the common caufe of Greece. As Iphigenia was ten-
vv‘r !‘ derly loved by her mother, the Greeks fent for her on
pretence of giving her in marriage to Achilles. Cly-
-temneltra gladly permitted her departure, and Iphige-
nia came to Aulis. Here (lie faw the bloody prepara¬
tions for the facrifice. She implored the forgivenefs
and protedfion of her father ; but tears and entreaties
were unavailing. Calchas took the knife in his hand •,
and as he was going to ftrike the fatal blow, Iphigenia
fuddenly difappeared, and a goat of uncommon fize and
beauty was found in her place for the facrifice. This
fupernatural change animated the Greeks, the wind
fuddenly became favourable, and the combined fleet fet
fail from Aulis.
IPOMEA, Ouamoclit, or Scarlet Convolvu¬
lus \ a genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria
clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 29th
order, Campanacea. See Botany Index.
IPSWICH, the capital of the county of Suffolk, in
England, feated in E. Long. 1.6. N. Lat. 52. 12.
The name comes from the Saxon Cypefxvick, that is, a
town fituated upon the Gyppen, now called OrxvelL
It had once 21 churches, but now has only 12. It was
plundered by the Danes in 991, and afterwards be-
fieged by King Stephen. It had charters and a mint
in the reign of King John, but its lafi: charter was from
Charles II. The remains of a wall and fix or feven re¬
ligious houfes are ftill to be feen. Though it is not
in fo flourifhing a date as formerly when the harbour
was more commodious, yet it is ftill a large well built
town. Befides the churches already mentioned, it
lias feveral meeting-houfes, two chapels, a town-hall,
council-chamber, a large market place with a crofs in
the middle of it, a (hire-hall for the county feflions, a
library, feveral hofpitals, a free-fchool, a handfome
ftone-bridge over the river, (lately (hambles in the
market-place built by Cardinal Wolfey, who was a na¬
tive of the town and a butcher’s fon, and who alfo be¬
gan to build a college here on the ruins of a fmall
college of black canons, which ftill bears his name,
though it was never finiflied. Here are alfo feveral
alms-houfes, three charity-fchools, and a convenient
key and cuftomhoufe. By virtue of Charles IT’s char¬
ter, the town is governed by two bailiffs, a recorder,
1,2 portmen, of whom the bailiffs are two, a town-
clerk, two coroners, and 24 common-council. The
bailiffs and 4 of the portmen are juftices of the peace.
The town enjoys many privileges, as pafling fines and
recoveries, trying criminals, and even crown and capi¬
tal caufes among thcmfelves, fettling the aflize of
bread, wine, and beer. No freeman is obliged to ferve
on juries out of the town, or bear any office for the
king, except that of the (heriff, or to pay tolls or duties
in any other part of the kingdom. They have an ad¬
miralty juril'di6tion beyond Harwich on the Effex coaft,
and on both fides the Suffolk coaft, by which they are
entitled to all goods call on (bore. The bailiffs even
hold an admiralty-court beyond Landguard-fort. By
a trial in King Edward III.’s time, it appears that the
town had a right to the cuftom-duties for all goods co¬
ming into Harwich-haven. The population in 1801
exceeded 1.1,000, of whom nearly -loco are employed
in manufa&ures, which are chiefly wooden and linen
cloth. It has (till a confiderable foreign-trade. The
tide rifes 12 feet, and (hips come within a fmall diftance Ipfwiclt
of the town. They export a great deal of corn to Lon- !!
don, and in former times to Holland. Formerly, they
had a great trade in (hip-building j but that having 'r""
declined, they now fend great quantities of timber to
the king’s yard at Chatham. It has feveral great fairs
for cattle, cheefe, and butter 5 and is admirably fitua¬
ted for the trade to Greenland, becaufe the fame wind
that carries them out of the river will carry them to
Greenland. It is worth remarking, that it is one of
the beft places in England for perfons in narrow cir-
cumftances, houfe rent being eafy, provihons cheap
and plentiful, the paffage by land or water to Lon¬
don, &c. convenient, and the company of the place
good. It gives title of vifeount, as well as Thetford,
to the duke of Grafton j and fends two members t«
parliament.
IRASCIBLE, in the old philofophy, a term appli¬
ed to an appetite or a part of the foul, where anger and
the other paflions, which animate us againft things dif¬
ficult or odious, were fuppofed to reiide.
Of the eleven kinds of paflions attributed to the
foul, philofophers aferibe five to the irafcible appetite ;
viz. wrath, boldnefs, fear, hope, and defpair; the other
fix are charged on the concupifcible appetite, viz. plea-
fure, pain, defire, averfion, love, and hatred.
Plato divided the foul into three parts *, the reafon-
able, irafcible, and concupifcible parts. The two laft,
according to that philofopher, are the corporeal and
mortal parts of the foul, which give rife to our paf-
fions.
Plato fixes the feat of the irafcible appetite in the
heart 5 and of the concupifcible in the liver ; as the
two fources of blood and fpirit, which alone affeft the
mind.
IRELAND, one of the Britannic iflands, fituated
between the 5th and 10th degrees of weft longitude,
and between the 51ft and 56th of north latitude, ex¬
tending in length about 300 miles, and about 150 ia
breadth.
The ancient hi (lory of this ifiand is involved in fo
much obfeurity, that it has been the objetft of conten¬
tion among the antiquarians for upwards of a century
and a half. The Irifti hiftorians pretend to very great
antiquity. According to them, the ifland was firft in- s
habited about 322 years after the flood. At that time Origin of
Partholanus the fon of Scara landed in Munfter on the the Irifli
14th of May with 1000 foldiers, and fame women, from weeding
Greece. This voyage he had undertaken on account
of his having killed his father and mother in his nativerjailS<
country. The fame hiftorians inform us, that a great
number of lakes broke out in Ireland during the reign
of Partholanus, which had no exiftence when he came
into the ifland, with many other particulars not worth
mentioning ; but the moft furprifing circumftance is,
that about 300 years after the arrival of this Grecian
colony, all of them periflied by a plague, not a fingle
perfon remaining to tell the fate of the reft •, in which
cafe, it is wonderful how the cataftrophe ftiould have
been known.
After the extin&ion of this firft colony, Ireland re¬
mained a prrfedl wildernefs for 30 years ; when ano¬
ther colony arrived from the eaft, under the dire&ion
of one N-medius. Pie fet fail from the Euxine fea
with 30 tranfports, each manned with 40 heroes j and
at
IRE [ 321 ] IRE
Ireland, at laft arrived on the coafts of Ireland, after a very te-
—dious and ftrange navigation. Daring his reign alfo
many lakes were formed in the country, which had no
exiftence before ; the moft material circumltance, how¬
ever, was an unfuccefsful war in which he was engaged
with fome African pirates, who in the end enflaved his
people. The victors proved fuch infupportable ty¬
rants, that the Irifli found themfelves under a neceffity
of quitting the ifland altogether. They embarked on
board a fleet of x 130 flaps, under the command of
three grandfons of Nemedius, viz. Simon Breac, To
Chatb, and Briatan Maol. The firft returned to Greece,
the fecond failed to the northern parts of Europe, and
the third landed in the north of Scotland, and from
him the ifland of Britain is faid to have taken its name,
and the Welfli their origin.
About 216 years after the death of Nemedius, the
^efeendants of Simon Breac returned from Greece into
Ireland. They were conduced by five princes of great
reputation, who divided the ifland into five kingdoms,
nearly equal in fize. Thefe kingdoms were called
Munffer, Leinjler, Connaught, Meath, and U(/ler; and
the fubjefts of thefe kings are called by the Iriih hif-
torians Firbo/gs.
The Firbolgs were in procefs of time expelled or
totally fubdued, after thelofs of 100,000 men in one
battle, by the Tuath de Dormans, a nation of necro¬
mancers, who came from Attica, Bceotia, and Achaia,
into Denmark, from Denmark to Scotland, and from
Scotland to Ireland. Thefe necromancers were fo
completely {killed in their art, that they could even
reftore the dead to life, and bring again into the field
thofe warriors who had been flain the day before.
They had alfo fome curiofities which poffeffed a won¬
derful virtue. Thefe were a fword, a fpear, a caul¬
dron, and a marble chair j on which laft were crown¬
ed firft the kings of Ireland, and afterwards thofe of
Scotland. But neither the powerful virtues of thefe
Danilh curiofities, nor the more powerful fpells of the
magic art, were able to preferve the Tuath de Dannans
from being fubdued by the Gadelians when they in¬
vaded Ireland.
The Gadelians were defeended from one Gathelus,
from whom they derived their name. He was a man
of great confequence in Egypt, and intimately ac¬
quainted with Mofes the Jewifti legiflator. His mo¬
ther was Scota the daughter of Pharaoh, by Niul the
fon of a Scythian monarch cotemporary with Nimrod.
The Gadelians, called alfo Scots, from Scota above-
mentioned, conquered Ireland about 1300 B. C. un¬
der Heber and Heremon, two fons of Milefius king of
Spain, from whom were defeended all the kings of
Ireland down to the Englilh conqueft, and who are
therefore ftyled by the Irilh hiftorians princes of the
Milejian race.
From this period the Irifti hiftorians trace a gradual
refinement of their countrymen from a ftate of the
groffeft barbarity, until a monarch, named Oliam Fod-
la, eftabliftied a regular form of government, erefted
a grand feminary of learning, and iniiituted the Fes,
or triennial convention of provincial kings, priefts, and
poets, at Feamor or Tarah in Meath, for the eftablilh-
ment of laws and the regulation of government. But
whatever were the inftitutions of this monarch, it is
acknowledged that they proved infufticient to with-
Vql. XI. Part I.
ftand the wildnefs and diforder of the times. To Kim- Ireland,
bath, one of his fucceffors, the annalifts give the ho- -'"Y™—
nour of reviving them, befides that of regulating Ul-
fter, his family-province, and adorning it with a {late¬
ly palace at Eamannia near Armagh. His immediate
fucceflor, called Hugony, is ftill more celebrated for
advancing the work of reformation. It feems, that,
from the earlieft origin of the Irifti nation, the ifland
had been divided into the five provincial kingdoms
above mentioned, and four of thefe had been fubjeclto
the fifth, who was nominal monarch of the whole ifland.
Thefe four, however, proved fuch obftinate difturbers
of the peace, that Hugony, to break their power, par¬
celled out the country into 25 dynafties, binding them
by oath to accept no other monarch but one of his ow n
family. This precaution proved ineffe&ual. Hugony
himfelf died a violent death, and all his fucceflors for
a feries of ages were affaflfmated, fcarcely with one
exception.
About 100 B. C. the pentarchal government was
reftored, and is faid to have been fucceeded by a con-
fiderable revolution in politics. The Irifti bards had
for many ages difpenfed the laws, and the whole na¬
tion fubmitted to their decifions j but as their laws
were exceedingly obfeure, and could be interpreted
only by themfelves, they took occalion from thence to
opprefs the people, until at laft they were in danger
of being totally exterminated by a general infurre&ion.
In this emergency they fled to Convocar-Mac-Ntffa,
the reigning monarch, who promifed them his protec¬
tion in cafe they reformed j but, at the fame time, in
order to quiet the juft complaints of his people, he em¬
ployed the moft eminent among them to compile .an
intelligible, equitable, and diftimft body of laws,
which u'ere received with the greateft joy, and digni¬
fied with the name of celejlial decifions. Thefe deci¬
fions feem to have produced but very little reformation
among the people in general. We are now prefented
with a new feries of barbarities, murders, fa6lions,
and anarchy 5 and in this difordered fituation of af¬
fairs it was, according to the Irifli hiflorians, that the
chieftain mentioned by Tacitus addrefled himfelf t»
Agricola, and encouraged him to make a defeent on
Ireland. This fcheme happened not to fuit the views
of the Roman general at that time, and therefore was
not adopted ; and fo confident are thefe hiftorians of
the ftrength of their country, even in its then diftraft-
ed ftate, that they treqt the notion of its being fub¬
dued by a Roman legion and fome auxiliaries (the
force propofed to Agricola) as utterly extravagant j ac¬
quainting us at the fame time, that the Irifti were f®
far from dreading a Roman invafion, that they failed
to the afliftance of the.Pi&s, and having made a fuc-
cefsful incurfion into South Britain, returned home with
a confiderable booty.
In the fame ftate of barbarity and confufion the
kingdom of Ireland continued till the introduction of
Chriftianity by St Patrick, about the middle of the
fifth century. This miflionary, according to the adver-
faries of the Irifti antiquity, firft introduced letters int®
Ireland, and thus laid the foundations of a future civi¬
lization. On the other hand, the advocates for that
antiquity maintain, that the Irifti had the knowledge
of letters, and had made confiderable progrefs in the
arts, before the time of St Patrick; though they allow
IRE [ 322 ] IRE
Ireland.
Early hl-
ftory of
Ireland by
Mr Whit¬
aker.
ISfames and
fituation ot
the tribes
by which
it was in¬
habited.
that he introduced the Roman character, in which
his copies of the Scripture and liturgies were written.
To enter into the difpute would be contrary to our
plan. It is fufficient to obferve, that, excepting by
fbme of the Irifh themfelves, the hitlory already given
is generally reckoned entirely fabulous, and thought
to have been invented after the ii rroduftion of Chrifti-
anity. An origin of the Iriih nation has been found
out much nearer than Alia, Greece, or Egypt ;
namely, the ifland of Britain, from whence it is now
thought that Ireland was firil peopled. A difpute hath
arifen concerning the place from whence the firft emi¬
grants from Britain fet fail for Ireland. The honour
of being the mother-country of the Iriih hath been
difputed between the North and South Britons. Mr
Macpherfon has argued llrenuoufly for the former,
and Mr Whitaker for the latter. For an account of
their difpute, however, we muft refer to the works of
thefe gentlemen. Mr Whitaker claims the victory,
and challenges to himfelf the honour of being the firft
who clearly and truly demonftrated the origin of the
Irifh.
The name of Ireland, according to Mr Whitaker,
is obvioufly derived from the word Jar or Eir, which
in the Celtic language fignifies “ weft.” This word
was fometimes pronounced Iver, and Hiver; whende the
XiRmes of Iris, lerna, Juverna, Iverna, Hibernia, and
Ireland; by all of which it hath at f%me time er other
been ^.nown.
About 350 B. C. according to the fame author,
fhe Belgse crofted the channel, invaded Britain, and
feized the whole extended line of the fouthern coaft,
from Kent to Devonfhire. Numbers of the former in¬
habitants, who had gradually retired before the enemy,
were obliged at laft to take (hipping on the weftern
coaft of England, and paffed over into the uninhabited
ifle of Ireland. Thefe were afterwards joined by an¬
other body of Britons driven out by the Belgae under
Divitiacus, about iqo B. C. For two centuries and a
half afterwards, thefe colonies were continually rein¬
forced with frefh fwarms from Britain ; as the populouf-
nefs of this ifland, and the vicinity of that, invited them
to fettle in the one, or the bloody and fucceftive war's
in Britain during this period naturally induced them to
relinquifh the other : and the whole circuit of Ireland
appears to have been completely peopled about 150
years after Chrift : and as the inhabitants had all fled
equally from the dominion of the Belgae, or for fome
other caufe left their native country, they were diftin-
guifhed among the Britons by one general and very ap-
pofite name, viz. that of Scuites or Scots, “ the wan¬
derers, or refugees.”
Mr Whitaker alfo informs us, “ that in the times
of the Romans Ireland was inhabited by 18 tribes 5 by
one upon the northern and three on the fouthern fhore,
feven upon the weftern, fix on the eaftern, and one in
the centre.
“ Along the eaflern coaft, and the Vergivian or inter¬
nal ocean, were ranged the Damnii, the Voluntii, and
the Eblant, the Caucii, the Menapii, and the Coriondii.
The firft inhabited a part of the two counties of An¬
trim and Down, extending from Fair head, the moft
north-eafterly extremity of the ifland, to Ifamnum
Promontoriura, or the point of Ardglafs haven, in the
county of Down ; and, having the Logia pr Lpgan,
3
which falls into Carrickfergus bay, within their pof- Ireland,
feflions, and Dunum or Down-patrick for their capital. '“’■'“V""**
The Voluntii poffeffed the coaft from the point of that
haven to the river Buvinda or Boyne, the remainder
of Down, the breadth of Armagh, and all Louth j
having the Vinderus or Carlingford river in their do¬
minions, and the town of Laberus near the river Deva
(Atherdee in the county of Louth) for their metro¬
polis. And the Eblani reached from the Boyne to the
Laebius, La^v-ui, or Liffy ; refiding in Eaft Meath,
and in the large portion of Dublin county which is to
the north of this river ; and acknowledging Mediola¬
num, Eblana, or Dublin, for their principal town. The
Gaucii fpread from the Liffy to the Letrim, the Oboca
of the ancients •, had the reft of Dublin county, and
fuch parts of Wicklow as lie in the north of the lat¬
ter j and owned Dunum or Rath-Downe for their chief
city. The Menapii occupied the coaft betwixt the
Letrim and Cancarne-point, all the reft of Wicklow^
and all Wexford to the point $ their chief town, Me-
napia, being placed upon and to the eaft of Modona,
Slanus, or Slane. And the Coriondii inhabited at the
back of the Caucii and Menapii, to the weft of the
Slane and Liffy, and in all Kildare and all Catherlogh \
being limited by the Boyne and Barrow on the weft,
the Eblani on the north, and the Brigantes on the
fouth.
“ Upon the fouthern {bore, and along the verge of th
Cantabrian ocean, lay the Brigantes, the Vodise, and
the Ibernii. The firft owned the reft of Wexford and
all Waterford : extending to the Blackwater, Aven-
More, or Dabrona, on the fouth-weft ; having the great
mouth of the Barrow within their territories, and Bri-
gantia, Waterford, or fome town near it, for their firft
city ; and giving name of Brigas to the Suir or Swire,
their limitary ftream on the north, and the appellation
of Bergie to their own part of the county of Wexford.
The Vodise poffefied the {hire ofCorke from the Biack-
water to the Ban, the river of Kinfale, and the Do-
bona or Dubana of the ancients •, and affixed the name
of Voa'nim Promontonum to the point of Balycotton
ifland. And the Ibernii inhabited the remainder of
Corke, and all that part of Kerry which lies to the
fouth-eaft of Dingle found ; having Rufina or Ibaune
for their capital, the Promontorium Auftrinum or Mifi-
fen-Head about the middle of their dominions, and the
river Ibernus or Dingle found for their northern bar¬
rier 3 and leaving their names to the three divifions of
Ibaune, Beare, and Iveragh.
“ Upon the weftern fhore of the ifland, and along the
Great Britannic or Atlantic ocean, were the Lucanii
or Lucenii, the Velaborii, and the Cangani, the Au-
terii, the Nagnatae, the Hardinii, and Venicnii. The
Lucenii inhabited the peniniula of land that lies along
the river Ibernus or Dingle found, and perhaps fome
adjoining parts of Kerry. The Velaborii ranged along
the fmall remainder of the latter, and over the whole
of Limerick to the Senus or Shannon 3 having the Da¬
rius or Cafheen flowing through their dominions, and.
Regia, Limerick or fome town near it, for their me¬
tropolis. And the latter was probably that city near
Limerick, the fite of which is ftill famous, and retains
the appellation of Cathair, or the fortrefs 3 and where
the remains of ftreets, and other marks of a town, may
yet be traced.* The Cangani lived in the county of
Clare :
I 11 E [3
Ireland. Clare : Malcolicum near the Shannon, perhaps Feakle
”—v“ f or Melic, being their principal town ; a headland in
the bay of Galway, near Glaniny, being denominated
hemfamnum Promontorwm; and the adjoining Hies of
Arran called InfuLe Canganae. The Auterii were fet¬
tled iu the county of Galway ; winding along the deep
recefs of the Sinus Aufoba or bay of Galway ; ftretch-
ing towards the north as far as the Libnius, or the river
that bounds the Ihire in that part; and poffeffing the
fmall portion of Mayo which lies to the fouth of it.
And thefe were fubjedlto Auterium, anciently Aterith,
and now Athenree j and have left their name to the di*
vifion of Athenree. The Nagnatae occupied the reft
of the large county of Mayo, all Sligo and all Rof-
common, all Letrim as far as Logh Ailin on the fouth-
eaft, and all Fermanagh, to Balyfhannon and Logh
Erne j being bounded by the Rhebius or river of Ba-
lylhannon, and the lake Rhebius or Logh Erne ; ha¬
ving a deep bay, called Magnus Sinus, that curves
along Mayo, Sligo, and Letrim counties j and acknow¬
ledging Nagnat, Necmaht, or Alnecmaht, the town
of the Nagnatm, for their capital. And the Hardinii
and Venicnii were confederated together under the title
of the Venicnian Nations, extended from Balyfhannon
to the North Cape, and poffefled all Donnegalle, except
the two whole divifions of Raphoe and Enis-Owen, and
the eaflern part of Killmacrenen. The Venicnii lay
along the immediate margin of the fhore, giving name
to the Promontorium Venicnium or Cape Horn, and
to the Infula Venicnia or North Arran Ifland. And
their metropolis Rheba was feated upon the lake
Rhebius, and in the country of the Hardinii on the
fouth-eaft.
“ Upon the northern fhore and along the margin of
the Deucaledonian ocean, were only the Robogdii •, in¬
habiting the reft of Donnegalle, all Derry, and all
Antrim to the Fair-Head, and the Damnii j and gi¬
ving their own name to the former and the divifion of
Raphoe. And they had the rivers Vidua or Ship-
harbour, Arigta or Logh Swilly, Darabouna or Logh
Foile, and Banna, or Ban, in their territories 5 and ac-
knowledged Robogdium, Robogh, or Raphoe, for their
chief city.
“ The central regions of the illand, all Tyrone, the
remainder of Fermanagh and Letrim, all Monaghan,
and the reft of Ardmagh 5 all Cavan, all Longford,
and all Weft-Meath ; all the King’s and (Queen’s coun¬
ty, all Kilkenny, and all Tipperary ; were planted by
the Scoti. The Shannon, Logh All in, and Logh
Erne, were their great boundaries on the weft $ the
Barrow, Boyne, and Logh Neagh, on the eaft 5 the
Swire and Blackw'ater Vm the fouth ; and a chain of
mountains on the north. And the two greateft of
their towns were Rheba, a city feated, like the Rheba
of the Venicnians, upon the lake and river Rhebius,
but on a different part of them, and fomewhere in the
north of Cavan ; and Ibernia, a town placed a little to
the eaft of the Shannon, and fomewhere in the county
of Tipperary.”
But whether w-e are to receive as a truth the accounts
given by Mr Whitaker, thofe of the Irilh annaHfts,
or any other, it is certain, that, till little more than a
century ago, Ireland was a fcene of confufton and
flaughter. The Irifh hiftorians acknowledge this, as
have already feen. Very few of their monarchs
!3 ] 1 R . E
efcaped a violent death. The hiftories of their kings Ireland,
indeed amount to no more than this, viz. that they v ^
began to reign in fuch a year, reigned a certain num¬
ber of years, and were fl iin in battle by the valiant
prince who fucceeded to the thrune. The introduc¬
tion of Chriftianity feems to have mended the matter
very little, or rather not at all. The fame wars be¬
tween the chiefs continued ; and the fame murders and
treacheries took place among the inhabitants, till they ^
were invaded by the Danes or Normans, about theinVa(lon of
end of the eighth century. At this time, we are told, the Danes,
that the monarchical power w as weak, byreafon of the
fa£lious and afluming difpofition of the inferior dyna-
fties ; but that the evils of the political conftitution
had conftderably fubfided by the refpeft paid to reli¬
gion and learning. Tne firft invaftons of the Danes
were made in fmall parties for the fake of plunder,
and were repelled by the chieftain whofe dominions
were invaded. Other parties appeared in different parts
of the ifland and terrified the inhabitants by the havock
they committed. Thefe were in like manner put to
flight, but never failed to return in a Ihort time; and
in this manner was Ireland haraffed for the fpace of
20 years, before the inhabitants thought of putting an
end to their inteftine contefts, and uniting againft the
common enemy. The northern pirates, either by
force or treaty, gradually obtained fome fmall fettle-
ments on the ifland \ till at length Turges, or Turge-
fius, a warlike Norwegian, landed with a powerful ar¬
mament in the year 815. He divided his fleet and ar¬
my, in order to ftrike terror in different quarters. His
followers plundered, burned, and maffacred, without
mercy, and perfecuted the clergy in a dreadful manner
on account of their religion. The Danes already fet¬
tled in Ireland, flocked to the ftandard of Turgefius,
who thus was enabled to feat himfelf in Armagh, from
which he expelled the clergy, and feized their lands.
The Irith, in the mean time, were infatuated by their
private quarrels j till at laft, after fome ill-condudted
and unfuccefsful efforts, they funk into a ftate of abjedt
fubmiflion, and Turgtfius was proclaimed monarch of
the whole ifland in 845.
1 he new king proved fuch a tyrant, that he foon
became intolerable. A confpiracy w^as formed againft;
him ; and he was feized by Melachline prince of Meath,
in a time of apparent peace. An univerfal infurrec-
tion enfued 5 the Danes were maffacred or difperfed j
their leader condemned to death for his cruelties, and
drowned in a lake. The foreigners, however, were
not exterminated, but the remains of them were al¬
lowed to continue on the ifland as fubjetts or tributa¬
ries to feme particular chieftains. A new colony foon
arrived, but under the pretence of peaceable intentions,
and a defign of enriching the country by commerce.
The Irilh, through an infatuated policy, fuffered them
to become mailers of Dublin, Limerick, Waterford,
and other maritime places, which they enlarged and
fortified with fuch works as had till then been un¬
known in Ireland. The Danes did not fail to make
ufe of every opportunity of enlarging their territories,
and new wars quickly enfued. The Irilh were fome-
times victorious, and fometimes not j but were never
able to drive out their enemies, fo that they continued
to be a very diftinguilhed and powerful ye/)/, or tribe,
in Ireland. The wars with the Danes were no fooner
S f 2 at
IKE [ 324 1 I R E
, ^re^an^- at an end, than the natives, as ufual, turned their arms
^ * againit each other. The country was harafled by the
competitions of the chiefs ; laws and religion loft their
influence, and the moft horrid licentioufnefs and im¬
morality prevailed. Thus the whole ifland feemed
ready to become a prey to the firft invader, when an
attempt was made upon it by Magnus king of Nor¬
way. This attempt mifcarried through his own ralh-
nefs ; for, having landed without oppofition, he ad¬
vanced into the country without the leaft apprehen-
fion. The confequence of this was, that he was fur-
rounded and cut to pieces with all his followers. His
death, however, proved of little benefit to Ireland j
the fame diforders which had gradually reduced the
kingdom to a ftate of extreme weaknefs, ftill conti¬
nued to operate, and to facilitate the fuccefs of the
Englilh invafion, which happened in the reign of
5 Henry II.
Henry II. The firft motives which induced this monarch to
meditatesd °f an exP^ditIon againft Ireland are not well
an invafion ^nown- ^ was fuppofed that he had been provoked
•f Ireland. ^7 afliftance which the Irilh princes had given
to the French ; but, whatever might be in this, it is
certain that the defign was conceived foon after he
afcended the throne ; and his flatterers foon furnilhed
him with fufficient reafons for confidering the Irilh as
his fubje&s. It was affirmed that they had original¬
ly poffelfed themfelves of their country by permiffion
of Gurguntius a Britiffi king ; and that, as defen¬
dants of the Britons, they were the natural and right¬
ful fubje&s of the Engliffi monarch. It was alfo fug-
gefted, that the renowned King Arthur, Egfred the
Northumbrian prince, and Edgar one of the Saxon
kings of England, had all led their armies into Ireland,
and there made valuable acquifitions, which their fuc-
eeffor was in honour bound to recover and maintain.
.All thefe fuggeftions, however, or whatever elfe had
occurred to himfelf, feemed yet infufficient to Henry j
and therefore he took the molt effe&ual method to in¬
lure his reputation, namely, by an application to the
pope. To him he reprefented, that the inhabitants
of Ireland were funk into the moft wretched ftate of
corruption, both with regard to morals and religion j
that Henry, zealous for the honour and enlargement
of God’s kingdom, had conceived the pious defign of
erefting it in this unhappy country ; was ready to de¬
vote himfelf and all his powers to this meritorious fer-
vice ; implored the benediaion of the pontiff j and re-
quefted his permiffion and authority to enter Ireland
to reduce the difobedient and corrupt, to eradicate
all fin and wickednefs, to inftrua the ignorant, and
ipread the bleffed influence of the gofpel in all its pu¬
rity and perfeaion ; promifing at the fame time to pay
a yearly tribute to St Peter from the land thus to be
reduced to his obedience, and to the holy fee. Adrian,
the reigning pope, rejoiced at this application which
(f tended fo much to the advancement of his own power.
Is inverted A bull was therefore immediately formed, conformable
Wetntv t0 the m°ft lanSuine wifhes of Henry, which was fent
by the t0 England without delay, together with a ring, the
pope. token of his inveftiture as rightful fovereign of Ireland.
But whatever inclination the king of England or the
pope might at this time (A. D. 1156) have for the
fubje&ion of Ireland, the fituation of the Englifti affairs
obliged him to defer it for fome time.
4
I he ftate of Ireland, as we have already obferved, Ireland,
was at this time extremely favourable for an invafion. —'-v-—■
The monarch enjoyed little more than a titular dignity, 7
being haraffed by a faftion, and oppofed by powerful Sndat
rivals.. A number of chieftains who affumed the title that time,
and rights of royalty, paid a precarious tribute to
their fuperior, and united, if they were difpoled to
unite, with him, rather as his allies than his fubjefts.
In Ulfter, the family of the northern Hi-Nia/, as it
was called, exercifed a hereditary jurifdidtion over
the counties now called Tyrone, Derry, and Donnegal.
I hey alfo claimed a right of fupremacy over the lords
of Fermanagh, Antrim, and Argial, wffiich included
the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, Lowth, and fome
adjacent diftrifls j while Dunleve, prince of Uladh
(now Down), difputed the fuperiority of this family,
and affedled an independent ftate. In Munfter reign¬
ed the defcendants of Brien, a famous fovereign of
former times, impatient to recover the honours of
their family j but at laft, being confined by powerful
rivals to the territory of North Munfter, they were
obliged to leave the family of Mac Arthy fovereigns
of Defmond, the fouthern divifion. In Connaught, the
princes known by the name of O^Connor were ac¬
knowledged fovereigns of the eaftern territory. Tier-
nan O’Ruarc, an aftive and reftlefs military chief, had
the fupremacy in Breffney, containing the modern
county of Leitrim, and fome adjacent diftrifts. Meath,
or the fouthern Hi-Nial, was fubje6t to the family of
Clan-Colman, Murchard O’Malachlyn, and his fuc-
ceffors. Leinfter, divided into feveral principalities,
was fubjeft to Dermod, a fierce, haughty, and op-
preffive tyrant. His father had governed with great
cruelty. Seventeen of his vaffal lords had been either
put to death, or had their eyes put out, by his order
in one year 3 and Dermod feemed to inherit too great
a portion of the fame temper. His ftature and bodily
ftrength made him admired by the inferior orders of
his fubje&s 3 and thefe he was careful to protect and
favour. His donations and endowments of religious
houfes recommended him to the clergy 3 but his tribu¬
tary chieftains felt the wreight of his pride and tyranny,
and to them his government was extremely odious.
The chief competitors for the rank of monarch of
Ireland, in the mean time, were, the heirs of the two
houfes of O’Connor, and the northern Hi-Nial. Tor-
logh O’Connor was in poffeffion 3 but he was not ge¬
nerally recognifed, and was oppofed by his rival O’-
Lochlan : notwithftanding which, he maintained his
dignity wfith magnificence and vigour, till a decifive
vi&ory gained by him over O’Brien raifed O’Lochlan’s
jealoufy fo much, that he obliged him in a convention -
of the ftates to allow him the fovereignty of the north¬
ern divifion. In confequence of this partition, it was
refolved to transfer the territory of O’Ruarc to a perfon
more inclined to the interefts of the two fovereigns.
An expedition wras accordingly undertaken 3 O’Ruarc
was furprifed, defeated, and driven from his dominions.
Dermod, who had conceived an unlawful paffion for
Dervorghal, the wife of O’Ruarc, took the opportu¬
nity of her hufband’s diftreffes to carry her off in tri¬
umph. O’Ruarc conceived the moll implacable refent-
ment againft Dermod ; and therefore applying himfelf
to Torlogh, promifed an inviolable attachment to his
intereft 3 and prevailed on him not only to reinftate
him
Ireland.
8
Dermod
an exiled
prince, fo-
licits tfffift-
ance from
Henry II.
IRE [ 325 ] IRE
him in his poffefiions, but to revenge the infult offered
by Dermod, and to reftore his wife- By means of
fuch a powerful ally, O’Ruarc found frequent oppor¬
tunities of harafling his antagonift till the death of
Torlogh, which happened in 1156, upon which
O’Lochlan fucceeded to the fovereignty. Dermod
was the firfl to acknowledge the authority of this new
fovereign, by whofe means he hoped to be able to re¬
venge himfelf on O’Ruarc. He foon found, however,
that he had afted too precipitately. His patron, ha¬
ving treacheroufly feized and put out the eyes of Dun-
leve prince of Down, the neighbouring chieftains took
arms, in order to fecure themfelves from his barbarity.
O’Lochlan was defeated and killed j upon which the
monarchy devolved on Roderic the fon of the late Tor¬
logh O’Connor.
The new prince had acquired the reputation of va¬
lour, and w-as determined to eftablilh this reputation
by fome remarkable exploit in the beginning of his
reign. Having therefore engaged in his fervice the
Oilmen, or defcendants of the Danes, he marched a-
gainft Dermod as the chief partizan of his fallen rival.
The king of Leinlfer w'as feized with the utmoft con-
fternation ; and in defpair fet fire to his own town of
Ferns, left the enemy fhould have the fatisfadlion of
fpoiling it. Roderic ftill advanced, attended by O’Ru¬
arc, Dermod’s implacable enemy, and foon overran
the whole province. All the inferior lords at once
acknowledged Roderic’s authority. Dermod was depo-
fed, as a man utterly unworthy of his ftation j another
of his family was raifed to the throne 5 and the unfor¬
tunate prince, finding it impoflible to ftay with fafety
in Ireland, embarked with 60 of his followers for
England, and foon arrived at the port of Briftol, with
a defign to folicit affiftance from King Henry.
In England, Dermod’s chara&er wras unknown, and
he was regarded as an injured prince driven from his
throne by an iniquitous confederacy. The clergy re¬
ceived him as the benefaftor of their order, and enter¬
tained him in the monaftery of Auguftines with great
hofpitality. Having learned that Henry was then in
Aquitain, he immediately went thither, and in a very
abjeft manner implored his afiiftance, promifing to ac¬
knowledge him as his liege lord, and to hold his do¬
minions, which he was thus confident of regaining, in
vaffalage to Henry and his heirs.
Though nothing could be more flattering to the
ambition of the king of England than this fervile ad-
drefs, yet the fituation of his own affairs rendered it
impoflible for him at that time to reap from it any of
the advantages with which it flattered him. He there¬
fore difmiffed the Irilh prince with large prefents, and
a letter of credence addreffed to all his fubjefts : noti¬
fying his grace and protetlion granted to the king of
Leinfter *, and declaring, that whofoever within his
dominions ftiould be dilpofed to aid the unfortunate
prince in the recovery of his kingdom, might be affured
of his free licence and royal favour.
Dermod returned to England highly pleafed with
the reception he had met with ; but notwithftanding
the king’s letter, none of the Englifh feemed to be
difpofed to try their fortunes in Ireland. A month
elapfed without any profpedt of fuccours, fo that Der¬
mod began to defpair. At laft, however, he perfuad-
ed, with great promifes, Richard earl of Chepftow, or,
as it was formerly called, Strigul, a nobleman of confi- Ireland,
derable influence in Wales, but of broken fortune, to v
aflift him with a confiderable force to be tranfported perfu5ades
next fpring into Ireland. Overjoyed at this firft in-fome ad-
ftance of fuccefs, he advanced into South Wales, where, venturers
by the influence of the bilhop of St David’s, he pro- t0 foilcn^e
cured many other friends. Robert Xitz-Stephen, aj'^
brave and experienced officer, covenanted with him to
engage in his fervice with all his followers, and Maurice
Fitz-Gerald his maternal brother j while Dermod on
his part, promifed to cede to the two principal leaders,
Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald, the entire dominion of
the town of Wexford, with a large adjoining territory,
as foon as by their affiftance he Ihould be reinftated in
his rights.
The Iriffi prince having now accompliffied his pur-
pofe, fet fail for Ireland in the winter of 1169, and
recovered a fmall part of his dominions even before
the arrival of his new allies ; but being attacked with
a fuperior force by his old enemies Roderic and
O’Ruarc, he found himfelf obliged to feign fubmif-
lion till the Engliffi allies came to his affiftance. The
expected fuccours arrived in the month of May 1170,
in a creek called the Bann, near the city of Wexford,
Robert Fitz-Stephen commanded 30 knights, 60 men
in armour, and 300 archers. With thele came Har¬
vey of Mountmorris, nephew^ to Earl Richard. He
had no military force along with him j but came folely
with a view of difcovering the nature of the country,
and reporting it to his uncle. Maurice of Pendergaft
commanded 10 knights and 200 archers : and thus the
Engliffi force, which w'as to contend with the whole
ftrength of Ireland, amounted to no more than 600
men. 10
Trifling as this affiftance may feem, it neverthelefs Their fuc-
changed the face of affairs almoft inftantaneoufly.ce^'
Numbers of Dermod’s fubjefts who had abandoned
him in his diftrefs, now flocked to his ftandard. Wex¬
ford W’as immediately attacked, and furrendered in a
few days ; Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald were jointly
invefted with the lordffiip of this city and its domain j
and Harvey of Mountmorris was declared lord of two
confiderable diftrifts on the coaft. After three or four
weeks fpent infeafting and rejoicing, a new expedition,
was undertaken again,, .he prince of Oflbry (a diftrifl
of Leinfter), who had not only revolted from Dermr;
but put out the eyes of one of his fons, and that with
fuch cruelty, that the unhappy youth expired under the-
operation. The allied army was now increafed to 3000
men, who were oppofed by the prince of Offory at the
head of 5000, ftrongly entrenched among woods and
moraffes. By the fuperior condutt of the Englifti
troops, however, the Iriffi were decoyed from their
advantageous fituation, and thus were entirely defeat¬
ed. The Engliffi were for keeping the field till they-
had totally reduced their enemies: but Dermod, accu-
ftomed only to ravage and plunder, contented himfelf
with deftroying the country ; and a hidden reverfe of
fortune feemed ready to take place. The prince of
Oflbry, though defeated, ftill appeared in arms, and
only waited for an opportunity of again oppofing the
enemy in the field. Maurice Pendergaft alfo joined
him with his whole troop, being provoked by Der¬
mod, who had refufed him leave to return to Wales.
This defection, however, was in part fupplied by the
arrival.
IRE [ 326 ] IRE
Ireland, arrival of Fitz-Gerald with 10 knight?, 30 horfe-
^men, and ICO archers, Pendergaft in a fli<3rt time re¬
pented of his new alliance, and retired into Wales j
fo that the prince was obliged to make his fubmiffion
to Dermod, which the latter with fome reluctance ac¬
cepted.
In the mean time, Roderic, having fettled all his
other affairs, advanced againft the allies with a power¬
ful army. Dermod was thrown into defpair 5 but en¬
couraged by Fitz-Stephen, he encamped in a very
flrong lituation, where hewasfoon befieged by Roderic.
The latter, however, dreading the valour of the Eng-
lifh, condefcended to treat firft with them, and then
with Dermod, in order to detach them from the inte-
refts of each other : but as this proceeded evidently
from fear, his offers were rejeCled by both parties j
upon which he began to prepare for battle : but at the
very time when the engagement ftiould have commen¬
ced, either through the fuggeftions of his clergy, or of
n his own fears, Roderic entered into a new negociation ^
Peace con- which at laft terminated in a peace. The terms w ere,
c uded. t|iat Derrriocl (hould acknowledge the fupremacy of
Roderic, and pay him fuch fervice as the monarchs of
Ireland had ufually received from inferior princes ;
and as a fecurity for his faithful performance of this
article, he delivered up his favourite fon as an hoftage
to Roderic : but in order to eftablilh this accommoda¬
tion on the firmeft balls, the latter obliged himfelf to
give his daughter in marriage to the young prince as
foon as Leinfter Ihould be reduced, and the peace of the
ifland effe&ually reltored. By a fecret article, Dermod
engaged to difmifs the Britilh forces immediately after
the fettlement of his own province, and in the mean
time not to bring over any further reinforcements from
England.
Ihus ended the firft Britilh expedition into Ireland;
the confequences of which were fo little dreaded at that
time by the natives, that their hiftorians, though they
dwell upon the principal wars and contefts in other
parts of the ifland, fpeak of the fettlement of the
Wellhmen in Leinfter with a carelefs indifference. But
though the fettlement of this colony feemed very little
alarming to the generality, it could not efcape the ob-
fervation of difcerning perfons, that a man of Dermod’s
character would not long keep his treaties; and that
on the firft emergency he would have recourfe to his
former allies, who thus would ertablilh themfelves more
i2 and more, till at laft they would reduce the country
New ma- entirely under their fubje&ion. Thefe refleftions, if
donations any fuch were then made, were in a ftiort time verified,
ef Dermod. Dermod was fcarce fettled in his own dominions, when
he began to afpire at the fovereignty, and form
fchemes for dethroning Roderic. He applied to Fitz-
Stephen and Fitz-Gerald ; by whom he was again di¬
rected to apply to Richard earl of Chepftow, more
commonly known by the name of Strongbow, op ac¬
count of his feats of archery. Richard was very much
inclined to accept of his invitation ; but thought it in¬
cumbent upen him firft to obtain the confent of King
Henry. I he king, however, did not incline that his
fubjeCts Ihould make conquefts for themfelves in any
other country, and therefore difmiffed Richard with an
equivocal anfwer *, but the latter being willing to un-
derftand his fovereign’s words in the raoft favourable
?enfe, immediately fet about the neceffary preparations
for his expedition. In May 1171, Raymond le Gros, Ireland,
Richard’s domeftic friend, and the near relation of*-—
Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald, landed at a place called : nf^ bo
Dondonalf, near Waterford, with 10 knights and 70 dy of Engl
archers ; and along with them came Harvey of Mount-arrive
morris, attended by a fmall train. The Englifti imme-in Ireiand*
diately intrenched themfelves, and erefted a temporary
fort for themfelves : which proved a very neceffary pre¬
caution ; for the natives, juftly attributing this new
debarkation to the pra&ices of Derniod, inftantly
formed a tumultuous army, and marched to expel the
invaders. The Engliftr prepared to meet them ; but
when they perceived the great fuperiority of the ene¬
my, they thought proper to retire to their fort. Here,
however, they muft have been totally cut off, had they
not luckily collefted a numerous herd of cattle from
the neighbouring country for their fubfiftence. Thefe Tlie.-riue-
they drove with fury among the Irifti, who were thuscefs and
put into the utmoft confufion. The invaders feized cruelti,*
the favourable moment; ahd, falling upon their dif-
ordered enemies, put them to flight, and drove great
numbers of them into the fea, where they periftied.
Seventy prifoners were taken, all of them principal ci¬
tizens of Waterford ; who, though they offered large
fums for their ranfom, and even that the city Ihould be
delivered up to the Englifti, were all barbaroully put
to death. This fuecefs and cruelty fo intimidated the
Irifh, that they fuffered thefe mercilefs invaders to
maintain their ftation unmolefted, and wait for the ar¬
rival of their affociates.
Richard in the mean time having affembled his vaf-
fals, led them through Wales, where he was joined by
great numbers of other adventurers ; but, when juft
on the point of embarking, was furprifed by a pofitive
command from the king, to defift from his intended
enterprife, on pain of forfeiture of his lands and ho¬
nours. He was now, however, too much interefted
in his fcheme to retrafl ; and therefore pretended to J(.
dilhelieve the authenticity of the royal mandate. On Earl Rich-
the eve of the feaft of St Bartholomew', he landed atard arrive*
Waterford with 200 knights and 1200 infantry, allWith a
chofen and well appointed foldiers. They were iro-].
mediately joined by Raymond and his troop ; and thement.
very next day it was refolved to make an attempt upon
Waterford. The city was taken by ftorm, and a
dreadful maffacre enfued ; to which the cruel Dermod
had the merit of putting an end. The marriage of
Richard with Eva, the daughter of Dermod, was fo-
lemnized without delay, and a feene of joy and feftivi-
ty fucceeded the calamities of w’ar.
A new expedition was now undertaken againft;
Dublin ; the inhabitants of which had either manifeft-
ed fome recent difaffeclion to Dermod, or had never
been thoroughly forgiven for their old defeftion. Ro¬
deric advanced againft the allied army with a formi¬
dable body, confifting, as is faid, of 30,000 men j
but, fearing to come to a general engagement, he
contented himfelf with fome flight flcirmilhes; after
which, great part of his vaffals forced him to difmifs
them, and Dublin was left to its fate. The inhabitants
were treated very feverely ; however, a confiderable
body of them, with Hefculph their governor, had the
good fortune to gain fome vtffels lying in the har¬
bour, and made their efcape to the northern iflands.
Earl Richard was now invefted with the lordfliip of
Dublin
I R E
r 327 ]
I R E
Ireland. Dublin ; and appointed Milo de Cogan, a brave Eng-
lidi knight, his governor j while he himfelf, in con-
junflion with the forces of Dermod, overran the coun¬
try of Meath, committing everywhere the motl horrid
cruelties. Roderic, in the mean time, unable to op-
pofe them in the field, fent deputies to Dermod, com¬
manding him to retire, and putting him in mind that
his fon was in his hands, and mult anfwer with his life
for the breach of thofe treaties which his father made
fo little fcruple to violate. Natural affection, however,
had very little place in the breaft of Dermod. He ex-
preffed the utmoft indifference about his fon j and, with
the greateft arrogance, claimed the fovereignty of all
Ireland ; Roderic, provoked at this anfwer, cut off the
young prince’s head.
This piece of impotent cruelty ferved only to make
the king odious to his own fubjefts, while Dermod and
his Englilh allies committed everywhere the greateft
devaftations, and threatened to fubdue the whole ifland.
This indeed they would probably have accompli died,
had not the extraordinary fuccefs of Strongbow alarm¬
ed King Henry 5 who, fearing that he might render
himfelf totally independent on the crown of Britain,
iffued his royal edict, ffridtly forbidding any Englilh
1(S veffel from palling into Ireland with men, arms, or
All the ad-pr°vifions 5 and commanding all his fubjedis at that
venturers time refident in Ireland, of whatever rank or degree,
recalled by j-0 retUrn to their country before the enfuing feaft of
king- Darter, on pain of forfeiting their lands, and being de¬
clared traitors.
Our adventurers were plunged into the greateft di-
ftrefsv by this peremptory edidt. They now found
themfelves cut off from all fupplies in the midft of
their enraged enemies, and in danger of being forfaken
by thofe who had attached themfelvos to them during
their fuccefs. Raymond was difpatched with a moft
fubmiffive meffage to the offended monarch *, but be¬
fore he received any favourable anfwer, every thing
*See£«§-- w'as thrown into confufion by the death of Becket *, fo
land, N° that the king had neither leifure nor inclination to at¬
tend to the affairs of Ireland. About the fame time
the death of Dermod their great ally feemed almoft to
Diftreis of give a finilhing ftroke to the Englilh affairs. An uni-
tne jingtifti. yerfaj defedlion took place among their affociates ; and
before they had time to concert any proper meafures,
Hefeulph, who had formerly efcaped from Dublin,
appeared before that city with a formidable body of
troops armed after the Danifh manner. A furious at¬
tack enfued •, which at laft ended in the defeat and
captivity of Hefeulph, who was immediately put to
death. This danger, however, was foon followed by
y one ftill greater. Roderie had formed a powerful
confederacy with many of the Itilh chieftains, and the
kings of the northern iftes, in order to extirpate the
Englifh totally from the ifland. The harbour of
Dublin wa-; block*'! up by a fleet of 30 (hips from the
northern ifles ; while the confederated Inlh took their
ftations in fuch a manner as to furround the city, and
totally cut off all fupplies of provifions. In two
months time the Englifh were reduced to great rtraits*
On the fi’ ft alarm, Richard had fent for alfiftance to
Eitz-Stephe.n ; who having weakened his own force, in
order to ferve the earl, the people of Wexford had
rifen and befieged Fitz-Stephen in his fort called Car-
rigj near that city. A mefienger now arrived, informing
Ireland
115, 12c.
i?
18
Strongbow that his friend was in the utmoft danger,
and muft fall into the hands of his enemies if not affift- '
ed within three days ; upon which a council of war was
called, in order to deliberate on the meafures neceffary
to be purfued in this defperate emergency. It was foon
relblved to enter into a treaty with Roderic-upon any
terms that were not totally lervile or oppreffive. Lau¬
rence prelate of Dublin was appointed to carry the
terms which were, that Richard propofed to acknow¬
ledge Roderic as his fovereign, and to hold the pro¬
vince of Leinfter as his vaffal, provided .ic w'ould raife
the liege. Laurence foon returned with an anfwer, pro¬
bably of 1 is own framing ; namely, thatDublin, Water¬
ford, Wexford, and all the forts poffeffed by the Britifh,
fhould be immediately given up •, and that the earl and
his affociates ftiould depart with all their forces by a cer¬
tain day, leaving every part of the ifland free from their
ufurpations, and abfolutely renouncing all their pretend¬
ed claims. On thefe conditions they w ere to be fpared
but the leaft relufiance or delay would determine the
befiegers to ftorm the city.
Thefe terms, though they contained nothing info-
lent or unreafonable, confidering the prefent fituation
of the Englilh, were yet intolerable to our indigent
adventurers. After fome time fpent in filence, Milcr
de Cogan, fuddenly ftarting up, declared his refolu-
tion to die bravely rather than fubmit to the mercy of
barbarians. The fpirit of defperate valour was in»
ftantly caught by the whole aflembly ; and it was re-
folved to rilk their whole fortune on one defperate ef¬
fort, by fallying out againft the enemy, and to make
their attack upon that quarter where Roderic himfelf
commanded. Accordingly, having perfuaded a body They totali
of the townfmen to take part in this defperate enter-ly defeat
prife, they marched out againft their enemies, who1-11.6^ene'
exported nothing lefs than fuch a ludden attack. heull£S‘
befiegers were fecure and cardefi, without difeijrtine
or order j in confequence of which, they were unable
to fuftain the furious affault of the Englifti. A terrible
{laughter enfuedj and the Irilli inftantly fled in the
greateft confufion *, their monarch himfelf elcaping on¬
ly by mixing half naked with the crowd; The other
chieftains who were not attacked caught the panic, and
broke up their camps with precipitation ; while the vic¬
tors returned from the purfuit to plunder, and among
other advantages, gained as much provifion as was fuf-
ficient to fupport them for a whole year.
Strongbow being thus relieved from his diftrefs,
committed the government of Dublin to Milo de Co¬
gan, while he proceeded immediately to Wexford, in
order to relieve Fitz-Stephen j but in this he was dif-
appointed j for that brave officer, having often repulfed
his enemies, was at laft treacheroufly deceived into fub-
miffion and laid in irons. Strongbow, however, conti¬
nued to advance •, and w'as again attacked by the Iriffi,
whom he once more defeated. On his arrival at Wex¬
ford, he found it burnt to the ground j the enemy having
retired with Fitz-Stephen and the reft of the prifoners.
to Holy Ifland, a ftnall ifland in the middle of the har¬
bour, from tvhence the.y fent a deputation, threatening
to put all the prifoners to-death if the leaft attempt was
made to moletf them in their prefent fituation. The
earl then proceeded to Waterford, and from thence to
Ferns •, where he for fome time exercifed a regal autho¬
rity, rewarding his friends and punilhing his enemiego
4-c
I R E
Ireland.
19
Earl Rich¬
ard fum-
moned to
England.
20
Xing Hen¬
ry lands in
Ireland.
A more important objeft, however, foon engaged his
attention. The king of England, having fettled his
affairs as well as he could, now determined to conquer
Ireland for himfelf. A fummons was inftantly dif-
patched to Earl Richard, exprefling the greateft refent-
ment at his prefumption and difobedience, and requir¬
ing his immediate prefence in England. The earl
found himfelf under the neceflity of obeying; and hav¬
ing made the beft difpofitions the time would permit
for the fecurity of his Irifh pofTeflions, embarked for
England, and met the king at Nevvnham, near Glou-
cefter. Henry at firft affe&ed great difpleafure, but
foon allowed himfelf to be pacified by a furrender of
the city of Dublin, and a large territory adjacent, to¬
gether with all the maritime towns and forts acquired
by Strongbow: while on his part he confented that the
earl fhould have all his other poffeflions granted in per¬
petuity, to be held of the king and his heirs. The
other adventurers made their peace in a fimilar man¬
ner ; while the Irifh chieftains, inflead of uniting in
the defence of their country, only thought how to
make the mofl: of the approaching invafion, or at lead
how to avert the threatened evils from their own par¬
ticular diftrifts. I hey faw the power of their own
fovereign on the point of total diffolution ; and they
faw it with indifference, if not with an envious and
malignant fatisfadlion. Some were even ready to pre¬
vent their invader, and to fubmit before he appeared
on the eoaft. The men of Wexford, who had poffef-
fed themfelves of Eitz-Stephen, refolved to avert the
confequences of their late perfidy and cruelty, by the
forwardness of their zeal for the fervice of the king of
England, and the readinefs of their fubmiflions. Their
deputies call themfelves at Henry’s feet; and, with
the mod paflionate expreflions of obedience, humbly
untreated that he would accept them as his faithful vaf-
fals, ready to refign themfelves, their lands, and pof-
lefiions, to his abiolute difpofal. “ They had already
(they laid) endeavoured to approve their zeal by feizing
Rooert Fitz-Stephen, a traitor to his fovereign, who
had lately entered their territory by force of arms,
without any due warrant or fair pretence, had flaugh-
tered their people, feized their lands, and attempted
to edablifh himfelf independent of his liege lord. 
They kept him in chains, and were ready to deliver
him to the difpofal of Ids fovereign.”—The king re¬
ceived them with expreflions of the utmoft grace and
favour; commended their zeal in reprefling the unwar¬
rantable attempts of Fitz-Stephen ; declared that he
Ihould foon inquire into his crimes, and the wrongs
they had fuflamed, and intiift condign puniihment for
every offence committed by his undutiful fubjeas.—
Thu^ were the Irilhmen difmiffed in the utmort joy and
exultation; and the artifice of Henry, while it infpired
thefe men with difpofitions favourable to his interefts,
proved alfo the moft effeaual means of faving Fitz-
Stephen from their cruelty.
Henry, having completed the preparations neceffary
for his expedition, embarked at Milford with feveral
of his barons, 400 knights, and about 4000 foldiers,
on board a fleet of 240 fail. He landed at Water¬
ford on the feaft of St Luke in 0£lober 1172, with a
profeffed defign not to conquer, but to take poffeflion
of a kingdom already his own, as being granted him
by the pope. Moft of the Irifli indeed feemed to be
[ 328 ]
IRE
of the fame opinion, and therefore fubmitted without Ireland,
the leaft refiftance. Strongbow fet them an example,
by making a formal furrender of Waterford, and do¬
ing homage to the king for the territory of Leinfter.
Fitz-Stephen was delivered up, with many accufations
of tyranny and injuftice. He was at firft fent to pri-
fon ; but foon purchafed his liberty, by furrendering
Wexford, and doing homage for the reft of his poffef- 2t
fions to the king. The prince of Defmond was the Many Irr^
firft Irifli chieftain who fubmitted. On the very day chieftains
after the king’s arrival, he attended his court, religned fubmit t(*
the city of Corke, did him homage, and ftipulated tohira‘
pay a tribute for the reft of his territory. An Eng-
lifli governor and garrifon were immediately appointed
to take poffeflion of his capital; and the king dilplayed
his power and magnificence by marching to Lifmore,
where he chofe a lituation and gave the neceffary or¬
ders for building a fort. The prince of Thomond
next fubmitted and did homage. He w as followed by
the princes of Offory, Decies, and all the inferior chiefs
of Munfter.
The king, after having provided for the fecurity of
all his newly acquired territories, and put garrilons in
the cities of Limerick, Corke, Waterford, and Wex¬
ford, proceeded to take poffeflion of Dublin, which
had been furrendered by Strongbow. The neighbour¬
ing lords took the opportunity of fubmitting as he ad¬
vanced. O’Carrol of Argial, a chieftain of great con-
fequence, repaired to his camp, and engaged to be¬
come his tributary; and even O’Ruarc, w hom Roderic
had made lord of a confiderable part of Meath, volun¬
tarily fubmitted to the new fovereign.
Roderic, though furprifed at the defection of foR04earic
many of his allies, ftill determined to maintain his ownftill holds
dignity, and at leaft preferve his province of Con-out.
naught, feeing he could no longer call himfelf monarch
of the w'hole ifland. With this defign he entrenched
himfelf on the banks of the Shannon ; and now, w'hen
difencumbered from a crowd of faithlefs and difcon-
tented followers, he appears to have afted with a fpi-
rit and dignity becoming his ftation. Hugh de Lacey
and William Fitz-Andelm w^ere commiffioned by the
king to reduce him : but Roderic was too ftrong to
be attacked with any probability of fuccefs by a de¬
tachment from the Englifh army; and he at leaft af-
fefted to believe, that his fituation was not yet fo to¬
tally defperate as to reduce him to the neceflity of re-
figning his dignity and authority, while his own terri¬
tory remained inviolate, and the brave and powerful
chiefs of Ulfter ftill kept retired in their own diftrifts
without any thoughts of fubmifiion. Henry in the
mean time attempted to attach the Irifti lords to his in-
tereft by elegant and magnificent entertainments, fuch
as to them appeared quite aftonilhing. Some hiftorians
pretend that he eftabliflied the Englifh laws in all thofe
parts which had fubmitted to his jutifdiftion ; but this
muft appear extremely improbable, when we confider
how tenacious a rude and barbarous people are of their
ancient laws and cuftoms. The Iriih lords had been
accuftomed to do homage to a fuperior; and they had
made no fubmiflion to Henry which they had not for¬
merly done to Roderic, and probably thought their
fubmiflion to the king of England more honourable
than that to their Irifh monarchs ; and it cannot be
fuppofed, that a wife and politic monarch, fuch as
Henry
Ireland.
^3
Henry ob-
liged to
Jeave Iic-
iand.
IRE [ 3
Henry undoubtedly was, fliould form at once fuch an
*" extravagant fcheme as altering the laws of a great num¬
ber of communities, none of which he had fubdued by
force of arms. By his tranfa&ions both with the na¬
tives and adventurers, however, Henry had attained
the abiblute dominion of feveral maritime cities and
their dependencies ; fo that he had both a confiderable
number of real fubje&s, and a large extent of territo¬
ry, in the ifland. To thefe fubjefts indeed Henry
granted the Englifh laws j and gave the city of Dublin
by charter to the inhabitants of Briftol, to be held of
him and his heirs, with the fame liberties and free cuf-
toms. which they enjoyed at Britlol, and throughout
all his land. And, by another charter, executed foon
after, he confirmed to his burgeffes of Dublin all man¬
ner of rights and immunities throughout his whole
land of England, Normandy, Wales, and Ireland,
wherever they and their effefts fhall be, to be fully and
■honourably enjoyed by them as his free and faithful
fubjects. And as it was not eafy to induce his Eng-
lifli fubje&s immediately to fettle in thefe maritime
towns, he permitted the Oilmen to take pofieffion of
Waterford ; and to them he granted a particular right
of denization, whereby they were inverted with the
rights and privileges of free fubje&s, and for the fu¬
ture to be governed by the laws of his realm. For the
better execution of thefe new laws, the king alfo made
a divifion of the.diftridls now fubjebl to him into Ihires
or counties 5 which was afterwards improved and en¬
larged, as the extenfion of the Englilh fettlements and
the circumftances of the country required. Sheriffs
were appointed both for the counties and cities, with
itinerant judges, and other minifters of juftice, and
officers of ftate, and every appendage of Engliffi go¬
vernment and law. To complete the whole iyftem, a
chief governor, or reprefentative of the king, was ap¬
pointed. His bufinefs was to exercife the royal au¬
thority, or fuch parts of it as might be committed to
him in the king’s abfence 5 and, as the prefent ftate
of Ireland, and the apprehenfions of war or infurrec-
tions, made it neceffary to guard againft fudden
accidents, it was provided. That in cafe of the death
of any chief governor, the chancellor, treafurer, chief-
juftice, and chief Baron, keeper of the rolls, and
king’s ferjeant at law, rtiould be empowered, with
confent oi the nobles of the land, to elect a fucceffor,
who was to exercife the full power and authority of
this office, until the royal pleafure Ihould be further
known.
But while Henry was thus regulating the govern¬
ment of his new dominions, he received the unwel¬
come news, that two cardinals, Albert and Theodine,
delegated by the pope, had arrived in Normandy the
year before, to make inquifition into the death of Bec-
ket ; that having waited the king’s arrival until-their
patience was exhaufted, they now fummoned him to
appear without delay, as he would avert the dreadful
lenience of excommunication, and preferve his domi¬
nions from a general interdidl. Such denunciations
were of too great confequence to admit of his longer
ftay in Ireland 5 he therefore ordered his forces and
the officers of his houfehold to embark without delay,
referving three fhips for the conveyance of himfelf and
his immediate attendants. Having therefore but a
/hort time to fecure his Irilh interefts, he addrelfed
Vol. XI. Part I.
Ireland..
29 ] IRE
himfelf to the original Englifh adventurers, and by
grants and promifes laboured to detach them from
Strongbow, and to bind them firmly to himfelf. To
make_amends for what he had taken from Fitz-Stephen,
he granted him a confiderable diftrhft in the neigh¬
bourhood of Dublin, to be held by knight’s fervice j
at the fame time entrufting the maritime towns to his
own immediate dependants. Waterford was commit¬
ted to Humphrey de Bohun, Robert Fitz-Bernard,
and Hugh de Gundville, with a train of 20 knights.
In Wexford were ftationed William Fitz-Andelm,
Philip of Haftings, and Philip de Braofa, with a like
number of attendants. Hugh de Lacey had a grant
of all the territory of Meath, where'there was no
fortified place, and where of confequence no parti¬
cular refervation was neceffary, to be held of the king
and his heirs, by the fervice of 50 knights, in as full
a manner as it had been enjoyed by any of the Irifli
princes. He alfo conftituted him lord governor of
Dublin, with a guard of 20 knights. Robert Fitz-
Stephen and Maurice Fitz-Gerald were appointed his
coadjutors, with an equal train j and thefe, with others
of the firft adventurers, Avere thus obliged, under the
pretence of an honourable employment, to refide at
Dublin, fubjeft to the immediate infpe&ion of De
Lacey, in whom Henry feems to have placed his chief
confidence. Lands were affigned in the neighbour¬
hood of each city for the maintenance of the knights
and foldiers. Orders were given to build a caftle in
Dublin, and fortreffes in other convenient places; and
to John de Courcey, a baron diftinguithed by his en-
terprifing genius and abilities for war, was grs#rted the
whole province of Ulfter, provided he could reduce it
by force of arms.
Henry was no fooner gone, than his barons began Disorders
to contrive how they might belt {Lengthen their own enllle on,
interefts, and the Irifti how they might beft (hake off jhek'nji S
the yoke to which they had fo readily fubmitted. De ei)aitum
Lacey parcelled out the lands of Meath to his friends
and^ adherents, and began to. ereft forts to keep the
old inhabitants in awe. This gave offence to O’Ruare,
who ftill enjoyed the eaftern part of this territory as a
tributary prince. He repaired to Dublin, in order to
obtain redrefs from Lacey for fome injuries real or pre¬
tended $ but, as the parties could not come to an agree¬
ment, another conference was appointed on a hill call¬
ed Taragh. Both parties came Avith a confiderable
train of armed followers $ and the event was a fcuffle,
in which O’Ruarc and feveral of his followers were kill¬
ed, and which ferved to render the Englifli not a little
odious to the natives.
The fpirit of difaffe£lion had foon after an oppor¬
tunity of fliowing itfelf on the rebellion of King
Henry’s fons, of which an account is given under the
article England, N° 121, et feq. The king had been
obliged to weaken his forces in Ireland, by AvithdraAV-
ing feveral of his garrifons. The foldiers Avho re¬
mained were alfo difcontented Avith their general Her-
vey of Mountmorris, on account of his feverity in dif-
cipline, and rellraining them from plunder, to which
they imagined themfelves entitled on account of the
deficiencies of their pay. Raymond le Gros, the fe-
cond in command, was much more beloved by the
foldiery j and to fuch a height had the jealoufies be¬
tween the commanders arifen, that all effectual op-
T t pofitiosr
IRE [ 33° .3
Ireland, pofition to the Irifli chieftains was prevented; and arrival,
the event might have been fatal to the Engliih inte-
reft, had not Henry found out a remedy. He fum-
. moned Earl Richard to attend him at Rouen in Nor¬
mandy, and communicated his intentions of commit¬
ting the affairs of Ireland to his foie direction. The
earl expreffed the utmoff readinefs to ferve his matter ;
butobferved, that he had already experienced the envy
and malignity of his fecret enemies •, that if he Ihould
appear in fuch a diftinguilhed character as that of the
king’s deputy in Ireland, their infidious pradtices
would be renewed, and his conduct mifreprefented.—
He therefore requefted that a colleague might be ap¬
pointed in the commiffion; and recommended Ray¬
mond as a perfon of approved loyalty and abilities, as
well as highly acceptable to the foldiery. The king
replied, with an affedted air of regard and confidence,
that, he had his free confent to employ Raymond in
any fervice he ftiould deem neceilary, not as a col¬
league, but as an affiftant; but that he relied entirely
on the earl himfelf, and implicitly trufted every thing
to his direction. To reward his fervices, he granted
him the town of Wexford, together with a fort ere died
at Wicklow ; and then difmifled him with the molt
gracious expreffions of favour.
The earl landed at Dublin, where he was received
with all the refpedt due to the royal commiffion. He
iignified the king’s pleafure, that Robert Fitz-Bernard,
with the garrifon of Waterford, fliould inffantly em¬
bark and repair to Normandy ; that Robert Fitz-Ste-
phen and Maurice Pendergaft fhould attend the fervice
of their fovereign in England *, and, agreeably to the
king’s inftrudfions, took on him the cuftody of the ci¬
ties ot Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Hugh de
JLacey and Milo de Cogan were, with the other lords,
commanded to repair to England for the fervice of the
king •, by which the earl’s forces were confiderajffy
weakened, and he foon found himfelf under the necef-
fity of appointing Raymond to the chief command.
The new general proved fuccefsful in fome enterprifes
againll the rebellious Irifhj but having prefumed upon
his merits to demand in marriage Bafilia the earl’s
filler, Richard refufed his confent, and Raymond retired
into Wales.
Rhus the fupretne command again devolved upon
Herv v of Mountmorris j who, being fenfible that his
character had fuffered much from a comparifon with
that of Raymond, determined to emulate his fuccefles
by fome bold attempt againft the rebels. A detach¬
ment of 40o of his men, however, had the misfortune
to be furprifed and cut off by the enemy ; and this
fuccefs ferved as a fignal for a general revolt. Several
of the Leinffer chieftains, who had lately made their
fubmiffions, and bound themfelves to the fervice of
King Henry, now openly difelaimed all engagements.
Even Donald Kevanagh, fon to the late king Dermod,
who had hitherto adhered to the Engliffi in their
greateft difficulties, now declared againft them, and
claimed a right to the kingdom of Leinffer ; while
Roderic, on his part, was aftive in uniting the princes
of U1 fter, the native lords ©f Meath, and other chiefs,
againft. their common enemy. This produced the
immediate.recal of Raymond 3 and Richard no longer
refufed his conffint to the marriage with his fifter,
which was folemnized immediately on Raymond’s
16
A general
) evoit of
the Irilh.
I R E
The very next morning, the bridegroom was Ireland,
obliged to take the field againft Roderic, who had '■’"“V-
committed great devaftations in Meath. By the vi¬
gorous conduit of the Englith commander, however,
he was not only prevented from doing farther mifehief,
but at. laft convinced of the folly of refiftance 3 and Roderic
therefore determined to make a final fubmiffion. Yet,fubmits
confcious of his dignity, he difdained to fubmit to a10^111?
fubject 3 and therefore, inftead of treating with EarlIIem'‘
Richard, he fent deputies direftly to the king. The
deputies were, Catholicus archbithop of Tuam, the
abbot of St Brandan, and Mq/ler Lawrence as he is
ftyled, chancellor to the king of Connaught. ^
The terms of this fubmiffion, by which Henry be-0f
came foie monarch of Ireland, were as follow: Ro- his fubmif-
deric confented to do homage and pay tribute, asfion.
liegeman to the. king of England 3 on which condi¬
tion he was allowed to hold the kingdom of Con¬
naught, as well as his other lands and fovereignties, in
as ample a manner as he had enjoyed them before the
arrival of Henry in Ireland. His vaflals were to hold
under him in peace, as long as they paid their tribute
and continued faithful to the king of England 3 in
which Roderic was to enforce their due obedience,
and for this purpofe to call to his affiftance the Eng-
lifh government, if neceffary. The annual tribute to
be paid was everjr tenth merchantable hide, as well
from Connaught as from the reft of the ifland 3 ex¬
cepting thole parts under the immediate dominion of
the king of England and his barons, viz. Dublin and
Meath with their appurtenances, Wexford and all
Leinfter, and Waterford with its lands as far as Dun-
garvan inclusive 3 in all w hich diftricls Roderic was not
to interfere, nor claim any power or authority.-—
The Irifli who had fled from thefe d iff riels were to re¬
turn, and either pay their tribute, or perform the fer¬
vices required by their tenures, at the option of their
immediate lords 3 and, if refra£tory, Roderic, at the
requisition of their lords, was to compel them to re¬
turn. He w'as to take hoftages from his vafials, fuch
as he and his liege-lord fliould think proper 3 and on
his part to deliver either thefe or others to the king,
according to the royal pleafure. His vaflals were to.
furniih hawks and hounds annually to the English mo¬
narch 3 and were not to detain any tenant of his im- '
mediate demefnes in Ireland, contrary to his royal
pleafure and command. This treaty was Solemnly ra¬
tified in a grand council of prelates and temporal
barons, among whom we find the archbifhop of Dub¬
lin one of the fubferibing witnefles. As metropolitan
of Leinfter, he was now become an Englifti Subjecf,
and was probably fummoned on this oecalion as one
obliged to attend, and who had a right to aftift in
the king’s great council. It is alfo obfervable, that
Henry now treated with Roderic not merely as a pro¬
vincial prince, but as monarch of Ireland. This is*
evidently implied and fuppofed in the articles 3 al¬
though his monarchical powers and privileges were
little more than nominal, frequently difregarded and
oppofed by the Irifti toparchs. Even by their Sub-
miffions to Henry, many of them in cifeft difavowed
and renounced the fovereignty of Roderic 3 but now
his fupremacy feems to be induftrinufty acknowledged,
that the preS’ent fubmiffion might appear virtually the
fubmiffion of all the fubordinate princes, and thus the
1.* i -n rr >
Ireland.
iang
‘ R E [5
of England be invefted with the Sovereignty of
29
Caufes of
the fubfe-
quent dif-
trefles of
Ireland.
the whole iiland. The marks of l"o\rereignty, however,
were no more than homage and tribute ; in every other
particular the regal rights of Roderic were left invio¬
late. The Englifh laws were only to be enforced in
the Englifn pale : and, even there, the Iriih tenant
might live in peace, as the fobjeft of the Iriih mo¬
narch ; bound only to pay his quota of tribute, and not
to take arms againft the king of England.
But though the whole iiland of Ireland thus be¬
came fobjeft to the king of England, it was far from
being fettled in tranquillity, or indeed from having
the lituation of its inhabitants mended almoft in any
degree. One great occahon of difturbance was, that
the Englifh laws were confined only to thofe parts
which had been fobdued by force of arms: while the
chieftains that had only fobmitted to pay tribute, were
allowed to retain the ancient Iriih laws within the
limits of their own jurifdi&ions. By thefe old Iriih
law's, many crimes accounted capital -with us, foch as
robbery, murder, &c. might be compenfated by a fum
of money. Hence it happened, that very unequal
punhhments wrere infHdled for the fame offence. If
one Englifhman killed another, he was punilhed with
death ; but if he killed an Irilhman, he was punilhed
only by a fine. If an Irifhman, on the other hand,
killed an Engliihman, he was certainly punilhed with
death : and as in times of violence and outrage, the
crime of murder was very frequent, the circumftance
juft mentioned tended to produce an implacable hatred
between the original inhabitants and the Englilh. As
the Irifti laws were thus more favourable to the bar¬
barity natural to the tempers of fome individuals, many
of the Englifh were alfo tempted to lay afide the man¬
ners and cuftoms of their countrymen altogether, and
to affociate themfelves with the Irifti, that, by becoming
fubjedft to their laws, they might thus have an oppor¬
tunity of gratifying their brutal inclinations with lefs
controul than formerly ; and in prccefs of time, thefe
degenerate Englifh, as they were called, proved more
bitter enemies to their countrymen than even the Irifh
themfelves.
Another caufe of the diftreffes of Ireland was, the
great power, of the Englifh barons, among whom
Henry had divided the greateft part of his Irifh domi¬
nions. The extent of their authority only inflamed
them with a defire for more-, and, inftead of contri¬
buting their endeavours to increafe the power of their
fovereign, or to civilize the barbarous people over
whom they were placed, they did every thing in their
power to counteract: and deftroy each other. Henry
himfelf, indeed, feems to have been infected with a
very fatal jealoufy in this refpect -, for, though the
abilities and fidelity of Raymond had abundantly ma-
nifefted themfelves, the king never could allow himfelf
to continue him in the government of the itland : and
the confequence of degrading him never failed to be a
fcene of uproar and confufion. To thefe two reafons
we muft likewife add another : namely, that in thofe
parts of the kingdom where the Irifh chieftains en¬
joyed the fovereignty, they were at full liberty to
make war upon each other as formerly, without the
leaft reftrafot. This likewife induced many of the
Englifh to degenerate, that they might have an op¬
portunity of (haring the plunder got by thefe petty
31 ] IRE
wars; fo.that, on the whole, the if!and was a perpetual Ire’and.
fcene of horror, almoft unequalled in the hiftory of any -"“'"v *
country. 3Q
After the death of Earl Richard, Raymond was im-Fitz-An-
mediately elefted to focceed him ; but was fuperfededdelm’s bad
by the king, who appointed William Fitz-Andelm, a£overn*
nobleman allied to Raymond, to focceed in his place.Iae‘jt’
The new governor had neither inclination nor abilities
to perform the talk afligned to him. He was of a
rapacious temper, fenfoal and corrupt in his manners 5
and therefore only ftudied to enrich himfelf. The
native Irifti, provoked by fome depredations of the
Engllfti, commenced hoftilities : but Fitz-Andelm, in¬
ftead of reprefling thefe with vigour in the beginning,
treated the chieftains with affedled courtefy and flat¬
tery. This they had fofficient difeernment to fee, and
to defpife 5 while the original adventurers had the bur¬
den of the whole defence of the Englijh pale, as the
Englifh territories were called, thrown upon the;n, at
the fame time that the bad conduct: of the governor was
the caufe of perpetual diforders. The confequence of
this vas, that the lords avowed their hatred of Fitz-
Andelm : the foldiers were mutinous, ill-appointed, and
unpaid : and the Irifti came in crowds to the governor
with perpetual complaints againft the old adventurers,
which were always decided againft the latter ; and this
decifion increafed their confidence, without leffening
their difaffeflion.
In this unfavourable ftate of affairs, John de Cour-
cey, a bold adventurer, who had as yet reaped none
of the benefits he expefted, refolved to undertake an
expedition againft the natives, in order to enrich him¬
felf with their fpoils. The Irifh at that time were gi¬
ving no offence j and therefore pleaded the treaty
lately concluded with King Henry : but treaties were
of little avail, when put in compofition with the necef-
fities of an indigent and rapacious adventurer. The
confequence was, that the flame of war was kindled
through the whole ifland. The chieftains took advan¬
tage of the war with the Englilh, to commence hoflili-
ties againft each other. Defmond and Thomond, in
the fouthern province, were diftradted by the jealoufies
of contending chiefs, and the whole land was wafted
by unnatural and bloody quarrels. Treachery and
murder were revenged by practices of the fame kind,
in fuch a manner as to perpetuate a focceffion of out¬
rages the moft horrid and the moft difgracefo] to hu¬
manity. The northern province was a fuene of the like
enormities; though the new Englifti fettlers, who were
confidered as a common enemy, ought, to have united
the natives among themfelves. All were equally ftran-
gers to the virtues of humanity ; nor was religion,'in
the form it then affumed, capable of reftraining thefe
violences in the leaft. -r
Ireland was thus in a (hort time reduced to fuch aHe isluper-
ftate, that Henry perceived the neceffity of recalling ie(*ec* ^
Fitz-Andelm, and appointing another governor. He j<ic
was recalled accordingly; and Hugh de Lacey ap- ”*
pointed to focceed him. He left his government with¬
out being regretted, and is faid by the hiftorians of
thofe times to have done only one good aftion during
the whole courfe of his adminiftration. This action
was nothing more important, than the removing of a
relick, called the ftaff of Jefus, from the cathedral of
Armagh to that of Dublin ; probably that it might
T t z be
of Ireland.
IRE . [ ,332
Ireland, be in greater fafety, as the war raged violently in
v Ulfter. De Laeey, however, was a man of a quite
„2 different difpofition, and every way qualified for the
Frince John difficult government with which he was inverted : but
made lord at the fame time, the king, by inverting his fon John
with the lordrtiip of Ireland, gave occalion to greater
difturbances than even thofe which had already hap¬
pened. The nature of this lordffiip hath been much
difputed ; but the moft probable opinion is, that the
king’s fon was now to be inverted with all the rights
and powers which had formerly belonged to Roderic,
who was allowed the title of king of Ireland. It doth
not appear, indeed, that Henry had any right to de¬
prive Roderic of thefe powers, and ftill lefs had he to
difpofe of any of the territories of thofe chieftains who
had agreed to become his tributaries 5 which neverthe-
lefs he certainly did, and which failed not to be pro¬
ductive of an immediate war with thefe chiefs.
The new governor entered on his office with all that
Ipirit and vigour which was neceflary ; but being mif-
reprefented to the king by fome faftious barons, he
was in a ffiort time recalled, and two others, totally
unfit for the government, appointed in his room. This
error was foon correfted, and Lacey was replaced in
three months. The fame jealoufy which produced his
rtrft degradation, foon produced a fecond ; and Philip
de Braofa, or Philip of Worcefer as he is called, a
man of a moft avaricious difpofition, was appointed to
fucceed him. This governor behaved in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fuperftitious fubjefls expedted every mo¬
ment that the vengeance of heaven would fall upon
him, and deliver them from his tyranny. His power,
however, was of fhort duration j for now Prince John
prepared to exercife the authority with which his father
had inverted him in Ireland. He was attended by a
confiderable military force : his train was formed of a
company of gallant Normans in the pride of youth 5 but
luxurious, infolent, and followed by a number of En-
glifhmen, flrangers to the country they were to vifit,
defperate in their fortunes, aecuttomed to a life of pro-
ftigacy, and filled with great expedlations of advantage
from their prefent lervice. The whole affembly em¬
barked in a fleet of 60 (hips j and arrived at Water¬
ford after a profperous voyage, filling the whole coun¬
try with the greateft furprife and expeftation.
The young prince had not arrived at the years
of difcretion 5 nor indeed, from his fubfequent con-
duft, doth it appear that his difpofition was fuch as
qualified him in the leaft for the high dignity to which
he was raifed. The hardy Welfhmen who firft mi¬
grated into Ireland, immediately waited upon him to
do him homage } but they were difagreeable to the
gay courtiers, and to the prince himfelf, who minded
nothing but his pleafures. The Irifli lords were at
firft terrified by the magnificent r e prefent a tion of the
force of the Engliffi army ; and being reconciled to
fubmiffion by the dignity of the prince’s ftation, ha-
ftened in crowds to Waterford to do him homage.
1 hey exhibited a fpeftacle to the Norman courtiers,
which the latter did not fail to treat with contempt
and ridicule. The Irifh lords, with uncouth attire,
thick buftiy beards, and hair Handing on end, advan¬
ced with very little ceremony j and, according to their
own notions of refpeft, offered to kifs the young
prince. His attendants ftepped in, and prevented
I
33
His indif.
cretion.
] IRE
this horrid violation of decorum by thrufting away the
Iriffimen. 'Ihe whole affembly burft into peals of
laughter, pulled the beards, and committed feveral
other indignities on the perions of their guefts j which
were immediately and feverely refented. The chief¬
tains left the court, boiling with indignation ; and
Ireland.:-
34
meeting others of their countrymen haitening to do
homage to the prince, they informed them of the re¬
ception they themfelves had met with. A league was A genera?
inftantly formed to extirpate the Englifli, and the revolt,
whole nation flew to arms 5 while John and his cour¬
tiers, inftead of oppofing the enemy, employed them¬
felves in haraffing and opprefling thofe who were under
their immediate jurildidlion. The country was there¬
fore overrun by the barbarians, agriculture entirely
negledled, and a dreadful famine threatened to follow
the calamities of war.
This terrible devaftation had continued for eight
months before the king was fully acquainted with it.
He then determined to recal his fon 5 but was at a lofs
whom he ffiould name for his fucceflbr. Lacey had
been murdered by an Iriffr peafant, and the king was
at laft obliged to have recourfe to John de Courcey,
wdiofe boirterous valour feemed now to be abfolutely
neceflary to prevent the Engliffi from being totally ex¬
terminated. The new governor was obliged at firft to SupprdFecf
a£I on the defenfive j but as the enemies foon forgot by John ds
the league, and began their ufual hoftilities againrt Gourcey*
each other, he was at laft enabled to maintain the
authority of the Englifli government, and to fupport
their acquifitions in Ireland, though not to extend
them.
In this fituation were the affairs of Ireland when Miferable
Henry II. died, and was fucceeded by his fon Rich-ftate of He¬
ard I. The new king w'as determined on an expedi-lancl-untIer
tion to the holy land, which left him no leilure to at- R-icharcl **
tend to the affairs of Ireland. John, by virtue of the
powers granted him by his father, took upon him the
management of Iriffi affairs 5 and immediately degraded
De Courcey from his government, appointing in his
place Hugh de Lacey the younger. De Courcey,
provoked at this indignity, retired into Ulfter, where
he was immediately engaged in a furious war with the
natives, and at lart almoft entirely detached himfelf
from the Englifli government. The greateft confufion
enfued : Hugh de Lacey was recalled from his govern¬
ment, and William Petit earl marftial of England ap¬
pointed in his place. Petit’s adminiftration proved more
unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors. Con¬
federacies everywhere took place againft the Engliffi j
the latter were everywhere defeated, their towns taken \
and their power w'ould certainly have been annihilated,
had not the Irifti, as ufual, turned their arms againft;
each other.
In this defperate fituation matters continued during
the whole reign of King Richard, and part of the reign
of John, while the diftreffes of the country were in-
creafed by the diflenfions and difafte&ion of the Eng¬
liffi lords, wffio afpired at independency, and made war
upon each other like Iriffi chieftains. The prudent Somewhat
conduft of a governor named Meiler FilK-Henry^ how-better im-
ever, at laft put an end to thefe terrible commotions
and about the year 1208, the kingdom tvas more
quiet than it had been for a long time before. In
1210, John came over to Ireland in perfon with an
army.
I R E
f 333 1
I R E
E-el'and'. army, with a defign, as he faid, to reduce his refrac-
tory nobles to a fenfe of their duty. More than 20
Irifli chiefs waited upon him immediately to do him
homage ; while three of the Englilh barons Hugh and
Walter de Lacey and William de Braofa, fled to France.
The king, at the defire of his Irifli fubje£ts, granted
them, for their information, a regular code and char¬
ter of laws, to be depoiited in the exchequer of Dub¬
lin, under the king’s feal. For the regular and effec¬
tual execution of thefe laws, befides the eftablifliment
of the king’s courts of judicature in Dublin, there was
now made a new and more ample divifion of the king’s
lands of Ireland into counties, where Iheriffs, and
many other officers, were appointed. Thefe counties
were, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Argial, now called
Lowth, Katherlagh, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford,
Cork, Kerry, Limeric, Tipperary ; which marks the
extent of the Engliflr dominions at this time as confined
to a part of Leinffer and Munfter, and to thofe parts
of Meath and Argial which lie in the province of Ul-
fter as now defined. Before his departure, the king
gave liberty to John de Grey, bifliop of Norwich,,
whom he appointed governor, to coin money of the
fame weight with that of England j and which, by
royal proclamation, was made current in England as
well as Ireland.
This ecclefiaftical governor is faid to have managed
affairs fo happily, that during the violent contefts be¬
tween John and his barons, Ireland enjoyed an unufual
degree of tranquillity. We are not to imagine, however,
that this unhappy country was at this or indeed any
other period, till the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign,
perfeftly free from diforders, only they were confined
to thofe diftrifls moft remote from the Englilh govern¬
ment. In 1219, the commotions were renewed, through
into its for- the immeafurable ambition and contentions of the
mer ftate Englifli barons, who defpifed all controul, and op-
under Hen- —inhabitants in a terrible manner. The
Ireland*
38
Relapfes
ty III.
prefled
diforders in England during the reign of Henry III.
encouraged them to defpife the royal authority ; they
were ever the fecret enemies, and fometimes the avowed
adverfaries, of each other $ and in many places where
they had obtained fettlements, the natives were firff
driven into infurreclions by their cruelty, and then pu-
niflied with double cruelty for their refiffance. The
Engliffi laws, which tended to punifli the authors of
thele outrages, were fcorned by an imperious arifto-
eratic faftion, wffio, in the frenzy of rapine and
ambition, trampled on the moft falutary inftitutions.
In 1228, a remonftrance was prefented to the king
againft this dangerous negledl and fufpenlion of the
laws ; which he anfwered by a mandate to the chief
governor, diredling that the whole body of nobility,
knights, free tenants, and bailiffs of the feveral coun¬
ties, ffiould be convened j that the charter of Englifli
laws and cuftoms received from King John, and to
which they were bound by oath, fliould be read over
in their prefence $ that they fliould be directed for the
future ftriftly to obferve and adhere to thefe ; and that
proclamation fliould be made in every county of Ire¬
land, ftriftly enjoining obedience, on pain of forfeiture
of lands and tenements. How little effeft was produ¬
ced by this order, we may learn from another, dated in
12465 where the barons axe commanded, for the peace
and tranquillity of the land, to permit it to be governed
by the laws of England. v '
Nothing indeed can be conceived more terrible than £xce'(|ve
the ftate of Ireland during the reign of Henry III. depravation
People of all ranks appear to have been funk in the of manners,
loweft degree of depravity. The powerful Englifh
lords not only fubverted the peace and fecurity of the
people, by refufing to admit the falutary laws of their
own country, but behaved with the utmoft injuftice
and violence to the natives who did not enjoy the be¬
nefits of the Englifli conftitution. The clergy appear
to have been equally abandoned with the reft : nor in¬
deed could it be otherwife 5 for through the partiali¬
ties of Henry himfelf, the neglected, the worthlefs, and
the depreffed among the Englifli clergy, found refuge
in the church of Ireland. What wrere the manners of
thefe clergy, will appear from the following petition of
a widow to King Edward I.
“ Margaret le Blunde, of Cafliel, petitions our lord
the king’s grace, that flie may have her inheritance
which flie recovered at Clonmell before the king’s-
judges, Stc. againft David Macmackerwayt bifliop of
Cafliel.
“ Item, the faid Margaret petitions redrefs on ac¬
count that her father was killed by the faid biftiop.
“ Item, for the imprifonment of her grandfather
and mother, whom he fliut up and detained in pri-
fon until they periflied by famine, becaufe they at¬
tempted to feek redrefs for the death of their fon, fa¬
ther of your petitioner, who had been killed by the faid
biftiop.
“ Item, for the death of her fix brothers and fifters,
who were ftarved to death by the faid bifliop, becaufe
he had their inheritance in his hands at the time he
killed their father.
“ And it is to be noted, that the faid biihop had
built an abbey in the city of Caftiel, on the king’s
lands granted for this purpofe, which he hath filled
with robbers, who murder the Englifli, and depopu¬
late the country 5 and that when the council of our
lord the king attempts to take cognizance of the of¬
fence, he fulminates the fentence of excommunication
againft them.
“ It is to be noted alfo, that the faid Margaret has
five times crofled the Iriffi fea. Wherefore, (lie peti¬
tions for God’s fake, that the king’s grace will have
compaflion, and that ffie may be admitted to take pof-
feflion of her inheritance.
“ It is further to be noted, that the aforefaid biihop
hath been guilty of the death of many other Englifli-
men befides that of her father 5 and that the aforefaid
Margaret hath many times obtained writs of our lord
the king, but to no effeft, by reafon of the influence
and bribery of the faid bifliop.
“ She further petitions, for God’s fake, that flie may
have cofts and damages,” &e. 40
Matters continued in the fame deplorable ftate du-Little alte¬
ring the reign of Edward I. with this additional grie- ration uii-
vance, that the kingdom was infefted by invafions °f^rcj j"
the Scots. The Englilh monarch indeed poflefled all
that prudence and valour which were neceflary to have
reduced the ifland to a ftate of tranquillity j but his
project of conquering Scotland left him but little leifure
to attend to the diftrafled ftate of Ireland. Certain it
IRE [ 334 ] IRE
Trelml. JSj however, that the grievous diftrefs of that country
gave him great uneafinefs •, fo that he tranfmitted his
mandate'to the prelates of Ireland, requiring them to
interpofe their fpiritual authority for compofing the
public diforders. About the fame time, the Iriih who
lay contiguous to the Englilh, and who dwelt atqong
them, prefented a petition to the king, offering to
pay him 8000 merks, upon condition that they were
admitted to the privileges of Englifh fubjefts. To
this petition he returned a favourable anfvverj but his
good intentions were defeated by the licentious nobi¬
lity, who knew that thefe laws would have circum-
fcribed their rapacious views, and controuled their
violence and oppreffion. Petitions of the fame kind
were feveral times repeated during this reign, but as
often defeated j though fome means were ufed for
the peace of the kingdom, fuch as the frequent call¬
ing of parliaments, appointing fheriffs in fome new
counties, &c.
Thefe means were not altogether without effedf.
They ferved to give fome check to the diforders of
the realm, though by no means to terminate or fubdue
them. The incurfions of the natives were reprefled,
and the Englifh lords began to live on better terms
with each other j and, in 1311, under Edward II.
the mof! powerful of them were reconciled by the mar¬
riage of Maurice and Thomas Fitz-John, afterwards
the heads of the illuftrious houfes of Defmond and Kil¬
dare, to two daughters of the earl of Ulfter. But juft
at this happy period, when the nation feemed to
have fome pvofpeft of tranquillity, more dreadful ea-
41 lamities than any hitherto related were about to take
Invafion of place. The Scots had juft recovered their liberty un-
irTth COtS ^er -^ruce» and were now in no danger of being
reign of again enfiaved by a foreign power. Edward, the
Edward II. king’s brother, as a recompenfe for his fervices, de¬
manded a fhare of the royal authority. This was refu-
fed by Robert, and Edward was for the prefent fatisfied
by being declared heir apparent to the crown. But
the king, wifely conMering the neceffity of finding
out fome employment for a youth of fuch an afpiring
■and ambitious difpofition, pointed out to his brother
the iiland of Ireland, the conqueft of which would be
eafy, on account of the diftrafted ftate in which it al-
moft always was, and which would make him an inde¬
pendent fovereign. This propofal was eagerly em¬
braced by Edward, and every thing neceffary for the
expedition immediately got ready. On the 25th of
May 1315, be landed on the north-eaftern coaft of
Ireland with 6000 men, to affert his claim to the fo-
vereignty of this kingdom. The Irifh lords of Ulfter,
who had invited and encouraged him to this enter-
prize, were now prepared to receive their new monarch,
flocked with eagernefs to his ftandard, and prepared
to wreak their vengeance on the common enemy.
Their progrefs was marked by defolation and carnage.
The Englifh fettlers were flaughtered, or driven from
their poffeftions, their caftles levelled with the ground,
and their towns fet on fire. The Englifh lords were
neither prepared to refift the invafion, nor fufficiently
united among themfelves. The cnnfequence was, that
the enemy for fome time met with no interruption. An
intolerable fcarcity of provifions, however, prevented
Bruce from purfuing his advantages ; and though his
brother landed in Ireland with a powerful army, the
famine prevented him from being of any efiential fer» Ireland,
vice The forces which he left behind him, however,
proved of confiderable advantage; and by means of this
reinforcement, he was enabled to take the city of Car-
rick Fergus.
The terrible devaftations committed by Bruce and
his affociates, now induced fome Englifh lords to enter '
into an affociation to defend their polfeffions, and repel
thefe invaders. I or this purpofe they raifed a confi¬
derable body of forces ; which coming to an engage¬
ment with Fedlim, prince of Connaught, one of Bruce’s
principal allies, entirely defeated and killed him with
8000 of his men. This defeat, however^ had very
little effeft on the operations of Bruce himfelf. He
ravaged the country to the walls of Dublin, traverfed
the diftridt qf Offory, and penetrated into Munfter,
deftroying every thing with fire and fword. The
Englifh continued to augment their army, till at laft
it amounted to 30,000 men; and then Bruce, no longer
able to oppofe fuch a force, found it neceffary to retire
into the province of Ulfter. His retreat was effected
with great difficulty . and during the time of his in¬
activity, the diftrefles of his army increafed to fuch a
degree, that they are laid to have fed upon the bodies
of their dead companions. At laft an end was put
to the fufferings and the life of this adventurer in
the battle of Dundalk, in 1318, where he was defeated They are
and killed by the Englifh under Sir Robert Birming- ot y de¬
ham. A brave Englifh knight, named Maupas, had featecl.
ruffied forward to encounter Bruce himfelf, and both
antagonifts had killed each other ; the body of Mau-
pas being found, after the battle, ftretched upon that
of Bruce. The king of Scotland had been advancing
with powerful fuccours to his brother : but Edward,
confident of victory, refufed to wait his arrival ; and
Robert, on hearing of his brother’s death, inftantly
retired.
The defeat of the Scottiffi invaders did not put an
end to the difturbances of this unhappy country. The
contentions of the Englifh with one another, of the
Irifh with the Engliffi, and among themfelves, ftill
kept the ifland in a ftate of the utmoft barbarity and
confufion. An attempt was made indeed, in the reign
of Edward II. to eftablifti an univerfity in Dublin;
but for want of proper encouragement the inftitution
for fome time languifhed, and then expired amidft
the confufion and anarchy of the country. The reign
of Edward III. proved not much more favourable than ^
preceding times had been. He was too much takenMiferies of
up with the idea of conquering France, to pay much the irifh
regard to the interefts of Ireland. The unhappyurK^'
people, indeed, fenfible of their own miferies, peti-
tioned the king to admit all his fubjefls in Ireland to
a participation of the Englifh laws; but the petition
being delivered as ufual to the chief governor, and
laid before the parliament, it was either clandeftinely
defeated, or openly rejeCted. A new fetne of tumult
and blood fired immediately enfued ; which at laft pro¬
duced an order from the king, prohibiting all Irifh-
men, or Engliffimen married and having eftates in
Ireland, from bearing any public office whatever.—
This, inftead of having a tendency to promote peace,
made the diforder much greater than before ; and at
laft produced a remonftrance from the ftates met at
Kilkenny, in which they grievoufly complain not only
of
1 r e ^ r 3.
Ireland, oft lie diforders of the kingdom, but alfo of the con-
  r— du£l of the king himfelf in the edift above mentioned:
and to this remonftrance the king thought proper to
give a gracious and condefcending anfwer, in order to
procure from Ireland the fuccours he wanted in his
expedition againfl France.
It is not to be fuppofed, that mere promifes, unaf-
iifted by any vigorous exertion, could make the leaft
alteration in the ftate of a kingdom involved in lo
much mifery. I he diforders, however, at laid became
infupportable to the inhabitants themfelves; and a
parliament was fummoned in 1368, the refult of which
was the famous llatute of Kjikenny. The preambl©
to this aft recites, that the Englifh had become mere
Irifh in their language, names, apparel, and manner
of living j hadrejefted the Englifh laws,-and fubmitted
to thofe of the Irifh, with whom they had united by
44 marriage-alliance, to the ruin ol the commonwealth.
Statute of —It was therefore enafted, that marriage, nurture of
Kilkenny. infants, &c. with the Irifh, fhould be confidered and
punifhed as high treafon.—Again, if any man of
Englifh race fhall ufe an Irifh name, the Irifh lan¬
guage, or the Irifh apparel, or any mode or cuftom of
the Irifh, the aft provides, that he fhall forfeit lands
and tenements, until he hath given fecurity in the
court of chancery to conform in every particular to the
Englifh manners \ or if he have no lands, that he fhall
he imprifoned till the like fecurity be given. The
Brehon law wras pronounced to be a pernicious cuflom
and innovation lately introduced among the Englifh
fubjefts; and it was therefore ordained, that in all
their controverfies they fhould be governed by the
common law- of England ; and that whoever fhould
fubmit to the Irifh jurifdiftion fhould be adjudged
guilty of high treafon. As the Englifh had been ac-
euflomed to make war or peace with the bordering
Irifh at pleafure, they were now exprefsly prohibited
from levying war without fpecial warrant from the
hate.—It was alfo made highly penal for the Eng¬
lifh to permit thtir Irifh neighbours to graze their
lands, to prefent them to eeclefiahical benefices, or to
receive them into monafteries or religious houfes } to
entertain their bards, who perverted their imagina¬
tions by romantic tales, or their news-tellers, who
feduced them by falfe reports.—It was made felony to
impofe or cefs any forces upon the EngJifh fubjeft
againft his will. And as the royal liberties and fran-
chifes were become fanftuaries for malefaftors, ex-
prefs power was given to the king’s fheriHs to enter
into all franchifes, and there to apprehend feldns and
traitors.—Lailly, becaufe the great lords, when they
levied forces for the public fervice, afted with partia¬
lity, and laid unequal burdens upon the fubjefts, it was
ordained that four wardens of the peace in every coun¬
ty fhould adjuge what men and armour every lord or
tenant fhould provide.—The flatute was promulged
with particular folemnity 5 and the fpiritual lords, the
better to enforce obedience, denounced an excommu¬
nication on thofe who fhould prelume to violate it in
any inflance.
This flatute, it is evident, could not tend to pro¬
mote the peace of the kingdom. 1 his could only have
been done by removing the animofity between thenative
Irifh and Englifn ; but fo far was the flatute of Kil¬
kenny from having any tendency of this kind, that it
is 1 1 R E
manifeftly tended to increafe the hatred between thent. IrelamL ^
During the whole of this reign, therefore, the ftate
of the Irifh government continued to be greatly difor-
dered and embroiled. The Englifh intereft gradually
declined 5 and the conneftions of the king’s fubjefts
with the original inhabitants, occafioned by their vici¬
nity and neeeffary intercourfe, in delpite of all legal
injunftions, obliged the king to relax the feverity of
the flatutes of Kilkenny, in cafes where they proved
imprafticable, or oppreflive in the execution. I he
perpetual hoftility, however, in which the different
parties lived, proved an effeftual bar to the introduc¬
tion of thofe arts which contribute to the comfort and
refinement of mankind. Even foreign merchants could
not venture into fuch a dangerous country without par¬
ticular letters of proteftion from the throne, 'ihe
perpetual fucceflion of new adventurers from England,
led by interefl or neceffity, ferved only to inflame dif-
fenfion, inftead of introducing any effential improve¬
ment. Lawyers fent from England were notorioufly
infufficient, if not corrupt; and, as fuch, had frequent¬
ly been the objefts of complaint. The clergy were a
mean grovelling race, totally influenced by the crown.-
Even prelates were commonly made the inferior agents
of government in collefting forces, and railing war
againft the Irifh enemy ; but were not to be enticed
into this fervice, except by remittances from the ex¬
chequer. Attendance in parliament they dreaded as
the greateft hardlhip ; and either recurred to mean
excufes to avert the penalty of abfence, or fued to the
king to be exempted by patent from contributing or
aflenting to thofe laws by which they were to be go¬
verned. 4-
In this deplorable fituation the kingdom continued p0wer of
till the time of Henry VII. who laid the foundation the Englifii
of the future civilization of the Irifti, as he alfo did of reviyP ^
the Englifh nation. This he eftefted by enafting fome y]L enry
falutary laws, and appointing faithful and aftive go¬
vernors to fee them put in execution. Of thele go¬
vernors Sir Edward Poyning contributed more than
any other to the tranquillity of the ftate. During his
adminiftration was enafted the law known by the name ^
of Toy fling's Laxv, and which hath fince been the fub-Poyning’s ■
jeft of much political debate. The purport of it was,law’
That no parliament fhould be held in that iftand with¬
out firit giving notice to the king of England, and ac¬
quainting him with the afts to be paffed in that par¬
liament : neither ftiould any aft paffed, or any parlia¬
ment held, without the approbation of the king and
council, be deemed valid. Thus was the power of the
turbulent barons greatly broken j and the governor,
not having it in his power to affemble parliaments
when he pleafed, became a perfon of much lefs con-
fequence. The whole Irifh legiflation alfo became de¬
pendent on that of England, and hath ever fince conti¬
nued to be fo.
From this time we may date the rexvival of the Eng¬
lifii power in Ireland ; which from the Scottifh war in
the time of Edward II. had gradually declined into
a miferable and precarious ftate of weaknefs. The au¬
thority of the crown, which had at laft been defied,
infulted, and rejefted, even in the Englifh territory,
was reftored and confirmed, and the rebellious vigo-
roufly oppofed and fuppreffed. The feignory of the
Britifh crown over the whole body of the Irifti, which
r
, 47
All the
di (orders
ended in
the reign
of Queen
(Elizabeth.
. 1 R E [3
Xrelaful. jn former reigns feemed to have been totally forgotten,
was now formally claimed and afferted, and fome of the
moft ferocious chieftains by their marriage-conne£tions
became the avowed friends of the Englilh power. An
ignominious tribute, called the Black Rent, was indeed
ftill paid to fome chieftains $ but their hoftilities were
oppofed and chaftifed, and even in their own diftrifls
they were made to feel the fuperiority of Engliih go¬
vernment.
During the reign of Henry VIII. the Iriflr affairs
■were negle6ted $ and the diforders, which had only
been checked, and never thoroughly eradicated, re¬
turned as ufual. They were further promoted by the
innovations in religion which the king introduced, and
which were exceedingly difagreeable both to Englilh
and Irilh. The Reformation, however, continued to
make fome progrefs, though-llowly, during the reign
of Edward VI. and even in the reign of Queen Mary ;
for as the perfecution did not reach thither, many Pro-
teftants fled to Ireland in order to avoid the queen’s
cruelty. 1 he machinations of the Spaniards againft
Queen Elizabeth excited the Irilh to frelh infurrec-
tions. The king of Spain, indeed, not only encou¬
raged the natives in thofe infurre&ions, but a&ually
fent over troops to aflift them in driving out the
Engliih altogether. This theyEad well nigh effe&ed;
but the Spaniards, upon feeing an army of Irilh de¬
feated by an handful of their enemies, were fo much
provoked that they furrendered all the places they had
made themfelves mailers of, and even , offered to aflifl;
the Englilh in reducing the rebels ; though it was not
thought proper to accept of their afliftance. The
confequence of this was, that the Irilh, abandoned
by thefe allies, were unable to carry on the war $ and
the grand rebel O’Neal.cf Tirowen, or Tirone, after
much treachery, evafion, and many pretended fubmif-
fions, was at laft obliged to fubmit in good earneft. He
fell upon his knees before the deputy, and petitioned
for mercy with an air and afpeft of dillrefs. He fub-
fcribed his fubmiflion in the moft ample manner and
form. He implored the queen’s gracious commifera-
tion j and humbly fued to be reftored to his dignity,
and the Hate of a fubjeft, which he had juftly forfeit¬
ed. He utterly renounced the name of O'Neal, which
he had affirmed on account of the great veneration in
which it was held among the Irilh. He abjured all
foreign power, and all dependency except on the
crown of England 5 refigned all claim to any lands ex¬
cepting fuch as fliould be conferred upon him by let¬
ters patent ; promifing at the fame time to aflift the
llate in abolilhing all barbarous cuftoms and eftablilh-
ing law and civility among his people. The lord de¬
puty, on the part of the queen, promifed a full pardon
to him and all his followers; to himfelf the relloration
of his blood and honours, with a new patent for his
lands, except fome portions referved for certain chief¬
tains received into favour, and fome for the ufe of Eng¬
lilh garrifons.
No infurgent now remained in this kingdom who
had not obtained or fued for mercy. Many, indeed,
were driven by neceflity to the continent, and earned
a fubfiftence by ferving in the armies of Spain ; and
thus a race of Irilh exiles was trained to arms, filled
with a malignant refentment againft the Englilh. Thus
fhe honour of reducing ail the enemies of the crown of
^ ] IRE
England in this ifland, after a continued conteft for Ireland.
440 years, was referved for the arms of Elizabeth.1 v—^
1 he ghaftlinefs of famine and defolation was now fome- 4s
what enlivened by the reftoration of tranquillity. In . Exorbitant
deed, from the moft authentic accounts, the prices of Prices ot
provifions were fo high, that confidering the value Ofproj‘fions
money at that time, it is furprifing how the inhabi-timV. 1
tants could lubfift. Irom an account of the rates of
.provifions taken by the mayor of Dublin in 1602, it
appears, l hat wheat had rifen from 36s. to 9I. the
quarter; barley-malt from ics. 10433. the barrel;
oat-meal from 5s. to 22s. the barrel ; peafe from 5s.
to 40s. the peck ; oats from 3s. 4d. to 20s. the bar¬
rel ; beef from 26s. 8d. to 81. the carcafe ; mutton
from 3s. to 26s. the carcafe ; veal from 10s. to 29s.
the carcafe ; a lamb from i2d. to 6s. ; a pork from 8s.
to 20s.
Under James I. Ireland began to affume a quite dxf-Tke Irifli
ferent appearance. That monarch valued himfelf Up-civilizecl
on promoting the arts of peace, and made it his ftudyJameSl-
to civilize his barbarous Irilh fubjeds. Ey repeated
confpiracies and rebellions, a vaft trad of land had
efcheated to the crown in fix northern counties, Tyr-
connel, now called Dotinegal, Tyrone, Derry, Ferma-
nah,,Cavan, and Armagh, amounting to about 500,000
acres; a trad of country covered with woods, where
rebels and banditti found a fecure refuge, and which
was deftined to lie wafte without the timely interpofi-
tion of government. James refolved to difpofe of thefe
lands in fuch a manner as might introduce all the hap¬
py confequences of peace and cultivation. He caufed
lurveys to be taken ©f the feveral counties where the
new fettlements were to be eftablilhed ; defcribed par¬
ticularly the ftate of each ; pointed out the fituations '
proper for the eredion of towns and caftles ; delineated
tlm charaders of the Irilh chieftains, the manner in
which they Ihould be treated, the temper and circum-
ftances of the old inhabitants, the rights of the new
purchafers, and the claims of both; together with the
impediments to former plantations, and the methods of
xemoving them.
At his inftance it was refoved., that the perfons to
whom lands were afligned fliould be either new under¬
takers from Great Britain, efpecially from Scotland, or
Jervitors, as they were.called ; that is, men who had
for fome time ferved in Ireland, either in civil or mi-
tary offices; or old Irilh chieftains or captains. A-
mong the lafl: were included even thofe Irifli who had
engaged in the rebellion of Tirone, and ftill harboured
their fecret difcontents. To gain them, if poffible, by
favour and lenity, they were treated with particular in¬
dulgence. Their under-tenants and fervants were al¬
lowed to be of their own religion ; and, while all the
other planters were obliged to take the oath of allegi¬
ance, they were tacitly excepted. The fervitors were
allowed to take their tenants either from Ireland or
.Britain, provided no Popifli recufants were admitted.
I he Britilh undertakers were confined to their own
countrymen.
In the plantations which had been formerly attempt-
_ed, the Iriffi and Englifli had been mixed together,
from a fond imagination that the one would have learn-
,ed civility and induflry from the other. But expe¬
rience had now difcovered, that this intercourfe ferved
only to make the Irifli envy the fuperior comforts of
their
I R E
[
^7
Trelftm!. tlieir Engllfli neighbours, and to take the advantage
"l1 ■’ of a free accefs to their houfes to fteal their goods and
plot againft their lives. It was therefore deemed ne-
ceflary to plant them in feparate quarters j and in the
choice of thefe fituations, the errors of former times
were carefully correfted. The original Englilh adven¬
turers, on their firft fettlement in Ireland, were capti¬
vated by the fair appear, nee of the plain and open
diltridts. Here they erefted their caftles and habita¬
tions : and forced the old natives into the woods and
mountains, their natural fortreffes. There they kept
themfelves unknown, living by the milk of their kine,
without hufbandry or tillage j there they increafed to
incredible numbers by promifeuous generation j and
there they held their affemblies, and formed their
confpiracies without difeovery. But now the northern
Irilh were placed in the molt open and aeceflible parts
of the country, where they might lie under the clofe
infpeftion of their neighbours, and be gradually habi¬
tuated to agriculture and the mechanic arts. To the
Britilh adventurers were affigned places of the greateft
llrength and command j to the fervitors Itations of the
greatelt danger and greateft advantage to the crown :
but as this appeared a peculiar hardlhip, they were al-
. lowed guards and entertainment, until the country
ftiould be quietly and completely planted.
The experience of ages had Ihown the inconvenience
of enormous grants to particular lords, attended with
fuch privileges as obftrufted the adminiftration of civil
government ■, and even in the late reign, favourite un¬
dertakers had been gratified with fuch portions of land
as they were by no means able to plant. But, by the
prefent febeme, the lands to be planted were divided
in three different proportions •, the greateft to conlift
of *2000 Englilh acres, the leaft of 1000, and the
middle of’ijoo. One half of the efeheated lands in
each county was afiigned to the fmalleft, the other moi¬
ety divided between the other proportions •, and the
general diftributions being thus afeertained, to pre¬
vent all difputes between the undertakers, their fettle-
raents in the refpeclive diftridls were to be determined
by lot. Eftates were affigned to all, to be held of
them and their heirs. The undertakers of 2000 acres
were to hold of the king m capite ; thofe of 1500, by
knights fervice} thole of 10OO in common foccage.
The firft were to build a cattle, and enclofe a ftrong
court-yard, or haven, as it was called, within four
years j the fecond, to finilh a houfe and bawn within
two years ; and the third, to enclofe a bawn ; for even
this rude fpecies of fortification was accounted no in-
confiderable defence againft an Irilh enemy. The firft
were to plant upon their lands, within three years, 48
able men of Englilh or Scottilh birth, to be reduced
to 20 families j to keep a demefne of 600 acres in their
own hands 5 to have four fee farmers on 120 acres
each; fix leafe-holders, each on 100 acres; and on
the reft, eight families of hufbandmen, artificers, and
cottagers. The others were under the like obligations
proportionably. All were, for five years after the
date of their patents, to refide upon their lands, either
in perfon, or by fuch agents as Ihould be approved by
the ftate, and to keep a fufficient quantity of arms for
their defence, 'l ire Britifh and fervitors were not to
alienate their lands to mere Irilh, or to demife any
portions of them to fuch perfons as Ihould refufe to
Vol. XI. Part I.
J IRE
take the oaths to government ; they were to let them
at determined rents, and for no Ihorter term than 21
years, or three lives. The houfes of their tenants were
to be built after the Englilh falhion, and united to¬
gether in towns or villages. They had power to ereft
manors, to hold courts-baron, and to create tenures.
The old natives, whofe tenures were granted in fee
firnple, to be held in foccage, were allowed the like
privileges. They were enjoined to let their lands at
certain rents, and for the like terms as the other un¬
dertakers ; to take no Irilh exa&ions from their infe¬
rior tenants, and to oblige, them to forfake their old
Scythian cuftom of wandering with their cattle from
place to place for pafture, or creaghting as they called
it ; to dwell in towns, and conform to the Englilh man¬
ner of tillage and hulbandry. An annual rent from
all the lands was referved to the crown for every 60
Englilh acres, fix Ihillings and eightpence from the
undertakers, ten Ihillings from fervitors, and 13 Ihil¬
lings and fourpence from Irilh natives. But for two
years they were exempt from fuch payments, except
the natives, who were not fubjeil to the charge of
tranfportation. What gave particular credit to this
undertaking, was the capital part which the city of
London was perfuaded to take in it. The corporation
accepted of large grants in the county of Derry ; they
engaged to expend 20,oool. on the plantation, to build
the cities of Derry and Colerain, and ftipulated for
fuch privileges as might make their fettlements con¬
venient and refpectable. As a competent force was
neceffary to protect this infant plantation, the king,
to fupport the charge, inftiluted the order of baro¬
nets, an hereditary dignity, to be conferred on a num¬
ber not exceeding 200 ; each of whom, on palling his
patent, was to pay into the exchequer fuch a fum as
would maintain 30 men in Ulfter, for three years, at
8d. daily pay.
But fearctly had the lands been allotted to the dif¬
ferent patentees, when confiderable portions were re¬
claimed by the clergy as their rightful property. And
fo far had the eftates of the northern bilhoprics been
embarraffed, both by the ufurpations of the Irifh lords,
and the claims of patentees, that they fcarcely afford¬
ed a competent, much lefs an honourable, provifion for
men of worth and learning, while the ftate of the pa¬
rochial clergy was Hill more deplorable. Moft of the
northern churches had been either deftroyed in the late
wars or had fallen to ruin : the benefices were fmall, and
either lhamefully kept by the bilhops in the way of
commendam or fequeffration ; or filled with minifterS
as feandalous as their income. The wretched flock
was totally abandoned; and for many years divine
fervice had not been ufed in any parilh-church of Ul¬
fter, except in cities and great towns. To remedy
thefe abufes, and to make fome proper provilion for
the inftruftion of a people immerfed in lamentable ig¬
norance, the king ordained, that all ecclefiaftical lands
Ihould be reftored to their refpective fees and churches,
and that all lands ftiould be deemed ecclefiaftical from
which biftiops had in former times received rents or
penfions : that compofitions fhould be made with the
patentees for the file of cathedral churches, the resi¬
dences of bilhops and dignitaries, and other church-
lands which w-ere not intended to be conveyed to them ;
who were to receive equivalents if they compounded
U u freely,
Ireland.
Ireland.
5®
State of
Ireland
fince that
time.
* See Bri-
tain,
N° 103.
~ 106.
IRE f 3.38 ] IRE
freely, or elfe to be deprived of their patents as the
king rvas deceived in his grant, and the pofleflions re-
ftored to the church. To provide for the inferior
clergy, the bilhops were obliged to relign all their im¬
propriations, and relinquifh the tythes paid them out
of parilhes, to the refpeftive incumbents $ for which
ample recompenfe was made out of the king’s lands.
Every proportion allotted to undertakers was made a
parith, with a parochial church to each. The incum¬
bents, betides their tythes and duties, had glebe-lands
afligned to them of 60, 90, or 120 acres, according to
the extent of their parifhes. To provide for a fuccef-
lion of worthy paftors, free-fchools were endowed in
the principal towns, and confiderable grants of lands
conferred on the univerlity of Dublin, which had
been re eftablithed by Queen Elizabeth, together with
the advowfon of lix parochial churches, three of the
largeft, and three of the middle proportion in each
county.
Such was the general fcheme of this famous northern
plantation, fo honourable to the king, and of fuch
eonfequence to the realm of Ireland. Its happy ef¬
fects were immediately perceived, although the execu¬
tion by no means correfponded with the original idea.
Buildings were flowly erefted ; Britilh tenants were
difficult to be procured in fufficient numbers} tha old
natives were at hand, offered higher rents, and were
received into tbofe diftrifts from which it was intend¬
ed to exclude them. In this particular, the London¬
ers were accufed of being notorioufly delinquent. They
acted entirely by agents } their agents were interefted
and indolent, and therefore readily countenanced this
dangerous intrufion of the natives : an error of which
fufficient caufe was afterwards found to repent. For
the prefent, however, a number of loyal and induftrious
inhabitants was poured into the northern counties, confi¬
derable improvements made by the planters, and many
towns erefted. To encourage their induftry, and ad¬
vance his own project, the king was pleafed to incorpo¬
rate feveral of thefe towns, fo that they had a right of
reprefentation in the Iriffi parliament.
The only difturbance that now enfued was from the
Popiffi party, who never could bear to fee the Prote-
ftant religion eftabliffied in preference to their own,
while they had power to refift. After numberlefs in-
effedlual machinations and complaints, their fury broke
out in a terrible maffacre of the new Englilh fettlers in
the year 1641 *. The affairs of Britain were at that
time in fuch confufion, that the rebellion could not be
quelled in lefs than ten years } during which time the
country was :•< !uced to a moft deplorable fituation. It
recovered again under Cromwell, Charles II. and the
ftiort reign of James II. On the acceffion of Wil¬
liam III. matters were once more thrown into confu¬
fion by an attempt made in favour of the exiled mo¬
narch, who came over thither in perfon, and whofe
bad fuccefs is related under the article Britain,
N® 309—325. Since that time, Ireland hath recover-
td from the miferable fituation to which it was fo long
reduced. As yet, however, it is far from being in
fuch a flouriffiing ftate as either South or North Bri¬
tain. One great obftacle to the improvement of the
kingdom is the extreme poverty and oppreffion of
the common people. The produce of the kingdom,
•either in corn or cattle, is not above two-thirds at
mnft of what by good cultivation it might yield. The Ire'and,
high roads throughout the fouthern and weftern parts
are lined with beggars, who live in huts or cabins
without chimneys, or any covering capable of defend¬
ing the wretched inhabitants from the cold, wind,, and
rain, “ It is a fcandal (fays a judicious traveller,
who lately vifited Ireland) to the proprietors of this
fertile country, that there k not the greateft plenty of
good corn and hay in it} but fome of the belt land in
the king’s dominions is fuffered to be torn in pieces,
and cultivated in the vileft manner, by a fet of abjed
miferable occupiers : who are abfolutely no better than
flaves to the defpicable, lazy, and oppreffive fubordi-
nate landlords.” 5t
Another caufe confifted in the various refiridions Origin of
which it had been thought proper to lav upon the Iriffi Irifli
trade ; and the eonfiant and great preference given by discontents,
government to the Engliffi manufadurers, at lall produ-
eed the moil grievous difeontents and diftreffes. On the State of
part of England it was fuppofed, that as Ireland had the argu-
been fubdued by force of arms, the inhabitants ought me,nt ^
in every refped to be- fubjed to the vidorious Hate }
and that the intereft of the Engliffi ought on all oc-
cafions to be confulted, without regarding the incon¬
veniences which might enfue to the Iriffi. A very
different idea, however, was entertained by the Irifli
themfelves, or at leaf! by the patriotic party among
them. They rejeded all notions of dependence upon
the Britiffi miniftry and parliament } and though they
did not fcruple to acknowledge the king’s right of
conqueft, they moft pofitively denied that the Britifli
parliament had any authority whatever over them }
and therefore looked upon the reftridions laid upon
their trade as the moft grievous and intolerable oppref-
fion. ^
In the year 1719, according to Mr Crawford, the Caufe of
oppreffion and grievances of Ireland became altogether Sherlock
infupportable. A caufe relative to an eftate, betwuxt ®nc^linc'
Hefter Sherlock and Maurice Annefley, was tried be-
fore the court of exchequer in Ireland. Here the lat¬
ter obtained a decree in his favour } but, on an appeal,
the fentence was reverfed by the lords. Annefley ap¬
pealed from them to the Engliffi peers } who having
reverfed the judgment of thofe of Ireland, he w as put
in poffeflion of the fubjed in difpute. Sherlock ap¬
pealed again to the Iriffi lords, and the matter became
very ferious. It was propofed to the confideration of
the judges, Whether by the laws of the land an appeal
lies from a decree of the court of exchequer in Ireland
to the king in parliament in Brilrfm ? This queftion
being determined in the negative, Sherlock was again
put in poffeflion of the eftate. A petition was iome
time after prefented to the houfe by Alexander Bur-
rowes ffieriff of Kildare, fetting forth, “ That his pre-
deceffor in office had put Sherlock in pofftfiion of the
premiffes : that, upon his entering into office, an injunc¬
tion, agreeable to the order of the Engliffi peers, iffued
from the exchequer, requiring him to reftore Maurice
Annefley to the poffeflion of the above-mentioned lands }
and that, not daring toad in contradidion to the order
of the houfe, he w as fined. In confequence of this, be-j);fpufe 1^.
ing afraid left he ffiould be taken into euftody, he durfttwixt the
not come in to pafs his accounts ; and for this he wasPeers°f
fined 1200I.” His condud was applauded by the Iriffi
lords, who commanded the fines impofed upon him to3anni **
be
IRE t 339 ] IRE
Ireland, be/taken off j and in a (hort time after drew up a me-
'■“■'“v'—"’" morial to be prefented to his majefty. In this they
fet forth, that having fubmitted to Henry II. as their
liege lord, they had from him obtained the benefit of
Englhh law, with many other privileges, particularly
that of having a diftincl parliament. In confequence
of this conceffion, the Englifii had been encouraged to
come over and fettle in Ireland, where they were to
enjoy the fame privileges as in their own country.
They farther infilled, that though the imperial crown
of Ireland was annexed to that of Britain, yet be¬
ing a diltinfl dominion, and no part of the kingdom
of England, none could determine with regard to its
affairs, but fuch as were authorifed by its known laws
and cuftoms, or the exprefs confent of the king. It
was an invafion of his majeily’s prerogative for any
court of judicature to take upon them to declare, that
he could not by his authority in parliament determine
all controverfies betwixt his fubje&s of this kingdom j
or that, when they appealed to his majefiy in parlia¬
ment, they did not bring their caufe before a compe¬
tent judicature: and they reprefented that the prac¬
tice of appeals from the Irilh parliament to the Britilh
peers was an ufurped jurifdi&ion affirmed by the latter j
the bad confequences of which they pointed out very
‘fully.
This reprefentation being laid before his majefiy in
parliament, it was refolved, that the barons of exche¬
quer in Ireland had afted with courage and fidelity,
according to law, &.c. and an addrefs was prefented to
his majefty, praying him to confer on them fome mark
of his royal favour as a recompenfe for the injuries
Bill "died from th® legifiature. This was
for the bet- Allowed by a bill for the better fecuring the depen-
ter fecuring dency of Ireland upon the crown of Great Britain.
By this it was determined, “ That the houfe of lords
of Ireland have not, nor of right ought to have, any
jurifdi&ion to judge of, affirm, or reverfe, any judge¬
ment, fentence, or decree, given or made in any court
within the kingdom ; and that all proceedings before
the faid houfe of lords, upon any fuch judgment or
decree, are utterly null and void to all intents and pur-
pofes whatever.” It was alfo determined in this bill,
that “ the king’s majefty, by and with the advice and
confent of the lords fpiritual and temporal, and com¬
mons of Great Britain in parliament affembled, had,
hath, and of right ought to have, full power and au¬
thority to make laws and ftatutes of fufficient force
and validity to bind the people of Ireland.”
This bill was looked upon by the Iriffi to be equiva¬
lent to a total annihilation of their liberties j and they
were ftill farther exafperated in the year 1724, by the
patent granted to one Wood an Englifhman to coin
halfpence and farthings for the ufe of Ireland. In
on account this affair Wood is faid to have a£ted very difhonour-
of Wood’s ably ; infomuch that a (hilling of the halfpence he
made were fcarcely worth a penny. Great quantities
of this bafe coin were fent over *, and it was ufed not
only in change, but accounts were likely to be paid in
it, fo that dangerous confequences feemed ready to en-
fue. The Iriffi parliament, in an addrefs to the king,
reprefented that they were called upon by their coun¬
try to lay before his majefty the ill confequences of
Wood’s patent, and that it was likely to be attended
Avith a diminution of the revenue and the ruin of trade.
the depen-
dence of
Ireland.
JS
The bill
generally
abhorred.
^ 57
Farther
difeontents
patent.
The fame was fet forth in an application made to his Ireland,
majefty by the privy council. In (hort, the whole na- v—-—'
tion feemed to unite their efforts in order to remedy an
evil of fuch dangerous tendency, the tffefts of which
already began to be felt. ,.3
Among the con troverfial pieces which appeared on Dr Swift in
this occafion, thofe of Dr Swift were particularly cli-(langer 011
ftinguifhed. His Drapier’s letters are to this day held
in grateful remembrance by his countrymen j but hePpn°^0'
was in danger of fuffering deeply in the caufe. He Wood,
had been at particular pains to explain 'an argument
uled by the Irifti on this occafion, viz. that brafs
money, being illegal, could not be forced upon the na¬
tion by the king, without exceeding the limils of his
prerogative. Hence the oppofite party took occafion
to charge the Irifli with a defign of calling off their
dependence on Britain altogether : but Swift having
examined the accufation with freedom, pointed out
the encroachments made by the Britilh parliament on
the liberties of Ireland j and afferted, that any depen¬
dence on England, except that of being fubjedls to the
fame king, was contrary to the law of reafon, nature,
and nations, as well as to the law of the land. This
publication was fo difagreeable to goA’ernment, that
they offered a rervard of 3C0I. for the difeovery of
the author 5 but as nobody could be found who would
give him up, the printer was profecuted in his (lead :
however, he was unanimoufty acquitted by a jury of
his countrymen.
Ihe Irifti continued to be jealous of their liberties,
while the Britifti miniftry feemed to watch every op¬
portunity of encroaching upon them as far as poffible.
Apprehenfions being entertained of a defign upon Ire¬
land by the partifans of the pretender in 1715, a vote
of credit to government was paffed by the houfe of
commons to a eonfiderable amount. This laid the ^
foundation of the national debt of that kingdom, which oifp^te
was quickly augmented to feveral hundred thoufand with go-
pounds j for difeharge of which a fund had been pro-vernme®t
vided by adminiftration. An attempt was made 6
ring the adminiftration of Lord Carteret (who govern-payment of
ed Ireland till 1730), to veil this fund in the hands the national
of his majefty and of his heirs for ever, redeemable by debt,
parliament. This was oppofed by the patriotic party,
who infilled that it was inconfiftent with the public
fafety, and unconllitutional, to grant it longer than
from feffion to feffion. In 1731 another attempt was
made to veil the fame in the crown for 21 years j but
when the affair came to be debated, the llrength of
both parties was found to be equally balanced. Im¬
mediately before the vote, however, Colonel Totting-
ham having rode poll on the occafion, arrived in the
houfe, and determined the queftion againll govern¬
ment.
The behaviour of Lord Chefterfield, who was niade£xcej]ert.
governor of Ireland in 1745, is highly extolled, on ac-condua c*
count of his moderation, and the favour he Ihowed^0^ t bef-
to the liberties of the people. As the apprehenfions ofterfieJcJ'
government were then very confiderablej on account
of the rebellion which raged in Scotland, his lordlhip
was advifed to augment the military force of Ireland
by 4000 men. Inftead of this, however, he fent four
battalions to the duke of Cumberland, and encouraged
the volunteer affociations which formed in different
parts for the defence of their country. Theft; battalions
U u 2 _ he
I R E
[ 34o ]
I R E
Ireland.
61
His hu¬
manity to
the Roman
iiatholics.
62
Account of
Mr Lucas
the. cele¬
brated pa¬
triot.
he replaced by additional companies to the regiments
already on the eftabliihment; by which means he faved
a confiderable expence to the nation, without augment¬
ing the influence of the crown. The fupplies afked
by him were fmall, and raifed in the molt eafy and
agreeable manner to the people, expending the money
at the fame time with the utmoft economy. Ihere
was even a faving which he applied to the ufe of the
public. It had been a cuftom with many of the lieu¬
tenant-governors of Ireland to beltew reverlionary
grants, in order to purcbale the affiltance of friends in
fupport of their meafures. Lord Chefterfield, however,
being convinced that this practice was prejudicial to
the intereft of the nation, put a flop to it 5 but the
mod remarkable part of his adrainiflration was, the
humanity with which he treated the Roman Catho¬
lics. jBefore his arrival, the Romifh chapels in Dub¬
lin had been fhut up ; their priefts were command¬
ed by proclamation to leave the kingdom ; and fuch
as difobeyed had been fubjedted to imprifonment and
other penalties. Lord Cheflerfield, however, convin¬
ced that the affedlion is to be engaged by gentle
ufage, permitted them to exereife their religion with¬
out diflurbanee. The accufations brought againil
them of forming plots againft government were difre-
garded 5 and fo much was his moderation and upright-
nefs in this refpedt applauded by all parties, that, du¬
ring the whole time of his adminiftration, the nation¬
al tranquillity was not once interrupted by the fmall-
eft internal commotion. On his leaving the ifland, his
bull was placed at the public expence in the cable of
Dublin.
Lord Chefterfield having left Ireland in the fpring
of 1746, the ifland continued to be governed by lords
juftices until the 13th of September, when William
earl of Harrington came over with the powers of lord-
lieutenant. A contefl in the eleftion of reprefenta-
tives for the city of Dublin this year called forth the
abilities of Mr Charles Lucas, fo much celebrated for
his patriotic virtues. Having fome years before been
admitted a member of the common council, he re-
folved to exert himfelf in behalf of the privileges of
his fellow-citizens. The powers of this city-corpora¬
tion, as well as of others, had been changed by autho¬
rity derived from an aft in the time of Charles II. *,
and among other innovations, for the purpofe of aug¬
menting the influence of the crown, they deprived the
commons of the power of drooling the city magiftrates.
This was now veiled in the board of aldermen ; which
being fubjeft in the exercife of its jurifdiftion to the
approbation of the privy-council, was confequently de¬
pendent on government. Mr Lucas complained loudly
of the injury 5 but as this law could not be altered, he
let himfelf to inquire, whether encroachments, which
could not be jultified by law, had not been made on
the rights of the citizens ? Having fatisfied himfelf, by
fearching diligently into ancient records, that his ap-
prehenfions were well founded, he publilhed his dilco-
veries, explained the nature of the evidence refulting
from them, and encouraged the people to take the
proper fteps for obtaining redrefs.
The confequence of this was a eonteft between the
commons and aldermen, which lalled two years. The
former ftruggled in vain to recover their loll privileges ;
but the exertions'of Lucas in every ftage of the dif-
pute had rendered him fo refpeftable among his coun- Ireland,
trymen, that on the death of Sir James Somerville he v”—1
was encouraged to declare himfelf a candidate for a
feat in parliament. This being highly agreeable to
his wiflres, he waselefted accordingly 5 and diftinguifli-
ed himfelf not only by the boldnefs and energy of his
fpeeches, but more efpecially by a number of addrefles
to his countrymen. In fome of thefe he particularly
confidered the leveral branches of the conftitution, and
pointed out the encroachments of the Britilh legifla-
ture. Government, alarmed at his boldnefs, determi¬
ned to cruih him by the hand of power ; for which
reafon the moll obnoxious paragraphs were extrafted
from his works, and made the foundation of a charge
before parliament. The commons voted him an ene¬
my to his country ; and addrefled the lord-lieutenant
for an order to profecute him by the attorney-general.
The univerfal efteem in which he was held could not
fereen him from minifterial vengeance : he wds driven
from Ireland j but having fpent fome years in banifli-
ment, he was once more enabled, through the exer¬
tions of his friends, to prefent himfelf as a candidate
for the city of Dublin. Being again elefted, he con¬
tinued to diftinguilh himfelf by the fame virtuous prin¬
ciples for which he had been from the beginning fo
remarkable, and died with the charafter which he had
preferved through life, of the incorruptible Lucas*, ^
In the year 1753, a remarkable conteft took placeDifpute
betwixt government and the Irifti parliament relative with ^o-
to previous content. As the taxes for defraying flate vernment
expences are impofed by the reprefentatives of the
people, it thence naturally follows, that they have aConfent.
right to fuperintend the expenditure of them ; and by
an infpeftion of the journals of the houfe of commons, •
it appeared, that from the year 1692 they had exer-
cifed a right of calling for and examining the public
accounts. When any furplus remained in the treafury,
it was alfo cuftomary to difpofe of it by bill for the
good of the public. In the year 1749, however, a
confiderable fum having remained in the treafury, the
difpofal of this money in future became an objeft of
miniilry. In 1751, it was intimated to parliament
by the lord-lieutenant, the duke of Dorfet, that his
majefty would gracioufly confent and recommend it to
them, that fuch part of the money as then remained
in the treafury fliould be applied to the reduftion of
the national debt. As this implied a right inherent
in his majefty to difpofe of the money as he thought
proper, the propofal was accounted an invafion of the
privileges of the houfe of commons. No notice was.
therefore taken of the direftion given by Dorfet, but
the bill was lent over to Lngland as ufual without any
notice taken of his majelly’s confent. In England,
however, this very material alteration was made, and
the word confent introduced into it. The commons at
this time did not take any notice of fuch an eflential
alteration ; but next year, on its being repeated, the
bill was rejefted. Government were now at theutmoft
pains to defend the meafure they had adopted, and
pamphlets were publifln d in which it was juftified on
various grounds. The event at lall, however, was,
that his majefty by letter took the money which had
been the fubjeft of difpute out of the treafury. 04
In the, year 1760 Ireland fuftained an inconfiderable Invalion by
hoftile invafion, the firll that had been experienced in ihurotm,.
IRE F 34i ] IRE
Ireland, the kingdom for 70 years. The armament confided
—v”“" originally of hve ikips j one of 48 guns, two of 36,
and two of 24 having on board 1270 land forces.
They were commanded by the celebrated Ihurot,
whofe reputation, as captain of a privateer, had advan¬
ced him to this dignity. The fquadron, however, was
driven by adverfe winds to Gottenburgh j where hav¬
ing continued a few days, they fet fail tor the place of
their deftination. On their arrival at the coaft of Ire¬
land, they were obliged to (belter themfelves in Lough
Foyle from a violent (form which again overtook them.
The wind, however, having (hifted, and continuing to
blow tempeftuoufly, they were obliged to keep out to
fea. Two of the (hips were thus feparated from the
reft by the violence of the ftorm, and returned to
France •, but the remaining three dire&ed their courfe
to the ifland of Iflay, where they anchored j and hav¬
ing repaired their damages, took in a lupply of provi-
lions, and thence failed to Carrickfergus.
In the mean time, an officer belonging to the fmall
number of troops at that time in Carrickfergus took
port on a riling ground, with an advanced party, to
obferve the motions of the enemy. A (kirmiffi en(ued
betwixt this party and Thurot’s men, until the former,
having expended all their ammunition, were obliged
to retire into the town. Having in vain attempted to
prevent the enemy from taking poffeffion of it, the
BritiCh troops flint themfelves up in the caftle, where
they were foon obliged to capitulate, after having kill¬
ed about 100 of their enemies, with the lofs of only
three on their own part. The French having plunder¬
ed the town, fet fail on the 26th of February •, and three
days after were all taken by Captain Elliot, Ihurot,
himfelf being killed in the engagement.
Rife of the Soon after the acceffion of George III. Ireland firft
White began to be difturbed by a banditti who ftyled them-
Bo>s- felves White Boys; and’ as thefe were generally of the
Romiffi perfuafion, the prejudices againft that fe£I
broke forth in the ufual manner. A plot was alleged
to have been formed againft government •, French and
Spanifti emiflaries to have been fent over to Ireland,
and aftually to be employed to affift in carrying it in¬
to execution. The real caufe of this commotion, how¬
ever, was as follows : About the year 1739 mur*
rain broke out among the horned cattle in the duchy
of Holftein, from whence it foon after fpread through
the other parts of Germany. From Germany it reach¬
ed Holland, from whence it was carried over to Eng¬
land, where it raged with great violence for a number
of years. The mitigation of the penal laws againft
the Papifts about this time encouraged the natives of
the fouth of Ireland to turn their thoughts towards
agriculture, and the poor began to enjoy the neceffa-
ries of life in a comfortable manner. A foreign de¬
mand for beef and butter, however, having become un¬
commonly great, by reafon of the cattle diftemper juft
mentioned, ground appropriated to grazing became
more valuable than that employed in tillage. I he
cottars were everywhere difpoffefled of their little pof-
feffions, which the landlords let to monopolizers who
could afford a higher rent. Whole baronies were
now laid open to pafturage, while the former inhabi¬
tants were driven defperate by want of fubfiftence.
Numbers of them fled to the large cities, or emigrated
to foreign countries, while thofe whp remained took
fmall fpots of land, about an acre each, at an exorbi- Ireland.
tant price, where they endeavoured if poffible to pro- v ' f
cure the means of protracting a miierable exiftence for
themfelves and families. For feme time, thefe poor
creatures were allowed by the more humane landlords
the liberty of commonage •, but afterwards this was
taken away, in defpite of juftice and a pofttive agree¬
ment ; at the fame time, the payment of tythes, and
the low price of labour, not exceeding the wages in
the days of Queen Elizabeth, aggravated the diftreffes
of the unhappy fufferers beyond meafure.
In fuch a fituation, it is no wonder that illegal me¬
thods were purfued in expeftation of redrels. d he
people, covered with white ftiirts, affembled in parties,
at night, turned up the ground, deftroyed bullocks,
levelled the inclofures of the commons, and committed
other afts of violence. Thefe unavailing efforts were
conftrued into a plot againft the government •, num¬
bers of the rioters were apprehended in the counties of
Limerick, Cork, and Tipperary, and feme of them,
condemned and executed. In different places thefe
unhappy wretches, inftead of being looked upon as ob-
jefts of compaffion, were profecutcd with the utmoft.
feverity. Judge Afton, however, who was fent over
to try them, executed his office with fuch humanity as-
did him the higheft honour. A moft extraordinary,
and affefting inftance of this was, that on his return
from Dublin, for above ten miles from Clonmel 1, both
fides of the road were lined with men, women, and
children ; who, as he paffed along, kneeled down and
implored the bleffing of heaven upon him as their guar¬
dian and prote£lor.
In the mean time, the violences of the White Boys
continued, notwithftanding that many examples were
made. T he idea of rebellion was ftill kept up $ and,,
without the fmalleft foundation, gentlemen of the firft
rank were publicly charged with being concerned in
it, infomuch that lome of them were obliged to enter
bail, in order to proteft themielves from injury. The
Catholics of Waterford gave in a petition to Lord
Hertford, the governor in 1765,. in behalf of them¬
felves and brethren, protefting their loyalty and obe¬
dience to government j but no effe&ual ftep was taken
either to remove or even to inveftigate the caufe of the
difturbances. 66
About two years after the appearance of the White Of the Oak-
Boys, a fimilar commotion arofe in Ulfter \ which, ^J73*
however, proceeded in part from a different caufe, and
was of much (horter duration. By an aft of parlia¬
ment, the making and repairing of highways in Ire¬
land was formerly a grievous oppreffion on the lower
ranks of people. An houfekeeper who had no horfe
was obliged to work at them fix days in the year; and
if he had a horfe, the labour of both was required for
the fame fpace of time. Belides this oppreffion, the
poor complained that they were frequently obliged to
work at roads made for the convenience of individuals,
and which were of no fervice to the public. Nor were
thefe the only grievances of which the infurgents at
this time complained : the tythes exafted by the clergy,
w ere faid to be unreaknable, and the rent of lands was
more than they could bear. In I 763, therefore, be¬
ing exafperated by a road propofed to be made through
a part of the county of Armagh, the inhabitants moft,
immediately affefted by it rofe in a body, and decla-
Ireland.
IRE [ 342 ]
red that they would make no more highways of the ken place in the
, 67
Of the
Steel-boys.
kind. As a mark of dillinftion, they wore oak-
branches in their hats, from which circumftance they
called themfelves Oak-beys. The number of their par-
tizans foon increafed, and the infurre&ion became ge¬
neral through the counties of Armagh, Tyrone, Der¬
ry, and Fermanagh. In a few weeks, however, they
were difperfed by parties of the military j and die
public tranquillity was reftored with the lofs of only
two or three lives. The road-a£t, which had been fo
jullly found fault with, was repealed next feflion ; and
it was determined, that for the future the roads Ihould
be made and repaired by a tax to be equally afl'efled
©n the lands of the rich and poor.
Befides thefe, another let of infurgents called Steel-
boys foon made their appearance, on the following ac¬
count. The ellate of an abfentee nobleman happen¬
ing to be out of leafe, he propofed, inftead of an addi¬
tional rent, to take fines from his tenants. Many
of thofe, who at that time poffeffed his lands, were
unable to comply with his terms $ while others who
could afford to do fo, infilled upon a greater rent from
the immediate tenants than they were able to pay.
The ufual confequence of this kind of oppreffion in-
flantly took place. Numbers being difpoffeffed and
thrown deftitute, were forced into afts of outrage fimi-
lar to thofe already mentioned. One of thefe charged
with felony was carried to Belfaft, in order ^o be com-
»mitted to the county gaol 5 but his affociates, provoked
by the ufage they had received, determined to relieve
him. The defign was eagerly entered into by great
numbers all over the country ; and feveral thoufands,
having provided themfelves with offenfive weapons, pro¬
ceeded to Belfaft in order to refcue the prifoner. To
prevent this, he was removed to the barracks and put
under the guard of a party of foldiers quartered there $
but the Steel-boys preffed forward with a determina¬
tion to accomplilh their purpofe by force, and fome
fhots were aftually exchanged between them and the
foldiers. The confequences would undoubtedly have
been fatal, had it not been for a phyfician of highly
refpe6table charafter, who interpofed at the rifk of his
life, and prevailed on thofe concerned to fet the pri¬
foner at liberty. The tumult, however, was not thus
quelled. The number of infurgents daily increafed,
and the violences committed by them were much greater
than thofe of the other two parties. Some were ta¬
ken and tried at Carrickfergus, but none condemned.
It was fuppofed that the fear of popular refentment
had influenced the judges j for which reafon an adt
w-as paffed, enjoining the trial of fuch prifoners for
the future to be held in counties different from thofe
where the crimes were committed. This breach of
a fundamental law of the conftitution gave fuch of¬
fence, that though feveral of the Steel-boys were af¬
terwards taken up and carried to the caftle of Dub¬
lin, no jury would find them guilty. This obnoxious
law was therefore repealed; after which fome of the
infurgents, being tried in their refpe&ive counties,
were condemned and executed. Thus the commotions
were extinguifhed ; but as no methods were taken to
remove the caufe, the continued diftreffes of the people
drove many thoufands ,cf them into America in a very
few years.
Ip the mean time a very material alteration had ta-
4
IRE
conftitution of the kingdom, with Ireland.
6%
Parliament
regard to the duration of parliaments. At an early
period thefe had continued only for a year j but after¬
wards they were prolonged until the death of a fove-
reign, unlefs he chofe to diflblve it fooner by an ex¬
ertion of his prerogative. Thus, from the moment
of their eleciion, the commoners of Ireland were in a
manner totally independent of the people and under
the influence of the crown $ and government foon avail¬
ed itfelf of this power to bribe a majority to ferve its
own purpofes. Various methods were thought of to
remedy this evil j but all proved ineffectual until the
year 1768, when, during the adminiftration of Lord
Townlhend, a bill was prepared and fent over to Eng¬
land, by which it was ena&ed, that the Irifti parlia¬
ments thenceforth fliould be held every feven years.
It w as returned w’ith the addition of one year j and
ever fince the parliaments of this country have been of Ireland
oftennial. During this feflion an attempt was made made oc-
by the Britifti miniftry to infringe the rights of the tennial-
houfe of commons in a very material point. A money- An ^ j.-
bill, which had not originated in Ireland, was fent money-biM
over from Britain, but was reje&ed in a fpirited man-rejeded.
ner. Its rejeftion gave great offence to the lord-
lieutenant, who repeatedly prorogued them till the
year 1771.
The affairs of Ireland began now to draw towards
that crifis which effeifted the late remarkable revolu¬
tion in favour of the liberties of the people. The
palling of the o&ennial bill had diminilhed, but not
taken away, the influence of the crown j and the fitua-
tion of affairs between Britain and America had inclined
miniftry to make the moft of this influence they could.
In 1773 Lord Harcourt, at that time governor of
Ireland, exerted himfelf fo powerfully in favour of
adminiftration, that the voice of oppofition in parlia¬
ment was almoft entirely filenced. The difficulties, 7^.
however, under which the w hole nation laboured began ftat/of/re¬
now to be fo feverely felt, that an addrefs on the fubjt land laid
was prefented by the commons to his excellency. In before the
this they told him, that they hoped he would lay before iorii‘lieute"
the king the ftate of Ireland, reftrifled in its com-liant‘
merce from the Ihort-fighted policy of former times, to
the great injury of the kingdom, and the advantage of
the rivals, if not of the enemies, of Great Britain.
Thefe hardfliips, they faid, were not only impolitic,
but unjuft ■, and they told his excellency plainly, that
they expedled to be reftored to fome, if not to all
their rights, which alone could juflify them to their
conftituents for laying upon them fo many burdens
during the courfe of this feffion.
This reprefentation to the lord-lieutenant produ¬
ced no effeft; and Ireland for fome years longer con¬
tinued to groan under the burden of intolerable re-
ftriftions. Thefe had principally taken place in the
reign of Charles II. At this time it w as enafted, that 71
beef or live cattle fliould not be exported to England j
neither were the commodities of Ireland to be ex- tion, on
ported to the American colonies, nor American goods Irilh trade,
to be imported to any port in Ireland without firft un¬
loading them in fome part of England or Wales. All
trade with Alia was excluded by charters granted to
particular companies ; and reftriftions were impofed
upon almoft every valuable article of commerce fent to
the different ports of Europe. Towards the end of
King
IRE [ 343 1 I R E
Ireland. King William’s reiVn an abfolute prohibition was laid
V-"1' on the exportation oF Irifh wool. This reftrittion proved
difadvantageous not only to Ireland, but to Great Bri¬
tain herfelf. The French were now plentifully fup-
plied by fimiggling with Irifh wool •, and not only en¬
abled to furnifh woollen Huffs fufficient for their own
confumpt, but even to vie with the Britilh in foreign
. markets* Other reftri&ions confpired to augment the
national calamity •, but that which was molt fenfibly
felt took place in 1776. “ There had hitherto (fays
Mr Crawford) been exported annually to America
large quantities of Irilh linens *, this very confiderable
fource of national advantage was now (hut up, un¬
der pretence of rendering it more difficult for the
enemy to be fupplied with the means of fubliltence j
but in reality, to enable a few rapacious Englilh
contractors to fulfil their engagements, an embargo,
which continued, was in 1776 laid upon the expor¬
tation of provifions from Ireland, by an unconititu-
tional ftretch of prerogative. Remittances to Eng¬
land, on various accounts, particularly for the pay¬
ment of our forces abroad, were more than ufually
confiderable. Thefe immediate caufes being com¬
bined with thofe which were invariable and perma¬
nent, produced in this country very calamitous ef¬
fects. Black cattle fell very confiderably in their va¬
lue $ notw ithftanding that, cuitomers could not be had.
The price of wool was reduced in a Hill greater pro¬
portion. Rents every w here fell j nor, in many places,
was it poffible to colleCt them. An univerfal ftagna-
tion of buiinefs enfued. Credit was very materially
injured. Farmers were preffed by extreme neceffity,
and many of them failed. Numbers of manufacturers
were reduced to extreme neceffity, and would have
periihed, had they not been fupported by public cha¬
rity. Thofe of every rank and condition were deeply
affeCted by the calamity of the times. Had the Hate
of the exchequer permitted, grants might have been
madp to promote induttry, and to alleviate the national
diftrefs j but it was exhaufted to a very uncommon
degree. Almoft every branch of the revenue had fail¬
ed. From want of money the militia law could not
be carried into execution. We could not pay our
forces abroad *, and, to enable us to pay thofe at home,
there w’as a neceffity for borrowing 50,000]. from
England. The money which parliament was forced
to raife, it was obliged to borrow at an exorbitant in-
tereft. England, in its prefent Hate, was affeCted with
the wretched condition to which our affairs were re¬
duced. Individuals there, who had eftates in Ireland,
were ffiarers of the common calamity $ and the atten¬
tion of individuals in the Britiffi parliament was turned
to our fituation, who had even no perfonal intereff in
this country.”
Irifli affairs While things w’ere in this deplorable fituation, Earl
taken into Nugent, in the year 1778, undertook the caufe of the
t ion'fa6 the ^ moving in parliament, that their affairs ffiould
Britifh par- ta^en into confideration by a committee of the
liament. whole houfe. This motion being agreed to almoft
unanimoufty, it was followed by feveral others, viz.
That the Iriffi might be permitted to export direCUy
to the Britiffi plantations, or to the fettlements on
the coafts of Africa, all goods being the produce and
manufacture of the kingdom, excepting only wool, or
woollen manufactures, &c. That all goods, being the
produce of any of the Brilifli plantations, or of the Ireland,
fettlements on the coaft of Africa, tobacco excepted,
be allowed to be imported direCtly from Ireland to all
places, Britain excepted. That cotton yarn, the ma¬
nufacture of Ireland, be allow’ed to be imported into
Great Britain. That glafs manufactured in Ireland be
permitted to be exported to all places, Britain except¬
ed.—With refpeCt to the Irilh fail cloth and cordage,
it was moved, that they fliould have the fame privilege
as for the cotton yarn. 73
Thefe motions having paffed unanimoufly, bills for Petitione
the relief of Ireland were framed upon them according-
ly. The trading and manufacturing towns of Eng-^^
land, however, now’ took the alarm, and petitions
againft the Iriffi indulgence were brought forward from
many different quarters, and numbers inftruCted to op-
pofe it. In confequenee of this a warm conteft took
place on the fecond reading of the bills. Mr Burke
fupported them with all the ftrength of his eloquence ;
and as the minifter feemed to favour them, they w’ere
committed ; though the violent oppofition to them ftill
continued, which induced many of their friends at that
time to defert their caufe. 74
Though the efforts of thofe who favoured the caufe New at-
of Ireland thus proved unfuccefsful for the prefent, *n.
they renewed their endeavours before the Chriftmas 1^°“^
vacation. They now urged, that, independent of all *
claims from juftice and humanity, the relief of Ireland
was enforced by neceffity. The trade with Britilh
America was now loft for ever •, and it was indifpenfably
requiiite to unite the remaining parts of the empire in
one common intereft and affeCtion. Ireland had hi¬
therto been paffive j but there was danger that, by
driving her to extremities, ffie w’ould call off the yoke
altogether } or, even if this Ihould notffiappen, the ty¬
ranny of Britain would be of little advantage ; as, on
the event of a peace, the people would defert a country-
in which they had experienced fueh oppreffion, and emi¬
grate to America, where they had a greater profpeft
of liberty. On the other hand, they infilled, that very
confiderable advantages mull enfue to Britain by the
emancipation of Ireland ^ and every benefit extended
to that country would be returned with accumulated
interell. The bufinefs was at laft fummed up in a mo¬
tion made by Lord Newhaven, in February 1769, that
liberty Ihould be granted to the Irilh to import fugars yg
from the Weft Indies. This was carried 5 but the New peti-
merchants of Glafgow and Manchefter having peti-tionsa§ailhl
tioned againft it, it was again loft through the interfe- eni*
rence of the minifter, w ho now exerted his influence
againft the relief he had formerly declared in favour
of. Various other efforts, however, were made to ef¬
fect the intended purpofe j but nothing more could be
obtained than a kind of compromife, by which Lord
Gower pledged himfelf, as far as he could anfwer
for the conduft of others, that, during the recefs,
fome plan Ihould be fallen upon for accommodating
the affairs of Ireland to the fatisfa<ftion of all par¬
ties.
In the mean time the affairs of this country haftened
to a crifis j which forced the Britilh miniftry to give
that relief fo long folicited, and which they fo often
promifed without any intention of performing their
promifes. As long as the affairs of the country w’ere
under confideration of the Britilh parliament, the in¬
habitants
I R E
the king¬
dom.
77
Affbcia-
importmg
Bntifh
commodi¬
ties.
78
Rife of the
iociations
in Ireland.
Ireland, habitants preferved feme degree of patience ; but
X- when they found themfelves deferted by the miniiter,
A.n univer- t^eir difeontent was inflamed beyond meafure. '1 he
fal ferment laws he had paffed in their favour, viz. an allowance
enfues to-plant tobacco, and a bill for encouraging the growth
throughout 0£ hemp were confidered as mockery inftead of relief,
tho Inner— I- ' , . nil
and it was now reiolved to take iuch meaiures as mould
eifeitually convince the miniltry that it was not their
intereft to tyrannize any longer. With this viewr, alfo-
tions form- ciations againfl: the importation of Britilh commodities,
ed again It which had been entered into in fome places before, now
became univerfal throughout the kingdom j and fuch
as prefumed to oppofe the voice of the people in this
refpedl:, had the mortification to find themfelves ex-
pofed to public obloquy and contempt on that ac¬
count. Thus the Irilh manufaftures began to re¬
vive $ and the people of Britain found themfelves
obliged ferioufly to take into confideration the relief
of that country, and to look upon it as a matter very
neceflary to their own intereft* To this alfo they were
military af- ftill more ferioufly difpofed by the military aflbeiations,
which had taken place fome time before, and now
affumed a mofi; formidable appearance. Thefe at firft
were formed by accidental caufes. The fituation of
Britain, for fome time, had not admitted of any effec¬
tual method being taken for the defence of Ireland.
Its coafts had been infulted, and the trading ftiips
taken by the French and American privateers j nor was
it at all improbable that an invafion might foon follow.
The minifler (fays Mr Crawford) told US, that the
fituation of Britain was fuch as rendered her incapable
of prote&ing us. The weaknefs of government, from
the following circumftance, was ftrikingly obvious.
The mayor of Belfaft having tranfmitted a memorial
to the lord-lieutenant, fetting forth the unprotefted
ftate of the coait, and requefling a body of the military
for its defence, received for anfwer, that he could
not afford him any other afliflance than half a troop
of difmounted horfe and half a company of invalids.”
In this dilemma, a number of the inhabitants of the
towm affociated for the purpofe of felf-defence •, and,
on the fame principle, a few volunteer companies were
formed in different parts of the kingdom. Thefe chofe
their own officers, purchafed their own uniforms and
arms, and, wdth the affiflance of perfons properly qua¬
lified, affembled regularly on the parade to acquire a
knowledge in the military art. Their refpeftable ap¬
pearance, and the zeal they fhowed in the fervice of
their country, foon excited curiofity and attradfled
refpeft. Their number increafed every day ; and peo¬
ple of the firfi: confequence became ambitious of being
enrolled among them. As no foreign enemy appeared,
againft whom they might excreife their military prowefs,
79 thefe patriotic bands foon began to turn their thoughts
Thry re- towards a deliverance from domeftic oppreffion. No
folve to de- former was this idea made known, than it gave new
vigour to the fpirit of volunteering ; infomuch that,
by the end of 1778, the military affociations were
thought to amount at leaf! to 30,000 men. But,
while thus formidable from their numbers, and openly
avowing their intention to demand a reftitution of their
fights from the Britifh miniftry, they profeffed the
utmoft loyalty and affe&ion to the king; and with re¬
gard to fobriety and decent demeanor, they were not
t»!y unexceptionable, but exemplary, Inftead of ex-
r 344 i
IKE
liver their
country
from the
tyranny of
Britain
citing diforders themfelves, they reflrained evefy kind Ireland,
of irregularity, and exerted themfelves with unanimity —v—■*J
and vigour for the execution of the laws.
That {uch a body of armed men, a&ing without any
command or fupport from government, Ihould be an
objt'61 of apprehenfion to miniftry, is not to be won¬
dered at. In the infancy of their aflbeiations indeed,
they might have been fupprefled j but matters had been
fuffered to proceed too far ; and, as they flood at pre-
fent, all refiftance was vain. As the volunteers could
not be controuled, fome attempts wrere made to bring g0
them under the influence of the crown : but this being They are
found impoffible, miniftry thought proper to treat them Applied
with an appearance of confidence 5 and, accordingly, Wjth arms
orders were iflued for fupplying them with 16,000 mi‘
Hand of arms. . g!
The Irifti parliament, thus encouraged by the fpirit The parlia*
of the nation, and prefled by the difficulties arifing niei:,: ^
from the diminifhed value of their eftates, refolved toj^15^6
exert themfelves in a becoming manner, in order to relief,
procure relief to their country. At their meeting in
October 1779, an addrefs to his majefty was drawn
up ; in which it w'as exprefsly declared, that “ it was
not by temporary expedients, but by a free trade alone,
that Ireland was now to be faved from impending
ruin.” When this addrefs was carried up to the lord-
lieutenant, the ftreets of Dublin were lined with vo¬
lunteers, commanded by the duke of Leinfter, in
their arms and uniform. But, though a general
expe&ation of relief was now diffufed, an anxious
fear of difappointment ftill continued. If the ufual
fupply w'as granted for two years, there was danger of
the diftrefles continuing for all that time $ and after it
was granted, the prorogation of parliament might put
a flop to the expected relief altogether. The people,
however, were not now to be trifled with. As the
court party (bowed an averfion to comply with the po¬
pular meafures, a mob rofe in Dublin, who, aroong
other afts of violence, pulled down the houfe of the Dublin,
attorney-general, and did their utmoft to compel the
members to promife their countenance to the matter
in hand. When the point therefore came to be de¬
bated, fome efpoufed the popular fide from principle,
others from neceffity ; fo that on the whole a majority
appeared in favour of it. A (hort money-bill w'as pafled
and tranfmitted to England 5 where, though very mor¬
tifying to the minifter, it pafled alfo.
On the meeting of the Britifli parliament in Decern- Affairs of
ber, the affairs of Ireland were firfl: taken into confide-Ireland
ration in the houfe of peers. The neceflity of granting aSain con"‘
relief to that kingdom was ftrongly fet forth by the
lord who introduced them. He faid, the Irifh, nowr pariiament»
confcious of poflefling a force and confequence to
which they had hitherto been ftrangers, had refolved
to apply it to obtain the advantages of w'hich the na¬
tion, by this fpirited exertion, now (bowed themfelves
worthy. Had they for fome time before been grati¬
fied in leflfer matters, they would now have received
with gratitude, what they would, as affairs flood at
prefent, confider only as a matter of right. He then
moved for a vote of cenfure on his majefty’s minifters
for their negleft of Ireland. This motion was re-
jefted •, but Earl Gower, who had now deferted the
caufe of miniftry, declared, that there did not exift in
his mind a (ingle doubt that the vote of cenfure was
not
IRE [ 345 ] IRE
84
Lord
North’s
(lorn.
His obfer-
vations
Ireland, not well founded. He added, in his own vindication,
—“\r-~ that early in the fummer he had promifed that relief
Ihould be granted to Ireland, and had done every thing
in his power to keep his word; but that all his efforts
had proved fruitlefs.
In the houfe of commons the minifler found himfelf
fo hard preffed by the arguments of the minority, and
the Ihort money-bill from Ireland, that he was obliged
to declare, than in lefs than a week he intended to
move for a committee of the whole houfe to take the
affairs of Ireland into confideration. On the 13th of
Worth s December he accordingly brought forward his propoff.
fn°favour of t*ons in favo'4r of this kingdom. The defign of thefe
the king- was to repeal the laws prohibiting the exportation of
Irifh manufadtures made of wool or wool flocks j to re¬
peal as much of the a£t of 19th Geo. II. as prohibited
the importation of glafs into Ireland, except of Britifh
manufacture, or the exportation of glafs from Ireland j
and to permit the Irifh to export and import commodi¬
ties to and from the Weft Indies and the Britifh fettle-
ments on the coalt of Africa, fubjeCt to fueh regula¬
tions and reftriCtions as fhould be impofed by the Irilh
parliament.
On thefe propofitions his lordfhip made feveral re-
u on th^m rnar^-s vvay explanati°n- Oae objedt of them, he
upon em- was to reftore to Ireland the wool export and wool¬
len manufacture. In 1692, from jealoufy or fome other
motive, an addrefs had been prefented by the ILnglifh
parliament, recommending a kind of compaCt between
the two kingdoms; the terms of which wfere, that Eng¬
land fhould enjoy the woollen manufacture, and Ireland
the linen, exclufively. But notwithftanding this agree¬
ment, it was certain, that England carried on the linen
manufacture to as great extent as Ireland, while at the
fame time the former retained the monopoly of wool¬
lens. The firft ftep taken, in confequence of this agree¬
ment, was to lay a heavy duty, equal to a prohibition,
upon all wool and woollens exported j and when this
aCt, which was but a temporary one by way of experi¬
ment, expired, the Englifh parliament palled a fimilar
one, and made it perpetual 5 by means of which and
fome others a total end was put to the woollen trade of
Ireland.
With regard to the trade of Ireland, his lordfhip ob-
ferved, that, upon an average of the fix years from
1766 to 1772, the export to Ireland was fomewhat
more than two millions ; and, in the fucceeding fix
years, from 1772 to 1778, about as much more : near¬
ly one-half being Britifh manufacture and produce j
the other half certified articles, of which this country
was the medium of conveyance. The native produce,
on an average, was fomewhat more than 900,000k but
of this only 200,000k were woollens. The woollen
manufacture of Ireland therefore would long continue
in a ftate ef infancy ; and though cloths had been
manufactured fufficient for home confumption, yet it
could hardly be expeCted that Ireland would rival
Great Britain at the foreign markets, when, after the
expence, of land-carriage, freight, infurance, and facto¬
rage, the latter was able to underfell Ireland in her
own market on the very fpot, even though aided by
the low wages and taxes paid in the country. ^
With regard to the linen, his lordfhip obferved, that
however profperous it might appear, yet Hill it was
capable of great improvement. The idea of extend-
Vol. XI. Part I.
ing and improving the linen manufactures of Ireland
originated from a pamphlet written by Sir William
Temple ; and this gave rife to the compaCt which had
been referred to. But though this compaCt was now
about to be diffolved, it was his opinion that the boun¬
ties on importing Irilh linens ought not to be difeon-
tinued j becaufe it appeared, that the Britifh bounties
had operated as a great encouragement to the Irifh
manufactures, at the fame time that the fum ap¬
propriated to this purpofe amounted to more than
13,000k
With regard to the difiblution of the compaCt be¬
twixt England and Ireland, he obferved, that, as a
more liberal fpirit had now appeared on both fides of
the water, he hoped both kingdoms would be perfectly
contented. Ireland would never be able to rival Eng¬
land in the fine woollen fabrics; but allowing the Irilh
to manufacture their own wool, would put an end to
the contraband trade with France ; and it ought to be
remembered, that whatever was an advantage to Ire¬
land, mult fooner or later be of Angular advantage to
Great Britain, and by the propofed regulations in their
commercial connections, the two kingdoms would be
put more upon an equality.
With regard to the glafs manufacture, his lordfhip
likewife obferved, that Ireland had been very injuri-
oufiy treated. Before the aCt of 19th Geo. II. they
had begun to make fome progrefs in the lower branch¬
es of the glafs manufacture j but by that aCt they were
not only prevented from importing any other glafs than
what was of Britilh manufacture, but alfo from export¬
ing their own glafs, or putting it on a horfe or carriage
with a defign to be exported. This aCt had been com¬
plained of in Ireland as a piece of great injuftice, and
it was the intention of his propofition to remove that
grievance.
With regard to the third propofition, his lordfhip
obferved, that allowing Ireland a free trade to the
colonies mull be confidered as a favour to that king¬
dom. Confidering her even as an independent ftate,
flie could fet up no claim to an intercourfe with the
Britifli colonies. By every principle of juftice, of the
laws of nations, and the cuftom of the other European
powers who had fettlements and diftant dependencies,
the mother country had an exclufive right to trade
with, and to forbid all others from having any inter¬
courfe with them. Were not this the cafe, what na¬
tion under the fun would fpend their blood and trea-
fure in eftablilhing a colony, and proteCling and defend¬
ing it in its infant ftate, if other nations were afterwards
to reap the advantages derived from their labour, ha¬
zard, and expence. But though Great Britain had a
right to reftrain Ireland from trading with her colonies,
his lordfhip declared himfelf of opinion that it would
be proper to allow her to participate of the trade.
This would be the only prudent means of affording her
relief*, it would be an unequivocal proof of the candour
and fincerity of Great Britain ; and he had not the
leaft doubt but it would be received as fueh in Ireland.
Britain, however, ought not to be a fufferer by her
bounty to Ireland } but this would be the cafe, ihould
the colony trade be thrown open to the latter, without
accompanying it with reftriClions fimilar to thofe
which were laid upon the Britifh trade with them. An
equal trade mu ft include an equal fhare of duties and
X x taxes j
Ireland.
I R E
[ 34-6 ]
IRE
Ireland.
86
The' are
received
with preat
joy by the
Irifli.
87
Exceffive
eulogiums
on Lord
North to
the difad-
vantage
of the mi¬
nority in
parliament.
83
They are
checked by
a letter
from a
member of
the Britifli
houfe of
commons.
taxes; and this was the only proper ground on which
' the benefits expected by the Irilh nation could be
either granted or defired.
Having made fome other observations on the pro¬
priety of thefe meafures, they were regularly formed
into motions, and palled unanimoully. In Ireland
they were received with the utmoft joy and gratitude
by both houfes of parliament. On the 20th of De¬
cember the following refolutions were paffed $ viz.
That the exportation of woollen and other manufac¬
tures from Ireland to all foreign places will materially
tend to relieve its diftreffes, increafe its wealth, promote
its profperity, and thereby advance the welfare of
Britain, and the common Strength, wealth, and com¬
merce of the Britilh empire : that a liberty to trade
with the Britifh colonies in America and the Weft
Indies, and the fettlements on the coaft of Africa, will
be productive of very great commercial benefits j will
be a moft affeftionate mark of the regard and attention
of Great Britain to the diftreffes of the kingdom ; and
will give new vigour to the zeal ef his majefty’s brave
and loyal people of Ireland, to ftand forth in fupport
of his majefty’s perfon and government, and the inte-
reft, the honour, and dignity of the Britifti empire.”
The fame refolutions were, next day, palled in the
houfe of peers.
The higheft encomiums were now palled on Lord
North. His exertions in favour of Ireland were de¬
clared to have been great and noble 5 he was ftyled
“ the great advocate of Ireland j” and it was foretold,
that he would be of glorious and immortal memory in
that kingdom. But while thefe panegyrics were fo
lavilhly made on the minifter, the members in oppofi-
tion, in the Britifh parliament, were fpoken of in very
indifferent terms. It was faid, that, while they
thought the minifter did not mean to go into the bu-
finefs of Ireland, they called loudly for cenfure againft:
him for not doing k j but when it was found that he
meant ferioully to take their aftairs into confideration,
they had then bafely feceded, and wholly forfaken the
intereft of the kingdom. Thefe cenfures were fo loud,
that a member of the Britifti houfe of commons wrote
a letter to be communicated to hie friends in Ireland,
in which he reprefented, that however politic it might
be to compliment the minifter on the prefent occafion,
it was neither very wife nor generous in the members
of the Irilh parliament to be fo ready in beftowing in-
vedlives againft their old friends in England. Wkth re¬
gard to the minifter, it was alleged, that until he was
driven to it by the meafures adopted in Ireland, his
conduft had been extremely equivocal, dilatory, and
indecifive. The minority had been juftly incenfed
againft: him for having fo grofsly facrificed the honour
of the nation and the dignity of parliament as to re-
fufe any fubftantial relief to the Irifti, until their own
exertions had made it appear that every thing which
could be done for them by the Britifti parliament was
not a matter of choice but of neceffity. The minority,
it was faid, had earneftly and repeatedly laboured to
procure relief fur the people of Ireland ; and if they
had now contented themfelves with a filent acquiefcenee
in the minifter’s propofitions, it was only until they
ftiould know whether they would be fatisfaclory to the
people of Ireland j aud becaufe what was now done,
appeared to be more an aft of ftate than of mere par- IrelanS.
liamentary deliberation and difcuflion. —-v—J
To the propofitions already mentioned, Lord North.,,8?
added three others. 1. For repealing the prohibition pjop^-1^
of exporting gold coin from Great Britain to Ireland, in favour
2. For removing the prohibition to import foreign 11
hops into Ireland, and the drawback on the exporta¬
tion of foreign hops. 3 For enabling his majefty’s
Irifh fubjefts to become members of the Turkey com¬
pany, and to export woollens in Britifti or Irifti bot¬
toms to the Levant. In fupport of this laft reiolution
his lordftiip urged, that it was neceffary, becaufe the
exportation of woollens having been granted to Ire¬
land, the Irifti would naturally expefl a ftiare in the
Turkey trade, which, as matters flood, was not pof-
fible, it having hitherto been a received opinion, that
no Irifliman could be elefted a member of the Turkey-
company. Notwithftanding all the fatisfaflion, how¬
ever, with which the news of thefe bills were received
in Ireland, it was not long before thoughts of a dif¬
ferent kind began to take place. It was fuggefted
that a free trade could be but of little ufe, if held by a contents be.
precarious tenure. The repeal of the obnoxious laws g‘n t0 take
was reprefented as an aft of neceffity, not of choice,P*ace*
on the part of the Britifh parliament. When that n&-
ceflity, therefore, no longer exifted, the fame parliament
might recal the benefits it had granted, and again fet¬
ter the Mi trade by reftriftions perhaps more oppref-
five than before. To fecure the advantages they now
poffeffed it was neceflary that the kingdom fhould en¬
joy the benefits of a free conftitution. For this the
people looked up to the volunteer companies j and the
idea of having fuch a glorious objeft in their power,
augmented the numbers of thofe which had alfo been pj
inereafed from other caufes. They had now received Numbers
the thanks of both houfes of parliament, and thus had0*tiie vo.-
obtained the fanftion of the legiflature. Thus many ‘n”
who had formerly fcrupled to conneft themfelves with
a lawlefs body, made no fcruple to enter their lifts.
Government alfo engaged feveral of their friends in
the volunteer caufe. New companies were therefore
rrifed 5 but whatever might be the political fentimenls
of the officers, the private men were univerfally at¬
tached to the popular caufe. The national fpirit was
likewife kept up by feveral patriotic publications, par¬
ticularly the letters figned Owen Roe O’Neil, which
in an efpecial manner attrafled the public attention j
nor was the pulpit backward in contributing its part
in the fame caufe.
To give the greater weight to their determinations,Theyforfli
the volunteers now began to form themfelves into bat-rhemfelves
talions ; and in a very fhort time they were all united jf10 batta“
in this manner, excepting a fmall number of compa- ons‘
nies, which, from accidental caufes, continued feparate.
The newfpapers were filled with refolutions from the ^
feveral corps, declaring Ireland to be an inde-pendentireland de-
kingdom, entitled by reafon, nature, and compact, toclaredan
all the privileges of a free conftitution ; that no power *ric*ePeH*
in the world, excepting the king, with the lords and
commons of Ireland, had or ought to have power to
make law's for binding the Irifli •, and that, in fupport
of thefe rights and privileges, they were determined to
facrifice their lives and property.
NotvVithftanding all this zeal, however, the repre-
ftnlalives
94
Servile be¬
haviour of
the Iiifli
95
Irifli mu¬
tiny bill
made per¬
petual.
96
Bad ten¬
dency of it
tan.
IRE [3
Ireland, fentatxves of the people in Ireland feem yet to have
■‘""■v—"" behaved in a very fupine and carelefs manner, and to
have been entirely obedient to the dilates of govern
ment. One of the houfe of commons declared in the
month of April 1780, that “ no power on earth, ex¬
parliament. cepting the king, lords, and commons of Ireland, had
a right to make laws to bind the people.” 11 Every
member in the houfe (fays Mr Crawford), one except¬
ed, acknowledged the truth of the proposition, either
in exprefs terms, or by not oppoling it j and yet, how¬
ever allonilhing it may appear, it was evident, that had
the queftion been put, it would have been carried in
the negative. The matter was compromifed. The
queftion was not put $ and nothing relating to it was
entered on the journals.
This inattention, or rather unwillingnefs, of the ma¬
jority to ferve their country, was more fully manifefted
in the cafe of a mutiny bill, which they allowed to be
made perpetual in Ireland, though that in England
had always been cautioufly palled only from year to
year. After it was palled, however, fome of the zea-
fet forth by ^0U3 Patrj°ts, particularly Mr Grattan, took great pains
Mr Grat- to forth the bad tendency of that att. He obfer-
ved, that Handing armies in the time of peace were
contrary to the principles of the conftitution and the
lafety of public liberty j they had fubverted the liberty
of all nations, excepting in thofe cafes where their num¬
ber was fmall, or the power of the fovereign over
them limited in fome refpeft or other ; but it was in
vain to think of fetting bounds to the power of the
chief magiftrate, if the people chofe by a ftatute to
bind themfelves to give them a perpetual and irreliftible
force. The mutiny bill, or martial law methodifed,
was direflly oppofite to the common law of the land.
It fet afide the trial by jury and all the ordinary fteps
of law j eftablilhing in their Head a fummary proceed¬
ing, arbitrary crimes and punifhments, a fecret fen-
tence, and fudden execution. The object of this was
to bring thofe who w.ere fubjeft to it to a ftate of im¬
plicit fubordination, and render the authority of the
fovereign abfolute. The people of England, therefore,
from a laudable jealoufy on all fubjedls in which their
liberty was concerned, had in the matter of martial
law exceeded their ufual caution. In the preamble
to the mutiny a£I, they recited part of the declaration
of right, “ that Handing armies and martial law in
time of peace, without the confent of parliament, are
illegal.” Having then Hated the purity and fimplicity
of their ancient conftitution, and fet forth the great
principle of magna charta, they admitted a partial and
temporary repeal of it : they admitted an army, and a
law for its regulation, but at the fame time they limit¬
ed the number of the former, and the duration of
both ; confining the exiftence of the troops themfelves,
the law that regulated them, and the power that com¬
manded them, to one year. Thus were the {landing
forces of England rendered a parliamentary army, and
the military rendered effe6tually fubordinate to the ci¬
vil magiftrate, becaufe dependent on parliament. Yet
the people of England confidered the army, even thus
limited, only as a neceftary evil, and would not admit
even of barracks, left the foldier ftiould be ftilj more
alii-nafed from the ftate of a fubjeft ; and in this ftate
of all- nation have a port of ftrength, which would aug¬
ment the danger ariling from his fttuationi When
47 ] IRE
the parliament of Ireland proceeded to regulate the Irelarid.
army, therefore, they ought to have adopted the max- —
ims of the Britith conftitution, as well as the rules of
Britifti difcipline. But they had totally departed from
the maxims and example of the Engliih, and that in
the moft important concern, the government of the
fword. They had omitted the preamble which decla¬
red the great charter of liberty ; they had left the num¬
ber of forces in the breaft of the king, and under thefe
circumftances they had made the bill perpetual.
It is probable that the bulk of the Irifti nation did
not at firft perceive the dangerous tendency of the bill
in queftion. The reprefentations of Mr Grattan and
others, however, foon opened their eyes, and a general
diffatisfa&ion took place. This was much increafed by
two unfuccefsful attempts in the houfe of commons ; one
to obtain an aft for modifying Poyning’s law •, and the
other for fecuring the independency of the judges. Art
univerfal difguft againft the fpiritlefs conduft of parlia¬
ment now took place j and the hopes of the people were
once more fet on the volunteers.
As it became now fomewhat probable that thefe Reviews of
companies might at laft be obliged to affert the rights the vohm-
of their countrymen by force of arms, reviews were te®rs aP~
judged neceffary to teach them how to aft in larger pointc<1“
bodies, and to give them a more exaft knowledge of
the ufe of arms. Several of thefe reviews took place
in the courfe of fummer 1780. The fpeftators in ge¬
neral were ftruck with the novelty and grandeur of the
fight j the volunteers became more than ever the ob-
jefts of efteem and admiration, and their numbers in¬
creafed accordingly. The revietvs in 1781 exceeded
thofe of the former year j and the dexterity of the
corps who had aflbciated more early was now obferved
to be greater than that of the reft. More than 5000
men were reviewed at Belfaft, whofe performances were
fet off to peculiar advantage by the difplay of 13 pieces
of cannon. They {bowed their alacrity to ferve then
country in the field, on a report having arifen that the
kingdom was to be invaded by the combined fleets of
France and Spain ; and for their Spirited behaviour on
this occafion they received a fecond time the thanks of
both houfes of parliament.
Such prodigious military preparations could not but
alarm the Britifh miniftry in the higheft degree $ and
it was not to be doubted that the Infix volunteers would
come to the fame extremities the Americans had done,
unlefs their wifties were fpeedily complied with. Still,
however, it was imagined poffible to fupprefs them,
and it was fuppofed to be the duty of the lord-lieute¬
nant to do fo. It was during the adminiftration of
the duke of Buckingham that the volunteers had
grown into fuch confequence $ he was therefore re¬
called, and the earl of Carliile appointed in his place. 98
Though it was impoflible for the new governor to fup- Shameful
prefs the fpirit of the nation, he found it no difficult
matter to obtain a majority in parliament. Thus every parjjaaieilti
redrefs was for the prefent effeftualiy denied. Neither
the mod'fication of Poyning’g law, nor the repeal of
the obnoxious parts of the mutiny bill, could be ob¬
tained. The volunteers, exafperated at this beha¬
viour, refolved at once to ftiow that they were refolved
to do themfelves juftice, and were confcious that they
had power to do fo. At a meeting of the officers of
the fouthern battalion of the Armagh regiment, com-
X x 2 inanded
IRE [ 348 ] IRE
Ireland.
A general
meeting of
the volun¬
teers ap¬
pointed.
too
Refolutions
of this
meeting.
manded by the earl of Charlemont, the following refo¬
lutions were entered into, December 28. 1781. 1. That
the mod vigorous and effectual methods ought to be
purfued for rooting corruption out from the legiflative
body. 2 For this purpoie a meeting of delegates from
all the volunteer affociations was neceiTary ; and Dun¬
gannon, as the mod central town in the province of Ul-
der, feemed to be the mod proper for holding fuch a
meeting. 3. That as many and lading advantages
might attend the holding fuch a meeting before the
prefent feflion of parliament was much farther advan¬
ced, the 15th of February next ftiould be appointed
for it.
Thefe refolutions proved highly offenfive to the
friends of government, and every method was taken
to difeourage it. On the appointed day, however, the
reprefentatives of 143 volunteer corps attended at Dun¬
gannon } and the refults of their deliberation wrere as
follows. I. It having been afferted, that volunteers,
as fuch, cannot with propriety debate or publifh their
opinions on political fubjefts, or on the conduft of
parliament, or public men, it was refolved unanimoufly,
that a citizen, by learning the ufe of arms, does not
abandon any of his civil rights. 2. That a claim from
any body of men, other than the king, lords, and com¬
mons of Ireland, to make laws to bind the people, is
illegal, unconftitutional, and a grievance. 3. Refol¬
ved, with one diffenting voice only, that the powers
exercifed by the privy council of both kingdoms, under
colour or pretence of the law of Poyning, are uncon¬
ftitutional and a grievance. 4. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the ports of this country are by right open to all
foreign countries not at war with the king ; and that
any burden thereupon, or obftruftion thereto, except¬
ing only by the parliament of Ireland, are unconftitu¬
tional and a grievance, 5. Refolved, with one dif¬
fenting voice only, that a mutiny bill, not limited in
point of duration from feflion to feflion, is unconfti¬
tutional and a grievance. 6. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the independence of judges is equally efiential to
the impartial adminiftration of juftice in Ireland as in
England, and that the refufal or delay of this right
is in itfelf unconftitutional and a grievance. 7. Re¬
folved, with 11 diffenting voices only, that it is the
decided and unalterable determination of the volunteer
companies to feek a redrefs of thefe grievances ; and
they pledged themfelves to their country, and to each
other, as freeholders, fellow-citizens, and men of ho¬
nour, that they would, at every enfuing ele&ion, fup-
port only thofe who had fupported them, and would
iupport them therein, and that they would ufe all
conftitutional means to make fuch purfuit of redrefs
ipeedy and effedtual. 8. Refolved, with only one dif¬
fenting voice, that the minority in parliament, who
had fupported thofe conftitutional rights, are entitled
to the moft grateful thanks of the volunteer compa¬
nies, and that an addrefs to the purpofe be figned by
the chairman, and publifhed with the refolutions of the
prefent meeting. 9. Refolved unanimoufly, that four
members from each county of the province of Ul-
fter, eleven to be a quorum, be appointed a committee
till the next general meeting, to a6l for the volunteer
corps, and to call general meetings of the province as
occafion requires. 10. The committee being appoint¬
ed, and the time of general meetings, and fome other
4
affairs of a fimilar nature fettled, it was refolved una- Ireland,
nimoufly, that the court of Portugal having unjuftly
refufed entry to cerlain Irifli commodities, the dele¬
gates would not confume any wine of the growth of
Portugal, and that they would ufe all their influence
to prevent the ufe of the laid wine, excepting what
was then in the kingdom, until fuch time as the Irifli
exports fhould be received in the kingdom of Portugal,
tl. Refolved, with only two diffenting voices, that they
hold the right of private judgment in matters of reli¬
gion equally facred in others as in themfelves j and
that they rejoiced in the relaxation of the penal laws
againft the Papifts, as a meafure fraught with the hap-
pieft confequences to the union and profperity of the
inhabitants of Ireland. Ior
While thefe proceedings took place at Dungannon, Minilterial.
the miniftry carried all before them in parliament. In party pre-
a debate concerning the exclufive legiflative privileges ^a*,s e.xcef“
of Ireland, a law member, fpeaking of the arbitrary
acts of England, afferted, that “ power conftituted1
rightand a motion that the commons ftiould be de¬
clared the reprefentatives of the people was carried in
the negative. Thefe fcandalous proceedings could not
but haften the ruin of their caufe. The refolutions
entered into at the Dungannon meeting were received
throughout the kingdom with the utmoft applaufe. A
few days after, Mr Grattan, whofe patriotifm has been jvir Grat.
already taken notice of, moved in thehoufeof commons tan’s mo-
for a long and fpirited addrefs to hismajefty, declaring t'00 k>r an
the rights of the kingdom, and afferting the principle
which now began to prevail, that Ireland could legally ;n(]ej)<fn_
be bound by no power but that of the king, lords, anddency of
commons of the country 5 though the Britifti parliament Ireland re-
had affumed fuch a power. This motion w^as at prefentJe<^ec**
rejected by a large majority ; but their eyes were foon
enlightened by the volunteers.
Thefe having now appointed their committees of
correfpondence, were enabled to communicate their
fentiments to one another with the utmoft facility and
quicknefs. An affociation was formed in the name of„ .
Declaration
the nobility, reprefentatives, freeholders, and inhabi-0f ^ v0,
tants of the county of Armagh, wherein they fet forth lunteers to
the neceflity of declaring their fentiments openly re-fliatpur-
fpedling the fundamental and undoubted rights of theP°^e‘
nation. They declared, that, in every fituation in
life, and with all the means in their power, they would
maintain the conftitutional right of the kingdom to be
governed only by the king and parliament of Ireland,
and hat they would, in every inllance, uniformly and
ftrenuoufly oppofe the execution of any ftatutes, ex¬
cepting fuch as derived their authority from the parlia¬
ment juft mentioned ; and they pledged themfelves, in
the ufual manner, to fupport what they now declared
with their lives and fortune.
This declaration was quickly adopted by all the
other counties, and flmilar fentiments became univer-
fally avowed throughout the kingdom. The change in
the Britifti miniftry in the fpring of 1782 facilitated the 104
wilhes of the people. The duke of Portland, who Favourable
came over as lord-lieutenant in April that year, lent ^
moft welcome meffage to parliament. He informedjiament
them, that “ his majefty, being concerned to find that the duke of
difconlents and jealoufies were prevailing among hisl>ort aiid"
loyal fubje£ls in Ireland, upon matters of great weight
and importance, he recommended it to parliament to
take
IRE [ 349 ] IRE
Ireland, take the fame Into their moft ferious confideration, in
'“““"v—order to fuch a final adjustment as might give mutual
fatisfa&ion to his kingdoms of Great Britain and Ire-
105 land.”
Mr Grat- ]Vlr Grattan, vrhofe patriotic efforts had never been
tan’s fecond ^acjiQnej^ now ventured to propofe a fecond time in
favcmrofn parliament the addrefs which had been rejected before,
hisaddrefs. On the 16th of April he began a fpeech to this pur-
pofe with a panegyric on the volunteers, and the late
conduct of the people. The Irith, he faid, were no
longer a divided colony, but an united land, manifeft-
ing itfelf to the reft of the world in fignal inftances of
glory. In the reft of Europe the ancient fpirit was
expired \ liberty was yielded, or empire loft •, nations
were living upon the memory of paft glory, or under
the care of mercenary armies. In Ireland, however,
the people by departing from the example of other
nations, had become an example to them. Liberty,
in former times and in other nations, was recovered
by the quick feelings and rapid impulfe of the .popu¬
lace. But in Ireland, at the preient period, it was
recovered by an a£t of the whole nation reafoning for
three years on its fituation, and then refcuing itfelf by
a fettled fenfe of right pervading the land. The meet¬
ing of the delegates at Dungannon was an original mea-
fure; and, like all of that kind, continued to be matter
of furprife, until at laid it became matter of admira¬
tion. Great meafures, fuch as the meeting of the
Englifh at Runny Mead, and of the Irifti at Dungan¬
non, were not the confequences of precedent, but car¬
ried in themfelves both precedent and principle ; and
the public caufe in both inftances would infallibly have
been loft had it been trufted to parliament. The
meeting at Dungannon had refolved, that the claim of
the Britilh parliament was illegal j and this was a con-
llitutional declaration. The Irifti volunteers were af-
fociated for the prefervation of the laws, but the eon-
ducl of the Britiih parliament fubverted all law. Eng¬
land, however, had no reafon to fear the Irifh volun¬
teers ; they would facrifice their lives in her caufe.
The two nations formed a general confederacy. The
perpetual annexation of the crown was a great bond,
but magna charta was a greater. It would be eafy
for Ireland to find a king j but it would be impoflible
to find a nation who would communicate to them fuch
a charter as magna charta5 and it was this which made
their natural connexion with England. The Irifti
nation were too high in pride, charafler, and pow’er,
to fuffer any other nation to make their laws. England
had indeed brought forward the queftion, not only by
making laws for Ireland the preceding feffion, but by
enabling his majefty to repeal all the laws which Eng¬
land had made for America. Had (he confented to
repeal the declaratory law againft America ? and vmuld
flie refufe to repeal that againft Ireland ? The Irifti na¬
tion were incapable of fubmitting to fuch a diftinc-
106 tion.
It h agreed Mr Grattan now found his eloquence much more
powerful than formerly. The motion vdiich, during
this very feftion, had been rejected by a great majority,
107 was now agreed to after a ftiort debate, and the addrefs
Subftance to his majefty prepared accordingly. In this, after
of the ad- thanking his majefty for his gracious melfage, and de¬
claring their attachment to his perfon and government,
they allured him, that the fubje&s of Ireland are a free
people ; that the crown of Ireland is an imperial Ireland,
crown, infeparably annexed to that of Britain, on which
connexion the interefts and happinefs of both nations
effentially depend ; but the kingdom of Ireland is di-
ftincl, with a parliament of its own : that there is no
body of men competent to make laws to bind Ireland,
except the king, lords, and commons thereof, nor any
other parliament that hath any power or authority of
any fort whatfoever, in this country, except the par¬
liament of Ireland. They affured his majefty, that they
humbly conceive, that in this right the very effence of
their liberties did exift ; a right which they, on the
part of all Ireland, do claim as their birthright, and
which they cannot yield but with their lives. They
affured his majefty, that they had feen with concern
certain claims advanced by the parliament of Great
Britain, in an a£l intitled, “ For the better fecuring
the dependency of Ireland an a£t containing matter
entirely irreconcileable to the fundamental rights of the
nation. They informed his majefty, that they conceiv¬
ed this a<ft, and the claims it advanced, to be the'
great and principal caufe of the difcontents and jealou-
fies in the kingdom. They affured him that his-
commons did moft fincerely wilh, that all the bills,
which become law in Ireland, ftiould receive the ap¬
probation of his njajefty under the feal of Great Bri¬
tain ; but yet, that they conceived the practice of
fupprefling their bills in the council of Ireland, or al¬
tering them anywhere, to be another juft caufe of
difcontent and jealoufy. They further affured his ma¬
jefty, that an aft intitled, “ For the better accommo¬
dation of his majefty’s forces,” being unlimited in du¬
ration, and dcfeflive in feme other circumftances, was
another juft caufe of jealoufy and difcontent. Thefe,
the principal caufes of jealoufies and difcontent in the
kingdom, they had fubmitted to his majefty, in humble
expectation of redrefs : and they concluded with an af-
furance, that they were more confident in the hope of
obtaining redrefs, as the people of Ireland had been, and
were, not more difpofed to ftiare the freedom of Eng--
land, than to fupport her in her difficulties, and to {hare
her fate. Ic,s
To this remarkable addrefs a moft gracious anfwer It is gra-
was given. In a few days the lord-lieutenant made ac>oufly re-
fpeech to both houfes j in which he informed them,ceivcd*
that, by the magnanimity of the king, and wifdom of
the Britifti parliament, he was enabled to affure them,
that immediate attention had been paid to their repre-
fentations, and that the legillature of Britain had con¬
curred in a refolution to remove the caufes of their dif¬
contents, and were united in a defire to gratify every
wilh. expreffed in the late addrefs to the throne ; and
that, in the mean time, his majefly was gracioufly dif¬
pofed to give his royal affent to aCls to prevent the
fupprefling of bills in the Irifli privy-council, and to li¬
mit the mutiny-bill to the term of two years. I09
The joy which now diffufed itfelf all over the king-Extreme
dom was extreme. The warmeft addreftes were pre-j0yofths
fented not only to his majefly but to the lord-lieute-Iriih‘
nant. The commons inftantly voted 100,0001. to his
majefty, to enable him to raife 20,000 men for the
navy j and foon after, 5000 men were likewife voted
from the Irifti eftabliftiment. The volunteers became
in a peculiar manner the objefts of gratitude and uni-
verfal panegyric 5 but none was placed in fo confpicu-
ous
* Ti E [ 35° ] I R E
Ireiand.
112
Equivocal
condudl of
Britain.
, 1T3
Affairs
tinaily fet¬
tled under
the admini
itration of
Lord Tem¬
ple.
@us a light as Mr Grattan. AddrelTes of thanks flow¬
ed in upon him from all quarters j and the commons
addrefled his majefty to give him 50,000!. as a rg-
compenfe of his fervices; for which they promifed to
make provifion.
This requeft was alfo complied with •, but ftill the
jealoufies of the Irifh were not completely eradicated.
As the intended repeal of the declaratory adt was found
to be Ample, without any claufe esprefsly relinquilhing
the claim of right, feveral members of the houfe of
commons were of opinion, that the liberties of Ireland
were not yet thoroughly fecured. The majority, however,
were of opinion, that the Ample repeal of the obnoxious
aft was fufficient j but many of the nation at large dif¬
fered in fentiments. Mr Flood, a member of the houfe,
and a zealous patriot, now took the lead in this mat¬
ter $ while Mr Grattan loft much of his popularity by
efpouAng the contrary opinion. The matter, however,
was to appearance Anally fettled by the volunteers, who
declared themfelves on Mr Grattan’s Ade. Still fome
murmurings were heard j and it muft be owned, that
even yet the condufl of Britain appeared equivocal.
An Englifti law was permitting importation from
one of the Weft India iflands to all his majefty’s domi¬
nions j and of courfe including Ireland, though the
trade of the latter had already been declared abfolutely
free. This was looked upon in a very unfavourable
light. Great offence was alfo taken at a member of the
Englifti houfe of lords for a fpeech in parliament, in
which he afferted, that Great Britain had a right to
bind Ireland in matters of an external nature $ and
propofed to bring in a bill for that purpofe. The pub¬
lic difcontent was alfo greatly inflamed by fome circum-
ftances relating to this bill, which were particularly
obnoxious. Lord Beauchamp, in a letter addreffed
to one of the volunteer corps, was at pains to ftiow that
the fecurity of the legiflative privileges obtained from
the parliament of Britain was infufficient. The lawyers
corps, alfo, who took the queftion into conAdera-
tion, were of the fame opinion j but the circumftance
which gave the greateft offence was, that the chief
juftice in the Englifli court of king’s bench gave
judgment in an Irifli caufe direftly contrary to a
law which had limited all fuch judgments to the Arft
of June. All thefe reafons of dilcontent, however,
were removed on the death of the marquis of Rocking¬
ham, and the appointment of the new miniftry who
fucceeded him. Lord iemple came over to Ireland,
and his brother and fecretary Mr Grenville went to
England, where he made fuch reprefentations of the
difcontents which prevailed concerning the infufficiency
of the declaratory aft, that Mr Townftiend, one of the
fecretaries of ftate, moved in the houfe of commons for
leave to bring in a bill to remove from the minds of the
people of Ireland all doubts reipecting their legiflative
and judicial privileges. Thisbill fontained, in the fulleft
and moft exprefs terms, a relinquifhment on the part of
the Britifh legiflature of all claims of a right to inter¬
fere with the judgment of the Irifti courts, or to make
laws to bind Ireland in time to come. Thus the con¬
test was at laft ended ^ and ever lince this kingdom has
continued to flourilh, and to enjoy the bleflingsof tran¬
quillity and peace, free from eveiy kind of reftri&ion
either on its commerce or manufactures, till the com¬
mencement of the rebellion in 1798.
. ^ome *-,me the aoove tranfaftion, the comtner- Ireland.
ctalproportions of Mr Pitt were rejehted by both houfes 
of the Irifti parliament j and in the latter end of the
year 1788, very warm debates took place on the regen¬
cy bill j but the hidden and unexpected recovery of
his majefty put a period to this political conteft. The
queftion refpeaing the emancipation of the Roman
Catholics was much agitated about this period, and the
miniftry rendered themfelves ftill more popular by ap.
pointing Earl Fitzwilliam to fueceed the marquis of
Buckingham as lord-lieutenant of Ireland. It is to be
piefumed, however, that the joy of the people on this
occaAon chiefly originated from the hope, that the bill
for the Catholic emancipation, brought in by Mr
Grattan on the 12th of February 1795, and another on
the. 14th of the fame month, for the diminution of the Ir.
national expenditure, would be allowed to pafs. The Bill in fa-
miniftry, however, feemed to reprobate theie meafures, vour of the
in confequence of which Earl Fitzwilliam was recalled, Ciltholics
and Lord Camden appointed his fucceffor, which wasre-*es^ec!’
fo repugnant to the feelings of the people, that the day
of Lord Fitzwilliam’s departure (25th March) was ob-
ferved at Dublin as a day of general mourning. The
bill in favour of Catholic emancipation was rejeCled on
the 4th of May, by a majority of 71, which had a
powerful tendency to increafe the popular difcontent.
Of this difaffe&ion the rulers of France determined to French at-
avail themfelves, and Atted out a fleet for the invaflon tempt to
of Ireland, confliting of 18 fail of the line, 13 frigates, lar‘d ia Il'e-
and 12 floops, with tranfports, and 25,000 men, whichlan<5,
were under the command of General Hoche. This
formidable armament failed from Breft on the loth of
December 1796 j but fo tempeftuous was the weather
that the fleet was difperfed j the fquadron under the
command of Admiral Bouvet returned to Breft on the
31ft after reaching Bantry bay ; a fliip of the line and
two frigates periflied at fea j another French frigate
was taken by the Britifli, and a French ftiip of the line
efcaped, after fighting for fome time againft two Bri-
tilh ftiips.
It was no doubt a fortunate circumftance for Bri¬
tain, yet the internal anarchy and confuAon of Ireland
were ftill rapidly gaining ground. The members of
the fociety of United Irilhmen, inftituted in the year
1791, profeffed to have no other objects in view than
a reform in parliament, and that the people of every
religious profeflion ftiould enjoy an equality of civil
rights ; but it was afterwards undeniably proved, that
they anxioufly wiftied to bring about a revolution, and
eftablilh a republican government, fimilar to that which
then deluged France with blood. The members fwore
“ to obtain a complete reform in the legiflature, on
the principles of civil, political, and religious liberty $
and never to inform, or give evidence, in any court, J:(-
againft any member of that or fimilar focieties.” So Origin of
plaufible were thefe objefts, that their numbers in-the rebel-
creaied with aftoniihing rapidity, and their divifions on>
and fubdivifions were foon extended all over the king¬
dom. Many loyal fubjedls, afraid of the extenfion of
Roman Catholic privileges, alfo formed affociations un¬
der the title of Orangemen, in order to deprive Papifts
of arms ; and they in their turn affumed the name of
defenders: in confequence of which the moft terrible
outrages were committed on bo‘h fides. The United
Iriftimen ftill continued the molt numerous j but the
firft
I R E
Ireland, firft dire& communication between lliem and the French
direftory took place in 1795 through the medium of one
Mr Lewins ; and in the following year the invalion,
already mentioned, was concerted on the frontiers of
France, between Lord Fitzgerald, Arthur O’Connor,
and General Hoche, the failure of which did not feem
to intimidate the rebels. Arms continued to be diftri-
buted with fecrecy among the members, and a cor-
refpondence with the French directory was ftill pre-
ferved.
As proceedings of fuch a nature were juftly alarm¬
ing to the Britiih government, the Infurrcciion Aft was
palTed in March 1796, by which magiilrates were autho¬
rized to place the people under martial law 5 a mcafure
no doubt juftifiable from the alarming nature of the
times j but it certainly had the effect of increafing the
difcontents, and was alfo productive of numerous a6ts
of oppreffion. Yet fuch as were connefted with the
United Irilhmen were guilty of actions equally atroci¬
ous. So fully convinced were they of ultimate fuecefs,.
117 that in December 1797 an executive directory was
Ini'll re- nominated for the government of the Irifh republic,
public. confiding of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Mr A. O’Con¬
nor, Mr Oliver Bond, Dr M^iven, and Counfellor
Emmet With fuch confummate art was their con-
fpiracy planned, and with fuch profound fecrecy was it
conduced, that there is great I'eafon to believe it
might have been carried into effect, had not Mr Rey¬
nolds made a difcovery in March 1798, which led to
the apprehenfion of the principal ringleaders, and Fitz¬
gerald received a mortal wound while refilling the of¬
ficers. This reverfe of fortune did not prevent the no¬
mination of another directory ; but its fate was fimilar
to the former, and information was given againft them
by a Captain Armlirong, who had entered into their
fociety for the purpofe of betraying them. John and
Henry Sheares, two of the direftors, were apprehended
on the 21 ft of May 1798 ; Mr Neilfon and a number
more of the fame defcription on the 23d, and the me¬
tropolis was proclaimed in a ftate of iniurrecition. The
guards were made three times ftronger than before j
and the whole city might be confidered as forming but
one garrifon. Dublin was thus delivered from the
dreadful havock and devaftation premeditated by the re¬
bels ; but in the provinces of Leinfter and Connaught,
as well as in various other places, they appeared in for¬
midable bodies, intercepted the mail coaches, and thus
118 gave the fignal for a general infurreftion.
Actions In their attack upon the town of Naas, on the 24th
fcbclj^6 they experienced a fignal defeat from Lord
■ Gcsford at the head of the Armagh militia, and left
400 men dead on the field. General Dundas defeated
a eonfiderable body of the rebels near Kilcuilen, and
on the 25th Lord Roden vanquiftied another body of
them about 400 ftrong, the leaders of whom were ta¬
ken and executed. On the 26th they lhared the fame
fate at Tallagh hill, when 350 of them were flain.
They attacked the town of Carlow to the number of
1000, where they were defeated with the lofs of 400
men \ but as the inhabitants fired upon the king’s
troops, one half of the town was burnt in revenge.
The rebels made an attack upon Kildare on the 29th,
hut the gallant conduft of Sir J. Duff and the troops
under his command, made them foon retire with the
lofs of 200 men. In Wicklow and Wexford, however.
I R E
the rebellion raged with the moft dreadful fury j in the Ireland,
latter of which they were computed to have 15,000 men —^y*~“
on the 25th of May, when they furrounded and cut to
pieces the North York militia at Oulard, commanded
by Colonel Foot and Major Lombard. They attacked
and carried the town of Ennifeorthy, but with the lofs
of 400 men, and a party of the Meath militia fell into
their hands on the 29th. The town of Wexford fur-
rendered to them next day, when Harvey, Fitzgerald,
and Colclough, who had been made prifoners on the
26th for treafon, were inftantly fet at liberty, and Har¬
vey was appointed their commander-in-chief. Having
left a garrilon in the town, the rebel commander march¬
ed on the 5th of June to attack New' Rois, where Ma¬
jor-general Jobnfton obftinately defended the town for
feveral hours, and at laft forced the enemy to retreat
with confiderable lofs. This defeat fo exafperated the
rebels, that they butchered 105 royalifts whom they
found in the jail of Wexford. Their attempt upon
Gorey was ineffectual, as well as that upon Newton
Barry on the third of June, w here Colonel Leftrange de¬
feated them with the lofs of 500 men killed in the ac¬
tion. On the following day, however, the tide of for¬
tune feemed to turn in their favour near Slievebay
mountain, wdiere the royal forces under Colonel Wal¬
pole were defeated with the lofs of 54 men, and the
commander himfelf was flain in the action. Encou¬
raged by this fuccefs, they refolvcd to make an attack
upon Arklow j but the grape-lhot of General Need¬
ham made terrible havock among them j yet their
ftrong pofition near Vinegar hill was ftill maintained
by their main body, from which it was found impracti¬
cable to diflodge them before the 21ft, when they were
nearly furrounded by General Lake, with his troops in
five columns, led into action by Generals Dundas,
Johnfon, Euftace, Duff, and Lotus. The carnage
was terrible, as the rebels defended themfelves with
great obftinacy for an hour and a half, and loft 13
pieces of cannon, The town of Wexford furrendered
next day, and on the 26ih Harvey and Colclough were
apprehended on one of the Saltee iilands, who were
tried and executed, together with Keughe, the rebel
governor of Wexford.
The details of carnage and bloodfhed are by no
means agreeable to the feelings of humanity, yet a re¬
gard to hiftorical truth obliges us to give them, but in
as concife a manner as we poflibly can. The rebels
gamed poffeflion of Antrim about the 7th of June, but
were foon obliged to abandon it by the exertions of
General Nugent. Still, however, a fpirit of infurrec-
tion continued formidable in the counties of Antrim
and Down j but the rebels were defeated on the 12th
at Ballynahinch, where they loft upwards of 400 men,
and the royal forces only 20 in killed and wounded.
Munro, their general, was taken prifoner and executed.
It is to be lamented that both rebels and royalifts feem¬
ed, during this unnatural conteft, to be fuch utter
ftrangers to every principle of humanity, that fome
have deemed it a very difficult matter to determine
which party was the worft, although the biftiop of Kil-
lala, who fuffered much for his attachment to govern¬
ment, gives it againft the latter. This, however, was
defti d to be terminated in a very ffiort time, for
Marquis Cornwallis was now appointed lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, and arrived in Dublin on the 20th of June.
The
[ 351 1
IRE [ 352 ] IRE
Ireland. Xhe firfl; meafure, adopted by bis excellency, foon
l" v after his arrival, bad a more powerful effeft in crufhing
the rebellion than all the rigorous meafures formerly
purfued. On the 7th of July he made an offer of his
majefty’s pardon to all who fhoukl furrender before a
certain day. The confequence of this proclamation
was, that numbers returned to their allegiance, and de¬
livered up all the arms in their poffeffion. Some, how¬
ever, of the moll notorious offenders w'ere tried by a
fpecial commiffion, condemned, and executed, fuch as
J. and H. Sheares, M‘Cann, Byrne, and others. Mr
Oliver Bond, who was condemned on the 23d of July,
had powerful intereft made for him in order to fave his
life on account of his refpeftable connexions. The
fentence of death was to be changed into banilhment,
on condition he would tell all he knew refpe&ing the
rebellion. He was accordingly pardoned, but his death
happened foon after. Some of the moft defperate of
the rebels Hill continued to lurk about the mountains of
Wicklow and Wexford, notwithftanding the proclama¬
tion of the amnefty, but thefe were gradually reduced.
It was the general opinion about this time, that the
rebellion was completely ended, when the people were
119 fuddenly and unexpedledly alarmed by the landing of
A body of a body of French troops under General Humbert,
btnds”!n J-'his happened at Killala, on the 22d of Auguft 1798.
• Ireland. Their number being at firtl very much exaggerated,
Lord Cornwallis defigned to march again!! them in
perfon at the head of the army. In the mean time
Humbert marched on towards Caftlebar, where he
engaged the Britifh forces under General Lake, obli¬
ging them to retreat with the lofs of fix pieces of can¬
non, and a confiderable number of men. Lord Corn¬
wallis came up with the French near Caftlebar, and
forced them to retreat; and General Humbert having
been joined by a number of the rebels, he made a cir¬
cuitous march in order to favour their efcape, in con¬
fequence of which the greater part of them got away
in fafety. Ninety-three of them and three of their
generals were taken prifoners. The French having
furrendered, the public were aftonifhed to find that
this tremendous army amounted to no more than 844
men !
On the 16th of September a French brig made its
appearance off the ifle of Rutland, on the north-weft
coaft of Donegal, where the crew landed, together
with General Rey and the celebrated Napper Tandy,
fuftaining the rank of a French general of brigade.
On inquiring after Humbert, they feemed aftoniftied at
being informed that he and his men were prifoners.
In the end of September a (hip of the line and eight
frigates, with troops and ammunition for Ireland, failed
from Breft harbour; but the coaft was too well defend¬
ed by the fquadron under the command of Sir J. B.
Warren for fuch an armament to be fuccefsful. The
fhip of the line, called the Hoche, ftruck after a gallant
defence; and the whole fquadron was captured, with the
exception of two frigates. This defeat was a death¬
blow to the hopes of the French as w ell as to the Irifh
rebels. The celebrated Theobald Wolfe Tone was
found among the prifoners in the Hoche, who was con-
Jldered as the ableft man at Paris from Ireland, in re-
fpefl of negociating. He was tried by a court ; 'artial
at Dublin, where it was allowed that he made a very
manly defence, neither denying nor excufing his crime,
but refting the merits of his plea on the idea of his be- Ireland,
ing, as he thought, a citizen of France, and an officer
in the fervice of that country. His arguments, how¬
ever, were ineffe&ual, and the court would not even
grant his requeft to be ffiot rather than hanged, in con¬
fequence of which he committed fuicide in prifon. The
fpirit of rebellion might be faid to die with this wonder¬
ful man ; for the few rebels who ftill continued with
General Holt, the laft of the rebel chiefs, graduallv
laid down their arms, as did Holt himfelf, who was
baniffied for life.
At the termination of this horrible conteft, it was
computed that not fewer than 30,000 perfons loft their
lives, independent of many thoulands who were wound¬
ed or tranfported.
The only remaining event of any importance con¬
nected with the hiftory of this country, is its union
with Great Britain. This event had been long in con¬
templation, but it was firft announced in the Britilh 12„
houfe of commons on the 22d of January 1799, by a Union with
meffage from his majefty, conceived in thei’e words : Ireland,
“ George R. His majefty is perfuaded, that the un¬
remitting induftry with which our enemies perfevere in
their avow ed defign of effedting the feparation of Ireland
from this country, cannot fail to engage the particular
attention of parliament; and his majefty recommends
it to this houfe, to confider of the moft effedlual means
of finally defeating this defign, by difpofing the parlia¬
ments of both kingdoms, to provide in the manner
which they ftrall judge moft expedient, for fettling fuch
a complete and final adjuftment, as may belt tend to
improve and perpetuate a connexion effential for their
common fecurity, and confolidate the ftrength, powrer,
and refources of the Britilh empire.” On the 31ft the
meafure was taken into confideration, when Mr Pitt
moved feven refolutions as the bafis of it, which were
oppofed by Mr Sheridan, who gave it as his decided
opinion, that the fair and free approbation of parlia¬
ment could never be afeertained, while any of its mem¬
bers were under government influence, on which ac¬
count he oppofed the union; as did alfo Meffrs Grey,
Tierney, Jones, Sir F. Burdett, General Fitzpatrick,
Dr Lawrence and others. It alfo met with confider¬
able oppofition in the houfe of peers, and in the Iriffi
parliament the oppofition was formidable. In the ad-
drefs to his majefty, the paragraph recommending an
union was voted to be expunged, by a majority of ill
againft 106, in confequence of which the city of Dub¬
lin was twice illuminated. In the houfe of peers, how¬
ever, a majority appeared in favour of the union; and
when it was introduced in form by a meflage from -I
the lord-lieutenant, it was carried in favour of the
union, after a long and interefting debate, by a ma¬
jority of 161 againft 115. The articles of the intend¬
ed union were tranfmited to England by the lord-
lieutenant; they were again fubmitted to the Britifli
parliament on the 2d of April ; on the 2d of July the
bill received the royal aflent, and the union took place
on the ill of January i8ci.
In confequence of this union, which we truft will
prove an unfpeakable bleffing to both countries, the
Irifti are to have a lhare of all the commerce of Great
Britain, with the exception of fuch parts of it as be¬
long to chartered companies, and confequently not free
to the inhabitants of the Britifti empire indiferiminately.
The
PLATE CCLXXXVT.
I R E
Ireland.
tit
Climate,
&C. of Ire¬
land.
The commons of Ireland are reprefented by a hundred
' members in the imperial parliament; the fpiritual and
temporal peerage of that country by four bifhops and
twenty-eight lay-lords, who are eleaed by the bifhops
and peers of Ireland, and hold their feats for life; and
the title of his Britannic ffiajefty is “ king of the united
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, defender of the
faith the title of king of France being now laid
afide. The former laws and courts of juftice in Ire¬
land are flill retained, as alfo the court of chancery,
and the king of Great Britain is ftill reprefented by a
lord-lieutenant. No part of the debt contrafted by
Britain prior to the union is to be paid by Ireland,
which only contributes to the expences of the empire
in the ratio of i to y7‘. But as this in time might
prove extravagantly favourable to that country, in con-
fequence of a rapid increafe of its trade and commerce,
it may be reviled and altered by parliament in the
courfe of twenty years. By one claufe of the aft of
union it is declared, that fuch peers of Ireland as are
not elefted into the houfe of lords, are competent to
lit in the houfe of commons as reprefentatives of Britilh
towns and counties, on condition that they give up all
the privileges of the peerage during their continuance
in the lower houfe.
I he climate of Ireland would almolt perfeftly agree
with that of England, were the foil equally improved,
being abundantly fruitful both in corn and grad, efpe-
eially the latter; in confequence of which, an infinite
number of black cattle and (beep are bred, particularly
in the province of Connaught. Few countries produce
finer grain than that which grows in the improved parts
of this kingdom. The northern and eaftern counties are
bed cultivated and inclofed, and the moft populous.
Ireland is known to have many rich mines ; and
there is no inconfiderable profpeft of gold and filver in
fome parts of the kingdom. No country in the world
abounds more in beautiful lakes, both frefii and fait
xvater ones; and it is alfo plentifully watered with many
beautiful rivers. The commodities which Ireland ex¬
ports, as far as her prefent trade will permit, are hides,
tallow, beef, butter, cheefe, honey, wax, hemp, metals,
and fifh : wool and glals were, till December 23. 1779,
prohibited ; but her linen trade rsof late grow n of very
great confequence. England, in the whole, is thought
to gam yearly by Ireland upwards of 1,400,000!.; and
in many other refpefts Ihe mud be of very great advan¬
tage to that kingdom. Formerly, indeed, die was ra¬
ther a burden to her elder filler than any benefit; but
the times are changed now’, and improve every day.
Mr O’Halloran fays, the linen manufafture was car-
on ‘n Ireland in very early days to a ereat ex-
Sliced. tent ; and Gratianus Euclus quotes a defcnption of
the kingdom, printed at Leyden in 1627; In which
the author tells us, “ That this country abounds with
flax, which is fent ready fpun in large quantities to fo¬
reign nations Formerly (fays he) they wove great
quantities of linen, which was mollly confumed at
home, the natives requiring above 30 yards of linen in
a hirt or Ihift.” So truly expenfive was the Irilh fa-
Ihion of making up fhirts, on account of the number of
plaits and folds, that, in the reign of Henry VIII. a
flatute palled, by which they were forbidden, under a
fevere penalty, to put more than feven yards of linen
in a fhirt or fhift.
Vol. XI. Part I,
f 3S3 1
I R E
142
kinen ma-
nufa&ure
We may form fome idea of what the trade of Ire- Ireland
land mutt have been in former times, when, fo late as -v""'**'
the reign of Brien Boru, who died in 1014, notwith-
ftanding the ravages and diftrefles which a Danifh war,
of above 200 years continuance, mult have produced
throughout the kingdom, the annual duties arifing
from goods imported into the fir.gle port of Limerick,
and paid in red wine, amounted to 365 pipes! Even
fo lately as-the lalt century, it is fcarcely credible what
riches this city derived from the bare manufafture of
{hoes, which were exported in amazing quantities ;
whereas now, inftead of fhoes and boots, we iee the raw
hides Ihipped oft' for foreign markets.
No country in the worM ieems better fituated for a
maritime power than Ireland, where the ports are con¬
venient to every nation in Europe,- and the havens
fafe and commodious. The great plenty of timber,
the fuperior excellence of the oak, and the acknow¬
ledged Ikill of her ancient artizans in wood-works, are
circumftances clearly in her favour. That the Irifh
formerly exported large quantities of timber, is manifeft
from the churches of Gloucefter, Weftminfter mona-
ftery and palace, &c. being covered with Irilh oak, I2,
The government of the kingdom is in the hands ofGovern-
a viceroy, or lord-lieutenant, who lives in very great po^
fplendour. In his abfence there are lords juftices (flyled Rubuion*
their excellencies'), generally three in number, viz. lord C*
primate, lord high chancellor, and, before the union,
the fpeaker of the houle of commons. The parliament
of Ireland, while it exifted, was regulated in the fame
way as the Britilh parliament.
Ireland is divided into four large provinces, and thofe
again into 32 counties, as follow’s :
I.
Houfes.
20738
J3I25
9268
ULSTER.
Extent, &c.
Length 6 81
Breadth 98 >• miles
Circumference 460 j
26090 Irifli plantation acres,2836837 j
Englifh acres, 4491205.
Parifhes, 365
Boroughs, 29
_ ^ Baronies, 55
9. Tyrone J6545 Archbifhopric, 1
Bilhopries, 6
Market towns, 58
Counties.
1. Antrim
2. Armagh
3. Cavan
4. Down
5. Donnegal 12357
6. Fermanagh 5674
7. Londonderry 14527
8. Monaghaft 26637
144961
II. LEINSTER.
Caterlogh, or
Carlow 5444
Dublin 24145
Kildare 8887
Kilkenny 3231
King’s county 9294
Longford 6057
Lowth 81 to
8. Meath(Eaft)i4O0O Market-towns, 63
9. Queen’s coun- Archbiftiopric, 1
ty 11226 Bilhoprics, 3
Weftmeath
Length io47
Breadth 55 Smiles
Circumference 360 J
Irifti acres, 2642958 ; Ot
4281155 Englifh.
Parifhes, 858
Boroughs, 53
Baronies, 99
10
11. Wexford
12. Wicklow
9621 The rivers are, the Boyne,
13^5
7781
12085.1
Barrow, Liffy, Noir, and the
May.
Vy
III.
Ireland!.
I R E
III. MUNSTER.
Counties. lloufes. Extent, &c.
j. Clare Length I°01
2. Cork 47334 Breadth 107 J-miles
3. Kerry ii653 Circumference 6ooj
4. Limerick 19380 Irith acres 3289932 5 5329146
5. Tipperary 18325 Pariihes, 740
6. Waterford 94^5 Boroughs, 26
Baronies, 63
[ 354 1
[Englith
j 17558 Archbilhopric, it
Biflrops, 6
IV. CONNAUGHT.
1. Galway
2. Leitrim
3. Mayo
4. Rofcommon
q. SHffo
J5576
1 ^089
878.
Length 9° 7
Breadth 80> miles
Circumference 500 J
Irilh acres, ! 272915 ^681 746
5970 Pariihe', 330 [Engiiih
   Boroughs, 10
50571 Baronies, 43
Archbilhopric, I
Biihop, 1
Rivers are the Shannon, May,
Suck, and Gy 11.
In 1731, while the duke of Dorfet was lord-lieuten¬
ant, the inhabitants were numbered, and it was found
that the four provinces contained as follows :
21604') 221780']
203087 | 4479’6 I
“g-^lproteftants. fb2°tt!.Papiib.
360632 | 11580201 L
Connaught
Leinder
Mu niter
Uliter
700453 J 1309768J
The return of houfes in Ireland for the year I754»
was 39;,439 ; and for the year 1766, it was 424,046.
Suppofing therefore the numbers to have increaied at
the fame rate, the number of houfes now cannot be lefs
than 454,130-, which, allowing five perfons to a fa¬
mily, will make the number of inhabitants 2,260,650 :
but as the return of the houfes by hearth-colleftors is
rather under than above the truth, and as there are
many families in every parilh who are by law excufed
from that tax, and therefore not returned, the number
on a moderate edimate will be 2,500,000. Sir W.
Petty reckoned 160,000 cabins without a chimney j
and if there be an equal number of fueh houfes now,
the number of people will be above 3,000,000.
It has been frequently obferved by the mod celebra¬
ted writers on poli ical arithmetic, that plenty of food,
frequency of marriage, a falubrious climate, a mild and
equitable government, and an increafed demand for la¬
bour, are the never failing criteria of an increafing po¬
pulation in any country whatever. The three firft of
thefe have contributed in a very powerful manner to
xncreafe the population of Ireland in the 18th century.
The climate of that country has changed for the bet¬
ter in a mod adonidung degree fince the middle of the
37th century. The extenfive foreds with which it once
abounded, no longer exid, to obdruct the circulation of
a free current of air; and fame inquifitive philofophers
have hazarded an opinion, that the atmofphere of Ire¬
land contains a larger proportion of oxygen in any given
I R E
quantity, than is to be met with in fume other conn- Ireland,
tries. It cannot be known what eifcft this may have
on the population of a country, becaufe it is found by
eminent chemids, that about 75 of oxygen in 100 parts
of atmofpheric air, conditute the proportion difcovered
by analyfis of the air in different climates, and at dif¬
ferent heights.
That the population of Ireland is increafed, not-
wilhdanding the ravages of the late rebellion, appears
from the rapid increafe and flourifhing date of trade
and commerce, which unavoidably occafions an in¬
creafe of labour, and that again a multiplication of
hands. All articles of the nature of provitions, as well
as manufactures, have rapidly increaftd, and the tillage
in particular is fix times more extenfive than it s'&s
about the year 1783, fo that fix times more people are
employed in that tingle department of labour than were
required at the fore-mentioned period. The people
thus engaged mud alfo furnifh employment for a much
greater number of mechanics of all deferiptions, as the
■numerous and varied branches of trade depend on each
other like the links of a chain, ihe aftonifliing in¬
creafe of the quantity of many articles imported into
Ireland for home eonfumption, fuch as coals, drapery,
tobacco, tea, and fugar, may be regarde-d as another
decifive proof of an increafed population. In 17^3>
there were 230,135 tons of coals imported, but in
1804 there were 417,030 tons, notwithdanding ihe
eonfumption was greatly diminifhed, owing to an aug¬
mentation of 73. pel" ton on the price of that important
article. There were 353,753 yards of old drapery im¬
port-.: d in 17835 but in 1804, according to the eutlom-
houfe books, they amounted to no fewer than 1,330.304
yards, or almnd a fourfold increafe. In the year I7^3»
there were imported of tobacco 3,459,861 pounds 5 but
in '804 that quantity was aimed doubled : and as the
ufe of that article has greatly declined, it follows of
confequence, that the population has wonderfully in¬
creafed. The fame faff is aid) proved from the con-
fumption of tea and fugar at thefe two different periods,
the quantity of both articles having been doubled in
1804.
If then we allow, on an average, fix perfons to each
houfe in Ireland, it will appear from accurate returns
made in the year 1777’ 1,:'ntrfc were 2,690,556
people in that country, and 3,900,000 in 1788. It it
be admitted as a fact (in fupport of which many re-
fpebfable documents could be produced), that the po¬
pulation of Ireland has, fince the year 1791, expe¬
rienced an annual average increafe of nearly 9U44®
fouls, it may fairly be concluded that the whole inha¬
bitants of that c< untry cannot be ettimated much un¬
der 5,39^436 fouls. It muff at the fame time be ac¬
knowledged, that the caufes affe&ing the population of
Ireland have not always operated with uniformity, and
therefore a permanently accurate liandard cannot be
fixed, although there is every reafon to believr Tat it
is rather on the increafe than the contrary. The ave¬
rage number of perfons which we have atligned to each
houfe is indeed greater than what is found to obtain in-
England or Wales (viz. s-^), but it is fully warranted
bv tbe aftual furvey of different counties. Mr Arthur
Young found the average number to be fix in iome
parts of the province of Ulfter 5 tin fame- at Drumo-
land in the province of Muntler; and at Kilfane it was
I R E
l 355 1
I R E
# Inquiry
into the Po
Ireland 6?-. Mr Tighe confiders fix as the average number in
the county of Kilkenny $ while in the town of Cove,
and county of Cork, it was found no Ids than p| !
The fame author afferts, that in one village he found
the average number to be 9, and in others 7 and 8, fo
that 6 mail be contidered as a moderate eftimate j and
Mr Newenham feems fully warranted, from thefe con-
fiderations, in eftimating the population of Ireland, in
round numbers, at 5,400,000 fouls.
As numerous reafons confpire to evince, that the po¬
pulation of this country is doubled in the courfe of 46
.years, we think with Mr Newenham, that it is ex¬
tremely probable that it will not amount to lefs than
8,413,224 by the year 1837 j and yet Ireland is ful¬
ly competent to fupport this population, immenfe as it
is *.
According to Young, Newenham, and others, the
pulation q/’.|'0j] jn p0int of fertility even furpaffes that of England :
8y0( -it contains not luch a large proportion ot waite land,
and many extenlive trails of the produflive foil feem
to be wholly unrivalled in refpeft of fertility. For an
.ample detail of the uncommon richnefs and fertility of
the foil of Ireland in general, we refer our readers to
the inftrubtive Tour of Mr A. Young, which contains
many experiments made by himfelf on the foils of dif¬
ferent counties.
What a valuable acquifition to the Britifh empire, of
which it now happily forms a conftituent part, lince it
can augment the military ftrength of the whole in a
very powerful manner, and make fuch refpeftable ad¬
ditions to the Britilh revenue as cannot fail to refult
from its flouriihing commerce. Ireland in a date of
enmity againft Britain, both weakened the latter, and
.rendered herfelf vulnerable in a high degree j but fince
both are happily united, and have only one common
interefl:, we truft that the mold daring enemy (hall ever
ri4 find them invulnerable.
Appearance Beauty feems to be more diffufed in England, among
and cha- (Be lower ranks of life, than in Ireland j which may,
however, be attributed to the mere modes of living.
In England, the meaneft cottager is better fed, better
lodged, and better dreffed, than the moft opulent far¬
mers here, w-ho, unaccuftomed to what our peafants
reckon the comforts of life, know no luxury but in deep
potations of aquavitse.
From this circumftance, we may account for a fa£t
reported by the officers of the army here. They fay,
that the young fellows of Ireland, who offer to enlift,
-are more generally below the given height than in
England. There can be no appeal from their tefti-
mony ; for they were Iriffi, and the flandard is an in¬
fallible teft. No reafon, indeed, can be given why
the caufes which promote or prevent the growth of
other animals, ffiould not have fjmilar effefls upon the
human fpecies. In England, where there is no flint
of provifions, the growth is not checked *, but, on the
contrary, it is extended to the utmoff bound of na¬
ture’s original intention j whereas, in Ireland, where
food is neither in the fame quantity nor of the fame
quality, the body cannot expand itfelf, but is dwarfed
and ftunted in its dimenflons. The gentlemen of Ire¬
land are full as tail as thole of England : the difference,
then, bet ween them and the commonalty, can only pro¬
ceed from the difference of food.
The inhabitants, in general, of this kingdom are
rader of
the inha¬
bitants.
very far from, what they have too often and unjuftly Ireland,
been reprefented by thufe of our country who never •—
faw them, a nation of wild Irifh. Miferable and op-
preffed, as by far too many of them are, an Englifh-
man will find as much civility in general, as -amongft
the fame clafs in his own country : and, for a fmall pe¬
cuniary confideration, they will exert themfelves to
pleafe you as much as any people perhaps in the .
king’s dominions. Poverty and oppreffion will natu¬
rally make mankind four, rude, and unfociable ; and
eradicate, or at leaf! fupprefs, all the more amiable
principles and paffions of humanity. But it fhould
feem unfair and ungenerous to judge of, or decide
againft, the natural difpofition of a man reduced by
indigence and oppreffion almoft to delperation. Let
commerce, agriculture, and arts, but call forth the
dormant aflivity of their genius, and roule the native
fpirit of enterprife, which now lies torpid within
them ; let liberal laws unfetter their minds, and plen¬
ty cheer their tables; they will foon ffiow themfelves
deferving to rank with the moft refpe&able focieties in
Europe.
“ The lower Irifh, (fays Carr f), are remarkable for (• Stranger
their ingenuity and docility, and a quick conception ; in Ireland,
in thefe properties they are equalled only Ly the Rul-P'21?"
fians. It is curious to fee with what fcanty materials
they will work ; they build their own cabins, and make
bridles, ftirrups, cruppers, and ropes for every ruflic
purpofe, of hay ; and Britifh adjutants allow that Iriffi
recruits are fooner made foldiers of than Englith ones.
“ That the Iriffi are not naturally lazy, is evident
from the quantity of laborious work which they will
perform, when they have much to do, which is not fre¬
quently the cafe in their own country, and are ade¬
quately paid for it, fo as to enable them to get proper
food to fupport fevere toil. Upon this principle, in
England, an Irifh labourer is always preferred.
“ The handfomeft peafants in Ireland are the na¬
tives of Kilkenny and the neighbourhood ; and the moll
wretched and fqualid near Cork and Waterford, and in
Munfter and Connaught. In the county of Rofcom-
mon the male and female peafantry and horfes ar«
handfome, the former are fair and tall, and poffefs great
flexibility of rnufcle : the men are the bell leapers in
Ireland : the fineft hunters and mofl. expert huntfmen
are to be found in the fine fporting county of Ferma¬
nagh. In the county of Meath the peafants are very
heavily limbed. In the county of Kerry, and along
the weftern fliore, the peafants very much referable the
Spaniards in expreflion of countenance, and colour o£
hair.
“ The inftruclion of the common people is in the
lowefl ftate of degradation. In the fummer a wretched
unchara£Iered itinerant derives a fcanty and precarious
exiftence by wandering from pariffi to parifh, and open¬
ing a fchool in fome ditch covered with heath and
furze, to which the inhabitants fend their children t<*
be inftru<5Ied by the miferable breadlefs being, who is
nearly as ignorant as themfelves ; and in the winter
thefe pedagogue pedlars go from door to door offering
their fervices, and pick up juft fufficient to prevent
themfelves from perifhing by famine. What propor¬
tion of morals and learning can flow from fuch a fource
into the mind of the ragged young pupil, can eafily bft
imagined, but cannot be refle&ed upon without ferioua
Y y 2 concern.
IRE [ 356 ] I It o
Ireland, concern. ,A gentleman of undoubted veracity Hated,
* not long fince, before the Dublin alTociation for dtlfri-
buting bibles and teflaments amongft the poor, that
whole pariihes were without a bible.
“ Their hofpitality, when their circmnflances are not
too wretched to difplay it, is remarkably great. It is
thus beautifully defcribed by Mr Curran. ‘ The hofpi¬
tality of other countries is a matter of neeeffity, or con¬
vention : in favage nations, of the firft ; in polilhed, of
the latter : but the hofpitality of an Irilhman is not the
running account of pojled and Ldgered courtefies, as in
other countries : it fprings, like all his other qualities,
his faults, his virtues, dire&ly from the heart. The
heart of an Irilhman is by nature bold, and he confides •,
it is tender,, and he loves \ it is generous, and he gives j
it is focial, and he is. hofpitable.”
Account of bogs wherewith Ireland is in feme places over-
the bogs in grown, are not injurious to health, as is commonly ima-
Ireiand. gined \ the watery exhalations from thele are neither
fo abundant nor fo noxious as thofe from marfhes, which
-become prejudicial from the various animal and vege¬
table fubftances which are left to putrefy as foon as the
waters are exhaled by the fun. Eogs are not, as one
might fuppofe from their blacknef-, mafies of putrefac¬
tion ; but, on the contrary, they are of fuch a texture,
as to refill putrefaflion above any other fubllance we
know of. A (hoe, all of one piece of leather, very
neatly Hitched, was taken out of a bog fome years ago,
yet entirely frelh j—from the very fafliion of which,
there is fcarce room to doubt that it had lain there
fome centuries. Butter, called roujhin, lias been
found in hollowed trunks of trees, where it had been
hid fo long, that it was become hard and almoH fria¬
ble, yet not devoid of un&uofity ; that the length of
time it had been buried was very great, we learn from
the depth of the bog, which was ten feet, that, had
grown over it. But the common phenomenon of tim¬
ber-trees dug out of thefe bogs not only found, but alfo
fo embalmed as afterwards to defy the injuries of time,
demonftrate the antifeptic quality of them. The horns
of the monfe-deer mull have lain many centuries in a
bog •, for the Irilli hillories do not recognize the erxifl-
ence of the animal whereon they grerv. Indeed, hu¬
man bodies have, in many places, been dug up entire,
which mull have lain there for ages. The growth of
bogs, however, is variable in different places, from the
variety of conditions in the fituation, foil, humidity,
and quantity of vegetable food j in fome places it is
very rapid, in others very flow j and therefore then-
altitudes cannot afford any certain meafure of time.
In the manufadluring counties of the north, peat-fuel
has become fo fcarce, that turbaries let from five to
eight guineas an acre. In fome places they are fo era¬
dicated, there does not remain a trace of them, the
ground being now converted into rich meadows and
12(j fweet pallures.
Trade of If we trull to authorities, we muff conclude that Ire-
Ireland on land was not originally inferior to England, either in
SeafT the ferlil.ity °* the or falubrity ef the climate.
When this country fhall have felt the happy effedts of
,, the late conceflions and indulgences of the Britilh par¬
liament, by repealing feveral a&s which reffrained the
trade of this kingdom with foreign ports, and allowing
the exportation of woollen manufaclures and glafs, and
fliall have received further indulgencei from the fame
3
authority ; and when the fpirit of induftry fliall be in- Ireland
fufed, in confequence of it, into the common people ^ 11
their country will not be inferior to any other on the
globe under the fame parallel.
IREN ALUS, St, a bifliop of Lyons, was born in
Greece about the year 120. He was the difciple of
Pappias and St Polycarp, by whom, it is faid, he was
fent into Gaul in 157. Pie lived at Lyons, where he
performed the office of a prieft ; and in 178 was fent
to Rome, where he difputed with Valentinus, and his
two difciples Florinus and Blaftus. At his return to
Lyons, he lucceeded Photinus, biffiop of that city • and
fuffered martyrdom in 202, under the reign of Severus.
He wrote many books in Greek, of which there only-
remains a barbarous Latin verfion of his five bpoks
againll heretics, fome Greek fragments in different
authors, and Pope Victor’s letter mentioned by Eufe-
bius. The bell editions of his works are thofe of Eraf-
mus, in 1526; of Grabe, in 1702^ and of Father
Maffuet, in 1710.
He ought not to be confounded with St Irenseus the
deacon, who in 275 fuffered martyrdom in Tufcany,
under the reign of Aurelian ; nor with St Irenseus,
bilhnp of Sirmich, who fuffered martyrdom on the 2 iffh
of March 304, during the perfecution of Dioclefian
and Maximianus.
IRENE, craprefs ef the eaft, celebrated for her va¬
lour, wit, and beauty j but detefiable for her cruelty,
having facrificed her own fon to the ambition of reign¬
ing alone. She died in 803.
. IRESINE, a genus of plants belonging to the dice-
cia clais, and in the natural method ranking under the
541b order, Mifcellanece. See Botany Index.
IRIDIUM, a metal obtained from crude platina.
See Chemistry, N° 2153. p. 699.
IRIS, in Phy.no/ogy, the rainbow. The word is
Greek, fuppofed by fome to be derived from
“ I fpeak, I tell j” as being a meteor that is fuppoled
to foretel, or rather to declare rain. See Rainbow.
Lunar Iris, or Moon-rainbow. See R AIN BO JV,
Lunar.
Iris, in Anatomy, a ftriped variegated circle round
the pupil of the eye, formed of a duplicature of the
uvea. See Anatomy Index.
Iris is alfo applied to thofe changeable colours which
fomelimes appear in the glaffes of telefcopes, micro-
fcopes, &c. fo called from their fimilitude to a rain¬
bow. The fame appellation is alfo given to that co¬
loured fpe&rum, which a triangular prifmatic glafs will
project on a wall, when placed at a due angle in 'the
fun-beams.
Iris, the Flower de Luce, or Flag-flower, &c. a
genus of plants, belonging to the triandria clafs, and
in the natural method ranking under the fixth order,
Knfates. See Botany Index.
IRON, one of the metals, and one of the hardeff
and mod ufeful, as well as the moll abundant. See
Chemistry and Mineralogy Index; and for its elec¬
trical and magnetical properties, fee Electricity and
Magnetism.
/RON-Mou/ds, and fpots of ink in linen, may be ta¬
ken out by moiflening the llained part in a folution of
oxalic acid in diilillcd water, and then wafliing it out
in pure water.
IRON-Sick, in the Tea-language, is faid of a {hip or
boat*
I R R f 3s7 f I R R
Iron fick boat, when her bolts or nails are fo ^atcn with ruft,
. |l and fo worn away, that they occafion hollows in the
^ J' planks, whereby the vc-ffel is rendered leaky.
IRON-Wood, in Botany. See SlDEROXYLUM, Bo-
TAXY Index.
iRON-Wort, in Botany. See SlDERITis, Botany
Index.
IRONY, in Rhetoric, is when a perfon fpeaks con¬
trary to his thoughts, in order to add force to his dif-
courfe •, whence Quintilian calls it diverjiloquium.
Thus, when a notorious villain is fcornfully compli¬
mented with the title of a very honeft and excellent
perfon •, the character of the perion commended, the air
of contempt that appears in the fpeaker, and the exor¬
bitancy of the commendations, furHciently difcover the
diflimulation of irony.
Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of trope;
which, after having fet the inconveniences of a thing
in the cleared; light, concludes with a feigned encou¬
ragement to purfue it. Such is that of Horace, when,
having beautifully defcribed the noife and tumults of
Rome, he adds ironically,
Go now, and fludy tuneful verfe at Rome !
IROQUOIS, the name of five nations in North
America, in alliance w ith the Britilh colonies. They
are bounded by Canada on the north, by the Britiih
plantations of New York and Pennfylvania on the eaft
and fouth, and by the lake Ontario on the weft.
IRRADIATION, the a6l of emitting fubtile ef¬
fluvia, like the rays of the fun, every way. See I£f-
FLU VIA.
IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from the
common forms or rules ; thus, we fay an irregular for¬
tification, an irregular building, an irregular figure,
&c.
Irregular, in Grammar, fuch inflexions of words
as vary from the general rules ; thus we fay, irregular
nouns, irregular verbs, &c.
The dillinXion of irregular nouns, according to Mr
Ruddiman, is into three kinds, viz. variable, defeXive,
and abundant; and that of irregular verbs into anoma¬
lous, defeXive, and abundant.
IRRITABILITY, in Anatomy and Medicine, a
term firft invented by Gliflon, and adopted by Dr Hal¬
ler to denote an eficntial property of all animal bodies;
and which, he fays, exifts independently of and in
contradiftinXion to fenfibility. This ingenious author
calls that part of the human body irritable, which be¬
comes fhorter upon being touched ; very irritable, if it
contraXs upon a flight touch ; and the contrary, if by
a violent touch it contraXs but little. He calls that a
fenfible part of the human body, which upon being
touched tranfmits the impreffion of it to the foul : and
in brutes, he calls thofe parts fenfible, the irritation of
which occafions evident figns of pain and d if quiet in
the animal. On the contrary, he calls that infenfible,
which being burnt, tore, pricked, or cut till it is quite
deftroyed, occafions no fign of pain nor convulfion, nor
any fort of change in the fituation of the body. From
therefult of many cruel experiments he concludes, that
the epidermis is infenfiblc ; that the {kin is fenfible in a
greater degree than any other part of the body ; that
the fat and cellular membrane are infenfible) and the
mufcular fltlh fenfible, the ftnfibiiity of which he a-Indt;.bil5ty.,
feribes rather to the nerves than to the flefti itfelf. The '
tendons, he fays, having no nerves diftributed to them,
are infenfible: The ligaments and capfulae of the articu¬
lations are alfo concluded to be infenfible ; whence Dr
Haller infers, that the lharp pains of the gout are not
feated in the capfulae of the joint, but in the Ikin, and
in the nerves which creep upon its external furface.
The bones are all infenfible, fays Dr Haller, except the
teeth; and likewife the marrow. Under his experiments
the periofttum and pericranium, the dura and pia ma¬
ter, appeared infenfible ; and he infers, that the fenfibi¬
lity of the nerves is owing to the medulla, and not to
the membranes. The arteries and veins are held fuf-
ceptible of little or no fenfation, except the carotid, the
lingual, temporal, pharyngal, labial, thyroidal, and the
aorta near the heart; the fenfibility of which is aferib-
ed to the nerves that accompany them. Senfibility is
allowed to the internal membranes of the ftomach, in-
teflines, bladder, ureters, vagina, and womb, on account
of their being of the fame nature with the {kin : the
heart is alfo admitted to be fenfible : but the lungs,
liver, fpleen, and kidneys, are poffeffed of a very im-
pcrfe.X, if any, fenfation. The glands, having few
nerves, are endowed with only an obtu. > fenfation.
Some fenfibility is allowed to the tunica choroidis and
the iris, though in a lefs degree than the retina ; but
none to the cornea. Dr Haller concludes, in general,
that the nerves alone are feniible of themfelves ; and
that, in proportion to the number of nerves apparently
diftributed to particular parts, fuch parts poffefs a
greater or lefs degree of fenfibility. •*
Irritability, he fays, is fo different from fenfibility,
that the moft irritable parts are not at all fenfible, and
vice verfa. He alleges faXs to prove this politico, and
alfo to demonftmte, that irritability does not depend-
upon the nerves, which are not irritable, but upon the
original formation of the parts which are fufceptible of
it. Irritability, he fays, is not proportioned to fenfi-
biiity ; in proof of which, he obferves, that the intef-
tines, though rather lefs fenfible than the ftomach,
are more irritable; and that the heart is very irritable,
though it has but a fmall degree of fenfation.
Irritability, according to Dr Haller, is the diftin-
guilhing charaXeriftic between the mufcular and cellu¬
lar fibres; whence he determines the ligaments, periof-
teum, meninges of the brain, and all the membranes
compofed of the cellular fubftance, to be void of irrita¬
bility. The tendons are unirritable ; and though he
does not abfolutely deny irritability to the arteries, yet
his experiments on the aorta produced no contraXion.
The veins and excretory duXs are in a fmall degree
irritable, and the gall-bladder, the duXus choledoehus,
the ureters and urethra, are only affeXed by a very
acrid corrofive ; but the laXeal veffels are confiderably
irritable. The glands and mucous finufes, the uterus
is quadrupeds, the human matrix, and the genitals, are
all irritable ; as are alfo the muffles, particularly the
diaphragm. The oefophagus, ftomach, and inteftines^
are irritable : but of all the animal organs the heart is
endued with the greateft irritability. In general, there
is nothing irritable in the animal body but the mufcular
fibres : and the vital parts are the moft irritable. Thi^
power of motion, arifing from irritations, is fuppoled
ISA [ 358 ] ISA
Irritability to be different from all other properties of bodies, and
probably relides in the glutinous mucus of the mufcular
1   ' . fibres, altogether independent of the influence of the
-foul. The irritability of the mufcles is faid to be de-
ftroyed by drying of the fibres, congealing of the fat,
and more efpecially by the ufe of opium in living ani¬
mals. The phyfiological fyltem, of which an abftracl
has been now given, has been adopted and confirmed
by Caifell and Zimmermann, and alfo by Dr Brock-
lefby, who fuggefts, that irritability, as diftinguifhed
from fenfibility, may depend upon a feries of nerves dif¬
ferent from fuch as ferve either for voluntary motion
or fenfation. This doctrine, however, has been con¬
troverted by M. le Cat, and particularly by Dr Whytt
• In his Phyfiological Effays. See alfo Anatomy, N° 86,
et feq. and N° 136.
IRROGATIO, a law term amongfi the Romans, fig-
nifying the inftrument in which were put down the pu~
nilhments which the law provided againft fuch offences
as any perfon was accufed of by a magiftrate before
the people. Thefe punilhments were firft proclaimed
viva voce by the accufer, and this was called Inquijitio :
The fame, being immediately after expreffed in writ¬
ing, took the name of Rogatio, in refpeft of the people,
who were to be confulted or afked about it, and was
called Irrogatio in refpect of the criminal, as it imported
the mulft or punilhment afiigned him by the accufer.
IRROMANGO, or Erramongo, one of the New
Hebrides iOands, is about 24 or 25 leagues in circuit;
the middle of it lies in E. Long. 169. 19. S. Lat. 18.
54. The inhabitants are of the middle fize, and have
a good fhape and tolerable features. Their colour is
very dark ; and they paint their faces, fome with black,
and others with red pigment: their hair is curly and
crifp, and fomewhat woolly. Few women were feen,
and thofe very ugly : they wore a petticoat made of
the leaves of fome plant. The men were quite naked,
excepting a belt tied about the waift, and a piece of
-cloth, or a leaf, ufed for a wrapper. No canoes were
feen in any part of the iiland. They live in houfes
covered with thatch : and their plantations are laid out
.by line, and fenced round. An unlucky fcuffle be¬
tween the Britilh failors and thafe people, in which
•four of the latter were defperately wounded, prevent-
-cd Captain Cook from being able to give any parti-
-cular information concerning the produce, &c. of this
■ iiland.
IRTIS, a large river of Alia, in Siberia, which
vifes among the hills of the country of the Kalmucks,
-and, running north-eaft, falls into the Oby near To-
bnllk. It abounds with fiih, particularly fturgeon, and
-delicate falmon,
IRVINE, a fea-port and borough town of Scot¬
land, in the bailiwick of Cunningham, and county of
Ayr j feated at the mouth of a river of the fame name
cn the frith of Clyde, in W. Long. 2. 55, N. Lat. 55.
36. This port had formerly feveral buffes in the her¬
ring, fifhery. A number of veffeL is employed in the
coal trade to Ireland, and alfo in the Baltic and carry¬
ing trade. Ship-building and rope-making are carried
to a confiderable extent at Irvine. The population
in 1801 was eiliroated at 4584, of which nearly 4000
/ -were employed in trade and manufactures.
ISAAC, the Jewifh patriarch, and example of filial
obedience, died 1*7x6 B. C. aged 180.
2
ISALUS, a Greek orator, born at Colchis, in Sy- Ifeus
ria, was the difciple of Lyfias, aad the mailer of De- il.
mofihenes j and taught eloquence at Athens, about J^ria'
344 years B. C. Sixty-four orations are attributed
to him ) but he compofed no more than 50, of which
-only 10 are now remaining. He took Lyfias for his
model, and fo well imitated his ftyle and elegance,
that we might ealily confound the one with the other,
-were it not for the figures which Ifseus firfi: introduced
into .frequent ufe. He was alfo the firft who applied
eloquence to politics, in which he was followed by his
difeiple Demofthenes.
He ought not to be confounded with Ifasus, another
celebrated orator, who lived at Rome in the time of
Pliny the younger, about the year 97.
ISAIAH, or the Prophecy of ISAIAH, a canonical
book of the Old Teftament. Ifaiah is the firft of the
four greater prophets j the other three being Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and Daniel. This prophet was of royal
blood, his father Amos being brother to Azariah king
of Judah. The five firft chapters of his prophecy re»
late to the reign of Uzziah ; the vifion in the fixtli
chapter happened in the time of Jotham : the next
chapters to the fifteenth, include his prophecies un¬
der the reign of Ahab 5 and thofe that were made un¬
der the. reigns of Hezekiah and Manaffeh, are related
in the next chapters to the end. Ifaiah foretold the
deliverance of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon
by Cyrus, one hundred years before it came to pafs.
But the moft remarkable of his predictions are thofe
concerning the Mefiiah, which deferibe not only his
defeent, but all the remarkable circumftances of his
life and death. The ftyle of this prophet is noble,
nervous, fublime, and florid, which he acquired by
converfe with men of the greateft abilities and elocu¬
tion : Grotius calls him the Demofthenes of the He¬
brews. However, the profoundnefs of his thoughts,
the loftinefs of his expreffions and the extent of his pro-
phecy, render him one of the moft difficult of all the
prophets \ and the commentaries that have been hitherto
written on his prophecy fall fhort of a full explication
of it. Bifhop Lowth’s new tranflation, &c, publifhed
in 1778, throws confiderable lighten the coropofition
and meaning of Ifaiah.
ISATIS, Woad : a genus of plants belonging to
the tetradynamia clafs *, and in the natural method
ranking under the 39th order, Siliquofce. One fpecies
of this plant, the tinRoria, yields a colouring matter.
See Colour-Making and Dyeing Index.
IsATls, in Ttoo/ogy, a fynonyme of the canis lagopus.
See Canis, Mammalia Index.
ISAURA, or Isaurus, in Ancient Geography, a
ftrong city at Mount Taurus, in Ifauria, twice demo-
liftied ; firft by Perdiccas, or rather by the inhabitants,
who, through defpair, deftroyed themfelves by fire
rather than fall into the bands of the enemy ; again
by Servilius, who thence took the furname Ifauricus,
Strabo fays there were two Ifauras, the old and the
new, but fo near that other writers took them but for
one.
ISAURIA, a country touching Pamphylia and Cili¬
cia on the north, rugged and mountainous, fituased al-
moft in Mount Taurus, and taking its name from Ifawa;
according to fotne, extending to the Mediterranean by
a narrow flip, Stephanus, Ptolemy, and Zofimus,
make
I s E r 5
Xiauria make no mention of places on tlie fea j tnouglj Pliny
!! does, as alfo Strabo ; but doubtful, whether they are
Ifenburg, }>|aces jn Jfaurja Proper, or in Pamphylia, or in Ci¬
licia.
IS AURIGA, a part of Lycaonia, bordering on
Mount Taurus.
■ ISC A Dumniorum, in Ancient Geography, a town
in Britain. Now Exeter, capital of Devonlhire. VV.
Long. 3. 40. Lat. 5. 44. Called Caer-I/k in Britiih,
(Camden).
Isca Silurum, in Ancient Geography, the Ration of
the Legio II. Augufta in Britain. Now Caerleon, a
town of Monmouththire, on the Ufke.
I3CHALIS, or Iscalis, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Belgae in Britain. Now lichejler, in Somer-
fetihire, on the river 111.
ISCHiEUM, a genus of plants belonging to the po-
lygamia clafs} and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
ISCHIA, an ifland of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, about 15 miles in circumference, lying on the
coait of the Terra di Lavoro, from which it is three
miles diftant. It is full of agreeable valleys, which
produce excellent fruits. It hath alfo mountains on
which grow vines of an excellent kind : likewife foun¬
tains, rivulets, and fine gardens.
Ischia, a town of Italy, and capital of an illand of
the fame name, with a bilhop’s fee and a ftrong fort.
Both the city and Fortrefs Hand upon a rock, which is
joined to the illand by a ftrong bridge j the rock is
about feven furlongs in circumference. The city is
like a pyramid of houfes piled upon one another, which
makes a very Angular and ftriking appearance. At the
end of the bridge next the city are iron gates, which
open into a fubterraneous paflage, through which they
enter the city. They are always guarded by foldiers
who are natives of the illand. E. Long, 13. 55. N. Lat.
40 50.
ISCHIUM, in Anatomy, one of the bones of the
pelvis. See Anatomy, N° 41.
ISCPIURIA, (formed from “ I Hop,”
and “ urine,”) ni Phujic, a difeale confiding in an
entire fuppreffion of urine. See Medicine Index.
ISELASTTCS, a kind of games, or combats, ce-
* lebrated in Greece and Ana, in the time of the Roman
emperors.
The viftor at thefe games had very confiderable
privileges conferred on him, after the example of Au-
guftus and the Athenians, who did the like to con¬
querors at the Olympic, Pythian, and Ifihmian games.
They were crowned on the fpot immediately after their
victory, had penfions allowed them, were furnilhed with
provifions at the public colt, and were carried in triumph
to their country.
ISENACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, from whence one of the Saxon princes
takes the title of duhe. There are irori mines in the
neighbourhood. E. Long. o. 17. N Lat. 51. O.
ISENARTS, or LlSENARTS, a confiderable town of
Germany, in Aufiria and in Stiria \ famous for its iron
mines. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 46. 56.
ISENBURG, a large town of Germany, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a handfome
caflle, feated on the river Seine, in E. Long. 7. 14.
59 1 1ST
N. Lat. 56. 28. The county belongs to the eleclor
of Treves.
ISENGHEIN, a town of the Andrian Nether-,
lands, with the title of a principality, feated on the
river Mandera, in L. Long. 3, 18. N. Lat. 50. 44.
ISERNIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the county of Molife, with a bilhop’s
fee. It is feated at the foot of the Apennines, in E.
Long. 14. 20.
ISH, in Scots Law, fignifies expiry. Thus we fay
“ the ifn of a leafe.” It fignifies alfo to go out; thuo
we fay u free i/h and entry” from and to any place.
I SI A, ic-ax, feads and facrifices anciently folemni-
zed in honour of the goddefs Ills.—The Ilia were full
of the mod abominable impurities 5 and for that rea-
fon, thofe who were initiated into them were obliged
to take an oath of fecrecy. They held for nine days
fucceflively, but grew fo fcandalous, that the fenate
abolilhed them at Rome, under the confulate of Pifo
and Gabinius; They were re-edablilhed by Augudus,
and the emperor Commodus himfelf afiiited at them,
appearing among the prieds of that goddeis with his
head diaven, and carrying the Anubis.
IS I AC TABLE, is one of the mod eonfiderable mo¬
numents of antiquity, difeovered at Rome in 1523,
and fuppofed by the various figures in bas relief upon
it, to reprefent the feads of His, and other Egyptian
deities. There have been various opinions as to the
antiquity of this monument : fome have luppofed that
it was engraved long before the time when the Egyp¬
tians wor(hipped the figures of men and women. Others,
among whom is Bilhop Warburton, apprehend, that it
was made at Rome by perfons attached to the worlhip
of Ills. Dr Warburton confiders it as one of the mod
modern of the Egyptian monuments, on account of
the great mixture of hieroglyphic characters which it
bears.
IfenMtrg
I (is.
ISIACI, prieds of the goddefs Ids.—Diofcorides
tells us, that they bore a branch of fea wormwood in
their hands indead of olive. They lung the praifes of
the goddefs twice a day, viz. at the riling of the fun,
when they opened her temple; after which tiny begged
alms the red of the day, and returning at night, re¬
peated their orifons, and Ihut up the temple.
Such was the life and office of the ijiaci; they never
covered their feet with any thing but the thin bark of
the plant papyrus, \\,hich occafioned Prudentius and
others to fay they went barefooted. They wore no
garments but linen, becaufe Ids was the fird who taught
mankind the culture of this commodity.
ISIDORES, called Damiatensis, or Pelusiota,
from his living in a folitude near that city, was one of
the mod famous of all St Chrylbdom’s difciples, and
flourilhed in the time of the general council held in
421. We have 2012 of his epidles in five books.
They are Ihort, but well written, in Greek. The bed
edition is that of Paris, in Greek and Latin, printed in
1638, in folio.
ISIGNI, a town of France, in Lower Normandy,
with -a fmall harbour, and well known on account of-
its fait works, its cyder, and its butter. W. Long, o.
50. N. Lat. 49. 20.
ISINGLASS. See Ichthyocolla.
ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, daugh¬
ter
1 S L
ter of Saturn and Rhea, according to Diodorus of Si-
Ifland. c‘1^’ S°me ^uPP°^e ^er to be the fame as Lt>, who
, was changed into a Cow, and reftored to her human
form in Egypt, where fhe taught agr culture, and go¬
verned the people with mildiiefs and equity, for
which reafons (he received divine honours after death.
According to feme traditions mentioned by Plutarch,
Ifis married her brother Ofiris, and was pregnant by
him even before flie had left her mother’s womb. Thtfe
two ancient deities, as feme authors obferve, compre¬
hended all nature and all the gods of the heathens.
Ids was the Venus of Cyprus, the Minerva of Athens,
the Cybele. of the Phrygians, the Ceres of Eleufis,
the Proferpine of Sicily, the Diana of Crete, the Bel-
lona pf the Romans, &c. Ofiris and Ifis reigned con¬
jointly in Egypt 5 but the rebellion of Typhon, the
brother of Ofiris, proved fatal to this fovereign. The
ox and the cow were the fymbols of Ofiris and Ifis ;
becaufe thefe deities, while on earth, had diligently
applied themfelves to cultivating the earth. As Ifis
was fuppofed to be the moon, as Ofiris the fun, Ihe
ras reprefented as holding a globe in her hand, with
veflel full of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed
ihat the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile
proceeded from the abundant tears which Ifis filed for
the lofs of Oiiris, whom lyphon had bafely murdefed.
The word according to fome, fignifies “ ancient,”
and on that account the inferiptions on the fiatues of
the goddefs were often in thefe words : << I am all that
has been, that (hall be 5 and none among mortals has
hitherto taken off my veil.” The worlhip of Ifis was
univerfal in Egypt, the priefts were obliged to obferve
perpetual chaftity, their head was clofely (haved, and
they always walked barefooted, and clothed themfelves
in linen garments. They never ate onions, they ab-
Itained from fait with their meat, and were forbidden
to eat the fiefh of {beep and of hogs. During the
night they were employed in continual devotion near
the ftatue of the goddefs. Cleopatra, the beautiful
queen of Egypt, was wont to drei's herfelf like this
goddefs, and affe6!ed to be called a fecond Ifis.
Isis, or Thames, a river that has its rife in Glou-
cefterfhire, and flows through only a fmall part of Wilt-
fhire. It enters this county near its fource, and be¬
gins to be navigable for boats at Cricklade •, but af¬
ter running in a ferpentine manner about Four miles,
it leaves Gloucefterfliire at a village called CaJUe
Eaton.
Isis, a genus of animals belonging to the order zoo-
phyta, in the clafs vermes. See Helminthology
Index.
ISLAM, or IslamisM; the true faith, according
to the Mahometans. See Mahometanism.
ISLAND, a traT of dry land encompafled with
water j in which fenfe it Hands contradiftinguilhed
from Continent, or Terra Firma.
Several naturalifts are of opinion, that the iflands
were formed at the deluge $ others think, that there
have been new iflands formed by the calling up of vail
heaps of clay, fand, mud, &c.; others think they have
been feparated from the continent by violent llorms,
inundations, and earthquakes. Thefe lalt have ob-
ierved, that the Eaft Indies, which abound in iflands
aiore than any other part of the world, are likewife,,
V
r .3S0 1
I S L
more annoyed with earthquakes, tempefts, lightnings,
volcanoes. Sec., than any other part. Others again
conclude, that illands are as ancient as the world, and
that there were fome at the beginning j and amoncr
other arguments, fupport their opinion from Gen. x. cl
and other paffages of Scripture.
Varenius thinks that there have been illands pro¬
duced each of thefe ways. St Helena, Afcenfion,
and other fleep rocky iflands, he fuppofes to have be¬
come fo by the Tea’s overflowing their neighbouring
champaigns ; but by the heaping up huge quantities
of fand, and other terreftrial matter, he thinks the
iflands of Zealand, Japan, &c. were formed. Suma¬
tra and Ceylon, and molt of the Eall India iflands,
he thinks, were rent off from the main land 5 and con¬
cludes, that the iflands of the Archipelago were form¬
ed in the fame way, imagining it probable that Deu¬
calion’s flood might contribute towards it. The an¬
cients had a notion that Delos, and a few other iflands,
rofe from the bottom of the fea j which, how fabulous
foever it may appear, agrees with later obfervations,
Seneca takes notice, that the illand T herafia rofe thus
out of the iEgean fea in his time, of which the man¬
ners were eye witneffes.
h is indeed very probable, that many iflands hav@
exilted not only from the deluge, but from the crea¬
tion of the world ; and we have undoubted proofs of
the formation of illands in all the different way* above
mentioned. Another way, however, in which iflands
are frequently formed in the South fea, is by the co¬
ralline infe£ls. On this fubjeft there is a curious dif-
fertation by Alexander Dalrymple, Efq. in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions for the year 1768, to which we
refer the reader. See alfo Geography Index.
Islands of Ice. See lCE-Jjland.
I/oating ISLANDS. Hillories are full of accounts of
floating iflands •, but the greateft part of them are
either falfe or exaggerated. What we generally fee
of this kind is no more than the concretion of the
lighter and more vifcuus matter floating on the furface
of the water in cakes ; and, with the roots of the
plants, forming congeries of different fizes, which, not
being fixed to the Ihore in any part, are blown about
by the winds, and float on the furface. Thefe are
generally found in lakes, where they are confined from
being carried too far $ and, in procefs of time, fome
of them acquire a very confiderable fize. Seneca tells
us of many of thefe floating illands in Italy 5 and fome
later writers have deferibed not a few of them in other
places. But, however true thefe accounts might have
been at the time when they were written, very few
proofs of their authenticity are now to be found 5 the
floating iflands having either difappeared again, or
been fixed to the fides in fuch a manner as to make a
part of the Ihore. Pliny tells us of a great illand which
at one time fwam about in the lake Cutilia in the coun¬
try of Reatinum, which was difeovered to the old Ro¬
mans by a miracle •, and Pomponius tells us, that ill
Lydia there were feveral iflands fo loofe in their foun¬
dations, that every little accident Ihook and removed
them.
Island (or Iceland') Cry Hal. See CRYSTAL, Ice*
land; Mineralogy Index.
ISLE-adam, a town of France, with a handfome
callle.
IW
1!
Iue-adani«
I S L r 361 1 ISO
jile-adam caflle, and the title of a baron ; feated on the river ' ahns-houfes, are under the care of the brewers com- IflingtQn
II Oife, three miles from Beaumont, and 20 from Paris, pany. Here is an hofpital with its chapel, and a work- Tf .
^ 2> N. Lat# ^ houfe for the poor. There is a fpring of chalybeate toc ^‘oria';
Isi.E-de-Dieu, a fmall ifland of France, in the fea of water in a very pleafant garden, which for fome years
Gafcony, and on the coaft of Poitou, from which it is was honoured by the conftant attendance of the prin-
diftant 14 miles. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. 45. cefs Amelia, and many perfons of quality, who drank
IsLE-de-France^ one of the twelve general govern- the waters. To this place, which is called New Tun-
inents of France, under the old divifion 5 bounded on the bridge Wells, many people refort, efpecially during
north by Picardy, on the weft by Normandy, on the the fummer, the price of drinking the waters being
fouth by the government of Orleannois, and on the eaft 10s. 6d. for the feafon. Near this place is a houfe of
by that of Champagne. It is about 90 miles in length, entertainment, called Saddler's Wells, where, during
and as much in breadth; and is watered by the rivers the fummer feafon, people are amufed with balance-
Seine, Marne, Oife, and Aifne. The air is tempe- maders, walking on the wire, rope-dancing, tumbling,
rate, and the foil fertile j and it abounds in wine, corn, and pantomime entertainments.
and fcuits. It contains ten fmall diftridls, and Paris ISLIP, a town of Oxfordlhire, 56 miles from Lou¬
is the capital city. don, is noted for the birth and baptifm of Edward
ISLEBIANS, in ecclenaftical hiftory, a name giv- the Confcffor. By means of inland navigation, it has
en to thofe who adopted the fentiments of a Lutheran communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Kibble,
divine of Saxony, called John Agricola, a difciple and Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames,
companion of Luther, a native of Illeb, whence the Avon, &c. j which navigation, including its wind-
name ; who interpreting literally foine of the precepts ings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties of Lin-
of St Paul with regard to the Jewifti law, declaimed coin, Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland,
again!! the law and the neceflity of good works. See Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Wor-
Antinomians. cefter, &c. It has a good market for iheep, and fome
ISLING TON, a village of Middlefex, on the north remains of an ancient palace, faid to have been King
fide of London, to which it is almoft contiguous. It Ethelred’s. Here is a charity fchool. The chapel
appears to be of Saxon origin j and in the Conqueror’s wherein Edward was baptized ftood at a fmall diftance
time was written Ifledon, or Ifendon. The church north from the church, is ftill called the king’s chapel,
is one of the prebends of St Paul’s*, to the dean and was entirely defecrated during Cromwell’s ufurpation,
chapter of which a certain precinf! here belongs, for and converted to the meaneft ufes of a farm-yard ; at
the probate of wills, and granting adminiftrations. prefent it has a roof of thatch. It is built of Hone, 1 5
The church was a Gothic ftru&ure, ere&ed in 1503, yards long, and 7 broad, and retains traces of the arches
and ftood till 1751, when the inhabitants applied to of an oblong window at the eaft end. This manor was
parliament for leave to rebuild it, and foon after erefl- given by Edward the Confeffor to Weftminfter abbey,
ed the prefent ftrufture, which is a very fubftantial to which it ftill belongs.
brick edifice, though it does not want an air of light- ISMAELITES, the defcendants of Ifmael; dwell-
nefs. The number of houfes in Iflington exceeds ing from Havila to the wildernefs of Sur, towards
2000; and the total amount of the population, as it Egypt, and thus overfpreading Arabia Petraea, and
was eftimated in iBoi, was more than 10,000. The therefore Jofephus calls Ifmael the founder of the
White-conduit houfe in this place, fo called from a Arabs.
white ftone conduit that Hands before the entrance, ISMAKUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
has handfome gardens with good walks, and two large Cieones in Thrace, giving name to a lake. In Vir-
rooms, one above the other, for the entertainment of gil it is called Ifmara. Servius fuppofed it to be a
company at tea, &c. In the fouth-w'eft part of this mountain of Thrace ; on which mountain Orpheus
village is that noble refervoir, improperly called New dwelt.
River Head; though they are only two bafons, which ISNARDIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
receive that river from Hertfordfliire, and from whence tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
the w'ater is thrown by an engine into the company’s under the 17th order, Cahjcanthemce. See Botany
pipes for the fupply of London. In the red moat on Index.
the north fide of thefe bafons, called Six-Acre Field, ISNY, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia,
from the contents of it, which is the third field beyond and in Algow ; feated on the river Ifny, in E. Long,
the White Conduit, there appears to have been a fort- 9. 10. N. Lat. 47. 45.
refs in former days, enclofed with a rampart and ditch, ISNIC, a town of Turkey in Afia, and in Natolia,
which is fuppofed to have been a Roman camp, made with a Greek archbifliop’s fee. It is the ancient Nice,
ufe of by Suetonius Paulinus after his retreat, which famous for the firft general council held here in 325.
Tacitus mentions, from London, before he fallied There is 'now nothing remaining of its ancient fplen-
thence, and routed the Britons under their queen dour, but an aqueduct. The Jews inhabit the greateft
Boadicea; and that which is vulgarly, but erroneouf- part of it ; and it is feated in a country fertile in corn
ly, called Jack Straw’s caftle, is a fquare place in the and excellent wine. E. Long. 29.50. N. Lat. 40. 16.
fouth-weft angle of the field, fuppofed to have been ISOCHRONAL, is applied to fuch vibrations of
the feat of the praetorium or Roman general’s tent, a pendulum as are performed in the fame fpace of
In this pariih are two charity-fehools; one founded in time ; as all the vibrations or fwings of the fame pen-
1613, by Dame Alice Owen, for educating 30 chil- dulum are, whether the arches it defcribes are ftiorter
ftren. This foundation, together with that of a row of or longer.
VOL. XL Part I. .. Z z . . ISQCU&ONAL 1
(fochronal
line
H
Ifpahan.
ISP [362
ISOCHRONAL Line, that in which a heavy body is
fuppofed to defcend without any acceleration.
ISOCRATES, one of the greateft orators of Greece,
was born at Athens, 436 B. C. He was the fon of
Theodorus, who had enriched hirafelf by making mu-
fical inftruments, and gave his fon a liberal education.
Ifoerates was the difciple of Prodicus, Gorgias, and
other great orators. He endeavoured at firft to de¬
claim in public, but without fuccefs; he therefore
contented himfelf with inftru£ting his fcholars, and
making private orations. He always {bowed great
love for his country 5 and being informed of the lofs of
the battle of Cheronea, he abftained four days from
eating, and died, aged 98. There are {till extant 21
of his difeourfes or orations, which are excellent per¬
formances, and have been tranflated from the Greek
into Latin by Wolfius. Ifocrates particularly excelled
in the juftnefs of his thoughts, and the elegance of his
expreflions. There are alfo nine letters attributed to
him.
ISOETES, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index.
ISOLA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Farther Calabria, with a bifhop’s
fee. It is a fea-port town, and is feated 15 miles
Ibuth-eaft of St Severina. E. Long. 17. 33. N. Lat.
39. 2.
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in Geometry, are
fuch as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOPYRUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
polyandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Muhijiliquce. See Botany
Index.
ISOSCELES triangle, in Geometry, one that has
two equal fides.
ISPAHAN, or, as the Perfians pronounce it, Span*
fiawn, the capital of Perfia, is fituated in the province
of Irac Agemi, or Perfia Proper, upon the ruins, as is
generally fuppofed, of the ancient Hecatompylos, or,
as others think, of the Afpa of Ptolemy. Moft of the
eaftern aftronomers and geographers place it in N. Lat.
32. 25. E. Long. 86. 40. It Hands in a very extenfive
plain, furrounded by mountains *, and has eight diftri&s
belonging to it, that contain about 400 towns and vil¬
lages. The fertility of the foil, the mildnefs of the fea-
fons, and the fine temperature of the air, all confpire to
render Ifpahan one of the moft charming and delightful
cities in the world. It is unanimoufly agreed, that the
prefent city is of no great antiquity $ and the two parts
into which it is divided, preferve the names of two con¬
tiguous towns, from the junction of which it was form¬
ed. The inhabitants of thefe, notwithftanding their
neighbourhood, bear an inveterate antipathy to each
other; which they difcover on all public occafions.
Spauhavvn owes the glory it now poffeffes to the great
Shah Abas •, who, after the conqueft of the kingdoms
of Lar and Ormus, charmed with the fituation of this
place, made it the capital of his empire, between the
years 1620 and 1628. The mountains, with which
this city is furrounded, defend it alike from the fultry
heats of fummer and the piercing winds of the winter
feafon : and the plain on w'hich it ftands is watered by
feveral rivers, which contribute alike to its ornament
and ufe. Of thefe rivers, the Zenderoud,' after being
Joined by the Mahmood, paffes by Spauhawaj where it
]
1 s p
has three fine bridges over it, and is as broad as the Ifpaban.
Seine at Paris. The waters of thefe united ftreams are •»«
fweet, pleatant, and wholefome, almoft beyond compa-
rifon j as indeed are all the fprings found in the gardens
belonging to the houfes of Spauhawn. The extent of
Spauhawn is very great 5 not lefs perhaps than 20 miles
rvithin the walls, which are of earth, poorly built, and
fo covered with, houfes and {haded with gardens, that in
many places it is difficult to difcover them. The Per-
fians are wont to fay, Spauhawn mjpigehon, i. e. Spau¬
hawn is half the world. Chardin fays, that iome rec--
koned the number of inhabitants at 1,000,000 j but he
did not look upon it as more populous than London, or
containing more than 600,000. At a diftance, the city
is not eafily diftinguilhed ; many of the ftreets being a-
dorned w ith plantains, and every houfe having its garden,
the whole looks like a wood. The ftreets in general are
neither broad nor convenient 5 there being three great
evils which attend them : the firft is, that being built
on common fewers, thefe are frequently broke up, which
is very dangerous, confidering that moft people are on
horfeback ; the fecond is, that there are many wells or
pits in them, which are not lefs dangerous } the third
arifes from the people’s emptying all their ordure from
the tops of their houfes : this laft, indeed, is in fome
meafure qualified by the drynefs of the air, and by its
being quickly removed by the peafants, who carry it
away to dung their grounds. Some reckon eight, and
others ten gates, befides pofterns j but all agree that
there is no difficulty of entering at any hour of the day
or night. The three principal fuburbs annexed to it
are, Abas-Abad, built by Shah Abas, and belonging
to the people of Tauris j Julfa, inhabited by a colony
of Armenians, called by fome New Julja, to diftinguifti
it from the ancient city of that name, fituated in Arme¬
nia, upon the Araxes, whence the original inhabitants
of New Julfa were brought; and Ghebr-Abad, or, as
the Arabs pronounce it, Kebr-Abad, the ftreet of the
magians, occupied entirely by the profeffors of magifm,
or the religion of the ancient Perfians. The river Zen¬
deroud feparates the city of Ifpahan and Abas-Abad
from Julfa and Ghebr-Abad. This city has fuffered
greatly fince the commencement of the dreadful rebel¬
lion in 1721 5 the whole kingdom from that period, till
a few years ago, having been almoft a continued fcene
of blood, ravages, and confufion. A celebrated mo¬
dern traveller, who was on the fpot, tells us, that the
inhabitants of Julfa, not many years before the above
revolution happened, amounted to 30,000 fouls j had
13 churches, and above 100 priefts ; and paid the Per-
fian court 200 tomans * yearly for the free exercife of * tj>
their religion : that fome of the ftreets were broad and man is rec-
handfome, and planted w ith trees, with canals andkoned at
fountains in the middle j others narrow and crooked, 3^ 7s* ^er"
and arched a-topj others again, though extremely nar-
row, as well as turning and winding many ways, were
of an incredible length, and refembled fo many laby¬
rinths : that, at a fmall diftance from the town, there
were public walks adorned with plane-trees on either
hand, and W'ays paved with ftones, fountains, and cif-
terns : that there were above 100 caravanferas for the
ufe of merchants and travellers, many of which were
built by the kings and prime nobility of Perfia: that, as
little rain fell there, the ftreets were frequently full of
duft, which rendered the city difagreeable during a
eonfiderable
I s R [ 363 1 I S S
Ifpa!ian confiderable part of the fummer j that the citizens,
il. however, to make this inconvenience more tolerable,
Ifraeluta. ^ to water when the weather was warmer than
ufual: that there was a caftle in the eaftern part of the
town, which the citizens looked upon as impregnable,
in which the public money, and moft of the military
(lores, were faid to be kept: that, notwithflanding the
baths and caravanferas were almoft innumerable, there
was not one public hofpital: that moft of the public
buildings were rather neat than magnificent, though the
great meydan or market-place, the royal palace (which
is three quarters of a league in circumference), and the
alley denominated Toher bag adjoining to it, made a
Very grand appearance: that the former contained the
royal mofque •, the building denominated kayserich,
where all forts of foreign commodities were expofed to
fale $ and the mint, ftyled by the Perfiansferraa-hhoneh,
where the current money^of the kingdom was coined:
that, befides the native Perfians, there were then in
Ifpahan above 10,000 Indians all fupported by trade;
20,000 Georgians, Circaflians, and Tartars of Daghe-
ftan dr Lefgees, with a confiderable number of Engiifh,
Dutch, Portuguefe, and a few French: that the Capu¬
chins, difcalceated or barefooted Carmelites, Jefuits,
Dominicans, and Auftin friars, had likewife their con¬
vents here, though they were unable to make any con¬
verts *, and that there were above 100 mofques and pub¬
lic colleges. But fince the fatal period above mention¬
ed, the fuburb of Julfa was almoft totally abandoned by
the Armenians. The government of Ifpahan, twenty-
three leagues long and as many broad, comprehending
feveral diftri&s, moft of them formerly well peopled,
appeared not many years ago little better than a de¬
fer! ; for moft of the inhabitants of that fertile and de¬
lightful tract had been driven out and difperfed. Mul¬
titudes of them took a precarious refuge in the moun¬
tains of Loriftan, lying between Ifpahan and Sufter,
while their lands were left untilled, and their houfes
mouldered into ruins. In fliort, all the diftrefles of an
unfuccefsful war, or the invafion of a barbarous enemy,
could not have plunged the people of Ifpahan into great¬
er mifery than the viftories of their tyrannical king Na¬
dir Shah, who feemed more folicitous to humble his
own fubje6ts than to crufti his enemies. See Persia.
ISPIDA. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
ISRAEL, the name which the angel gave Jacob,
after having wreftled with him all night at Mahanaim
or Penuel (Gen. xxxii. 1, 2, and 28, 29, 30, and Ho-
fea xii. 3.). It fignifies a conqueror of God or a prince
of God. or, according to many of the ancients, a man
who fees God.
By the name of Ifrael is fometimes underftood the
perfon of Jacob; fometimes the whole people of Ifrael,
or the whole race of Jacob ; and fometimes the king¬
dom of Ifrael, or of the ten tribes, diftindl from the
kingdom of Judah.
ISRAELITES, the defcendants of Ifrael ; who
were at firft called Hebrews, by reafon of Abraham,
who came from the other fide of the Euphrates; and
afterwards Ifraelites, from Ifrael the father of the
twelve patriarchs ; and laftly Jews, particularly after
their return from the captivity of Babylon, becaufe the
tribe of Judah was then much ftronger and more nume¬
rous than the other tribes, and foreigners had fcarcely
any knowledge of this trib
ISSACHAR, one of the divifions of Paleftine by Iffachar
tribes ; lying to the fouth of Zabulon, fo as by a nar- II
row (lip to reach the Jordan, between Zabulon and ,
Manaffeh, (Jofti. xix.). But whether it reached to the " y
fea, is a queftion : fome holding that it did ; an afler-
tion not eafy to be proved, as Jolhua makes no mention
of the fea in this tribe, nor does Jofephus extend it
farther than to Mount Carmel; and in Jofh. xvii. 10.
Afher is faid to touch Manaffeh on the north, which
could not be if Iflachar extended to the fea.
ISSOUDUN, a town of France, in Berry, which
carries on a trade in wood, cattle, cloth, hats, and
(lockings; is feated partly in a plain, and partly on an
eminence. E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. ijy.
ISSUE, in common law, has various applications;
being fometimes taken for the children begotten be¬
tween a man and his wfife—fometimes for profits grow¬
ing from amercements or fines—fometimes for pro¬
fits of lands and tenements—but more frequently
for the point of matter depending in fuit, whereupon
the parties join, and put their caufe to the trial of the
jury.
In all thefe occafions, iflue has but one fignification,
which is, an effe£l of a caufe preceding; as the chil¬
dren are the effedt of the marriage between the pa¬
rents ; the profits growing to the king or lord, from the
puniftiment of any man’s offence, are the effedl of his
tranfgreflion ; the point referred to the trial of twelve
men is the effedl of pleading, or procefs. See Plea
and IJfue.
ISSUES, in Surgery, are little ulcers made defign-
edly by the furgeon in various parts of the body, and
kept open by the patient, for the prefervation and re¬
covery of his health.
ISSUS, now Ajazo, a town of Cilicia in Natolia,
with a harbour on the Levant fea, a little to the north
of Scanderoon. E. Long. 36. 25. N. Lat. 36. 56.
Near this place, in a difficult pafs between tha
mountains and the fea, Alexander the Great fought his
fecond battle with Darius. One great caufe of the de¬
feat which the Perfians received here was the bad con-
du6l of their monarch, who led his numerous forces in¬
to a narrow place, where they had not room to a6l.
Alexander was fo much furprifed when he firft received
the news that Darius was behind him, that he could
fcarcely believe it to be true : but when he was tho¬
roughly fatisfied of the fa£l, and that Darius had again
paffed the river Pinarus, he called a council of war,
wherein, without a (king any body’s advice, he only told
them, that he hoped they vtauld remember their former
aflions : and that they, who were always conquerors,
were about to fight people who were always beaten. He
further obferved, that Darius feemed to be infatuated,
fince he had with fuch expedition quitted an open and
champaign country, where his numbers mighthave act¬
ed with advantage, to fight in a place inclofed, where
the Macedonian phalanx might be well drawn up, and
where his numbers could only incommode him. He
then made the neceffary difpqfitions for repafling the
mountains, polled guards where he found them necef¬
fary, and then commanded Ms troops to refreih them-
felves, and to take their reft till morning.
At break of day he began to repafs the mountains,
obliging his forces to move in clofe order where the
road was narrow, and to extend themfelves as they
£ * 2 had
I S S r 56+ ] 1ST
Iffus. had more room ; the right wing keeping always clofe
to the mountain, and the left to the fea-lhore. On
the right there was a battalion of heavy-armed troops,
befides the targeteers under the command of Nicanor
the fon of Parmenio. Next thefe, extending to the
phalanx, were the corps of Coenus and Perdiccas j and
on the left the refpeftive bodies commanded by Amyn-
tas, Ptolemy, and Meleager. The foot appointed to
fupport them were commanded by Craterus j but the
whole left wing was committed to Parmenio, with
flrift orders not to decline from the fea;fhore, left
the Perfians fliould furround them. Darius ordered
20,000 foot and 30,000 horfe to retire, finding that
he already wanted room to draw up the reft. His firft
line confifted of 30,000 Greek mercenaries, having
on their right and left 60,000 heavy-armed troops.,
being the utmoft the ground would allow. On the left,
towards the mountain, he ported 20,000 men, which,
from the hollow' fituation of the place, were brought
quite behind Alexander’s right wing. The reft of his
troops were formed into clofe and ufelefs lines behind
the Greek mercenaries, to the number in all of 600,000
men. When this was done, he fuddenly recalled the
horfe who had retired, fending part of them to take port
on his right againft the Macedonians commanded by
Parmenio ; and the red he ordered to the left towards
the mountain : but, finding them unferviceable there,
he fent the greateft part of them to the right; and then
took upon himfelf, according to the cufiom of the Per-
fian kings, the command of the main body. As foon
as Alexander perceived that the weight of the Perfian
horfe was difpofed againft his left wing, he difpatched,
with as much fecrecy as he could, the Theflalian ca¬
valry thither, and fupplied their places on the right by
fome brigades of horfe from the van, and light-armed
troops. He alfo made fuch difpofitions, that, notwith-
ftanding the mighty advantage of the hollow mountain,
the Perfians could not furround him. But, as thefe
precautions had confiderably weakened the centre of his
army, he ordered thofe advanced ports on the enemy’s
left, of which he was moft apprehenfive to be attacked
at the very beginning of the fight ; and, when they
were eafily driven from them, he recalled as many
troops as were neceilaiy to ftrengthen his centre.
When all tilings were in order, Alexander gave ftricft
command, that his army ftiould march very flovvly.
As for Darius, he kept his troops fixed in their ports,
and in fome places threw up ramparts j whence the
Macedonians rightly obferved, that he thought himfelf
already a prifoner. Alexander at the head of the right
wing engaged firft, and without any difficulty broke arid
defeated the left wing of Darius. But, endeavouring
to pafs the river Pinarus after them, his troops in fome
meafure lofing their order, the Greek mercenaries fell
upon them in flank, and made them fight, not only for
viiftory, but for their lives. Ptolemy the fon of Seleu-
cus, and 1 20 Macedonians of fome rank, were killed
upon the fpot. But the foot next to Alexander’s right
wing coming in feafonably to its relief, fell upon the
mercenaries in flank, amongft whom a dreadful carnage
was made ; they being in a manner furrounded by the
horfe and light-armed troops, which at firft purfued the
left wing, and the foot that now pafled the river. The
Perfian horfe on the right ftill fought gallantly ; but,
when they were thoroughly informed of the rout of
I
their left wing and of the deftrudlion of the Greek mer- Iffus,
cenaries, and that Darius himfelf was fled, they began Ifthmia.
to break, and betake themfelves to flight alfo. The ■"v——
Theflalian cavalry purfued them clofe at the heels 5 and
the narrow craggy roads incommoded them exceeding¬
ly, fo that vail numbers of them periihed. As for Da¬
rius, he fled, foon after the left wing was broken, in a
chariot with a few of his favourites : as far as the coun¬
try was plain and open, he efcaped well enough j but,
when the roads became rocky and narrow, he quitted
it, and mounting a horfe, rode all the night ; his cha¬
riot, in which were his cloak and his bow, fell into
the hands of Alexander, who carried them back to his
camp.
In refpecl to the battle of Ifius, Diodorus informs us,
that Alexander looked everywhere about for Darius •,
and, as foon as he difeovered him, with his handful of
guards attacked him and the flower of the Perfian army
which was about him ; being as defirous of obtaining
this vidlory by his perfonal valour, as of fubduing the
Perfian empire by the courage of his foldiers. But
when Oxathres, the brother of Darius, faw Alexander’s
defign, and how fiercely he fought to accomplifh it, he
threw himfelf, with the horfe who were about him, be¬
tween his brother’s chariot and the enemy, where an
obftinate fight was maintained, till the dead bodies rofe
like an entrenchment about the chariot of Darius. Ma¬
ny of the Perfian nobility were flain, and Alexander
himfelf was wounded in the thigh. At laft the horfes
in the chariot of Darius ftarted, and became fo unruly,
that the king himfelf was forced to take the reins j the
enemy, however, prefled fo hard upon him, that he was
conftrained to call for another chariot, and mounted it
in great danger. This was the beginning of the rout,
which foon after became general. According to this
author, the Perfians loft 200,000 foot, and 10,000
horfe ; the Macedonians 300 foot, and 130 horfe.
Juftin informs us, that the Perfian army confifted of
400,coo foot, and 100,coo horfe. He fays, that the
battle was hard fought ; that both the kings were
wounded 5 and that the Perfians ftill fought gallantly
when their king fled, but that they were afterwards
fpeedily and totally routed : he is very particular as to
their lofs, which he fays amounted to 6i,oco foot,
10,000 horfe, and 40,000 taken prifoners ; of the Ma¬
cedonians he fays there fell no more than 130 foot, and
150 horfe. Curtius fays, that of the Perfians there fell
100,000 foot, and rc,000 horfe : of Alexander’s army
504, he fays, were wounded; 32 foot and 150 horfe
killed. That we may not fufpe£I any error in tranf-
cribers, his own obfervation confirms the fa<ft : Tantulo
itripendio ingens vicioria Jletit, “ So fmall was the coft of
fo great a victory.”
ISTHMIA, or ISTHMIAN Games ; one of the four
folemn games which were celebrated every fifth year in
Greece. They derived their name from the ifthmus of
Corinth, where they were celebrated. In their firft in-
ftitution, according to Paufanias, they confifttd only of
funeral rites and ceremonies in honour of Melicertes :
butTliefeus afterwards, as Plutarch informs us, in emu¬
lation of Hercules, who had appointed games at Olym¬
pia in honour of Jupiter, dedicated thofe to Neptune,
his reputed father, who was regarded as the particular
prottftor of the ifthmus and commerce of Corinth. The
fame trials of fkill were exhibited here as at the other
three
I T A [ 365 ] I T A
Ifthmia three facred games j and particularly thofe of mufic and
II poetry. Thefe games, in which the viftors were only
Italian- , rewarded with garlands of pine leaves, were celebrated
”^ ^vith great magnificence and fplendour as long as paga-
nifm continued to be the eftablilhed religion of Greece ;
nor were they omitted even when Corinth was facked
and burnt by Mummius the Roman general 5 at which
time the care of them was transferred to the Sicyonians,
but was reftored again to the Corinthians when their
city was rebuilt.
ISTHMUS, a narrow neck, or flip of ground,
which joins two continents j or joins a peninfula to
the terra firma, and feparates two feas. See Penin¬
sula.
The mofl celebrated iflhmufes are that of Panama
or Darien, which joins North and South America •, that
of Suez, which connects Afia and Africa 5 that of Co¬
rinth, or Peloponnefus, in the Morea j that of Crim-
Tartary, otherwife called Taurica Cherfonefus ; that of
the peninfula Romania, and Eriflb, or the ifthmus of
the Thracian Cherfonefus, twelve furlongs broad, being
that which Xerxes undertook to cut through. The an¬
cients had feveral defigns of cutting the ifihmus of Co¬
rinth, which is a rocky hillock, about ten miles over j
but they were all in vain, the invention of fluices being
not then known. There have been attempts too for
cutting the ifthmus of Suez, to make a communication
between the Red fea and the Mediterranean : but thefe
alio failed j and in one of them a king of Egypt is faid
to have loft 120,000 men.
ISTRIA, a peninfula of Italy, in the territory of
Venice, lying in the north part of the Adriatic fea. It
is bounded by Carniolaon the north *, and on the fouth,
eaft, and weft, by the fea. The air is unwholefome,
efpecially near the eoaft; but the foil produces plenty
of wine, oil, and pafturt s 5 there are alfo quarries of fine
marble. One part of it belongs to the Venetians, and
the other to the houfe of Auftria. Cabo d’lftria is the
capital town.
ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy. See the
article Language.
This tongue is derived principally from the Latin 5
and of all the languages formed from the Latin, there
is none which carries with it more vifible marks of its
original than the Italian.
It is accounted one of the moft perfedl among the
modern tongues. It is complained, indeed, that it has
too many diminutives and fuperlatives, or rather aug-
mentatives \ but without any great reafon : for if thoie
words convey nothing farther to the mind than the juft
ideas of things, they are no more faulty than our pleo-
nafms and hyperboles.
The language correfponds to the genius of the peo¬
ple, who are (low and thoughtful : Accordingly their
language runs heavily,* though fmoothly 5 and many
of their words are lengthened out to a great degree.
They have a great tafte for mufic ; and to gratify their
paflion this way, have altered abundance of their pri¬
mitive words} leaving out eonfonants, taking in vowels,
foftening and lengthening out their terminations, for
the fake of the cadence.
Hence the language is rendered extremely mufical,
and fucceeds better than any other in operas and fome
parts of poetry : but it fails in ftrength and nervouf-
nefs) and a great part of its words, borrowed from the
Latin, become fo far difguifed that they are not eafily Italian
known again. M
The multitude of fovereign ftates into which Italy . ■
has been divided has given rife to a great number of
different dialects in that language j which, however,
are all good in the place where they are ufed. The
Tufcan is ufually preferred to the other dialefts, and
the Roman pronunciation to that of the other cities j
whence the Italian proverb, Lingua Tofcana in bocca
Rotnana.
The Italian is generally pretty well underftood
throughout Europe •, and is frequently fpoken in Ger¬
many, Poland, and Hungary. At Conftantinople, in
Greece, and in the ports of the Levant, the Italian is
ufed as commonly as the language of the country : in¬
deed in thofe places it is not fpoken fo pure as in Tuf-
cany, but is corrupted with many of the proper words
and idioms of the place j whence it takes a new name,
and is called Frank Italian.
ITALIC character, in Printing. See Letter.
ITALICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bte-
tica in Spain, built by Scipio Africanus, after finiftring
the Spanifh war, for the reception of the wounded fol-
diers. At firft it was a munieipium ; afterwards a co¬
lony : which w'as a matter of w'onder to the emperor
Adrian, the privileges of a municipium being beyond
thofe of a colony (Gellius). Famous for being the
birthplace of the emperors Trajan and Adrian, and of
the poet Silius Italicus. Now Sevilla Vieja, fcarcely
four miles from Seville ; a fmall village of Andalufia,
on the Guadalquivir.—Ccrjimum in Italy was thus alfo
called.
ITALY, one of the fineft countries of Europe, ly¬
ing between 7 and 10 degrees of E. Long, and be¬
tween 37 and 46 degrees of N. Lat. On the north,
north-weft, and north-eaft, it is bounded by France,
Switzerland, the country of the Grifons, and Germa¬
ny ; on the eaft, by the Adriatic fea or gulf of Ve¬
nice j and on the fouth and weft, by the Mediterra¬
nean j its figure bearing fome refemblance to that of
a boot. Its length from Aofta, at the foot of the Alps
in Savoy, to the utmoft verge of Calabria, is about 600
miles j but its breadth is very unequal, being in fome
places near 400 miles, in others not above 25 or 30. 1
Italy was anciently known by the names of Satur- Its different'
nia, Oenotria, Hefperia, and Aufoma. It was calledname:!i
Saturnia from Saturn 5 who, being driven out of
Crete by his fon Jupiter, is fuppofed to have taken
refuge here. The names of Oenotria and Aufonia are
borrowed from its ancient inhabitants the Oenotrians
and Aufones ; and that of Hefperia or Wejlern was
given it by the Greeks, from its fituation with refpedl
to Greece. The name of Italia, or Italy, which in
procefs of time prevailed all over the reft, is by fome
derived from Italus, a king of the Siculi : by others,
from the Greek word halos, fignifying an ox ; this
country abounding, by reafon of its rich paftures,
with oxen of an extraordinary fize and beauty. All
thefe names were originally peculiar to particular pro¬
vinces of Italy, but afterwards applied to the whole
country. 2
This country, like moft others,was in ancient times Divifion ia
divided into a great number of petty ftates and king-ancient
doms. Afterwards when the Gauls fettled in thetimcs*
weftern, and many Greek colonies in the eaftern parts,,
it
Italy.
Subued by
the Ro¬
mans.
» I T A
it was divided, with refpeft to Its  7
three great parts, viz. Gallia Cifalpina, Italy properly
fo called, and Magna Graecia. The molt weftern and
northern parts of Italy were in great part pofleffed by
the Gauls j and hence took the name of Gallia, with
the epithets of Cifalpina and Citerior, becaufe they lay
on the fide of the Alps next to Rome; and Togata,
with relation to the Roman gown or drefs which the
inhabitants ufed ; but this laft epithet is of a much
later date than the former. This appellation was an¬
tiquated in the reign of Auguftus, when the divifion
of Italy into eleven provinces, introduced by that
prince, took place. Hence it is that the name of Cf-
alpine Gaul frequently occurs in the authors who flou-
rilhed before, and fcarce ever in thofe who wrote af¬
ter, the reign of Auguftus. This country extended
from the Alps and the river Varus, parting it from
Tranfalpine Gaul, to the river Aefus ; or, as Pliny
will have it, to the city of Ancona, in the ancient Pi-
cenum. On the north, it was divided from Rhaetia
by the Alps, called Alpes Rhccticce ; and from Illyricum
by the river Formio: but on this fide, the borders of
Italy were, in Pliny’s time, extended to the river
Arfia in Iftria. On the fouth, it reached to the Li-
guftic fea, and the Apennines parting it from Etruria;
fo that under the common name of Cfat pine Gaul
were comprehended the countries lying at the foot of
the Alps, called by Pliny and Strabo the Subalpine
countries, Liguria, Gallia Cifpadana and Tranfpadana.
Italy, properly fo called, extended, on the coaft of the
Adriatic, from the city of Ancona to the river Trento,
now the Fortore ; and on the Mediterranean, from the
Macra to the Silarus, now the Sele. Magna Grtecia
comprifed Apulia, Lucania, and the country of the
Eruttii. It was called Greece, becaufe moft of the ci¬
ties on the coaft were Greek colonies. The inhabi¬
tants gave it the name of Great, not as if it was larger
than Greece, but merely out of oftentation, as Pliny
informs us.
All thefe countries were inhabited by a great num¬
ber of difterent nations fettled at different times, and
from many difterent parts. The names of the moft:
remarkable of them were the Aborigines, or thofe whofe
origin was utterly unknown, and confequently were
thought to have none ; the Sabines, Hetrunans or Tuf-
cans, the Umbri, Samnites, Campani, Apulii, Calabrii,
Lucanii, the Bruttii, and the Latins. From a colony
of the latter proceeded the Romans, who gradually
fubdued all thefe nations one after another, and held
them in fubjeftion for upwards of 700 years. All
thefe nations were originally brave, hardy, temperate,
and well ikilled in the art of war ; and the Romans
much more fo than the reft. Their fubje&ion to
Rome, however, inured them to flavery ; their oppref-
fion by the emperors broke their fpirit; and the vaft
wealth which was poured into the country from all
pari-- of the world, during the time of the Roman
pvofperity, corrupted their manners, and made them
degenerate from their former valour. Of this degene¬
racy the barbarous nations of the north took the ad¬
vantage to invade the empire in innumerable multi¬
tudes. Though often repelled, they never failed to
return ; and it wa« found neceffary to take great num
[ 366] I T A
inhabitants, into In the year 476, the Heruli, prefuming on the fervi-
ces they had done the empire, demanded a third part
A. 1- _ 1 1 f* T . 1 it • s* „ . _
Italy.
of the lands of Italy ; and being refufed, chofe one „ A T
fly the
bers of them into the Roman fervice, in order to de¬
fend the empire againft the reft of their countrymen.
4
Odoacer, a man of low birth, but of great valour and
experience, for their king ; and having totally de-
ftroyed the remains of the Roman empire, proclaimed
Odoacer king of Italy. The new monarch, however,
did not think proper to alter the Roman form of go¬
vernment, but fuffered the people to be governed by
the fenate, confuls, &c. as before. He enjoyed his dig¬
nity in peace till the year 488, when Zeno, emperor
of Conftantinople, being hard preffed by Theodoric
king of the Oftrogoths, advifed him to turn his arms
againft Odoacer, whom he could eafiiy overcome, and
thus make himfelf fovereign of one of the fineft coun¬
tries in the world.
Theodoric accepted the propofal with great ioy. i ,,
and fet out for Italy, attended by an infinite number I'h odori/
of people, carrying with them their wives, children, the Oftro-
and effects, on waggons. Several Romans of great Soth‘
diftin&ion attended him in this war; while, on the
other hand, many of his countrymen chofe to remain
in Thrace, where they became a feparate nation, and
lived for a long time in amity with the Romans. The
Goths, being deftjtute of (hipping, were obliged to
go round the Adriatic. Their march was performed
in the depth of winter; and during the whole time, a
violent famine and plague raged in their army. They
were alfo oppofed by the Gepidae and Sarmatians; but
at laft having defeated thefe enemies, and overcome
every other obftaele, they arrived in Italy in the year
489. Theodoric ad-vanced to the river Sontius, now
Zonzo, near Aquileia, where he halted for fome time
to refrefh his troops. Here he was met by Odoacer
at the head of a very numerous army, but compofed
of many different nations commanded by their respec¬
tive chiefs, and confequently without lufficient union
or zeal for the common caufe. Theodoric therefore ofoacer de.
gained an eafy viftory, cut many of his enemies in pie-felted.^
ces, and took their camp. Odoacer retired to the
plains of Verona, and encamped there at a fmall di-
ftance from the city ; but Theodoric purfued him clofe,
and foon forced him to a fecond engagement. The
Goths obtained another viftory ; but it coil them dear.
Odoacer’s men made a much better refiftance than
before, and great numbers fell on both fides. The
viftory, however, was fo far decifive, that Odoacer
was obliged to (hut himfelf up in Ravenna ; fo that
Theodoric having now no enemy to oppofe him in the
field, befieged and took feveral important places, and
among the reft Milan and Pavia. At the fame time,
Tufa, commander in chief of Odoacer’s forces, de-
ferted to the enemy with the greateft part of the
troops he had with him, and was immediately employ¬
ed in conjun&ion with a Gothic oflicer in purfuit of
his fovereign. Odoacer had left that city, and was
advanced as far as Faenza, w-here he was clofely be¬
fieged by T ufa ; but the traitor, declaring again for
his oid mafter, joined him with all his troops, and de¬
livered up feveral officers that had been appointed by
Theodoric to ferve under him. Thefe were fent in
irons to Ravenna ; and Odoacer being joined by Fn-
deric, one of Theodoric’s allies, with a confiderable
body of troops, once more advanced againft his ene¬
mies. He recovered all Liguria, took the cit of
Milan,
I T A [ 367 3 I T A
Italy. Milan, and at laft befieged Theodoric himfelf in Pa-
‘“•—■v™™"*' via. The Goths, having brought all their families and
effe&s along with them, were greatly diftreffed for
want of room •, and muft have undoubtedly fubmitted,
if their enemies had continued to agree among them-
felves. The quarrels of his followers proved the ruin
of Odoacer. Theodoric finding that the enemy re¬
mitted the vigour of their operations, applied for fuc-
cours to Alaric king of the Vifigoths, who had fettled
in Gaul. As the Vifigoths and Oilrogoths were ori¬
ginally one and the fame nation, and the Vifigoths
had received among them fome years before a great
number of Odrogoths under the conduct of Videmer
coufin-german to Theodoric, the fupplies were readily
granted. The inaction of the enemy gave thefe fuc-
cours time to arrive; upon which Theodoric inftantly
joined them, and marching againft his enemies gave
them a total overthrow. Odoacer again took refuge
in Ravenna, but was clofely befieged by Theodoric in
490. The fiege lafted three years ; during which O-
doacer defended himfelf with great bravery, and great¬
ly annoyed the befiegers with his fallies. Theodoric,
however, impatient of delay, leaving part of his army
to blockade the city, marched with the reft againft the
ftrong holds which Odoacer had garrifoned. All thefe
he reduced with little difficulty 5 and in 492 returned
to the fiege of Ravenna. The befieged were now re¬
duced to great ftraits both by the enemy without and
a famine within, the price of wheat being rifen to fix
pieces of gold per buffiel. On the other hand, the
Goths were quite worn out with the fatigues of fuch a
long fiege j fo that both parties being willing to put an
end to the war, Odoacer fent John bilhop of Ravenna
to Theodoric with terms of accommodation. Jornandes
informs us, that Odoacer only begged his life ; which
Theodoric bound himfelf, by a folemn oath, to grant
^ him : but Procopius fays, that they agreed to live to-
Submits, gether on equal terms. This laft feems very improba-
and is put ble : but whatever were the terms of the agreement, it
to death. js certaJn that Theodoric did not keep them ; for ha¬
ving a few days after invited Odoacer to a banquet, he
difpatched him with his own hand. All his fervants
and relations were maffacred at the fame time ; except
his brother Arnulphus, and a few more, who had the
good luck to make their efcape, and retired beyond the
8 Danube.
Theodoric Thus Theodoric became mafter of all Italy, and
kin^crTa uPon himfelf the title of kins; of that country, as
Ij, and ufes ^^oacer ^one before j though, with a pretended
his power deference to the emperor of Conftantinople, he fent
with mode-meflengers alking liberty to affume that title after he
ration. }lacj a£tually taken it. Having fecured his new king¬
dom as well as he could by foreign alliances, Theodoric
next applied himfelf to legiftation, and ena£ted many
falutary laws befides thofe of the Romans which he re¬
tained. He chofe Raveuna for the place of his refi-
dence, in order to be near at hand to put a flop to
the incurfions of the barbarians. The provinces were
governed by the fame magiftrates that had prefided
over them in the times of the emperors, viz. the confu-
lares, correSiors, and prcejides. But befides thefe, he
fent, according to the cuftom of the Goths, inferior
judges, diftinguiftred by the name of ceunts, to each
city. Thefe were to adminifter juftice, and to decide
all controverfies and difputes. And herein the polity
of the Goths far excelled that of the Romans. For in Italy,
the Roman times a whole province was governed by “v~“’l“r
a confularis, a correftor, or a praefes, who refided in
the chief city, and to whom recourfe was to be had at
a great charge from the moft remote parts: but Theo¬
doric, befides thefe officers, appointed not only in the
principal cities, but in every fmall town and village,
inferior magiftrates of known integrity, who were to
adminifter juftice, and by that means fave thofe who
had law-fuits the trouble and expence of recurring to
the governor of the whole province ; no appeals to di-
ftant tribunals being allowed, but in matters of the
greateft importance, or in cafes of manifeft injuftice.
Under the adminiftration of Theodoric Italy enjoy¬
ed as great happinefs as had been experienced under
the very beft emperors. As he had made no altera¬
tion in the laws except that above mentioned j fo he
contented himfelf with the fame tributes and taxes that
had been levied by the emperors j but was, on all oc-
cafions of public calamity, much more ready to remit
them than moft of the emperors had been. He did
not treat the natives as thofe of the other Roman pro¬
vinces were treated by the barbarians who conquered
them. Thefe ftripped the ancient proprietors of their
lands, eftates, and pofleffions, dividing them among
their chiefs ; and giving to one a province with the
title of duke, to another a frontier country with the
title of marquis ; to fome a city with the title of count,
to others a caftle or village with the title of baron. But
Theodoric, who piqued himfelf upon governing after
the Roman manner, and obferving the Roman laws and
inilitutions, left every one in the full enjoyment of his
ancient property. As to religion, though he himfelf,
like moft of his countrymen, profefled the tenets of
Arius, he allowed his fubjefts to profefs the orthodox
doftrine without moleftation, giving liberty even to
the Goths to renounce the doctrines in which they
had been educated, and embrace the contrary opinions.
In ffiort, his many virtues, and the happinefs of his
fubjefb, are celebrated by all the hiftorians of thofe 9
times. The end of his reign, however, was fullied by Beheads
the death of the celebrated phiiofopher Boethius, and Boethius
his father-in-law Symmachus. They were both behead-
ed in Pavia, on an unjuft fufpicion of treafon 5 and anc[ 0£
fcarce was the fentence put in execution when the king grief,
repented, and abandoned himfelf to the moft pungent
forrow. The excefs of his grief affefted his underftand-
ing : for not long after, the head of a large fiffi being
ferved up to fupper, he fancied the head of the fiffi to
be that of Symmachus threatening him in a ghaitly
manner. Hereupon, feized with horror and amaze¬
ment, he was carried to his bed-chamber, where he died
in a few days, on the 2d of September 526.
After the death of Theodoric, the kingdom devol¬
ved to Athalric his grandfon 5 who being at that time
only eight years of age, his mother Amalafuntha took 10
upon her the regency. Her adminiftration was equally Amalafun-
upright with that of Theodoric himfelf j but the barba-re*
rians of whom her court was compofed, finding fault \erns equi*
with the encouragement ffie gave to learning, forced tably,
her to abandon the education of her fon. The latter
thereupon plunged into all manner of wickednefs, and
behaved to his mother with the greateft arrogance; and,
the faftion finding themfelves thus ftrengthened, at laft
commanded the queen to retire from court.
Amalafuntha5
Italy
It
Is treacher
oully impri
foned, and
put to
death ;
12
for which
reafon Ju-
ftinian
makes war
on the
Oaths.
1 T A [ 3
Amalafuntha, exerting her authority, feized three of
the ringleaders of the fedition, whom (lie confined in
the moft remote parts of Italy. But thefe maintaining
a fecret correfpondence with their friends and rela¬
tions, never ceafed to ftir up the people againft her j
infomuch, that the queen, apprehending that the fac¬
tion might in the end prevail, wrote to the emperor
Juftinian, begging leave to take refuge in his domi¬
nions. The emperor readily complied with her requeft,
offering a noble palace at Durazzo for her habitation j
but the queen having in the mean time caufed the three
ringleaders to be put to death, and no new difiurb-
ances arifing thereupon, fhe did not accept of the em¬
peror’s offer. In 533, Athalric having contra&ed a
lingering diflemper by his riotous living and debauch¬
eries, Amalafuntha, to avoid the calamities with which
Italy was threatened in cafe of his death, formed a de-
fign of delivering it up to Juflinian : but before her
fcheme was ripe for execution, Athalric died, tlpon
which the queen took for her colleague one Theodotus
her coufin ; obliging him, however, to fwear that he
would fuffer her to enjoy and exercife her former power.
-This he very readily did, but foon forgot his promife ;
■and when flie took the liberty to remind him of it,
caufed her to be feized and confined to an ifland of the
lake Bolfena in Tufcany. But as Theodotus had great
reafon to believe that this conduct would be refented
by Juftinian, he obliged her to write to him that no
injury or injuftice had been done her. Along with
this letter he fent one written by himfelf, and filled
with heavy complaints againft Amalafuntha. The em¬
peror, however, was fo far from giving credit to what
Theodotus urged againft her, that he openly efpoufed
her caufe, wrote her a moft affeiflionate letter, and af-
fured her of his prote£lion. But before this letter
could reach her, the unhappy princefs was ftrangled in
the bath by the friends of thofe whom in the reign of
her fon ftie had defervedly put to death for raifing di-
fturbances in the ftate.
On the news of Amalafuntha’s death, Juftinian re-
folved upon an immediate war with the Goths 5 and,
to facilitate the enterprife, ufed his utmoft endeavours
to induce the Franks to affift him. To his folicitations
he added a large fum of money •, which laft was very
acceptable to his new allies. They promifed to aftift
the emperor to the utmoft of their power ; but inftead
of performing their promife, while Juftinian’s arms
were employed againft the Goths, Thierri, the eldeft
fon of Clovis, feized on feveral cities of Liguria, the
Alpes Cottke, and great part of the prefent territory
of Venice, for himfelf. Juftinian, however, found fuf-
ficient refources in the valour of Belifarius, notwith-
itanding the defeftion of his treacherous allies. This
celebrated general was veiled with the fupreme com¬
mand, and abfolute authority. His inftruelions were
to pretend a voyage to Carthage, but to make an at¬
tempt upon Sicily , and if he thought he could fuc-
ceed in the attempt, to land there ; otherwife to fail
for Africa, without difcovering his intentions. Ano¬
ther general, named Mundus, commander of the troops
in Illyricum, was ordered to march into Dalmatia,
which was fubjedl to the Goths, and attempt the ,re-
duftion of Sa’once, the better to open a paffage into
kaly. This he accompliftied without difficulty, and
Belifarius made himfclf mafter of Sicily fooner than he
68 ] I T A
himfelf had expelled. The ifland was reduced on the Italy.
laft of December 535 j upon which Belifarius, with-  
out lols of time, palled over to Beggio, which opened
its gates to him. From Reggio he purfued his march
to Rome, the provinces of Abrutium, Lucania, Pug¬
lia, Calabria, and Samnium, readily fubmitting to him.
The city of Naples endured a fiege : but Belifarius
entered in through an aquedudt, and gave it up to be
plundered by his foldiers.
I heodotus alarmed at thefe fuccefles, and having
neither capacity nor inclination to carry on the war,
fent ambafladors to Juftinian with propofals of peace.
He agreed to renounce all pretenftons to the ifland of
Sicily ; to fend the emperor yearly a crown of gold
weighing 300 pounds ; and to fupply him w ith 3000
men whenever he fhould think proper to demand them.
Several other articles were contained in the propofal,
which amounted to the owning of Juftinian for his
lord,, and that he held the crown of Italy only through
his favour. As he apprehended, however, that thefe
offers might not yet be fatisfaftory, he recalled his 13
ambaffadors for further orders. They were now de-T!.lf‘odotU3
fired to inform Juftinian, that Theodotus was willing re"
to refign the kingdom to him, and content himfelfkfngdom.
with a penfion fuitable to his quality. But he obliged 0
them by an oath not to mention this propofal, till
they found that the emperor would not accept of the
other. The firft propofals were accordingly rejefted
as they had fuppofed ; upon which the ambaffadors
produced the fecond, figned by Theodotus himfelf,
who in his letter to the emperor told him, among
other things, that being unacquainted with war, and
addifted to the ftudy of philofophy, he preferred his
quiet to a kingdom. Juftinian, tranfported with joy,
and imagining the wrar already finiflied, anfwered the
king in a moft obliging manner, extolling his wifdom,
and giving him beftdes what he demanded the greateft
honours of the empire. The agreement being con¬
firmed by mutual oaths, lands were affigned to Theo¬
dotus out of the king’s domain, and orders were dif-
patched to Belifarius to take poffeflion of Italy in his
name.
In the mean time, a body of Goths having entered
Dalmatia, with a defign to recover the city of Salonce,
were encountered by an inferior army of Romans,
commanded by the fon of Mundus above mentioned.
The Goths proved viftorious ; and the young general
of the Romans was killed, and moft of his army cut
in pieces. Mundus marched againft the enemy to re¬
venge the death of his fon ; but met with no better
fuccefs, h is troops being defeated, and he himfelf kill¬
ed in the engagement. Upon this the Romans aban- j4
doned Salonae and all Dalmatia ; and Theodotus, ela-Theodotus
ted with his fuccefs, refufed to fulfil the articles of the ref\lfes t0
treaty. Juftinian difpatched Conftantianus, an officer ^deles of
great valour and experience, into Illyricum, with or-theueaty.
ders to raife forces there, and to enter Dalmatia ; at
the fame time he wrote to Belifarius to purfue the war
with the utmoft vigour.
•The Goths were now reduced to the greateft ftraits.
Conftantianus drove them out of Dalmatia ; and Beli¬
farius having reduced all the provinces which compofe
the prefent kingdom of Naples, advanced towards
Rome. The chief men of the nation, finding their
king incapable of preventing the impending ruin, af-
lembled
I T A
Italy;
IS
He is de¬
posed, and
Vitiges
chofen in
Ills dead.
i5
He collects
a great
army.
fembled without his confent, and difpatched ariibaf-
' fadors to Belifarius with propofals of peace. Theie
propofals were rejected j and Belifarius returned for
anfwer, that he would hearken to no terms, nor {heath
his fword, till Italy was reannexed to the empire to
which it belonged. The Goths finding Theodotus
{till inactive, unanimoufly depofed him 5 and chofe in
his Head one Vitiges, a man of great valour, but of a
mean defcent. Theodotus tied to Ravenna j but the
new king difpatched after him a meffenger, who foon
overtook him and cut off his head.
Vitiges began his government by writing a circular
letter, in which he exhorted his countrymen to exert
their ancient courage, and fight bravely for their lives
and liberties. He then marched with what forces he
could colleCt towards Rome j but not thinking himfelf
able to defend that city againff the Roman forces, he
abandoned it to Belifarius, and arriving at Ravenna
was joined by the Goths from all parts, fo that he
foon found himfelf at the head of a confiderabje army.
Belifarius in the mean time entered Rome without op-
pofition, on the 9th or 10th of December 537. The
Gothic garrifon retired by the Porta Flaminia, while
Belifarius entered by the Porta Afinaria. Leudaris,
governor of the city, who ftaid behind, was fent, to¬
gether with the keys, to the emperor. Belifarius
immediately applied himfelf to the repairing of the
■walls and other fortifications 5 filled, the granaries
with corn, which he caufed to be brought from Sicily }
and ftored the place with provifions, as if he had been
’preparing for a fiege j which gave no fmall uneafinefs
to the inhabitants, who chofe rather that their city
fhould lie open to every invader, than that they fliould
be liable to the calamities of a fiege. While Belifarius
was thus employed at Rome, the city of Benevento,
with great part of the territory of Samnium, was de¬
livered up to him : at the fame time the cities of Nar¬
nia, Spoleto, and Perufia, revolting from the Goths,
received Roman garrifons ; as did moft of the cities of
Tufcany.
In the mean time, Vitiges having collected an army
of 150,000 men, refolved to march direCtly to Rome,
and engage Belifarius j or, if he declined an engage¬
ment, to lay fiege to the city. But apprehending
that the Franks, who were in confederacy with the
emperor, might fall upon him at the fame time, he
fent ambaffadors to them, with offers of all the Gothic
poffeffions in Gaul, befides a confiderable fum of
money, provided they joined him againft the emperor.
The Franks with their ufual treachery confented to the
propofal, received the money and the territories agreed
on, and then refufed to fulfil the terms of the treaty.
Vitiges, however, began his march to Rome, leaving
behind him all the fortified towns on the road, the
reduction of which he knew would coft him too much
trouble. Belifarius, whofe army, reduced by the
many towns he had garrifoned, did not now amount
to above 5000 men, difpatched meffengers to Conftan-
tianus in Tufcany 5 and to Beffas, by nation a Goth,
but of the emperor’s party, in Umbria, with orders
to join him with all poffible expedition •, writing at
the fame time to the emperor himfelf for fupplies in
the moft prefling manner. Conffantianus joined him
purfuant to his orders •, and foon after, Beffas, fall¬
ing in with part of the enemy’s vanguard, killed a
Vol. XI. Part I.
I 369 1
I T A
confiderable number of them, and put the reft to flight. P-’iy-
Belifarius had built a fort upon a bridge about a mile —■
from Rome, and placed a ftrong garrifon in it to
difpute the paffage with the enemy 5 but the garrifon,
feized with a panic at the approach of the Goths,
abandoned their poll in the night, and fled into Cam¬
pania. Early in the morning Vitiges palled over great
part of his army, and marched on till he was met by
Belifarius, who, knowing nothing of what had hap¬
pened, came with 1000 horfe to view the ground }
about the bridge. He was greatly furprifed when lie Obftirlate
beheld the enemy marching up againft him •, however, engage-
left he ftiould heighten their courage by his flight orment De_
retreat, he flood his ground, and received the enemy af and
the head of his fmall body, expoling himfelf, without Romai}s,
his ufual prudence and difcretion, to the greateft dan¬
gers. Being known by f»me fugitives, and difcovered
to the enemy, they all aimed at him alone, which
made his own men the more felicitous to defend him 5
fo that the whole conteft was for feme time about his
perfon. At laft the Goths were driven back to their
camp, which the Romans with great temerity attempt¬
ed to force. In this attempt, however, they met with
fuch a vigorous refiftance, that they foon abandoned
the enterprife, and retired with precipitation to a
neighbouring eminence •, whence they were forced down
by the enemy, put to flight, and purfued to the very
gates of the city. Here they were in greater danger
than ever ; for thofe within, fearing that the enemy
might in that confufion enter with them, refufed to
admit them. The general himfelf cried out earneftly
to them, telling who he was, and commanding them
to open the gates ; but as they had been informed by
thofe who firft fled, that he was flain, and they could
not diflinguifti him on account of the blood and dull
with which his face was covered, they gave no ear to
what he faid. In this extremity, having encouraged
his men, who wrere now driven into a narrow compafs,
to make a laft effort, he put himfelf at their head, and
attacked the enemy with fuch fury, that the Goths
imagining frefti troops were fallying out upon them,
began to give ground, and at lafl: retired to their
camp. The Roman general did not purfue them ; but
entered the city, where he was received with loud accla¬
mations. js
A few days after, the city was elofely invefted by Rome be-
Vitiges j who, to diftrefs the inhabitants, pulled downfiege<I b7
the aquedufts by which water was conveyed into the1*12
city, and which had been built at an immenfe charge
by the Roman emperors. Belifarius on his part omit¬
ted nothing for his defence ; infomuch that the coward¬
ly citizens affembled in a tumultuous manner, and railed
at the general on account of his fuppofed temerity.
Vitiges, to encourage this mutinous difpofition, dif¬
patched ambaffadors to the fenate with propofals of
peace. Thefe ambaffadors, however, were difmiffed
without any anfwer, and the fiege was begun with
great vigour. Belifarius made a gallant defence, and
in feven months is faid to have deftroyed 40,000 of
the Goths. About this time he received a fupply of
1600 archers from the emperor j and thefe, in feveral
fuccefsful fallies, are faid to have killed 4000 more of
the enemy.
The Romans, elated with their fucceffes, now be¬
came impatient for an engagement j and at laft, not-
3 A withflanding
Italy.
*9
The Siege
.gaifed.
40
Milan ta-
fyen by the
©oths.
I T A [ 3
witlaftanding all the remonftrances of their general, for¬
ced him to lead them out againft the enemy. The fuc-
cefs was anfvverable to the ra(h attempt. The Romans
were defeated, with the lofs of fome of their braveft
oijicers, and a great many of their common foldiers ;
after which they contented themfelves with fallying out
in fmall parties, which they commonly did with the
greateft fuccefs.
But though the Romans had the fatisfa&ion of thus
cutting off their enemies, they were moft grievoufly
affli&ed with a famine and plague •, infomuch that the
inhabitants, no longer able to bear their calamities,
were on the point of forcing Belifarius to venture a
fecond battle, when a fealonable fupply of troops, viz.
3000 Ifaurians, 800 Thracian horfe, and iqco horfe
of other nations, together w ith 500 Italians who joined
them by the way, arrived at Rome. Belifarius imme¬
diately fallied out by the Flaminian gate, and fell
upon the Goths in order to give his allies time to
enter by the oppofite fide of the city, which they did
without the lofs of a man.—The Goths hearing of
the arrival of thefe troops, and their numbers being
magnified as is ufual in fuch cafes, began to defpair
ef becoming mafters of the city j efpecially as the fa¬
mine and plague raged with great violence in their
camp, and their army was much reduced. Ambafladors
were therefore difpatched to Belifarius with propofals
of peace ; but the only thing they could obtain was a
reflation of arms for three months, during which time
they might lend ambaffadors to the emperor. The
negotiations with the emperor, however, proved un-
fuccefsful; and the liege was purfued with great vigour
till Vitiges received the news of the taking of Rimini
by the Romans. As this city was but a day’s journey
from Ravenna, the Goths were fo much alarmed, that
they immediately raifed the fiege of Rome, after it had
continued a year and nine days'. Belifarius fell upon
their rear as they paffed the bridge of the Tiber, and
cut great numbers of them in pieces, while ethers,
ftrutkwith a panic, threw themfelves into the river and
were drowned.
The firft enterprife of Vitiges, after railing the
fiege of Rome, was an attempt upon Rimini j but
while he was employed in this fiege, the Romans made
themfelves matters of Milan ; upon which a Gothic
general, named Urnia, was immediately difpatched with
a powerful army to retake it. In the mean time,
however, a fupply of 7000 Romans arrived from the
emperor, under the command of Narfes, a celebrated
general. The immediate confequence of this was the
railing of the fiege of Rimini j for Vitiges perceiving
the tw'o Roman armies coming againlt him, and con¬
cluding, from the many fires they made, that they
were much more numerous tl an they really were, fled
in fuch hafte, that the greateft part of the baggage was
left behind. The confufion of the Goths was fo great,
that, had not the garrifon been extremely feeble, they
might have eafily cut them off in their retreat, and thus
put an end to the war at once. The fuccefs of the
Romans, however, was now retarded by fome mifun-
derftanding^ between the two generals : fo that, though
Belifarius made himfelf mailer of Urbinurn and Urbi-
ventum, while Narfes reduced fome other places, yet
the important city of Milan was fuffered to fall into
the hands of the Qoths, who mafiacred all the inhabit
70 1 I T A
tants that were able to bear arms, to the number of Italy.
300,000, and fold the women for flaves. The city —--y-—
w'as alfo totally demolilhed ; and this difafter made
fuch an impreffion on the mind of Jufttnian, that he
immediately recalled Narfes, and gave the command
of his troops to Belifarius.
Vitiges, who had promifed himfelf great advantages
from the difagreement of the two generals, was much
difappointed by the recal of Narfes : and therefore
dreading the power of Belifarius when at the head of
a formidable army, thought of engaging in alliance
with fome foreign prince. In his choice, however, he
was fomewhat at a lofs. He knew the treachery of
the Franks, and therefore did not apply to them. He
applied to the Lombards j but, though tempted by
the offer of a large fum of money, they continued in¬
violably attached to the Roman intereft. At laft he
found means to perfuade Chofroes king of Perfia to
make war upon Juftinian, which he thought would
infallibly procure the recal of Belifarius. But the
Roman general, underftanding his defign, pulhed on
the war in the moft vigorous manner j while, in the
mean time, the treacherous Franks, thinking both na-va(j*
tions fufficiently weakened by their mutual hoftilities, ed by the |
refolved to attack both, and feize upon the country Franks,
for which they contended. Accordingly, Theodebert,
unmindful of the oaths he had taken both to the
Goths and Romans, paffed the Alps at the head of
150,000, or, as fome will have it, 200,000 men, and
entered Liguria. As no hoftilities were committed by
them on their march, the Goths concluded that they
were come to their afliftance j and therefore took care
to fupply them with provifions. Thus they crofs-
ed the Po without oppofition j and having fecured the
bridge, marched towards the place where a body of
Goths was encamped ; who, looking upon them as
friends, admitted them without hefitation. But they
were foon convinced of their miftake 5 for the Franks
falling unexpectedly upon them, drove them out of the
camp with great flaughter, and ftized on their bag¬
gage and provifions. A body of Romans that lay at a
fmall diftance from the Goths concluding that they
had been defeated by Belifarlus, advanced with great
joy to meet him as they imagined 5 but the Franks fall¬
ing unawares upon them, treated them as they had
done the Goths, and made themfelves mafters of their
camp. Thus they acquired a very confiderable booty
and ftore of provifions •, but the latter being foon con-
fumed, and the country round about quite exhaufted,
vaft numbers of the Franks periihed } fo that Theode¬
bert at laft found himlelf obliged to return. In his way
he deflroyed Genoa and feveral other places, and arriv¬
ed in his own dominions loaded with booty. ^
In the mean time, Belifarius was making great pro-succtls 0f,
grefs. He took the cities of Auximum and FaefulesKelitarius*
after an obftinate fiege j the inhabitants of the. former
having for fome time fed on grafs before they would
furrender. After this he invefted Ravenna, the capital
of all the Gothic dominions in Italy. The place was
defended by a very numerous garriion, commanded by
the king in perfon, who exerted all his bravery in the
defence of his metropolis. As the fiege, however, was
puihed on with great vigour, it was evident that the
city muft at laft fubmit; and the great fuccefles of the
Roarans began to give jealoufy to the neighbouring
potentates*.
I T A
ihjy.
Ravenna
reduced,
and Vitige:
“taken pri-
ftntr.
potentates. Theodebert king of the Franks offered to
J aflift Vitiges with an army of 500,000 men : but Be-
lifarius, being informed of this negociation, fent am-
baffadors to Vitiges, putting him in mind of the
tteachery of the Franks, and affured him that the em¬
peror was ready to grant him Very honourable terms.
The king, by the advice of his counl'ellors, rejected
the alliance of the Franks, and fent ambaffadors to
Conllantinople •, but in the mean time, Belifarius, in
order to bring the citizens to his own terms, bribed
One of them to fet fire to a magazine of corn, by
which means the city was loon ftraitened for want of
provifions. But, notwithfianding this difaifer, they
Itill continued to hold out, till the arrival of the am¬
baffadors from Conffantinople, who brought very fa¬
vourable terms. Thefe were, That the country beyond
the Po, with refpetl to Rome, fliould remain to the
Goths; but that the reft of Italy Ihould be yielded to
the emperor, and the royal treafure of the Goths (hould
be equally divided between him and the king. To
thefe conditions, however, Belifarius pnfitively refufed
to affent; being defirous of leading captive the king of
the Goths, as he had formerly done the king of the
Vandals, to Conftantinople, He therefore purfued
the fiege with more vigour than ever, without heark¬
ening to the complaints of his fnldiers and officers,
who were quite tired out with the length of the fiege:
he only obliged fuch of the officers as were of opi¬
nion that the town could not be taken, to exprefs
their opinion in writing, that they might not deny it
afterwards.
The Goths w-ere as weary of the fiege as the Ro¬
mans ; but fearing left Juftinian ffiould tranfplant
them to Thrace, formed a refolution, without the con-
fent of their king, of furrendering to Belifariushimfelf,
and declaring him emperor of the weft. To this they
were the more encouraged by the refufal of Beli¬
farius to agree to the terms propofed by the emperor ;
^whence they concluded that he defigned to revolt,
and make himfelf emperor of Italy. Of this, however,
Belifarius had no defign; but thought proper to ac¬
cept of that title, in order to accelerate the furrender of
the city, after acquainting his principal officers with
what had paffed. Vitiges at laid difeovered the plot;
but finding himfelf in no condition to oppofe it, he
commended the refolution of his people, and even
wrote to Belifarius, encouraging him to take upon him
the title of kin^, and affuring him of his alnftance.
Upon this Belifarius preffed the Goths to furrender ;
which, however, they ftill refufed, till he had taken
an oath that he would treat them with humanity, and
maintain them in the poffeffion of all their rights and
privileges. He was then admitted into the city, where
he conducted himfelf w ith great moderation towards the
Goths *, but feiz-^d on the royal treafure, and fecured
the perfon of the king. The Roman army, when it
entered Ravenna, appeared fovery inconfiderable, that
the Gothic women on beholding it could not forbear
fpitting in the faces of their hufbands, and reviling
them as cowards.
The captivity of Vitiges, and the capture of Raven¬
na, did not terminate the war. Belifarius was foon
after recalled to take the command of the army in
the eaft. The Goths were greatly furpriftd that he
ffeould leave his new kingdom out of regard to the
r 371 i
I T A
Italy*
y—«
24
orders of the emperor ; but, after his departilre, efiofe
one Ildebald, a man of great experience in affairs both
civil and military, for their king. He revived the
drooping fpirits of his countrymen, defeated the Ro¬
mans, and reduced all the province of Venetia ; but
was in a fhort time murde ed, and Erar'tc, a Rugian^-
fucceeded to the throne. He was fcarcely invefted with
the fovereignty, when his fubjeffs began to think of
depafing him, and raifing Totila to the throne ; which
the latter accepted, upon condition that they pre-
vioufty difpatched Eraric. This was accordingly done ;
after which Totila was proclaimed king of Italy in the
year 542.
The new king proved a very formidable enemy toSuccefsof
the Romans, who now loft ground everywhere. They loftL a-
made an attempt on the city of Verona; in which
they mifearried through their own avarice, having dif-
puted about the diviiion of the plunder till the oppor¬
tunity of taking the town was paft. They were next
defeated in two bloody engagements ; the confequence
of which was, that the Goths made themfelves matters
of all the ftrong places in Tufeany. From thence
marching into Campania and Samnium, they reduced
the ftrong town of Bcneventum, and laid fiege to
Napl es. During the fiege of this laft place, feveral
detachments were fent from the king’s army, which
took Cumae, and recovered all Brutia, Lucania, A-
pulia, and Calabria, where they found confiderable
furns which had been gathered for the emperor’s ufe.
The Romans, in the mean time, difheartened by their
Ioffes, and deprived of thofe fums which ffiould have
paid their wages, refufed to take the field. A confi¬
derable fleet was therefore fent by Juftinian to the re¬
lief of Naples : but Totila, having timely notice of
this defign, manned, with incredible expedition, a
great number of light veffels ; which, falling unex¬
pectedly on the Roman fleet, took or funk every ffiip,
and made prifoners of all on board, excepting a few
who efcaped in their boats. A fimilar fate attended
another fleet difpatched from Sicily for the fame pur-
pofe. They put to fea in the depth of winter ; ands
meeting with a violent ftorm, were driven affiore near
the enemy’s camp ; who funk the ffiips, and made
what flaughter they plea fed of the featnen and fokiiers.
Upon this fecond difafter, the Neapolitans, defpairing
of further relief, fubmitted to Totila ; who granted
them honourable terms, and treated them with great
humanity. As they had been long pinched with fa¬
mine, Totila, apprehending they might endanger their
lives by indulging their appetites too much at firftj
placed guards at the gates to prevent their going out,
taking care at the fame time to fupply them fparingly
with provifions, but increafing their allowance every
day. Being thus by degrees reftored to their former
ftrength, he wdered the gates to be fet 0(»en, and gave
every one full liberty to ilay in the city or remove as
he thought fit. The garrifon he treated w ith extraor¬
dinary kindnefs. They were firft fupplied with (hips
to carry them to Conftantinople ; but the king having
difeovered that their real defign was to lail to Rome,
in order to reinforce the garrifon of that city (which
they knew he Was foon to befiege), he was lo far
from puniffiing them as they expected, that he furnilh-
ed them with horfes, waggons, and provifions, and
ordered a body of Goths to efcort them to Rome by
3 A 2 land,
t
Rome be-
iieged,
I T A [ 372 1 I T A
lanJ, as the winds had proved unfavourable for their
paffage by fea.
Totila having thus become mafter of Naples and
moft of the other fortreffes in thefe parts, began to
think of reducing Rome alfo. He firft attempted to
perfuade the citizens to a furrender: but finding his
perfuafions ineffeftual, he fent a detachment of his
army into Calabria to reduce Otranto, which had not
yet fubmitted ; after which, he marched with the reft
of his forces againft the towns in the neighbourhood of
Rome. The city of Tibur, now Tivoli, about 18
miles from Rome, was betrayed to him ; and all the in¬
habitants, together with their bilhop, were put to the
fword. Several other ftrong holds in the neighbourhood
©f that city he took by ftorm j fo that Rome was in a
manner blocked up by land, all communication with
the neighbouring country being cut off.
Juftinian, in the mean time, being greatly perplex¬
ed by the bad new's he every day received from Italy,
recalled Belifarius from Perfia, notwithftanding the
fuccefs which attended him there. To fave Rome,
however, was now impoffible even for Belifarius him-
felf. As foon as he arrived in Italy, finding himfelf
unable either to relieve the towns which were befieged,
or to ftop the progrefs of the Goths, he difpatched
letters to Juftinian, informing him, that being defti-
tute of men, arms, and money, it was impofiible for
him to profecute the war j upon which the emperor
ordered new levies to be made, all the veterans being
engaged in the Perfian war. In the mean time, howr-
ever Totila purfued his good fortune ; took the cities
of Firmum, Afculum, Auximum, Spoletum, &c. and
at length advanced to Rome, which he inverted on all
fides. As he drew near the city, two officers, whom
Belifarius had fent into the city, ventured to make a
fally, though contrary to the exprefs orders of their
general, thinking they (hould furprife the Goths j but
they were tkemfelves taken in an ambufcade, and, moft
of their men being cut in pieces, narrowly efcaped
falling into the hands of the enemy. Belifarius made
feveral attempts to relieve the city : but all of them,
however well concerted, by fome accident or other
proved unfuccefsful ’, which gave him fo much unea-
finefs, that he fell into a feverifti diforder, and was for
fome time thought to be in danger of his life. The
city was foon reduced to great ftraits j a dreadful fa¬
mine enfuedj and the unhappy citizens having confumed
every thing that could be fuppofed to give them nourifh-
ment, even the grafs that grew near the walls, were obli¬
ged, it is faid, to feed on their own excrements. Many
put an end to their lives, in order to free themfelVes
from the intolerable calamities they fuffered. Jfhe reft
addreffed their governor Beffas in the moft pathetic
manner, intreating him to fupply them with food 5 or
if that was not in his power^ either to give them leave
to go out of the town, or to terminate their mi-
feries by putting them to death. Beffas replied, that
to fupply them with food was impoffible 5 to let them
go, unfafe j and to kill them impious. In the end, how¬
ever, he fuffered thofe who were willing to retire, to
leave the city, upon paying him a fum of money j but
moft of them either died on the road, or were cut in
pieces by the enemy. At laft, the befieged, unable
to bear their miferies any longer, began to mutiny, and
to prefs their governor to come to an agreement with
Z'
Totila. This, however, he ftill refufed j upon which, Italy,
four of the Ifaurians w'ho guarded one of. the gates, '■""“Y—•
went privately to the camp of Totila, and offered to ^
admit him into the city. The king received this pro- an(j tal5;e.
pofal with great joy j and fending four Goths of great
ftrength and intrepidity into the town along wdth
them, he filently approached the gates in the night¬
time with his whole army. The gates were opened by
the Ifaurians, as they had promifed j and upon the
firft alarm, Beffas with moft of the foldiers and offi¬
cers fled out of the town. The inhabitants took
fandtuary in the churches j and only 60 of them and
26 foldiers were killed after the town was taken. To¬
tila, however, gave his foldiers full liberty to plunder
the city : which they did for feveral days together,
ftrippingthe inhabitants of all their w ealth, and leaving
nothing in their houfes but naked walls; by which
means many perfons of diftindlion were reduced to beg
their bread from door to door. In the houfe of Bellas
was found an immenfe treafure, which he had fcanda-
loufly amaffed during the liege, by felling to the people,
at an exorbitant price, the corn which had been ftored-
up for the ufe of the. garrifon.
Totila, thus become mafter of Italy, fent ambafla-
dors to Juftinian with very refpedlful letters, defiring
to live on the fame terms with him that Theedoric had
done with his predeceffor Anaftafius ; promifing. in that
cafe to refpeft him as his father,, and to affift him,
when he pleafed, with all his force, againft any other
nation whatever. On the contrary, if the emperor re¬
jected his offers, he threatened to level Rome with the
ground, to put the whole fenate to the fword, and to
carry the war into Illyricum. The emperor returned no
other anfwer, than that he referred the whole to Beli¬
farius, who had full power to manage all things of that
nature. Upon this Totila refolved todeftroy the city;
and had actually thrown down a third part of the
wall, when he received a letter from Belifarius, dif-
fuading hi-m from his intention. After having ferioufly
confidered this letter, Totila thought proper to alter
his refolution with regard to the deftruflion of the
city ; but fent every one of the inhabitants into Luca-
nia, without leaving a {ingle perfon in the metropolis.
Belifarius hearing of this, immediately returned to the
capital, and undertook to repeople and repair it. He
cleared the ditch which had been filled by Totila, but
was for the prefent obliged to fill up the breaches in
the walls with ftones loofely heaped upon one another,
and in this fituation the city was again attacked by the
Goths. Belifarius, however, had taken care to fupply
the inhabitants with plenty of provifions, fo that they
were now' in no danger of fuffering by famine ; and the
affaults of the enemy were vigoroufly repelled, not¬
withftanding the bad fituation of the fortifications, fo
that Totila at laft abandoned the enterprife.
In the mean time the Perfians gained great advan-
tages over the Romans in the Eaft, fo that there was arecaiic<j.
neceflity for recalling Belifarius a fecond time. He was
no fooner gone, than Totila renewed his efforts with
greater vigour than ever; and at the fame time the
Franks, concluding that both Romans and Goths would
be much weakened by fuch a deftfu&ive war, feized
upon Venetia, which belonged to both nations, and
made it a province of the French empire. Totila did
not oppole them ; but having obtained a reinforcement
. of
I T A
F 373 }
I T A
Italy.
s3
of 60OO Lombards, returned immediately before Rome,
fully intent on making himl'elf mailer of that metro¬
polis. Having clofely inverted it by fea and land, he
hoped in a (hort time to reduce it by famine : but
againft this the governor wifely provided, by caufing
corn to be fown within the walls j fo that he could pro
bably have defied the power of Totila, had not the city
been again betrayed by the Ifaurians, who opened one
of the gates and admitted the enemy.
Thus the empire of the Goths was a third time efta-
blilhed in Italy \ and Totila, immediately on his be¬
coming mafter of Rome, difpatched ambaffadors to
Juftinian, offering to affift him as a faithful ally
againlt any nation whatever, provided he would al¬
low him the quiet poflefiion of Italy. But Juftinian
was fo far from hearkening to this propofal, that
he would not even admit the ambaffadors into his
prefence j upon which Totila refolved to purfue the
war with the utmoft vigour, and to make himfelf ma¬
fter not only of thofe places which the Romans poffef-
Narfes fent fed in Italy, but in Sicily alfq. This he fully accom-
iato Italy, plifhed ; when Narfes, who had formerly been joined
in the command with Belifarius, was appointed general,
with abfolute and uncontrouled authority. But while
this general was making the neceffary preparations for
his expedition, Totila, having equipped a tleet of 300
galleys, fent them to pillage the coafts of Greece,
where they got an immenfe booty. They made a de-
fcent on the ifland of Corfu ; and having laid it wafte,
they failed to Epirus, where they furprifed and plun¬
dered the cities of Nicopolis and Anchialus, taking ma¬
ny (hips on the coaft, among which were fome laden
with provifions for the army of Narfes, After thefe
fucceffes they laid fiege to Ancona in Dalmatia. Be¬
ing defeated, however, both by fea and land, Totila
once more fent ambaffadors to Conftantinople, offering
to yield Sicily and all Dalmatia, to pay an annual tri¬
bute for Italy, and to aflift the Romans as a faithful
ally in all their wars: but Juftinian, bent upon driv¬
ing the Goths out of Italy, would not even fufter the
ambaffadors to appear in his prefence.
Totila finding that no terms could be obtained, be¬
gan to levy new forces, and to make great preparations
by fea and land. He foon reduced the illands of
Corfica and Sardinia ^ but this was the laft of his fuc¬
ceffes. Narfes arrived in Italy with a very formidable
army, and an iynmenfe treafure. to pay the troops their
arrears, the want of which had been one great caufe of
the bad fuccefs of Belifarius in his laft expedition. He
immediately took the road to Rome ; while Totila af-
fembled all his forces, in order to decide the fate of
Italy by a general engagement. The battle proved
very obftinate; but at laft the Gothic cavalry being
put to the rout, and retiring in great confufion among
the infantry, the latter were thereby thrown into fuch
diforder, that they could never afterwards rally. Nar¬
fes, obferving their confufion, encouraged his men to
make a laft effort; which the Goths not being able to
withftand, betook themfelves to flight, with the lofs of
6000 men killed on the fpot. Totila finding the day
irrecoverably loft, fled wdth only five horfemen for his
attendants ; but was purfued and mortally wounded by
a commander of one of the bodies of barbarians who
followed Narfes. He continued his flight, however,
^or fome time longpr j but was at laft obliged to halt
Who de¬
feats and
kills Totiia
in order to get his wound dreffed, foon after which lie Italy,
expired. * " J
This difafter did not yet entirely break the fpirit of
the Goths. They chofe for their king one Teia, de-
fervedly efteemed one of the moft valiant men of their
nation, and who had on feveral occalions diftinguifhed
himfelf in a moft eminent manner. All the va1our and
experience of Teia, however, were now infdfhcient to
flop the progrefs of the Romans. Narfes made him¬
felf mafter of a great number of cities, and of Rome
itfelf, before the Goths could affemble their forces.—>
The Roman general next proceeded to inveft Cumae j.
which Teia determined at all events to relieve, as the
royal treafure was lodged in that city. This brought
on an engagement, which, if Procopius is to be cre¬
dited, proved one of the moft bloody that ever was 30
fought. The Roman army confifted of vaft multi-ai,<l leia.
tudes brought from different nations : the Goths were
few in comparifon j but, animated by defpair, and
knowing that all was at ftake, they fought with the
utmoft fury. Their king placed himfelf in the firft
rank, to encourage his men by his example j and is'
faid to have given fuch proofs of his valour and con¬
duct as equalled him to the moft renowned heroes of
antiquity. The Romans difcovering him, and know¬
ing that his death wrould probably put an end to the
battle, if not to the war itfelf, diredted their whole
force againft him, fome attacking him with fpears, and
others difcharging againft him {bowers of darts and
arrows. Teia maintained his ground wfith great in¬
trepidity, received the miflive weapons on his ftiield,
and killed a great number of the enemy with his own
hand. When his ftiield was fo loaded with darts that
he could not eafily wield it, he called for another.
Thus he fhifted his ftiield three times \ but as he at¬
tempted to change it another time, his breaft being
neceffarily expofed for a moment, a dart ftruck him in
that moment with fuch force, that he immediately fell
down dead in the place where he had ftood from the
beginning of the battle, and upon heaps of the enemy
whom he had killed. The Romans, feeing him fall,
cut off his head and expofed it to the fight of the
Goths, not doubting but they would be immediately
diiheartened and retire. In this, however, they were
difappointed. The Goths maintained the fight with
great vigour, till night put an end to the engagement.
The next day the engagement was renewed early in
the morning, and continued till night : but on the
third day, the Goths defpairing of being able to over¬
come an enemy fo much fuperior to them in numbers,
fent deputies to Narfes, offering to lay dowm their
arms, provided fuch of them as chofe to remain in
Italy were allowed to enjoy their eftates and poffeffions
without moleftation, as fubjeds of the empire ; and
thofe who were willing to retire elfewhere, were fuf-
fered to carry with them all their goods and effe&s. 3r
To thefe terms Narfes readily affented ; and thus the The end of
empire of the Goths in Italy was finally deftroyed, the the empire
country now becoming a province of the eaftern Ro-^
man empire. Italy.
In this conquefi: Narfes had been affifted, as al¬
ready obferved, by many barbarous nations, among
whom were the Lombards, at that time fettled in Pan-
nonia. On the conclufion of the war, they tvere dif-
miffed with rich prefents, and the nation for fome time*
continued
I T A [ 374 ] I T A
, ItaIy- continued faithful allies to the Romans. In the mean
time Juftinian dying, Narfes, who governed Italy with
an abfolute fway, was accufed to the emperor Jultin II.
and to the emprefs Sophia, of afpiring to the fovereign-
ty of the country. Hereupon he was recalled, and
Longinus fent to fucceed him. As Narfes was an
eunuch, the emprefs is reported to haVe (aid, that his
employment at Conftantinople fliould be to diilnr.ute
in the apartment of her women the portion of wool
which each was to fpin. Narfes, enraged at this far-
cafm, replied, that he ihould begin fuch a web as
31, fhe fhould never be able to finifh j and immediately dif-
vites'^he'' Patc^ec^ meffengers to Alboinus king of the Lom-
iombards. ^ards, inviting them into Italy. Along wdth the mef-
fengers he fent fome of the bed fruits the country af¬
forded, in order to tempt him the more to become ma¬
iler of fuch a rich kingdom.
Alboinus, highly pleafed with the opportunity of
itivading a country with which his fubjefts were already
well acquainted, began without lefs of time to make
the neceffary preparations for his journey. In the
month of April, 568, he fet out with his whole nation,
men, women, and children1, carrying with them all
their moveables This promifeuous multitude arrived
by th way of Iftria; and advancing through the pro¬
vince of Venetia, found the whole country abandoned,
the inhabitants having fled to the neighbouring iflands
in the. Adriatic. The gates of Aquileia were opened
by the few inhabitants who had courage to flay : moll
of them, however, had fled with all their valuable ef-
fe£ts j and among the reft the patriarch Paulinus,
who had carried with him all the facred utenfils of
the churches. From Aquileia, Alboinus proceeded to
Forum Julii, of which he like wife became mafter with¬
out oppofition. Here he fpent the winter j during
which time he ereded Friuli into a dukedom, which
has continued ever fince. In 569, he made himfelf
mafler of Trivigi, Oderfco, Monte Selee, Vicenza,
Verona, and Trent ; in each of which cities he left a
flrong garrifon of Lombards under the command of an
officer, whom he diftinguifhed by the title of duh:
but theie dukes were only officers and governors of ci¬
ties, who bore the title no longer than the prince
thought proper to continue them in their command
or government. Padua and fome other cities Alboi-
ftus left behind him without attempting to reduce
thtm, cither becaufe they were too well garrifoned,
Or because they lay too much out of his way. In
570, he entered Liguria. The inhabitants were fo
terrified at his approach, that they left their habita¬
tions with fuch of their effefls as they could carry off,
33 and fled into the moft mountainous and iftacceflible
Who re- parts of the country. The cities of Brefcia, Barga-
greateft" m°> Lodi, Como, and others quite to the Alps, being
part of almoft without inhabitants, fubmitted of courfej
Italy. after which he reduced Milan, and was thereupon pro¬
claimed king of Italy.
But though the Lombards had thus conferred the
title of ki g of Italy on theif fovereign, he was by no
means poffeffed of the whole country, nor indeed was
it ever in the power of the Lombards to get poffVffion
of the whole. Alboinus having made himfelf mafter
of Venetia, Liguria, ^Emilia, Hetruria, and Umbria,
Applied himfelf to legiflation and the civilization of his
fubje&s. But before he could make any progtefs in
3
this work, he was taken off by the treachery of his Italy,
wife ; and ClepbT, one of the nobles, chofen king in
his {lead. Clepbis rebuilt fome cities which had been
ruined during the wars between the Goths and Ro¬
mans* and extended his conquefts to the very gates of
Rome ; but as he behaved both to the Romans and
Lombards with the greaieft cruelty, he was murdered,
after a ftmrt reign of 18 months. His cruelty gave the
Lombards fuch an averfion againtl regal power, that
they changed their form of government, being govern¬
ed only by their dukes for th< ipace of ten years. Du¬
ring this interregnum, they proved fuccefsful in their
wars with the Romans, and made themfelves mailers
of feveral cities : but perceiving that their kingdom,
thus divided, could not fubfift, they refolved once
more to fubmit to the authority of one man ; and ac¬
cordingly, in 585, Autharis was chofen king of the
Lombards.
The great objefl of ambition to the new race ofsubdued bf
Lombard monarchs was the conqueft of all Italy j and Charles
this proved at laft the ruin of their empire by Charlesmaisne*
the Great, as related under the article France, N° 27.
As the Lombards, however, had not been poffeffed of
the whole territory of Italy, fo the whole of it never
came into the poffeflion of Charlemagne : neither fince
the time of the Goths, has the whole of this country
been under the dominion of any fingle ftate. Some of
the fouthern provinces were ft ill poffeffed by the em¬
perors of Conftantinople *, and the liberal grants of Pe¬
pin and Charlemagne himfelf to the pope, had invefted
him with a ccnfiderable (hare of temporal power. The
territories of the pope indeed were iuppofed to be held
in vaffalage from France-, but this the popes the m-E^t^f 0f
felves always ftiffiy denied. The undifputed territory his Italiart
of Charlemagne in Italy, therefore, was reftri£ied todominiotisy
Piedmont, the Milanefe, the Mantuan, the territory
of Genoa, Parma, Modena, Tufcany, Bologna, the
dukedoms of Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento-, the laft
of which contained the greateft part of the prefent
kingdom of Naples.
The feudal government which the Lombards had in¬
troduced into Italy, naturally produced revolts and
commotions, as the different dukes inclined either to
change their mafters or to fet up for themfelves. Se¬
veral revolts indeed happened during the life of Char¬
lemagne himfelf •, which, however, he always found
means to cruffi : but after his death, the lovereignty
of Italy became an objeft of contention between the
kings of France and the emperors of Germany. That
great monarch had divided his extenfive dominions
among his children j but they all died during his life¬
time, except Louis, whom he affociated with himfelf
in the empire, and who fucceeded to all his dominions
after his death. From this time we may date the trou¬
bles with which Italy Was fo long overwhelmed ; and
of which, as they proceeded from the ambition of thofe
fcallcd kings of Italy and their nobles, of the kings of
France, and of the emperors of Germany, it is difficult
to have any clear idea. The following fhort fketch,
however, may perhaps give 1'ome fatisfa£lion on this
perplexed fubjedl. ° t.
At the time Louis the fon of Charlemagne was
dared emperor of the Weft, Italy was held by Ber-itaiv after
nard the fon of Pepin, brother to Louis. Though this the time df
Bernard bore the title of ting, yet he was only ac*thHrIe-
counted
I T A r 375 ] I T A
Italy, counted a vaiTa! of the emperor. His ambition, how-
“■V"-’"' ever, foon prompted him to rebel againil his uncle j
but being abandoned by his troops, he was taken pri-
foner, had his eyes pulled out, and died three days
after. As the diilurbances ft ill continued, and the
nobles of Lombardy were yet very refraftory, Lo-
thaire, eldeft fon to the emperor, was in the year
823 fent into Italy ; of which country he was firft
crowned king at Rome, and afterwards emperor of the
Weft, during his father’s life-time. But though his
abilities were fufficient to have fettled every thing in a
ftate of a tranquillity, hisunbounded ambition prompt¬
ed him to engage in a rebellion againft his father;
whom he more than once took prifoner; though in the
end he was obliged to fubmit, and alk pardon for his
effences, which was obtained only on condition of his
not pafling the Alps without leave obtained from his
father.
In the mean time, the Saracens, taking advantage
of thefe inteftine wars, landed on the coafts of Italy,
and committed fuch ravages, that even the bilhops
were obliged to arm themfelves for the defence of the
country. Lothaire, however, after returning from his
unnatural war with his father, was fo far from attempt¬
ing to put an end to thefe ravages, or to reftore tran¬
quillity, that he feized on fome places belonging to the
fee. of Rome, under pretence that they were part of
his kingdom of Lombardy ; nor would he forbear
thefe encroachments till exprefsly commanded to do fo
by his father. After having embroiled himfelf, and
almolt loft all his dominions, in a war with his bro¬
thers after the death of Louis, and declared his fon,
alfo called Louis, king of Italy, this ambitious prince
died, leaving to Louis the title of emperor as well
as king of Itaiyy with which he had before invefted
him.
The new emperor applied himfelf to the reftoration
of tranquillity in his dominions, and driving out the
Saracens from thofe places which they had feized in
Italy. This he fully aceomplifhed, and obliged the
infidels to retire into Africa j but in 873 he died
without naming any fucceflbr. After his death, fome
of the Italian nobles, headed by the duke of Tufcany,
reprefented to the pope, that as Louis had left no
fucceffor, the regal dignity, which had fo long been
ufurped by foreigners, ought now to return to the
Italians. The pope, however, finding that Charles
the Bald, king of France, had fuch an ambition for
the imperial crown, that he would ftick at nothing to
obtain it, refolved to gratify him, though at as high
a price as poflible. He accordingly crowned him em¬
peror and king of Lombardy, on condition of his own¬
ing the independency of Rome, and that he himfelf
only held the empire by the gift of the pope. This
produced a confpiracy among the difcontented nobles j
and at the fame time the Saracens renewing their in-
curfions, threatened the eccleftaftical territories with
the utmoft danger. The pope folicited the emperor’s
aftiftance with the greateft earneftnefs j but the latter
died before any thing effectual could be done,; after
which, being diftreffed by the Saracens on one hand,
and the Lombard nobles on the other, the unhappy
pontiff was forced to fly into France. Italy now fell
into the utmoft confufion and anarchy ; during which
time many of the nobles and dates of Lombardy af-
fumed an independence, which they have ever flnce Italy,
retained. ——y—-
In 877 the pope was.recondufted to Italy with an
army by Bofon fon-in-law to Louis II. of France: but
though he inclined very much to have railed this prince
to the dignity of king of Italy, he found his intereft
infufficient for that purpofe, and matters remained in
their former fttuation. The nobles, who had driven
out the pope, were now indeed reconciled to him : but
notwithftanding this reconciliation, the ftate of the
country was worfe than ever : the great men renoun¬
cing the authority of any fuperior, and every one
iclaiming to be fovereign in his own territories. To
add to the calamities which enfued through the am¬
bition of thefe defpots, the Saracens committed every
where the molt terrible ravages j till at laft, the Ita¬
lian nobles, defpifing the kings of the Carlovingiaa
race, who had weakened themfelves by their mutual
diffenfions, began to think of throwing off even all
nominal fubttiiftion to a foreign yoke, and retaining
the imperial dignity among themfelves. Thus they
hoped, that, by being more united among themfelves,
they might be more able to refill the common enemy.
Accordingly, in 885, they went to Pope Adrian v and
requefting him to join them in afferting the indepen¬
dency of Italy, they obtained of him the two follow¬
ing decrees, viz. that the popes, alter their election,
might be confecrated without waiting for the prefene®
of the king or his ambaffadors ; and that if Charles
the Grofs died without fons, the kingdom of Italy, with
the title of emperor, ftiould be conferred on fome of
the Italian nobles.
Thefe decrees were productive of the worft confe-
quences imaginable. The emperor complained of be¬
ing deprived of his right y and the diffenfiohs between
the Italian nobles themfelves became more fatal than
ever. The two moft powerful of thefe noblemen, Be-
rengarius duke of Friuli, and Guido or Vido, duke of
Spoleto, entered into an agreement, that on the death
of the emperor, the former, thould feize on the kingdom
of Italy, and the latter on the kingdom of France.
Berengarius fucceeded without oppofitionq but Vido
was difappointed,, the French having already chofen
Eudes or Otho for their king. Upon this he returned
to Italy, and turned his arms againft Berengarius..
Vido proved viClorious in an engagement, and drove
his rival into Germany 5 where he fought the affift-
ance of Arnolphus, who had fucceeded to the crown
after the death of Charles. Having thus obtained the
kingdom of Italy, Vido employed his time in reform¬
ing the abufes of the ftate, and confirming the grantt
formerly given to the pope, out of gratitude for hi&
having fanCtified his ufurpation and declared him law¬
ful king of Italy. This tranquillity, however, was of
fhort duration. Arnolphus ient an army into Italy ;
the Saracens from Spam ravaged the northern parts of
the country, and getting poffeffion of a caftle near th@
Alps, held it for many years after, to the great diflrefs
of the neighbouring parts, which were expofi d to their
continual incurfions p ai d at the fame time Benevento
was befieged and taken by the forces of the eaftern em¬
peror, fo that Vido found his empire very confiderably
cireumfcribed in its dimenfions.
The new king, diftreffed by fo many enemies, affo—
ciated his fon Lambert with him in the government,
an 4
I T A [ 376
Italy, and bribed the Germans to return to their own coun-
““''v' -' try. In 893, however, they again invaded Italy j but
were fuddeniy obliged to leave the country, after ha¬
ving put Berengarius in poffeffion of Pavia. In the
mean time, Vido died, and his Ion Lambert drove out
Berengarius $ but having joined a faction, headed by
one Sergius, againft Pope Formofus, the latter offered
the kingdom of Italy to Arnolphus 5 who thereupon en¬
tered the country with an army, befieged and took
Rome, maffacring the fadlion of Sergius with the moft
unrelenting cruelty.
Arnolphus thus matter of Italy, and crowned emper¬
or by the pope, began to form fehemes of {Lengthen¬
ing himfelf in his new acquifitions by putting out the
eyes of Berengarius : but the latter having timely no¬
tice of this treachery, fled to Verona ; and the Italians
were fo provoked at this and the other cruelties of Ar-
nelphus, that they drove him out of the country. His
departure occafioned the greateft confufion at Rome.
iFormofus died foon after 5 and the fucceffors to the pa¬
pal dignity, having now no army to fear, excited the
greateft difturbances. The body of Formofus was dug
up and thrown into the Tiber by one pope *, after which
that pope was ftrangled, and Formofus’s body buried
again in the Vatican, by order of another. At latt the
coronation of Arnolphus was declared void, the Sergian
faction entirely demolifhed, and the above-mentioned
decrees of Adrian were annulled; it being now deter¬
mined that the eledled popes fholild not be confecrated
but in prefence of the emperor or his ambafladors.
During thefe confufions Lambert enjoyed the king¬
dom in quiet; but the nobles hating him on account of
his arbitrary and tyrannical government, began again
to think of Berengarius. In the mean time, however,
another faffion offered the crown to Louis king of
Arles. This new competitor entered Italy with an army
in 899 ; but was forced by Berengarius to renounce his
claim upon oath, and to fwear that he would never
again enter Italy, even though he fliould be invited to
be crowned emperor.-—This oath, however, was foon
forgot. Louis readily accepted of another invitation,
and was crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 901. The
following year he forced Berengarius to fly into Bava¬
ria ; but having unadvifedly difbanded his army, as
thinking himfelf now fecurely feated on the throne,
Berengarius, who watched every opportunity, furprifed
him at Verona, and put out his eyes.
Thus Berengarius at laft became king of Italy with¬
out a rival; and held his kingdom for 20 years after¬
wards, without any oppofition from his fubje&s, who at
laft became fenfible of the mifchiefs arifing from civil
difcords. He was not yet, however, without troubles.
The Hungarians invaded Italy with a formidable army,
and advanced within a fmall diftance of Pavia. Beren-
garius armed the whole force of his dominions j and
came againft them with fuch a multitude, that the Hun¬
garians retired without venturing an engagement. A
great many of their men were loft in pafling a river ;
upon which they fent deputies to Berengarius, offering
to reftore all their booty, and never to come again into
Italy, provided they were allowed a fafe retreat. Thefe
conditions verq imprudently denied; upon which the
Hungarians attacked the army of Berengarius in de-
fpair, and defeated them with great {laughter. After
this they overran the whole country, and plundered the
1
I T A
towns of Trevifo, Vicenza, and Padua, without refill- It»L.
ance, the inhabitants dying everywhere into fortified ^
places. This devaftation they continued for two years;
nor could their departure be procured without paying
them a large fum of money : which, however, proved,
of little avail; for the following year they returned
and ravaged the territory of Friuli without controul.
Scarcely were thefe invaders departed, when the Sa¬
racens, who had fettled at the foot of the Alps, in¬
vaded Apulia and Calabria, and made an irruption as
far as Acqui in the neighbourhood of Pavia; while
the inhabitants, inftead of oppofing them, fled to fome
forts which had been eredled in the time of the firft ir¬
ruption of the Hungarians. In 912, however, John,
prelhyter of Ravenna, having attained the papal digni¬
ty by means of Theodora wife of Aldebert count of
Tufcany, applied himfelf to regulate the affairs of the
church, and to reprefs the inlults of the Saracens.
While he was confidering on the moft proper methods
of effecting this, one of the Saracens, who had received
an injury from his countrymen, fled to Rome, and of¬
fered to deliver the Italians from their invalions, if the
pope would but allow him a fmall body of men. His
propofals being accepted, 60 young men were chofen,
all well armed; who being conduced by the Saracens
into by'-paths, attacked the infidels as they were re¬
turning from their inroads, and feveral times defeated
great parties of them. Thefe Ioffes affefting the Sara- .
cens, a general alliance was concluded amongft all their
cities ; and having fortified a town on the Garigliano,
they abandoned the reft, and retired hither. Thus they
became much more formidable than before ; which
alarming the pope, he confulted w ith Arnulphus prince
of Benevento and Capua, fending at the fame time am¬
bafladors to Conftantine the Greek emperor, inviting
him to an alliance againft the infidels. The Saracens,
unable to withftand fuch a powerful combination, were
befieged in their city : where being reduced to great
ftraits, they at laft fet fire to it, and fallied out into the
woods; but being purfued by the Italians, they were
all cut off to a man.
In this expedition it is probable that Berengarius
gave great afliftance : for this very year, 915, he was
crowned emperor by the pope. This gave difpleafure
to many of the ambitious nobles ; confpiracies were
repeatedly formed againft him ; in 922, Rodolphus king
of Burgundy was crowned alfo king of Italy ; and in
924, Berengarius was treaeheroufly affaflinated at Ve¬
rona ; of which difturbances the Hungarians taking the
advantage, plundered the cities of Mantua, Brefcia,
and Bergamo. Marching afterw ards to Pavia, they Pavia plan-
inverted it clofely on all fides ; and about the middle ofdfred an<i
March 925, taking advantage of the wind, they fet ^urB^ by ^
fire to the houfes next to the walls, and during the con-Un“ *
fufion broke open the gates, and getting poffeflion of
the city treated the inhabitants with the greateft bar¬
barity. Having burnt the capital of the kingdom, they
next proceeded to Piacenza, w here they plundered the
fuburbs; and then returned to Pannonia laden with
booty.
The affairs of Italy now fell into the utmoft confu¬
fion. A faction was formed againft Rodolphus in fa¬
vour of Hugh count of Arles. The latter prevailed,
and was crowned king at Pavia in 927. The Italians,
however, foun repented of their choice. The Romans,
fir ft;
I T A [3
Italy, firft invited him to be their governor, and tlrfcn drove
1 v- him out with difgrace ; at the fame time ehoofing a con-
ful, tribunes, &c. as if they had defigned to aifert their
ancient liberty. One faftion, in the mean time, offered
the crown to Rodolphus, and the other to Arnold duke
of Bavaria, while the Saracens took this opportunity to
plunder the city of Genoa.
Hugh; in the mean time, was not inactive. Having
colle&ed an army, he marched diredtly again!! Arnold,
and entirely defeated him. Rodolphus delivered him
from all apprehenfions on his part, by entering into an
alliance with him, and giving his daughter Adelaide
in marriage to Lotharius, Hugh’s fon. Being thus free
from all danger from foreign enemies, he marched
againfi the Romans •, but with them he alfo came to an
agreement, and even gaye his daughter in marriage to
Alberic, whom they had chofen eonful. In the mean
time the country was infefted by the Hungarians and
Saracens, and at the fame time depopulated by a plague.
Endlef 5 confpjracies were formed againfi Hugh himfelf j
and at lafl, in 947? he was totally deprived of the re¬
gal power by Berengarius, grandfon to the firft king of
fhat name 5 foon after which he retired into Burgundy,
and became a monk.
Though Berengarius was thus poffefled of the fu-
preme power, he did not alfume the title of king till
after the death of Lotharius, which happened in 950 j
but in the mean time Italy was invaded by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and the Hungarians. The former
took and plundered the city of Aquileia, and ravaged
the neighbouring country j after which he returned
without moleftation into Germany ; the latter made a
furious irruption j and Berengarius being unable to op-
38 P0^ them, was at laft obliged to purchafe their depar-
Italy op- ture by money. In raifing the fum agreed upon, how-
preffed by ever, Berengarius is faid to have been more oppreflive
the Hunga-{jian eVen the Hungarians themfeives. Every indi-
lierengari- v^ua^> without diftinclion of age or fex, was obliged
us. to pay fo much for their head, not excepting even the
poor. The churches were likewife robbed j by which
means the king raifed an immenfe fum of money, ten
bufhels of which he gave to the Hungarians, but kept
the much greater part to himfelf.
Berengarius, not yet fatisfied, wanted to be put in
polftftion of Pavia, which was held by Adelaide, the
widow of Lotharius. In order to obtain his purpofe,
he propofed a marriage between her and his fon Adel-
bert. This propofal was rejected ; upon which Beren-
garius befieged and took the city. The queen was
confined in a neighbouring caftle, from whence fire
made her efcape by a contrivance of her confeffor.
With him and one female attendant {he concealed
herfelf for feme days in a wood ; but being obliged
to remove from thence for want of food, fire applied
for prptedlion to Adelard bifhop of Reggio. By him
file was recommended to his uncle Atho, who had a
ftrong caftle in the neighbourhood of Canoza. Here
file was quickly befieged by Berengarius j upon which
meffengers were difpatched to Otho king of Germany,
acquainting him, that, by expelling Berengarius, and
marrying Adelaide, he might eafily obtain the king¬
dom of Italy. This propofal he readily accepted, and
married Adelaide •, but allowed Berengarius to retain
the greatefppart of his dominions, upon condition of
his doing homage for them to the kings of Germany.
VOL. XI. Part I.
11 \ IT
He deprived him, however, of the dukedom of Friuli Italy,
and marquifate of Verona, which he gave to Henry v
duke of Bavaria. ^
Berengarius, thus freed from all apprehenfion, not Otho.
only opprelfed his fubje£ls in a moft tyrannical manner, crowned
but revolted againft Otho himfelf. This at laft Pro‘j, "f.
cured his ruin : for, in 961, Otho returned with an-f^eror 0f
army into Italy, where he was crowned king by the the weft,
archbiftiop of Milan j and the year following was
crowned emperor by the pope. On this occafion he re¬
ceived the imperial crown from his holinefs, and killed
his feet with great humility : after which they both
went to the altar of St Peter, and bound themfeives by
a folemn oath, the pope to be always faithful to the em¬
peror, and to give no aflxftance to Berengarius or Adel-
bert his enemies ; and Olho, to confult the welfare
of the church, and to reftore to it all its patrimony,
granted by former emperors. Otho, befides this, be¬
llowed very rich prefents on the church of St Peter.
He ordained that the eledlion of popes Ihould be ac¬
cording to the canons ; that »the defied pope faould
not be confecrated till he had publicly promifed, in
prefence of the emperor’s commiifkries, to obferve every
thing formerly fpecified with regard to the rights of
the emperors \ that thefe commilfaries Ihould conllantly
refide at Rome, and make a report every year how
juftice was adminiftered by the judges j and in cafe of
any complaints, the comrnilfaries Ihould lay them be¬
fore the pope j but if he neglefled to intimate them,
the imperial commiffaries might then do what they
pleafed.
Thus we fee that Otho, however much he might
allow the pope’s fupremacy in fpiritual matters, plainly
ailumed the fovereignty in temporals to himfelf j and
thus Italy was for upwards of 300 years accounted a
part of the German empire. The popes, however, by
no means relilhed this fuperiority of the emperor.
The latter was hardly departed, when the pope,
(John XII.) broke the oath which he had juft be¬
fore fworn with fo much folemnity j and entered firft
into an alliance with Adelbert count of Tufcany to
expel the Germans, and then folicited the Hungarians
to invade Italy. This treachery was foon punilhed
by Otho. He returned with part of his army, and
aflembled a council of bilhops. As the pope did not
appear, Otho pretended great concern for his abfence.
The bifhops replied, that the confcioufnefs’of his guilt
made him afraid to {how himfelf. The emperor then
inquired particularly into his crimes ; upon which
the bilhops accufed him of filling the palace with
lewd women, of ordaining a bilhop in a liable, caL
trating a cardinal, drinking the devil’s health, &c. 40
As the pope llill refuftd to appear in order to jullify He depofev
himfelf from thefe charges, he was formally depofed ; t^e P°Pe*
and Leo the chief fecretary, though a layman, ele£ltd
in his Head.
The new pope, in compliment to the emperor, grant¬
ed a bull, by which it was ordained that Otho and his
fucceffors Ihould have a right of appointing the popes
and invefting archbiftiops and bifhops ; and that none
Ihould dare to confecrate a bilhop without leave ob¬
tained from the emperor. Thus were the affairs of the
Italians Hill kept in the utmoft confufion even during
the reign of Otho I. who appears to have been a wife
and active prince. He was no {boner gone, than the
3 B new
Italy.
I T A [ 378 3
new pope was depofed, all his decrees annulled, and cuftomary tribute.
John replaced. The party of Leo was now treated with
great cruelty : but John was foon flopped in his career $
for about the middle of May, the fame year (964) in
which he had been reflored, being furprifed in bed
with a Roman lady, he received a blow on the head
from the devil (according to the authors of thofe times),
ef which he died eight days after. After his death a
cardinal deacon, named BenediSl, was elefted by the
Romans, but depofed by Otho, and banithed to Ham¬
burgh.
The emperor was fcarce returned to Germany, when
his fickle Italians revolted, and fent for Adelbert, who
had fled to Corfica. But being foon reduced, they con¬
tinued quiet for about a year j after which they revolt¬
ed again, and imprifoned the pope. Otho, however,
provoked at their rebellious difpofition, foon returned,
Italy,
The Ita
but are re¬
duced.
and punifhed the rebels with great feverity j after
which he made feveral law's for the better regulation
of the city of Rome, granting feveral privileges to the
Venetians, and caufed his fon Otho, then only thirteen
years of age, to be crowned emperor.
This ceremony being over, Otho difpatched an am-
baffador to Nicephorus, emperor of Conftantinople, de¬
manding his flep-daughter Theophania in marriage for
the young emperor ; but upon this alliance being rejeft-
ed, and that not without circumflances of the molt atro¬
cious perfidy, Otho inftantly invaded the countries of
Apulia and Calabria, and entirely defeated the Greek
army in thofe parts. In the mean time, however, Ni¬
cephorus being killed, and his throne ufurped by John
Zimifces, Otho immediately entered into an alliance
with the latter, and eafily obtained Theophania for his
fon. She was crowned with great folemnity on the 8th
of April 969 : at the fame time it is pretended by fome
authors, that the Greeks renounced their rights to Ca¬
labria and Apulia ; though this is denied by others.
After the celebration of this marriage, the emperor un¬
dertook an expedition againft the Saracens, who ftill
refided at the foot of the Alps j but being informed of
the death of feveral nobles in Germany, he thought
proper to return thither, where he died of an apoplexy
4a in the year 973-
State ef -At ^e time of Otho’s death Italy was divided into
Italy at the the provinces of Apulia, Calabria, the dukedom of Be-
nevento, Campania, Terra Romana, the dukedom of
Spoleto, Tufcany, Romagna, Lombardy, and the mar-
quifates of Ancona, Verona, Friuli, Trevifo, and Genoa.
Apulia and Calabria were fiill claimed by the Greeks ;
but all the reft were either immediately fubjedt to, or
held of, the kings of Italy. Otho conferred Benevento
(including the ancient Samnium) on the duke of that
name. Campania and Lucania he gave to the dukes of
Capua, Naples, and Salerno. Rome with its territory,
Ravenna with the exarchate, the dukedom of Spoleto,
with Tufcany, and the marquifate of Ancona, he grant¬
ed to the pope ; and retained the reft of Italy under the
form of a kingdom. Some of the cities were left free,
but all tributary. He appointed feveral hereditary
marquifates and counties, but referved to himfelf the
lovereign jurifdidlion in their territories. The liberty
of the cities confifted in a freedom to choofe their own
magiftrates, to be judged by their own laws, and to
difpofe of their own revenues, on condition that they
took tlje oath of allegiance to the king, and paid the
death of
Otho
I T A
The cities that were not free were
governed by the commiffaries or lieutenants of the em¬
peror j but the free cities were governed by two or more
confuls, afterwards called potejiates, chofen annually,
who took the oath of allegiance to the emperor before
the bifliop of the city or the emperor’s commiflary.
The tribute exacted was called foderum, parata, et man-
Jionaticum. By the foderum was meant a certain quan¬
tity of corn which the cities were obliged to furnilh to
the king when marching with an army or making a
progrefs through the country ; though the value of
this was frequently paid in money. By the parata
was underftood the expence laid out in keeping the
public roads and bridges in repair 5 and the manfiona-
ticum included thofe expences which were required for
lodging the troops or accommodating them in their
camp. Under pretence of this laft article, the inhabi¬
tants were fometimes ftripped of all they poffeffed,
except their oxen and feed for the land. Befides re¬
gulating -what regarded the cities, Otho diflributed
honours and poffeflions to thofe who had ferved him
faithfully. The honours confifted in the titles of duke^
marquis, count, captain, valvafor, and vaivajin: the
pofieflions were, befides land, the duties arifing from
harbours, ferries, roads, fifli-ponds, mills, fait pits,,
the ufes of rivers, and all pertaining to them, and
fuch like. The dukes, marquifes, and counts, were
thofe who received dukedoms, marquifates, and coun¬
ties, from the king in fiefs ; the captains had the
command of a certain number of men by a grant from
the king, duke, marquis, or count 5 the valvafors
were fubordmate to the captains, and the valvafins to
them.
No fooner was the death of Otho I. known in Itsly, Great jif.
than, as if they had been now freed from all reftraint,turbance
the nobles declared war againft each other : fome ci-happen on
ties revolted, and chofe to themfelves confuls j while^6 ^eat^°^
the dominions of others were feized by the nobles, who
confirmed their power by eredling citadels. Rome
efpecially was haraffed by tumults, occafioned chiefly
by the feditious pra<flices of one Cincius, who preffed
his fellow’-citizens to reftore the ancient republic. As
the pope continued firm in the interefts of the em¬
peror, Cincius caufed him to be ftrangled by one
Franco a cardinal deacon ; who was foon after re¬
warded with the pontificate, and took upon him the
name of Boniface VII. Another pope was chofen by
the faflion of the count of Tufcany ; who being ap¬
proved by the emperor, drove Cincius and Boniface
out of the city. Difturbances of a fimilar kind took
place in other cities, though Milan continued quiet
and loyal in the midft of all this uproar and confu-
fion.
In the mean time Boniface fled for refuge to Con¬
ftantinople, where he excited the emperor to make
war againft Otho II. In 979 an army was accordingly
fent into Italy, which conquered Apulia and Calabria j
but the next year Otho entered Italy with a formidable
army; and having taken a fevere revenge on the au¬
thors of the difturbances, drove the Greeks entirely out
of the provinces they had feized. Having then caufed
his fon Otho III. at that time a boy of ten years of
age, to be proclaimed emperor, he died at Rome in
the year 983. Among the regulations made by this
emperor, one is very remarkable, and muft give us a
ftrange
Otho I.
Italy.
44
Rome ta¬
ken by
Otho III.
I T A [ 379 ]
ftrange idea of the inhabitants of Italy at that time, gundy.
' He made a law, That no Italian fhould be believed up¬
on his oath ; and that in any difpute which could not
be decided otherwife than by witneffes, the parlies
Ihould have recourfe to a duel.
Otho III. fucceeded to the empire at twelve years
of age ; and during his minority the ditlurbances in
Italy revived. Cincius, called alfo Crefcentius, re¬
newed his fcheme of reftoring the republic. The
pope (John XV.) oppofmg his fchemes, was driven
out. of the city} but was foon after recalled, on hearing
that he had applied to the emperor for afliftance. A
few years after Crefcentius again revolted, and ex¬
pelled Gregory V. the fucceffor of John XV. 5 railing
to the papal dignity a creature of his own, under the
name of John XVL Otho, enraged at this infult, re¬
turned to Rome with a powerful army in 998, be-
fieged and took it by aiTault } after which he caufed
Crefcentius to be beheaded, and the pope he had fet
up to be thrown headlong from the caftle of St An¬
gelo, after having his eyes pulled out, and his nofe cut
off. Four years after, he himfelf died of the fmallpox ;
or, according to fome, was poifoned by the widow of
Crefcentius, whom he had debauched under a promife
of marriage, juft as he was about to punifti the Romans
for another revolt.
Otho was fucceeded in the imperial throne by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and grandfon to Otho II. Henry
had no fooner fettled the affairs of Germany, than he
found it neceffary to march into Italy againft Ardouin
marquis of Ivrea, who had affamed the title of king
of Italy. Him he defeated in an engagement, and
was himfelf crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 1005 j
but a few years after, a new conteft arofe about the
papal chair, which again required the prefence of the
emperor. Before he arrived, however, one of the
competitors (Benedict VIII.) had got the better of
his rival, and both Henry and his queen received the
imperial crown from his hands. Before the emperor en¬
tered the church, the pope propofed to him the follow¬
ing queftion : “ Will you obferve your fidelity to me
and my fucceffors in everything ?” lo which, though
a kind of homage, he fubmitted, and anfwered in the
affirmative. After his coronation, he confirmed the
privileges beftowed on the Roman fee by his prede-
ceffors, and added fome others of his own j ftill, how¬
ever, referving for himfelf the fovereignty and the
power of fending commiffaries to hear the grievances
of the people. Having repelled the incurfions of the
Saracens, reduced fome more rebellions of his fubjefts,
and reduced the greateft part of Apulia and Calabria,
he died in the year 1024.
The death of this emperor was, as ufual, followed
by a competition for the crown. Conrad being chofen
emperor of Germany, was declared king of Italy by
the archbilhop of Milan $ while a party of the nobles
made offer of the crown to Robert king of France,
or his fon Hugh. But this offer being declined, and
likewife another to WJlliam duke of Guienne, Conrad
enjoyed the dignity conferred on him by the archbi¬
lhop without moleftation. He was crowned king of
Italy at Monza in 1026 5 and the next year he recei¬
ved the imperial crown from Pope John XX. in pre¬
fence of Canute the Great, king of England, Den-
Kiark, and Norway, and Rodolph III. king of Bur-
Italy.
45
1 T A
His reign was fimilar to that of his prede-
ceffors. The Italians revolted, the pope was expelled,
the malecontents were fubdued, and the pope reftored,
after which the emperor returned to Germany, and
died in 1039.
Under Henry III. who fucceeded Conrad, the dif-Thedif-
tubances were prodigioufly augmented. Pope Syl- onie!!s in"
vefter II. was driven out by Benedict ; who in his^^^jj^
turn was expelled by John biihop of Sabinum, who
affumed the title of Sy/vfler III. Three months af¬
ter Benedict was reftored, and excommunicated his ri¬
vals 5 but foon after refigned the pontificate for a fum
of money. In a ffiort time he reclaimed it j and thus
there were at once three popes, each of whom was
fupported on a branch of the papal revenue, while all
of them made themfelves odious by the fcandalous lives
they led. At laft a prieft called Gratlan put an end
to this Angular triumvirate. Partly by artifice, and
partly by prefents, he perfuaded all the three to re¬
nounce their pretenfions to the papacy ; and the
people of Rome, out of gratitude for fo fignal a fer-
vice to the church, chofe him pope, under the name
of Gregory VI. Henry III. took umbrage at this
ele£tion, in which he had not been confulted, and
marched with an army into Italy. He depofed Gre¬
gory, as having been guilty of fimony, and filled the
papal chair with his own chancellor Heidiger, biihop
of Bamberg, who affumed the name of Clement II.
and afterwards confecrated Henry and the emprefs
Agnes. This ceremony being over, and the Romans
having fworn never to ele& a pope without the appro¬
bation of the reigning emperor, Henry proceeded to
Capua, where he was vifited by Drago, Rainulphus,
and other Norman adventurers j who leaving their
country at different times, had made themfelves ma¬
ilers of great part of Apulia and Calabria, at the ex- 4(j
pence of the Greeks and Saracens. Henry entered He inverts
into treaty with them ; and not only folemnly invefted d16 Nor_
them with thofe territories which they had acquired by™^5^1*^
conqueft, but prevailed on the pope to excommuni- tones ;n
cate the Beneventines, who had refufed to open their pulia and
gates to him, and beftowed that city and its depend-Calabria,
encies, as fiefs of the empire, upon the Normans, pro¬
vided they took poffeffion by force of arms. The em¬
peror was fcarce returned into Germany when he re¬
ceived intelligence of the death of Clement II. He
was fucceeded in the apoftolic fee by Damafus II. j
who alfo dying foon after his elevation, Henry nomi¬
nated Bruno biffiop of Toul to the vacant chair. This
Bruno, who was the emperor’s relation, immediately
affumed the pontificals j but being a modeft and pious
prelate, he threw them off on his journey, by the per-
fuafion of a monk of Cluny, named Hildebrand, after¬
wards the famous Gregory VII. and went to Rome
as a private man. “ The emperor alone (faid Hilde¬
brand) has no right to create a pope.” He accom¬
panied Bruno to Rome, and fecretly retarded his elec¬
tion, that he might arrogate to himfelf the merit of
obtaining it. The fcheme fucceeded to his wilh j
Bruno, who took the name of Leo IX. believing him¬
felf indebted to Hildebrand for the pontificate, fa¬
voured him with his particular friendlhip and confi¬
dence } and hence originated the power of this enter-
prifing monk, of obfeure birth, but boundlefs ambi¬
tion, who governed Rome fo long, and whole zeal for
3 B 2 the
I T A r 3S0 ] I T A
Italy, the exaltation of the church occafioned fo many troubles
"" ,10 Europe.
Leo foon after his elevation waited on the empe¬
ror at Worms, to crave affiftance agaiuft the Norman
princes, who were become the terror of Italy, and
treated their fubjedts with great feverity. Kenry
furnifhed the pope with an army; at the head of which
he marched a^ .infl the Normans, after having excom¬
municated the accompanied by a great number of
bifliops and other ecelefialtics, who were all either
killed or taken priloners, the Germans and Italians
being totally routed. Leo himfelf was led captive to
Eenev nto, which the Normans were now malters of,
and which Henry had granted to the pope in exchange
for the fief of Bamberg in Germany ; and the apofto-
lic fee is to this day in pofleflion of nevento, by
virtue of that donation. The Normans, however, who
had a right to the city by a prior grant, reftored it,
in the mean time, to the princes of Lombardy ; and
Leo was treated with fo much refpedt by the conquerors,
that he revoked the fentence of excommunication,
and joined his fanftion to the imperial inveftiture for
The lands which they held in Apulia and Calabria.
Leo died foon after his releafe : and the emperor
HemyIV. about the fame time caufed his infant fon, afterwards
declared the famous Henry IV. to be declared king of the Ro-
KomnV 6 IHans’ a u*e f°r the acknowledged heir of
the empire. Gebehard, a German bithop, was eleft-
ed pope, under the name of Viflo?- 11, and confirmed
by the addrefs of Hildebrand, who waited on the em¬
peror in perfon for that purpofe, though he difdained
to confult hi in beforehand. PerhapsHildebrand would
not have found this talk fo eafy, had not Henry been
involved in a war with the Hungarians, who preffed
him hard, but whom he obliged at laid to pay a large
tribute, and furnilh him annually with a certain number
of fighting men.
As foon as the emperor had finilhed this war and
others to which it gave rife, he marched into Italy
to infpeft the conduft of his filler Beatrice, widow
of Boniface marquis of Mantua, and made her pri-
foner. She had married Gozelo, duke of Lorrain,
without the emperor’s confent; and contracted her
daughter Matilda, by the marquis of Mantua, to God¬
frey duke of Spoleto and Tufcany, Gozelo’s fon by a
former marriage. This formidable alliance juftly alarm¬
ed Henry ; he therefore attempted to diffolve it,, by
carrying his filter into Germany, where he died foon
after his return, in the 39th year of his age, and the
16th of his reign.
The emperor, in his halt journey to Italy, conclu¬
ded an alliance with Contarini, doge'of Venice. That
republic was already rich and powerful, though it had
only been enfranchifed in the year 998, from the tri¬
bute of a mantle of cloth of gold, which it formerly
paid, as a mark of lubjedfion to the emperor of Con-
ftantinople. Genoa was the rival of Venice in power
and in commerce, and was already in polfeffion of the
ifland of Corfica, which the Genoefe had taken from
the Saracens. Thefe two cities engroffed at this time
almoft all the trade of Europe. There was no city
in any refpeft equal to them either in France or Ger-
48 many.
jncreafe of Henry IV. was only five years old at his father’s
the pope’s death. The popes made ufe of the refpite given them
by his minority, to fhake oil in a great meaflire their Italy.
dependence upon the emperors. Atter a variety of con-  
tells about the pontificate, Nicholas II. a creature of
Hildebrand’s, was eleCled : who, among others, paffed
the following celebrated decree, viz. That for the fu¬
ture, the cardinals only Ihould eleCVthe pope ; and that
the eleftion Ihould afterwards be confirmed by the reft
of the clergy and the people, “ Saving the honour
(adds he) due to our dear Ion Henry, now king ; and
who, it it pleafe God, lhall be one day emperor, accord¬
ing to the right w'hich we have already conferred upon
him.” After this he antered into a treaty with the
Norman princes above mentioned ; who, though they
had lately fwrorn to hold their polTelTioiis from the era-*
peror, now fwore to hold them from the pope ; and
hence ardfe the pope’s claim of lovereignty over the
kingdoms of Naples and Sicily.
i bus was the power of the German emperors in
Italy greatly diminifhed, and that of the popes pvo-
portionally exalted ; of which Henry foon had iuffi-
cient evidence. For having affumed the government
into his own hands in the year 1072, being then 22
years of age, he was fummoned by Alexander II. toniscw.teS'
appear before the tribunal of the holy fee, on account with the
of his loofe life, and to anfwer the charge of ha-emPeror*
ving expofed the inveftiture of bilhops to fale ; at the
fame time that the pope excited his German fubjefts
to rebel againft him. The rebels, -however, were de¬
feated, and peace was reftored to Germany; but
foon after, Hildebrand above mentioned being eleCftd
to the pontificate under the name of Gregory V1L
openly affumed the fuperiority over every earthly mo¬
narch whatever. He began with excommunicating
every ecolefiaftic who Ihould receive a benefice from
the hands of a layman, and every layman who Ihould
take upon him totconfer fuch a benefice. Henry, in-
ftead of refenting this infolence, fubmitted, and wrote
a penitential letter to the pope: who, upon this, con-
defeended to take him into favour, after having fevere-
ly reprimanded him for his loofe life; of which the
emperor now- confeffed himfelf guilty.
The quarrel betw-een the church and the emperor
was, however, foon brought to a crifis by the follow¬
ing accident. Solomon king of Hungary, being de-
pofed by his brother Geyfa, had lied to Henry for
protection, and renewed the homage of Hungary to
the empire.’ Gregory, who favoured Geyfa, exclaimed
againft this aft of fubmiflion ; and laid in a letter to
Solomon, “ You ought to know that the kingdom of
Hungary belongs to the Rotfian church ; and learn
that you will incur the indignation of the holy fee, if
you do not acknowledge that you hold your domi¬
nions of the pope, and not of the emperor.” Henry,
though highly provoked at this declaration, thought
proper to treat it with negleft; upon which Gregory
refumed the difpute about invellitures. The prede-
ceffors of Henry had always enjoyed the right of no¬
minating bilhops and abbots, and of giving them in-
veftiture by the crofs and the ring. This right the y
had in common with almoft all princes. The prede-
ceffors of Gregory VII. had been accuftomed, on their
part, to fend legates to the emperors, in order to en¬
treat their affiftance, to obtain their confirmation, or
defire them to come and receive the papal fanRion,
but for no other purpofe. Gregory, however, feht
two
I T A [ 3'
Italy, two legates to fummon Henry to appear before him as
U-—r ■' a delinquent, becaufe he dill continued to bellow in-
veditures, hotwithftanding the apoftolio decree to the
contrary ; adding, that if he fhould fail to yield obe¬
dience to the church, he muft expeft to be excommu¬
nicated and dethroned. ' Incenfed at this arrogant
meffage from one whom he confidered as his yaffil,
Henry difmiffed the legates with very little ceremony,
and in 1106 convoked an affembly of al! the princes
The empe- and dignified ecclefiallics at Worms j where, after ma-
ror depofes ture deliberation, they concluded, that Gregory ba¬
the pope, v;ng ufurped the chair of St Peter by indirect means,
infefted the church of God with a great many novel¬
ties and abufes, and deviated from his duty to his fove-
reign in feveral Icandalous attempts, the emperor, by
that fupreme authority derived from his predeceffors,
ought to divert him of his dignity, and appoint ano¬
ther* in his place. In confequence of this determina¬
tion, Henry lent an ambaffador to Rome, with a for¬
mal deprivation of Gregory •, who, in his turn, convo¬
ked a council, at which were prefent i 10 bishops, who
unanimously agreed that the pope had juft caufe to
depofe Henry, to diffolve the oath of allegiance which
the princes and ftates had taken in his favour, and to
prohibit them from holding any correfpondence with
him on pain of excommunication : which was immedi¬
ately fulminated againft the emperor and his adhe-
and h- the refjts- “ In name of Almighty God, and by out
emperor; authority (faid Gregory), 1 prohibit Henry, the fon
Iof our emperor Henry, from governing the Teutonic
kingdom and Italy : 1 releafe all Chrillians from their
oath of allegiance to him ; and ftriflly forbid all per¬
il fons from ferving or attending him as king !” The cir¬
cular letters written by this pontiff breathe the fame
fpirit with his fentence of depofitrbn. He there re¬
peats feveral times, that “ biftiops are fuperior to kings,
and made to judge them !” expreffions alike artful and
prefumptuous, and calculated for bringing in all the
churchmen of the world to his ftandafd.
Gregory knew well what conlequences would fol¬
low the thunder of the church. The German bifhops
I came immediately over to his party, and drew along
with them many of the nobles: the flame of civil war
fail lay fmothering, and a bull properly direfted was
fufticient to fet it in a blaze. The Saxons, Henry’s
■ old enemies, made life of the papal difpleafure as a
pretence for rebelling againft him. Even Guelfe, to
whom the emperor had given the duchy of Bavaria,
fupported the malecontents with that power which he
owed to his fovereign’s bounty : nay, thofe very princes
and prelates who had affifted in depofing Gregory,
gave up their monarch to be tried by the pope ; and
his holinefs was folicited to come to Augiburg for that
purpofe.
Willing to prevent this odious trial at Augfburg,
Henry took the unaccountable refolution of fuddenly
parting the Alps at Tirol, accompanied only by-a few
domeftics, to afk abfolution of Pope Gregory his op-
preffbr ; who was then in Canoza, on the Apennine
; -y mountains, a fortrefs belonging to the countefs or
laltobWd dbeliefs Matilda above mentioned. At the gates of
tjiubnift. this place the emperor prefented himfelf as a humble
penitent. He alone was admitted within the outer
court ; where, being ftripped of his robes, and wrap¬
ped in fackclothj he was obliged to remain three days,
i ] IT A
in the month of January, bare-footed and farting, be- Italy,
fore he was permitted to kifs the feet of his holinefs ;
who all that time was ftmt up with the devout Matilda,
whofe fpiritual director he had long been, and, as feme
fay, her gallant. But be that as it may, her attach¬
ment to Gregory, and her hatred to the Germans, was
fo great, that (he made over all her eftates to the apof-
tolic fee •, and this donation is the true caufe of all the
wars which fince that period have raged between the
emperors and the popes. She poffeffed in her own
right great part of Tufcany, Mantua, Parma, Reggio,
Placentia, Ferrara, Modena, Verona, and almoft the
whole of what is now called the patrimony oj St Peter,
from Viterbo to Orvieto; together with part of Um¬
bria, Spoleto, and the Marche of Ancona.
The emperor was at length permitted to throw him¬
felf at the pontiff’s feet ; who condefcended to grant
him abfolution, after he had fworn obedience to him
in all things, and promifed to fubmit to his folemn de-
cifion at Augfburg: fo that Henry got nothing but
difgrace by his journey ; while Gregory, elated by hia
triumph, and now looking upon himfelf (not altoge¬
ther without reafon) as the lord and mafter of all the
crowned heads in Chriftendom, faid in feveral of his
letters, that it was his duty “ to pull down the pride
of kings.”
This extraordinary accommodation gave much dif-
guft to the princes of Italy. They never could forgive
the infolence of the pope, nor the akjeft humility of
the emperor. Happily, however, for Henry, their in¬
dignation at Gregory’s arrogance overbalanced their
deteftation of his meannefs. He took advantage of this
temper ; and by a change of fortune, hitherto unknown
to the German emperors, he found a ftrong party in
Italy, when abandoned in Germany. All Lombardy
took up arms againft the pope, while he was raifing all
Germany againft the emperor. Gregory, on the other
hand, made ufe of every art to get another emperor
elected in Germany : and Henry, on his part, left no¬
thing undone to perfuade the Italians to^eleft another
pope. The Germans chofe Rodolph, duke of Suabia, Roctoqjh
who was folemnly crowned at Mentz ; and Gregory, chofen env»
hefitating on this occafion, behaved truly like the iu-Peior ot
preme judge of kings. He had depofed Henry, butGennarT'
ftill it was in his power to pardon that prince : he
therefore affedted to be dilpleafed that Rodolph was
confecrated without his order ; and declared, that he
would acknowledge as emperor and king of Germany,
him of the two competitors who (hould be molt fubmif-
five to the holy fee.
Henry, however, trailing more to the valour of his
troops than to the generofity of the pope, fet out im¬
mediately for Germany, where he defeated his enemies
in feveral engagements : and Gregory, feeing no hopes
of fnbmiffion, thundered out a fecond fentence of ex-
communication againft him, confirming at the fame
time the eledtion of Rodolph, to whom he fent a goldea
crown, on which the following well known verfe, equal¬
ly haughty and puerile, was engraved.
Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rodo/pho.
This donation was alfo accompanied with a moll
enthufiaftic anathema againft Henry. After depriving
him of Jirength and combat, and condemning him never
to be victorious, it concludes with the following re¬
markable
I T A [ 382 1 I T A
Italy- markable apoftrophe to St Peter and St Paul: “ Make
all men fenlible, that as you can bind and loofe every
thing in heaven, you can alfo upon earth take from or
give to every one, according to his deferts, empires,
kingdoms, principalities—let the kings and the princes
of the age then inftantly feel your power, that they
may not dare to defpife the orders of your church ;
let your juftice be fo fpeedily executed upon Henry,
that nobody may doubt but he falls by your means,
and not by chance.”
In order to avoid the effefls of this fecond excom¬
munication, Henry aiTembled at Brixen, in the county
of Tirol, about 20 German bilhops : who, a&ing alfo
for the bithops of Lombardy, unanimoufly refolved,
that the pope, inftead of having power over the empe¬
ror, owed him obedience and allegiance ; and that Gre¬
gory VII. having rendered himfelf unworthy of the
papal chair by his conduft and rebellion, ought to be
depofed from a dignity he fo little deferved. They
accordingly degraded Hildebrand j and elefted in his
room Guibert, archbilhop of Ravenna, a perfon of un¬
doubted merit, who took the name of Clement III.
Henry promifed to put the newr pope in poffeflion of
Rome : but he was obliged, in the mean time, to em¬
ploy all his forces againft his rival Rodolph, who had
54 reaffembled a large body of troops in Saxony. The
Defeated two armies met near Merfburg, and both fought with
and killed. great: fury . but the fortune of the day feemed inclined
to Rodolph, when his hand was cut off by the famous
Godfrey of Bouillon, then in the fervice of Henry, and
afterwards renowned for his conqueft of Jerufalem.
Difcouraged by the misfortune of their chief, the re¬
bels immediately gave way j and Rodolph perceiving
his end approaching, ordering the hand that was cut
off to be brought him, and made a fpeech to his offi¬
cers on the occafion, which could not fail to have an
influence on the emperor’s affairs. “ Behold (faid
he) the hand with which I took the oath of allegiance
to Henry ; and which oath, at the inftigation of Rome,
I have violated, in perfidioufly afpiring at an honour
that was not my due.”
Thus delivered from this formidable antagonifl,
Henry foon difperfed the reft of his enemies in Ger¬
many, and fet out for Italy in order to fettle Clement
in the papal chair. But the gates of Rome being {hut
againft him, he was obliged to attack it in form. The
fiege continued upwards of two years ; Henry during
55 that time being obliged to quell fome infurreclions in
Rome ta- Germany. The city u'as at length carried by affault,
Henr*^IV anc^ difficulty faved from being pillaged ; but
Gregory was not taken : he retired into the caftle of
St Angelo, and thence defied and excommunicated the
conqueror. The new pope w'as, however, confecrated
with the ufual ceremonies ; and expreffed his gratitude
by crowning Henry, with the concurrence of the Ro¬
man fenate and people. Mean while the fiege of St
Angelo was going on ; but the emperor being called
about fome affairs into Lombardy, Robert Guifcard
took advantage of his abfence to releafe Gregory, who
died foon after at Salerno. His la ft words, borrowed
from the Scripture, were worthy of the greateft faint:
“ I have loved juftice, and hated iniquity j therefore
I die in exile !”
Henry, however, did not enjoy all the advantages
4
which might have been expefted from the death of Italy.
Gregory. The fubfequent popes trode in the paths of
their predeceffor. In 1101, Pafcal II. excited young
Henry to rebel againft his father. The emperor did
all in his power to diffuade him from proceeding to
extremities, but in vain. The young prince perfifted
in his rebellious intentions ; and having by feigned
fubmiffums prevailed on the emperor to dilband his
army, he treacheroufly feized and confined him. Hen¬
ry, however, found means to efcape from his confine¬
ment, and attempted to engage all the fovereigns of
Europe in his quarrel; but before any thing effectual
could be done, he died at Liege in the year 1106. -5
The difpute about inveftitures was not terminated Difpute be.
by the depofition and death of Henry IV. His fon tween fhc
Henry V. purfued the very fame conduft for which he ^
had depofed his father. Pafcal oppofed him with vio- * >'nr> '
lence ; upon which Plenty gave him an invitation into
Germany, to end the difpute in an amicable manner.
Pafcal did not think proper to accept of this invita¬
tion ; but put himfelf under the proteftion of Philip I.
king of France, who undertook to mediate between
the contending parties. His mediation, however,
proved ineffectual, and Henry was prevented by the
wars in Hungary and Poland from paying any further
attention to the affair of inveftitures. At laft, having
fettled his affairs in Germany, he took a refolution of
going to Rome, in order to fettle the difpute perfon-
ally with the pope. To give his arguments the
greater w-eight, however, he marched at the head of
an army of 80,000 men. Pafcal received him with
great appearance of friendthip, but w'ould not renounce
the claim of inveftitures ; and Henry, finding himfelf
deceived in his expectations, ordered the pope to be
feized. The conful put the citizens in arms to defend
the pope, and a battle was fought within the walls of
Rome. The {laughter was fo great, that the waters
of the Tiber were tinged with blood. The Romans
were defeated, and Pafcal was taken prifoner. The
latter renounced his right of inveftiture ; fulemnly
fwore never to refume it, and broke his oath as foon
as Henry was gone, by fulminating the fentence of
excommunication againft him. In 1114 died the
countefs Matilda, who had bequeathed all her domi¬
nions to the pope, as we have already cbferved ; but
Henry thinking himfelf the only lawful heir, alleged,
that it was not in Matilda’s power to alienate her
eftates, which depended immediately on the empire.
He therefore fet out for Lombardy, and fent ambaffa-
dors to the pope, befeeching him to revoke the fen¬
tence of excommunication above mentioned. Pafcal,
however, would not even favour the ambaffadors with
an audience 5 but dreading the approach of Henry
himfelf, he took refuge among the Norman princes in
Apulia. Henry arrived at Rome in 1117 ; ^ut being
foon after obliged to leave it in order to fettle fome
affairs in Tufcany, the pope returned to Rome, but
died in a few days. On the third day after his de-
ceafe, Cardinal Cajetan was elected his fucceffor, with¬
out the privity of the emperor, under the name of
Gelojius II. The new pope was inftantly depofed by
Henry } who fet up the archbifhop of Prague, under
the name of Gregory VIII. Gelafius, though fup-
ported by the Norman princes, was obliged to take
refuge
Italy.
S7 .
Determina¬
tion of the
affair of in-
veltitures.
* See
GuelphsanA
Gibelines.
58
Italy in¬
vaded by
Frederic
Bwbarofla.
1 T A [
refuge in France, where he died; and the archbifhop
1 of Vienna was elected by the cardinals then prefent un¬
der the name of Calixtus U.
The new pope attempted an accommodation with
Henry ; which not fucceeding, he excommunicated
the emperor, the antipope, and his adherents. He
next fet out for Rome, where he was honourably re¬
ceived ; and Gregory VIII. was forced to retire to
Sutri, a ftrong town garrifoned by the emperor’s
troops. Here he was befieged by Calixtus and the
Norman princes. The city was foon taken, and Gre¬
gory thrown into prifon by his competitor ; but at laft,
the Hates of the . empire being quite wearied out with
fuch a long quarrel, unanimoufly fuppiicated Henry
for peace. He referred himfelf entirely to their deci-
fum ; and a diet being affembled at Wurtzburg, it was
decreed that an embaffy Humid be immediately fent to
the pope, defiring that he would convoke a general
council at Rome, by which all difputes might be de-
. termined. This was accordingly done, and the affair
of inveftitures at length regulated in the following
manner, viz. That the emperor thould leave the com¬
munities and chapters at liberty to fill up their own
vacancies, without beftowing inveftitures with the crofs
and ring ; that he ftiould reftore all that he had unjuft-
ly taken from the church ; that all eleflions Ihould be
made in a canonical manner, in prefence of the empe¬
ror or his commiffaries : and whatever difputes might
happen fhould be referred to the decifion of the empe¬
ror, affifted by the metropolitan and his fuftragans; that
the perfon eiedled ftiould receive from the emperor the
inveftiture of the fiefs and fecular rights, not with the
crofs, but with the fceptre; and ihould pay allegiance
to him for thefe rights only.
After the death of Henry, the ufual diforders took
place in Italy ; during which, Roger duke of Apulia
conquered the ifland of Sicily, and afi'umed the right of
creating popes, of whom there were two at that time,
viz. Innocent II. and Anacletus. Roger drove out the
former, and Lothario emperor of Germany the latter,
forcing Roger himfelf at the fame time to retire into
Sicily. The emperor then conduced Innocent back
to Rome in triumph; and having fubdued all Apulia,
Calabria, and the reft of Roger’s Italian dominions,
erefled them into a principality, and beftowed it, w'ith
the title of upon Renaud a German prince, and
one of his own relations.
In the reign of Conrad III. who fucceeded Lotha¬
rio, the celebrated faflions called the Guelphs and
Gibelines *, arofe, which for many years deluged the
cities of Italy with blood. They took their origin
during a civil wrar in Germany, in which the enemies
of the emperor were ftyled Guelphs, and his friends
Gibelines; and thefe names were quickly received in
Italy as well as other parts of the emperor’s dominions.
Of this civil war many of the cities in Italy took the
advantage to fet up for themfelves ; neither was it in
the pow’er of Conrad, who during his whole reign was
employed in unfuccefsful crufades, to reduce them ;
but in 1158 Frederic Barbarofla, fucceffbr to Con¬
rad, entered Italy at the head of a very numerous and
well difciplined army. His army was divided into
feveral columns, for the conveniency of entering the
country by as many different routes Having paffed
the Alps, he reduced the town of Brefcia ; where he
Italy.
383 1 I T A
made feveral falutary regulations for the prefervation
of good order and military difcipline. Continuing to
advance, he befieged Milan, which furrendered at dif-
cretion. He was crowned king of Lombardy at
Monza ; and having made himfelf mafter of all the
other cities of that country, he ordered a minute in¬
quiry to be fet on foot concerning the rights of the
empire, and exadled homage of all thofe who held of
it, without excepting even the bifhops. Grievances
were redreffed ; magiftracies reformed ; the rights of
regality difcuffed and afcertained ; new laws enafted
for the maintenance of public tranquillity and the en¬
couragement of learning, which now began to revive
in the fchool of Bologna; and, above all, fubvaffals
wTere not only prohibited from alienating their lands,
but alfo compelled, in their oath to their lords para¬
mount, to except the emperor nominally, when they
fwore to ferve and aftift them agaiuft all their enemies.
The pope took umbrage at this behaviour towards the
ecelefiaftics: but Frederic juftified what he had done,
telling his deputies it was but reafonable they Ihould
do homage for the fiefs they pofleffed ; as Jefus Chrift
himfelf, though the lord of all the fovexeigns upon earth,
had deigned to pay for himfelf and St Peter the tribute
which was due to Csefar.
Frederic having lent commiffaries to fuperintend the
election of new magiftrates at Milan, the inhabitants
were fo much provoked at this infringement of their
old privileges, that they infulted the imperialifts, re¬
volted, and refufed to appear before the emperor’s tri¬
bunal. This he highly relented, and refolvcd to chaf-
tife them feverely : for which purpofe he lent for a re¬
inforcement from Germany, wdiich foon after arrived
with the emprefs, while he himfelf ravaged Liguria,
declared the Milanefe rebels to the empire, and plun¬
dered and burnt the city of Crema which was in alli¬
ance with that of Milan.
In the mean time, Pope Adrian IV. dying, two
oppofite faflions ele.dled two perfons known by the
names of Vi£ior II. and Alexander III. Fhe empe¬
ror’s allies neceffarily acknowledged the pope chofen
by him ; and thofe princes who were jealous of the
emperor, acknowledged the other. Vi£lor II. Fre¬
deric’s pope, had Germany, Bohemia, and one half of
Italy on his fide ; while the reft fubmitted to Alex¬
ander III. The emperor took a fevere revenge on his He takes
Milan was razed from the foundation, and^ndcle'
59
fait ftrewed on its ruins ; Brefcia and Placentia were^3^1-
difmantled ; and the other cities which had taken part ’
with them were deprived of their privileges. Alexan¬
der III. however, who had excited the revolt, returned
to Rome after the death of his rival; and at his re¬
turn the civil war was renewed. The emperor caufed.
another pope, and after his death a third, to be elec¬
ted. Alexander then fled to France, the common
afylum of every pope who was oppreffed by the empe¬
rors ; but the flames of civil difcord which he had
raifed continued daily to Ipread. In 1168, the cities
of Italy, fupported by the Greek emperor and the
king of Sicily, entered into an aflociation for the de¬
fence of their liberties; and the pope’s party at length
prevailed. In 1176, the imperial army, worn out by
fatigues and difeafes, was defeated by the confederates,
and Frederic himfelf narrowly elcaped. About the
fame time, he was defeated at fea by the Venetians j
and
I T A
Italy.
60
Submits to
the pope.
6r
Frederic
fucceeded
by Henry
VI.
and his eldefl fon Henry, who commanded his fleet,
fell into the hands of the enemy. The pope, in ho¬
nour of this viftory, failed out into the open fea, ac¬
companied by the whole fenate $ and after having pro¬
nounced a thoufand benedictions on that element, threw
into it a ring as a mark of his gratitude and affedtion.
Her^e the origin of that ceremony which is annually
performed by the Venetians, under the notion of ef-
pouling the Adriatic. Thefe misfortunes difpofed the
emperor towards a reconciliation with the pope : but,
reckoning it below his dignity to make an advance, he
rallied his troops, and exerted himfelf with fo much
vigour in repairing his lofs, that the confederates were
defeated in a battle j after which he made propofals of
peace, which were now joyfully accepted, and Venice
was the place appointed for a reconciliation. The em¬
peror, the pope, and a great many princes and cardi¬
nals, attended ; and there the emperor, in 11 77, put
an end to the difpute, by acknowledging the pope,
killing his feet, and holding his ftirrup while he mount-,
ed his mule. This reconciliation was attended with
the fubmiflion of all the towns of Italy which had en¬
tered into an aflbciation for their mutual defence.
They obtained a general pardon, and were left at li¬
berty to ufe their own lawrs and forms of government,
but were obliged to take the oath of allegiance to the
emperor as their fuperior lord. Calixtus, the anti¬
pope, finding himfelf abandoned by the emperor in
confequence of this treaty, made alfo his fubraiflion to
Alexander, who received him with great humanity j
and in order to prevent for the future thofe diftur-
bances which had fo often attended the ele&ions of
the popes, he called a general council, in which it was
decreed, that no pope iliould be deemed duly elec¬
ted without having two-thirds of the votes in his fa¬
vour.
The affairs of Italy being thus fettled, Barbarofla
returned to Germany 5 and having quieted fome dif-
furbances which had arifen during his abfence in Ita¬
ly, at laft undertook an expedition into the Holy
Land j where having performed great exploits, he was
drowned as he was fwimming in the river Cydnus, in
the year I [96. He was fucceeded by his fon Henry
VI. who at the fame time became heir to the domi¬
nions of Sicily by the right of his wife, daughter of
William king of that country. After fettling the af¬
fairs of Germany, the new emperor marched with an
army into Italy, in order to be crowned by the pope,
and to recover the fucceflion of Sicily, which was
ufurped by Tancred his wife’s natural brother. For
this purpofe, he endeavoured to conciliate the affec¬
tions of the Lombards, by enlarging the privileges of
Genoa, Pifa, and other cities, in his way to Rome j
where the ceremony of the coronation was performed
by Celefiin III. on the day after Eafter in the year
Hqi. The pope, then in the 86th year of his age,
had no fwoner placed the crown upon Henry’s head
than he kicked it off again, as a teftimony of the power
refiding in the fovereign pontiff to make and unmake
Clnperors at his pleafure.
The coronation being over, Henry prepared for the
conqueft of Naples and Sicily ; bur in this he was op-
pofed by the pope : for though Celellin confidered
Tancred as an ufurper, and defired to fee him deprived
of the crown of Sicily, which he claimed as a fief of
I 384 ]
I T A
Cz
the fee, yet he was much more averfe to the emperor’s
being put in poiTeflion of it, as that would render him
too powerful in Italy for the Interei! of the church.
Henry, however, without paying any regard to the
threats and remonftrances of his holinefs, took almoit
all the towns of Campania, Calabria, and Apulia j
invefled the city of Naples j and fent for the Genoefe
fleet, which he had before engaged, to come and form
the blockade by fea : but before its arrival, he was
obliged to raife the fiege, in confequence of a dread¬
ful mortality among his troops: and all future attempts
upon Sicily were ineffe&ual during the life of Tan¬
cred.
The whole reign of Henry from this time feems to Mf
have been a continued train of the moft abominable and cruelty;
perfidies and cruelties. Having treaeheroully leized
and imprifoned Richard I. of England, in the manner
related under that arlicle, N° 128—130, he had no
fooner received the ranfom paid for his royal captive,
than he made new preparations for the conqueft of Si¬
cily. As Tancred died about this time, the emperor,
with the afliitance of the Genoefe, accompliftietl his
purpofe. The queen-dowager furrendered Salerno,
and her right to the crown, on condition that her fon
William fhould poflefs the principality of Tarentum j
but Henry no fooner found himfelf mafter of the place,
than he ordered the infant king to be caftrated, to
have his eyes put out, and to be confined in a dun¬
geon. The royal treafure was tranfported to Ger¬
many, and the queen and her daughter confined in a
convent.
In the mean time, the emprefs, though near the age
of 50, was delivered of a fon, named Frederic ; and
Henry foon after aflembled a diet of the princes of
Germany, to whom he explained his intentions of ren¬
dering the imperial crown hereditary, in order to pre¬
vent thofe difturbances which ufually attended the elec¬
tion of emperors. A decree palled for this purpofe j
and Frederic, yet in his cradle, was declared king of
the Romans. Soon after, the emperor being folicited
to undertake a crufade, obeyed the injunftions of the
pope, but in fuch a manner as to make it turn out to
his own advantage. He convoked a general diet at
Worms, where he folemnly declared his refolution of
employing his whole power, and even of hazarding
his life, for the aecomplilhment of fo holy an enter-
prife } and he expatiated upon the fubjedt with f«
much eloquence, that almoft the whole affembly took
the crofs. Nay, fuch multitudes from all the provin¬
ces of the empire enlifted themielves, that Henry di¬
vided them into three large armies ; one of which, un¬
der the command of the bifliop of Mentz, took the
route of Hungary, where it was joined by Margaret,
queen of that country, who entered herfelf in this pi¬
ous expedition, and aftuafly ended her days in Pale-
ftine : the fecond was aflembled in Lower Saxony, and
embarked in a fleet furnifhed by the inhabitants of
Lubec, Hamburg, Holftein, and Friezland : and the
emperor in perfon conducted the third into Italy, in
order to take vengeance on the Normans in Naples and
Sicily who had rifen againft his government.
The rebels w:ere humbled ; and their chiefs were
condemned to perifti by the moft excruciating tor¬
tures. One Jornandi, of the houfe of the Norman
princes, was tied naked on a chair of red-hot iron, and
crowned
Italy.
<>3
I)ifturban-
ces in the
beginning
of the
reign of
.1 T A t 3
crowned with a circle of the fame burning metal, which
was nailed to his head. The emprefs, (hocked at fuch
cruelty, renounced her faith to her hufband, and en¬
couraged her countrymen to recover their liberties.
Refolution fprung from defpair. The inhabitants be¬
took themfelves to arms ; the emprefs Conftantia head¬
ed them : and Henry, having difmiffed his troops, no
longer thought neceflary to his bloody purpofes, and
fent them topurfue their expedition to the Holy Land,
was obliged to fubmit to his wife, and to the condi¬
tions which (lie was pleafed to impofe on him in fa¬
vour of the Sicilians. He died at Medina in 1197,
foon after this treaty ; and, as was fuppofed, of poifon
adminiftered by the emprefs.
The emperor’s fon Frederic had already been de¬
clared king of the Romans, and confequently became
emperor on the death of his father j but as Frederic II.
was yet a minor, the adminiftration was committed to
Frederic' II. uncle the duke of Suabia, both by the will of
Henry and by an affembly of the German princes.
Other princes, however, incenfed to fee an elective em¬
pire become hereditary, held a new diet at Cologne,
and chofe Otho duke of Brunfwick, fon of Henry the
Lion. Frederic’s title was confirmed in a third aflem-
bly at Arnfburg; and his uncle, Philip dake of Sua¬
bia, was ele£ted king of the Romans, in order to give
greater weight to his adminiftration. Thefe two elec¬
tions divided the empire into two powerful faftions,
and involved all Germany in ruin and defolation. In¬
nocent III. who had fucceeded Celeftin in the papal
chair, threw himfelf into the fcale of Otho, and ex¬
communicated Philip and all his adherents. This able
and ambitious pontiff" was a fworn enemy of the houfe
of Suabia j not from any perfonal animofity, but out
of a principle of policy. That houfe had long been
terrible to the popes, by its continual pofleflion of the
imperial crown j and the acceffion of the kingdom of
Naples and Sicily made it (till more to be dreaded :
Innocent, therefore, gladly feized the prefent favour¬
able opportunity for divefting it of the empire, by
fupporting the election of Otho, and fovving divifions
among the Suabian party. Otho was alfo patronifed
by his uncle, the king of England ; which naturally
inclined the king of France to the fide of his rival.
Fa£Hon clafhed with faftion ; friendlhip with intereft;
caprice, ambition, or refentment, gave the fway j and
nothing was beheld on all hands but the horrors and
the miferies of civil wars.
Meanwhile, the emprefs Conftantia remained in Si¬
cily, where all was peace, as regent and guardian for
her infant fon Frederic II. who had been crowned
king of that ifland, with the confent of Pope Cele¬
ftin III. But (he alfo had her troubles. A new in-
veftiture from the holy fee being neceffary, on the
death of Celeftin, Innocent III. his fucceflbr, took
advantage of the critical fituation of affairs for aggran¬
dizing the papacy, at the expence of the kings of Si¬
cily. They pofleffed, as has been already obferved,
the privilege of filling up vacant benefices, and of
judging all ecclefiaftical caufes in the laft appeal: they
were really popes in their own ifiand, though vaffals of
his holinefs. Innocent pretended that thefe powers
had been furreptitioufty obtained j and demanded, that
Conftantia (hould renounce them in the name of her
fon, and do liege, pure, and fimple homage for Sicily,
Vol. XL Part I.
85 ] IRE
But before any thing was fettled relative to this affair,
the emprefs died, leaving the regency of the kingdom
to the pope ; fo that he was enabled to prefcribe what
conditions he thought proper to young Frederic. The
troubles of Germany (till continued ; and the pope re¬
doubled his efforts to detach the princes and prelates
from the caufe of Philip, notwithftanding the remon-
ftrances of the king of France, to whom he proudly
replied, “ Either Philip muff lofe the empire, or I
the papacy.” But all thefe diffenfions and troubles in
Europe did not prevent the formation of another cru-
fade, or expedition into Alia, for the recovery of the
Holy Land. Tbofe who took the crofs were princi¬
pally French and Germans : Baldwin, count of Flan¬
ders, was their commander j and the Venetians, as
greedy of wealth and power as the ancient Carthagi¬
nians, furniftied them with ihips, for which they took
care to be amply paid both in money and territory.
The Chriftian city of Zara, in Dalmatia, had with¬
drawn itfelf from the government of the republic : the
army of the crofs undertook to reduce it to obedience ;
and i^was befieged and taken, notwithftanding the
threats and excommunication of the pope.
While the crufaders were fpreading defolation
through the eaft, Philip and Otho were in like manner
defolating the weft. At length Philip prevailed ; and
Otho, obliged to abandon Germany, took refuge in
England. Philip, elated with fuccefs, confirmed his
eleftion by a fecond coronation, and propofed an ac¬
commodation with the pope, as the means of finally
eftablifhing his throne 5 but before it could be brought
about, he fell a facrifice to private revenge, being affaf-
finated by the count Palatine of Bavaria, whofe daugh¬
ter he had promifed to marry, and afterwards rejected.
Otho returned to Germany on the death of Philip j
married that prince’s daughter ; and was crowned at
Rome by Pope Innocent Hi. after yielding to the holy
fee the long-difputed inheritance of the countefs Ma¬
tilda, and confirming the rights and privileges of the
Italian cities. But thefe conceflxons, as far at leaft as
regarded the pope, were only a facrifice to prefent po¬
licy : Otho, therefore, no fooner found himfelf in a
condition to a£t offenfively, than he refumed his grant;
and in 1210 not only recovered the poffeflions of the
empire, but made hoftile incuifions into Apulia, ra¬
vaging the dominions of young Frederic king of Na¬
ples and Sicily, who was under the protedlion of the
holy fee. For this reafon he was excommunicated by
Innocent; and Frederic, now 17 years of age, was
elected emperor by a diet of the German princes. O-
tho, however, on his return to Germany, finding his
party ftiil confiderable, and not doubting but he (hould
be able to humble his rival by means of his fuperior
force, entered into an alliance with his uncle Joha
king of England, againft Philip Auguftus king of
France, A. D. 1213. The unfortunate battle of Bou-
vines, where the confederates were defeated, completed
the fate of Otho. He attempted to retreat into Ger¬
many, but was prevented by young Frederic ; who
had marched into the empire at the head of a power¬
ful army, and was everywhere received with open
arms. Thus abandoned by all the princes of Germa¬
ny, and altogether without refource, Otho retired to
Brunlwick, where he lived four years as a private man,
dedicating his time to the duties of religion.
C
Italy.
Frederic
I T A r 386 ] I T A
being now univerfally acknowledged fuing the fame line of policy, urged the departure of
Italy. Frederic II
emperor, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215,
with great magnificence j when, in order to preferve
the favour of the pope, he added to the other foie tri¬
nities of his coronation a vow to go in perfon to the
Holy Land
The bad fuccefs of this expedition hath been already
taken notice, of under the article Croisade. The em¬
peror had, on various pretences, refufwd to go into the
call j and in I22>, the pope, incenfed at the lofs of
;irrel Damietta, wrote a fevere letter to him, taxing him
Italy.
His
the
gope,
with having lacrificed the interefis of Chriftianity by
delaying fo long the performance of his vow, and
threatening him with immediate excommunication if he
did not initantly depart with an army to Afia. Frede¬
ric, exafperated at thefe reproaches, renounced all cor-
refpondence with the court of Rome y renewed his ec-
clefiaftical jurifdidtion in Sicily *, filled up vacant fees
and benefices y and expelled fome bilhops, who were
creatures of the pope, on pretence of their being con¬
cerned in practices againft the Hate.
The pope at firft threatened the emperor with the
thunder of the church, for prefuming to lift up his
hand againlt the fan&uary y but finding Frederic not
to be intimidated, he became fenlible of his own im¬
prudence in wantonly incurring the refentment of fo
powerful a prince, and thought proper to foothe him
by fubmiffive apologies and gentle exhortations. They
were accordingly reconciled, and conferred together at
Veroli in 1226 y where the emperor, as a proof of his
fincere attachment to the church, publiftied fome very
fevere edicts againft herefy, which feem to have autho-
rifed the tribunal of the inquifition. A folemn affembly
was afterwards held at Ferentino, where both the pope
and the emperor were prefent, together with John de
Brienne, titular king of Jerufalem, who was come to
Europe to demand fuccours againft the foldan of
Egypt. John had an only daughter named Yolanda,
whom he propofed as a wife to the emperor, with the
kingdom of Jerufalem as her dower, on condition that
Frederic Ihould within two years perform the vow he
had made to lead an army into the Holy Land. Fre¬
deric married her on thefe terms, becaufe he chofe to
pleafe the pope y and fince that time the kings of Sicily
have taken the title of king of Jerufalem. But the em¬
peror was in no hurry to go and conquer his wife’s por¬
tion, having bufinels of more importance on his hands
at home. The chief cities of Lombardy had entered
into a fecret league, with a view to renounce his au¬
thority. He convoked a diet at Cremona, where all
the German and Italian noblemen were fummoned to
attend. A variety of fubje&s were there difeuffed ;
bnt nothing of confequence was fettled. An accom-
modation, howeve^, was foon after brought about by
the mediation of the pope •, who, as umpire of the dif-
pute, decreed, that the emperor fhould lay afide his
refentment againft the confederate towns, and that the
towms ftiould furnifh and maintain 400 knights for the
relief of the Holy Land.
Peace being thus concluded, Honorius reminded
the emperor of his vow ; Frederic promifed compli¬
ance : but his holihefs died before he could fee the exe¬
cution of a project which he feemed to have fo much
at heart. He was fucceeded in the papal chair by
Gregory IX. brother of Innocent III. $ who, pur-
%
*5
expe-
Frederic for the Holy Land y and finding the emperor
ftill backward, declared him incapable of the imperial
dignity, as having incurred the fentence of excotnmu-
nication. Frederic, incenfed at fuch infolence, ravaged
the patrimony of St Peter y and was actually excom¬
municated. The animofity between the Guelphs and
Gibelines revived y the pope was obliged to quit Rome j
and Italy became a feene of war and defolation, or
rather of an hundred civil wars y which, by infiaining
the minds and exciting the refentment of the Italian
princes, accuftomed them but too much to the horrid
pra£Hces of poifoning and affaflination.
During thefe tranfaftions, Frederic, in order to re¬
move the caufe of all thefe troubles, and gratify the
prejudices of a fuperftitious age, by the advice of his
friends refolved to perform his vow : and he accord¬
ingly embarked for the Holy Land, leaving the affairs^
of Italy to the management ef Renaldo duke of Spo- diti0nTo
leto. The pope prohibited his departure before he ftiould ths Holy
be abfolved from the cenfures of the church y but Fre- Land,
deric went in contempt of the church, and fucceeded
befter than any perfon who had gone before him. He
did not indeed delolate Afia, and gratify the barbarous
zeal of the times by fpilling the blood of infidels y but
he concluded a treaty with Miliden, foldan of Egypt
and mafter of Syria, by which the end of his expedi¬
tion feemed fully anfwered. The loldan ceded to him
Jerufalem and its territory as far as Joppa ; Beth¬
lehem, Nazareth, and all the country between Jeruia-
lem and Ptolemais y Tyre, Sidon, and the neighbour¬
ing territories : in return for which, the emperor grant¬
ed the Saracens a truce of ten years ; and in 1230
prudently returned to Italy, where his prefence was
much wanted.
Frederic’s reign, after his return from the eaft, was
one continued quarrel with the popes. The cities of
Lombardy had revolted during his abfenee, at the in-
ftigation of Gregory IX.; and before they could be
reduced, the fame pontiff excited the emperor’s fon.
Henry, who had been elefted king of the Romans, to
rebel againft his father. The rebellion was fupprelfed,
the prince was confined, and the emperor obtained a
complete viflory over the affociated towns. But his
troubles were not yet ended. The pope excommunL
cated him anew, and fent a bull filled with the moft
abfurd and ridiculous language, into Germany, in or¬
der to fow' divifions between Frederic and the princes
of the empire.
Frederic retorted in the fame ftrain, in his apology
to the princes of Germany, calling Gregory i/ie Great
Dragon, the Antichri/}, &,c. The emperor’s apology
was fuftained in Germany ; and finding he had no¬
thing to fear from that quarter, he refolved to take
ample vengeance on the pope and his affociates. For
that purpofe he marched to Rome, where he thought
his party was ftrong enough to procure him admiflion ;
but this favourite (cheme was defeated by the adlivity
of Gregory, who ordered a crufade to be preached
againft the emperor, as an enemy of the Chriftian faith ;
a ftep which incenfed Frederic fo much, that he or¬
dered all his prifoners who wore the crofs to be ex-
pofed to the moft cruel tortures. The two factions of
the Guelphs and Gibelines continued to rage with
greater violence than ever, involving cities, diftri£ls,;
and..
I T A
ttaly. and even private families, in troubles, divifions, and ci-
^ ' vil butchery ; no quarter being given on either fide.
Meanwhile Gregory IX, died, and was fucceeded in
the fee of Rome by Celeftin IV. and afterwards by In¬
nocent IV. formerly Cardinal Fiefque, who had always
' expreffed the greateft regard for the emperor and his
intereft. Frederic was accordingly congratulated upon
this occafion : but having more penetration than thofe
about him, he fagely replied, “ I fee little reafon to
rejoice ; the cardinal was my friend, but the pope will
6(y be my enemy.” Innocent foon proved the juftice of
Is depofed this conjedlure. He attempted to negotiate a peace
by the for Italy 5 but not being able to obtain from Frederic
his exorbitant demands, and in fear for the fafety of
his own perfon, he tied into France, afferabled a ge¬
neral council at Lyons, and in 1245 depofed the em¬
peror.
Conrad, the emperor’s fecond fon, had already been
declared king of the Romans, on the death of his bro¬
ther Henry, which foon followed his confinement j but
the empire being now declared vacant by the pope,
the German bifhops (for none of the princes were pre~
fent), at the inftigation of his holinefs, proceeded to
the eleftion of a new emperor ; and they chofe Henry
landgrave of Thuringia, who was ftyled in derifion,
The king of pnejls. Innocent now renewed the crufade
again!! Frederic. It was proclaimed by the preach¬
ing friars, fince called Dominicans, and the minor fri¬
ars, knowm by the name of Cordeliers or Francifcans.
The pope, however, did not confine himfelf to thefe
meafures only, but engaged in confpiracies again!! the
life of an emperor who had dared to refift the decree of
a council, and oppofe the whole body of the monks and
zealots. Frederic’s life was feveral times in danger
from plots, poifonings, and aflaffinations ; which indu¬
ced him, it is faid, to make choice of Mahometan
guards, who, he was certain, would not be under the in¬
fluence of the prevailing fuperftition.
About this time the landgrave of Thuringia dying,
the fame prelates who had taken the liberty of creating
one emperor made another ; namely, William count of
Holland, a young nobleman of 20 years of age, who
Lore the fame contemptuous title with his predeceffor.
Fortune, which had hitherto favoured Frederic, feemed
now to defert him. He was defeated before Parma,
which he had long befieged j and to complete his naif-
fortune, he foon after learned, that his natural fon En-
tius, whom he had made king of Sardinia, was worfted
and taken prifoner by the Bolognefe.
In this extremity Frederic retired to his kingdom of
Naples, in order to recruit his army ; and there died
»f a fever in the year 1250. After his death, the
affairs of Germany fell into the utmoft confufion, and
Italy continued long in the fame diftrafted ftate in
which he had left it. The clergy took arms again!! the
laity ; the weak were epprelfed by the ftrong 5 and all
laws divine and human were difregarded. After the
death of Frederic’s fon Conrad, who had aflumed the
imperial dignify as fucceffor to his father, and the death
of his competitor William of Holland, a variety of
-candidates appeared for the empire, and feveral were
ele&ed by different factions j among whofn was Rich¬
ard earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry II. king of
England : but no emperor was properly acknowledged
frill the year 1273, when Rodolph, count ef Haplburg-,
[ 387 1
I T A
was unanimoufly raifed to the vacant throne. During Itafyv
the interregnum which preceded the ele&ion of Ro- ,
dolph, Denmark, Holland, and Hungary, entirely De(.j,ne 0f
freed themfelves from the homage they were wont to the power
pay to the empire $ and much about the fame time fe-ofthe Ger-
veral German cities erefted a municipal form of go-man em“
vernment, which ftill continues. Lubec, Cologne,
Brunfwic, and Dantzic, united for their mutual de¬
fence again!! the encroachments of the great lords, by
a famous alfociation, called the Hanfeatic league ; and
thefe towns were afterwards joined by 80 others, be¬
longing to different ftates, which formed a kind of
commercial republic. Italy alfo, during this period,
affumed a new plan of government. That freedom for
which the cities of Lombardy had fo long ftruggled,
was confirmed to them for a fum of money : they were
emancipated by the fruits of their induilry. Sicily like-
wife changed its government and its prince j of which
revolution a particular account is given under the arti¬
cle Sicily.
From the time of Frederic II. we may date the ruin
of the German power in Italy. The Florentines, the
Pifans, the Genoefer the Luccans, &c. became inde¬
pendent, and could not again be reduced. The power
of the emperor, in Ihort, was in a manner annihilated,
when Henry VII. undertood to reftore it in the be¬
ginning of the 14th century. For this purpofe a diet
was held at Francfort, where proper fupplies being
granted for the emperor’s journey, well known by the
name of the Roman expedition, he fet out for Italy, ac-Ejq editiot*
companied by the dukes of Auftria and Bavaria, the 01 He ry
archbilhop of Triers, the bifiiop of Liege, the counts int*
of Savoy and Flanders, and other noblemen, together
with the militia of all the imperial towns. Italy was
ftill divided by the faftions of the Guelphs and Gibe¬
lines, who butchered one another without humanity or
remorfe. But their conteft was no longer the fame : it
was not now a ftruggle between the empire and the
priefthood, but between faction and faction, inflamed
by mutual jealoufies and animofities. Pope Clement V.
had been obliged to leave Rome, which was in the
anarchy of popular government. The Colonnas, the
Urfini, and the Roman barons, divided the city ; and
this divifion was the caufe of a long abode of the popes
in France, fo that Rome feemed equally loft to the
popes and the emperors. Sicily was in the poffeflion
of the houfe of Arragon, in confequt nce of the famous
maffacre called the Sicilian vefpers, which delivered that
ifland from the tyranny of the French*. Carobert, * See
king of Hungary, difputed the kingdom of Naples f,L'*
with his uncle Robert, fon of Charles II. of the houfe
of Anjou. The houfe of Efte had eftablifhed itfelf at
Ferrara ; and the Venetians wanted to make them¬
felves matters of that country. The old league of the
Italian cities no longer fubfifted. It had been formed
with no other view than to oppofe the emperors : and
fince they had neglefted Italy, the cities were wholly-
employed in aggrandizing themfelves, at the expence
of each other. The Florentines and the Genoefe made
war upon the republic of Pifa. Every city was alfo
divided into factions within itfelf. In the midft of
thefe troubles Henry VII. appeared in Italy in the
year 13n, and caufed himfelf to be crowned king of
Lombardy at Milan. But the Guelphs had con¬
cealed the old iron crown of the Lombard kings, as
3 C 2 if
I T A [ 388 ] I T A
Ita’y. if the right of reigning were attached to a frnall cir-
v " clet of metal. Henry ordered a new crown to be
made, with which the ceremony of inauguration was
performed.
Cremona was the firft place that ventured to oppofe
the emperor. He reduced it by force, and laid it un¬
der heavy contributions. Parma, Vicenza, and Pla¬
centia, made peace with him on reafonable conditions.
Padua paid 100,000 crowns, and received an imperial
officer as governor. The Venetians prefented Plenrv
with a large fum of money, an imperial erowm of
gold enriched with diamonds, and a chain of very cu¬
rious workmanfhip. Brefcia made a defperate refin¬
ance, and fuilained a very fevere fiege ; in the courfe
of which the emperor’s brother was llain, and his
army diminilhed to fuch a degree, that the inhabitants
marched out under the command of their prefect
Thibault de Druffati, and gave him battle : but they
were repulfed with great lofs, after an obftinate en¬
gagement ■, and at lafl obliged to fubmit, and their
city was difmantled. From Brefcia Henry marched
to Genoa, where he was received with expreflions of
joy, and fplendidly entertained. He next proceeded
to Rome ; where, after much bloodlhed, he received
the imperial crown from , the hands of the cardinals.
Clement V. who had originally invited Henry into
Italy, growing jealous of his fuccefs, had leagued with
Robert king of Naples and the Urfini faftion, to op¬
pofe his entrance into Rome. He entered it in fpite
of them by the affiftance of the Colonnas. Now ma-
fter of that ancient city, Henry appointed it a gover¬
nor j and ordered, that all the cities and Hates of Ita¬
ly fliould pay him an annual tribute. In this order he
comprehended the kingdom of Naples, to which he was
going to make good his claim of fuperiority by arms,
when he died at Benevento in 1313, as is commonly
fuppofed, of poifon given him by a Dominican friar, in
the confecrated wine of the facrament.
State of The efforts of Henry VII. were unable to reftore the
Italy fince imperial power in Italy. From this time the authority
that time. ^ emperor jn country confifted in a great mea-
fure in the conveniency which the Gibelines found in
oppofing their enemies under the fanftion of his name.
The power of the pope was much of the fame nature.
He was lefs regarded in Italy than in any other coun¬
try in Chriftendom. There was indeed a great party
who called themfelves Guelphs ; but they affedled this
diftinilion only to keep themfelves independent of the
imperialills ; and the Hates and princes who called
themfelves Guelphs paid little more acknowledgement to
his holinefs than flickering themfelves under his name
and authority. The mofl defperate wars were carried
on by the different cities againfl each other j and in
thefe wars Caflruccio Caflraccani, and Sir John Hawk-
wood an Englifliman, are celebrated as heroes. A
detail of thefe tranfaftions would furnifh materials for
many volumes *, and after all feems to be but of little
importance, fince nothing material was effe6ted by the
utmofl efforts of valour, and the belligerent Hates were
commonly obliged to make peace without any advan¬
tage on either fide. By degrees, however, this martial
fpirit fubfided ; and in the year 1492, the Italians
were fo little capable of refifling an enemy, that
Charles VIH. of France conquered the whole king¬
dom of Naples in fix weeks, and might eafily have fub-
4
dued the whole country had it not been for his own Italy,
imprudence. Another attempt on Italy was made by
Louis XU. and a third by Francis I. as related un¬
der the article France. In the reigns of Louis XIII.
and XIV. an obflinate war was carried on between the
French and Spaniards, in which the Italian Hates bore
a very confiderable lliare. The war concluded in 1660,
with very little advantage to the French, who have been
always unfuccefsful in their Italian wars. The like
bad fuccefs attended them in that part of the world, in
the war which commenced between Britain and Spain
in the year 1740, -But the particulars of 'thefe wars,
with regard to the different Hates of Italy, naturally
fall to be confidered under the biflory of thole Hates
into which the country is now divided; viz. Sardinia,
Milan or the Milanefe, Genoa, Venice, Tufcany or
Florence, Lucca, St Marino, Parma, Mantua, Mode¬
na, Rome, and Naples. ^
The air in Italy is very different, according to the Air, W. of
different fituations of the feveral countries contained in Italy,
it. In thofe on the north of the Apennines it is more
temperate, but on the fouth it is generally very warm.
The air of the Campania of Rome, and of the Ferra-
refe, is faid to be unhealthful ; which is owing to the
lands not being duly cultivated, nor the marfhes drain¬
ed. That of the other parts is generally pure, dry,
and healthy. In fummer, the heat is very great in the
kingdom of Naples ; and would be almofl intolerable,
if it was not fomewhat alleviated by the fea breezes.
The foil of Italy in general is very fertile, being wa¬
tered by a great number of rivers. It produces a great
variety of wines, and the befl oil in Europe ; excellent
filk in abundance ; corn of all forts, but not in fuch
plenty as in fome other countries ; oranges, lemons,
citrons, pomegranates, almonds, raifins, fugar, mul¬
berry-trees without number, figs, peaches, nectarines,
apricots, pears, apples, filberts, chefnuts, &c. MoH
of thefe fruits were at firfl imported by the Romans
from Afia Minor, Greece, Africa, and Syria, and-
w'ere not the natural products of the foil. The tender
plants are covered in winter on the north fide of the
Apennines, but on the fouth fide they have no need of
it. This country alfo yields good paflure; and abounds
with cattle, flieep, goats, buffaloes, wild boars, mules,
and horfes. The forefls are well flored with game ;
and the mountains yield not only mines of iron, lead,
alum, fulphur, marble of all forts, alabafler, jafper,
porphyry, &c. but alfo gold and filver ; with a great
variety of aromatic herbs, trees, flirubs, and evergreens,
as thyme, lavender, laurel, and ba'ys, wild olive trees,
tamarinds, juniper, oaks, and pines.
A very extenfive trade is carried on in many places
in Italy, particularly at Leghorn, Genoa, Bologna,
Venice, and Naples; the country having a great va¬
riety of commodities and manufactures for exportation,
efpecially wine, oil, perfumes, fruits, and filks. Tra¬
vellers alfo bring large fums of money into Italy, be-
fides wffiat they lay out in pictures, curiofities, relics,
antiquities, &e.
The Italians are generally well proportioned, though Drefs, dif-
their complexions are none of the befl. As to drefs,
they follow the fafliions of the countries on wffiich they^^’M^
border, or to which they are fubjeCt; namely, thofe of
France, Spain, and Germany. With refpeCt to their
genius and tafle in architecture, painting, carving, and
mufic,
PLATE CCLXXAVIJ
I T G r 389 ] I T Z
Italy
II
Itch-inicft.
72 .
Revolution.
Prefent po¬
pulation.
ttiuftc, they are thought to excell greatly, and to leave
the other nations of Europe far behind them j but
their mulic feems too foft and effeminate to deferve all
the praife bellowed on it; and their houfes are far in¬
ferior to thofe of England in refpect of convenience.
No country hath produced better politicians, hillo-
rians, poets, painters, and fculptors j we mean fince
the revival of the arts and fciences, exclulive of thofe
of ancient times. The Italians are very affable, cour¬
teous, ingenious, fober, and ready-witted j but extreme¬
ly jealous, vindictive, lafcivious, ceremonious, and fu-
perftitious. In refpedl to jealoufy, indeed, it is faid,
a very extraordinary change has taken place 5 and that
the Italians are now' no lefs indulgent and complaifant
to their wives than the moll polite hulbands in France
itfelf. In their tempers, the Italians feem to be a good
medium between the French and Spaniards; neither fo
gay and volatile as the one, nor fo grave and folemn
as the other. Boiled fnails, ferved up with oil and
pepper, or fried in oil, and the hinder parts of frogs,
are reckoned dainty ditlies. Kites, jackdaws, hawks,
and magpies, are alfo eaten not only by the common
people, but by the better fort. Wine is drank here,
both in fummer and winter, cooled by ice or fnow.
The women affeft yellow hair, as the Roman ladies
and courtezans formerly did. They alfo ufe paint and
walhes, both for their hands and faces. The day here
is reckoned from funfet to funfet, as the Athenians
did of old.
Amidff the convullions which were excited in Eu¬
rope by the French revolution, the different Rates of
Italy were not permitted to enjoy repofe. Bonaparte,
wdiofe unprecedented and extraordinary fuccefs has hi¬
therto even exceeded his military talents, made a ra¬
pid conqueft of the whole of this country ; the battles
of Areola and Lodi are memorable for the defperate
valour with which they were fought, and Mantua fur-
rendered on the 2d of February 1797, at ten o’clock
at night. The immediate confequence of thefe fue-
ceffes was the conqueft of the pope’s territories, which
was not effefted without the effufion of much blood.
Different changes and modifications were made in its
political conftitution after thefe viclories, and the em¬
peror of France was in the iffue proclaimed king of
Italy. A detail of military and other tranfaftions in
Italy, in fo far as they flood connedled with the politi¬
cal fchemes and conquefts of the French government,
has already been given under the article France, to
which we refer our readers.
According to Boetticher, the prefent population of
Italy, including the iflands of Sicily and Sardinia,
ought not to be eftimated at more than 13,000,000.
The kingdom of Naples and Sicily is fuppofed to con¬
tain about 6,000,000, the central part about 3,000,000,
and the northern part about 4,000,000.
ITCH, a cutaneous difeafe, appearing in fmall wa¬
tery puftules on the (kin ; commonly of a mild nature,
though fometimes attended with obilinate and dange¬
rous fymptoms. See Medicine Index.
iTCH-InfeB. See Acarus, Entomology Index.
In fpeaking of the manner of finding thefe infedls
in the itch, Fabricius obferves, that the failure of many
who have fought for them has been owing to their
having expedled to meet with them in the larger ve-
ficles that contain a ycllowifh fluid like pus; in thefe,
however, he tells us, he has never found them, but in Itch-infedfc
thofe puftules only which are recent, and contain only I! .
a watery fluid. We muff therefore, he obferves, not
expedt to find them in the fame proportionate number ■ t '
in patients who for many months have been afflicted
with the difeafe, as in thofe in whom its appearance is
recent, and where it is confined to the fingers or wrifts.
The caufeof this difference with refpect to the puftules,
he conjectures, may be owing to the death of the infedt
after it has depofited its eggs.
A fmall tranfparent veficle being found, a very mi¬
nute white point, diftindt from the furrounding fluid,
may be difeovered, and very often even without the
afflftance of a glafs; this is the infect, which may be
eafiiy taken out on the point of a needle or penknife,
and when placed on a green cloth may be feen much
more diftindtly, and obferved to move. All this, we
muft remark, probably depends on optical deception.
1TEA, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
ITHACA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Ionian fea, on the coaft of Epirus; the country of
Ulyffes, near Dulichium, with a town and port fituated
at the foot of Mount Neius. According to Pliny it is
about 25 miles in compafs; according to Artemidorus
only 10 ; and is now found to be only eight miles
round. It is now uninhabited, and called Jathaco.
ITINERARY, ItinerariuM ; a journal, or an ac¬
count of the diftances of places. The moft remarkable
is that which goes under the names of Antoninus and
JEthicus; or, as Barthius found in his copy, Antoninus
JEthicus; a Chriftian writer, pofterior to the times of
Conftantine. Another, called Hierofohjmitanum, from
Bourdeaux to Jerufalem, and from Heraclea through
Aulona and Rome to Milan, under Conftantine,-—//f-
nerarium denotes a day’s march.
1TIUS portus, in Ancient Geography, the crux geo-
graphorum, fuch being the difficulty of afeertaining its
poution. It would be endlefs to recite the feveral opi¬
nions concerning it, with the feveral reafons advanced
in fupport of them. Three ports are mentioned by
Caffar ; two without any particular name, viz. the
Higher and the Lower with refpedl to the Portus
llius. Calais, Boulogne, St Omer, and Whitfand,
have each in their turn had their feveral advocates.
Ceefar gives two diftinclive charafters or marks which
feem to agree equally to Boulogne and Whitfand,
namely, the fhortnefs of the paffage, and the fituation
between two other ports ; therefore nothing can with
certainty be determined about the fituation of the
Portus Itius.
TTYS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Tereus king of
Thrace, by Procne daughter of Pandion king of A-
thens. He Was killed by his mother when he was
about fix years old, and ferved up before his father.
He was changed into a pheafant, his mother into a
fwallow, and his father into an owl.
ITZECUINTEPOTZOTLI, or Hunch-backed
Dog, a Mexican quadruped fimilar to a dog. It is
as large as a Maltefan dog, the fkin of which is varied
with white, tawny, and black. The charadleriftic
mark is a great hunch which it bears from its neck to
its rump. This animal abounds moll in the kingdom
of Michuacan,
ITZEHOA,
J U A
ITZEHOA, an ancient and    
Germany, in the citcle of Lower Saxony, and duchy
of Holftein. It belongs to the king of Denmark,
and is feated on the river Stoer, in E. Long. 9. 25.
N. Lat. 54. 8.
IVA, a genus of plants belonging to the monoecia
clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th
order, Compojttce. See BOTANY Index.
IV AH AH is the name of a canoe of the South fea
iflanders for fhort excurfions to fea : it is wall-fided
flat-bottomed, and of different fizes, from 72 feet to
10 : but their breadth is by no means in proportion ;
for thofe of ten feet are about a foot wide, and thofe
of more than 70 are fcarcely two. The fighting ivahah
is the longeft, with its head and Hern confiderably rai-
fed. The filhing ivahahs are from 40 feet long to to;
thofe of 25 feet and upwards occafionally carry fail.
The travelling ivahah is always double, and furnithed
with a final! neat houfe.
JUAN DE Fuca, a llrait on the north-weft coaft of
America, was furveyed by Captain Vancouver, and the
entrance of which he places in N. Lat. 48. 20. and
\V. Long. 124.. The object of this furvey was to dif-
cover a communication between the North Pacific and
North Atlantic oceans j but none of the inlets or chan¬
nels in this broken coaft was found to extend more than
loo miles to the eaftvvard of the entrance into the ftrait.
1 hus it appeared, that the land forming the north
fide of that ftrait is part of an ifland, or of an archipe¬
lago, extending nearly 100 leagues in length from
fouth-eaft to north-weft ; and on the fide of this land,
ttioft diftant from the continent, is fituated Nootka
found. . I he moft peculiar circumftance of this navi¬
gation is the extreme depth of water, when contrafted
with the narrownefs of the channels.
The people of Juan de Fuca are faid to be well ac-
tjuauned with the principles of trade, which they carry
en in a very fair and honourable manner. The commo¬
dities moft prized by them are copper, fire-arms, and
great-coats. Their dreffes, befides Ikins, are a kind of
woollen garments. According to Vancouver, the dogs
belonging to this tribe of Indians are numerous, refem-
bling thofe of Pomerania, though larger in general. The
Topulation even in the greateft towns or villages does
npt exceed 600, and the fmallpox is reckoned to be a
•difeafe very fatal among them. Their method of dif-
pofing of their dead is Angular. “ Bafkets (fays Van¬
couver) were found fufpended on high trees, each con¬
taining the Ikeleton of a young child, in fome of which
were alfo fmall fquare boxes filled with a kind of white
pafte, refembling filch as I had feen the natives eat,
fuppofed to be made of the faranne root: fome of thefe
boxes were quite full 5 others were nearly empty, eaten
probably by the mice, fquirrels, or birds.”
Juan, 3V, de la Frontera^ a town of South America,
in Chili, in the province of Chiquito, near the lake Gul
anacho. The territory of this town is inhabited by
20,000 native Americans, who are tributary to Spain.
It contains mines of gold, and produces a kind of al-
jnonds that are very delicate. It is feated at the foot
•f the Andes, in W. Long. 66. 35. S. Lat. 23. 2?.
JuAN de. Porto Rico, an ifiand of America, and one
*f the Caribbees, being 100 miles ip length and ijo
in breadth. It belongs to the Spaniards ; and is full
♦f v«rj high mountains, and extremely fertile valleys,
r 39° 1 J U A
handfome town of interfperfed with woods, and well watered with fprlngs
and rivulets. It produces fugar, rum, ginger, corn,
and fruits j partly proper to the climate, and partly
introduced from Spain. Befides, there are fo many
cattle, that thay often kill them for the fake of the
Ikins alone. Here are a great number of uncommon
trees, and there is a little gold in the north part of the
ifland. It is commonly faid that the air is healthy j
and yet the carl of Cumberland, when he had taken
this ifland, loft moft of his men by ficknefs j and for
that reafon was forced to abandon it. This happened
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It is fubjedt toftorms
and hurricanes, like the reft of thefe iflands. It lies to
the eaft of Hifpaniola, at the diftance of 50 miles.
Juan de Porto Rico, the capital town of the ifland
of Porto Rico, with a good harbour defended by fe-
veral forts, and a bifliop’s fee. It is feated on the
north coaft of the ifland, in W. Long. 65. 35. N. Lat.
18.-30.
Juan Fernandex, an ifland in the great South fea,
in S. Lat. 33. 40. and W. Long. 78. 30. from Lon¬
don. It was formerly a place of refort for the bucca¬
neers who annoyed the Weftern coaft of the Spanifh
continent. They were led to refort hither from the
multitude of goats which it nourilhed ; to deprive their
enemies of which advantage, the Spaniards tranfported
a confiderable number of dogs, which increafing great¬
ly, have a 1 moft extirpated the goats, who now only
find lecurity among the fteep mountains in the northern
parts, which are inacceflible to their purfucrs. There
are milances of two men living, at different times,
alone on this ifland for many years ; the one a Muf-
quito Indian ; the other Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch¬
man, who was, after five years, taken on board an
Englifh (hip, which touched here in 1710, and
brought back to Europe. From the hiftory of this
reclufe, Daniel Defoe is faid to have conceived the
idea of writing the Adventures of Robinfon Crufoe.
This ifland was very propitious to the remains of Com¬
modore Anfon’s fquadron in 1741, after having been
buffeted with tempefts, and debilitated by an invete¬
rate feurvy, during a three months paffage round Cape
Horn : they continued here three months ; during
which time the dying crews, who on their arrival could
fcarcely with one united effort heave the anchor, Were
reftored to perfedft health. Captain Carteret, in the
Swallow, in 1767, having met with many difficulties
and impediments in his paffage into the South fea,
by the ftraits of Magelhaens, attempted to make this
ifland in order to recruit the health of his men $ but
he found it fortified by the Spaniards, and therefore
chofe rather to proceed to the ifland of Mafafuero.
But M. de Bougainville that fame year is faid to have
touched here for refrelhments, although in the narra¬
tive of the voyage the faft is cautioufly fuppreffed.
This ifland is not quite 15 miles long and about fix
broad j its only fafe harbour is on the north fide. It
is faid to have plenty of excellent water, and to abound
with a great variety of efculent vegetables highly anti-
fcorbutic j befides which, Commodore Anfon fowed a
variety of garden-feeds, and planted the ftones of
plums, apricots, and peaches, which he was many years
afterwards informed had thriven greatly j and now
doubtlefs furnifti a very valuable addition to the natu¬
ral produdions of this fpot. Vaft Ihoals of filh of
VarjtJtii
Juafr,
J U B t 391 1 J U B
Joan various kinds frequent this coaft, particularly cod of
II a prodigious fize. 'I'here are but few birds here, and
3ubl ee' . thofe few are of fpecies well known and common.
JUAN Blanco, or White Jack, a Spanilh name for pla-
tina. See Platina, Chemistry Index.
JUBA, a king of Numidia and Mauritania. He
had fucceeded his father Hiempfal, and he favoured the
caufe of Pompey againft Julius Caefar. He defeated
Curio whom Caefar had fent to Africa, and after the
battle of Pharfalia he joined his forces to thofe of Sci-
pio. He was conquered in a battle at Thapfus, and
totally abandoned by his fubjedls. He killed hitnfelf
with Petreius, who had lhared his good fortune and
his adverfity, in the year of Rome 707. His king¬
dom became a Roman province, of which Sallutt was
the firft governor.
Juba II. fon of the former, was led among the cap¬
tives to Rome to adorn the triumph of Caefar. His
captivity was the fource of the greateft honours, and
his application to ftudy procured him more glory than
he would have obtained from the inheritance of a king¬
dom, He gained the hearts of the Romans by the
courteoufnefs of his manners, and Auguftus rewarded
his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra the
daughter of Antony, and conferring upon him the title
of king, and making him mailer of all the territories
which his father once poffeffed, in the year of Rome 723
His popularity was fo great, that the Mauritanians re¬
warded his benevolence by making him one of their
gods. The Athenians railed him a llatue, and the
./Ethiopians worlhipped him as a deity. Juba wrote an
hillory of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted and
commended by the ancients. Of it only few fragments
remain. He alfo wrote on the hillory of Arabia, and
the antiquities of Aflyria, chiefly colledled from Berofus.
Befides thefe, he compofed fome treatifes upon the dra¬
ma, Roman antiquities, the nature of animals, painting,
grammar, &c. now loll.
JUBILEE, among the Jews, denotes every fiftieth
year; being that following the revolution of feven weeks
of years ; at which time all the Haves were made free,
and all lands reverted to their ancient owners. The ju¬
bilees were not regarded after the Babylonilh captivity.
—The word, according to fome authors, comes from
the Hebrew, jobet, which fignifies : but this mult
be a miltake, for the Hebrew bap, jobel, does not fig-
nify fifty ; neither do its letters, taken as cyphers, or
according to their numerical powers, make that num¬
ber; being 10, 6, 2, and 30, that is, 48. -Others
fay, that jobel fignifies a ram, and that the jubilee was
thus called, becaufe proclaimed with a ram’s horn, in
memory of the ram that appeared to Abraham in the
thicket. Mafias choofes to derive the word from .Tu¬
bal, the firll inventor of mufical inllruments, which
for that reafon, were called by his name; whence the
words jobel and jubilee came to fignify the year of deli¬
verance and remiflion, becaufe proclaimed with the
found of one of thofe inllruments which at firlt was not
more than the horn of a ram. Others derive jobel from
*Xi>, jabal in hiphil Van, hobil, which fignifies to recal
or return; becaufe this year rellored all Haves to their
liberty, &c. The inllitution of this fellival is in Lev.
xxv. 8, 17.
The learned are divided about the year of jubilee;
$me maintaining that it was every forty-ninth, and
others that it was every fiftieth, year. The ground of Jubilfcev
the former opinion is chiefly this, that the forty-ninth ■“—V"*—^
year being ofcourfe a fabbatical year, if the jubilee had.
been kept on the fiftieth, the land mull have had two
fabbaths, or have lain fallow two years, which, without
a miracle, would have produced a dearth. On th&
other hand, it is alleged, that the Scripture exprefsly
declares for the fiftieth year, Lev. xxv. 10, II And
befides, if the jubilee and fabbatical year had been the
fame, there would have been no need of a prohibition
to low, reap, &c. becaufe this kind of labour was pro--
hibited by the law of the fabbatical year. Lev. xxv. 4,3.
The authors of the Univerfal Hillory, book i. chap. 7.
note R, endeavour to reconcile thefe opinions, by ob-
ferving, that as the jubilee began in the firll month of
the civil year, which was the feventhoftheecclefiallical*
it might be faid to be either the forty-ninth or fiftieth^,
according as one or other of thefe computations wras
followed. The political defign of the law of the jubi¬
lee was to prevent the too great oppreflions of the poor,
as well as their being liable to perpetual Havery. By
this means a kind of equality was preferved through
all the families of Ifrael, and the diltimflion of tribee
was alfo preferved, that they might be able, when there
was occafion, on the jubilee-year, to prove their right
to the inheritance of their ancellors. It ferved alfo^
like the Olympiads of the Greeks, and the Lultraof
the Romans, for the readier computation of time. The
jubilee has alfo been fuppofed to be typical of the gof-
pel Hate and difpenfation, defcribed by Ifaiah, Ixi. ver,
I, 2. in reference to this period,, as the “ acceptable
year of the Lord.”
Jubilee, in a mpre modern fenfe, denotes a grand
church folemnity or ceremony, celebrated at Rome,.
wherein the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all firi-
ners ; at leall to as many as vifit the churches of St
Peter and St Paul at Rome.
The jubilee w as firft eftabliflied by Boniface VII. in
1300, in favour of thofe who ftiould go ad limina apo-
Jlolorum; and it was only to return every hundred
years. But the firft celebration brought in fuch ftore
of wealth to Rome, that the Germans called this the
golden year; which occafioned Clement VI. in 1343*
to reduce the period of the jubilee to fifty years. Ur¬
ban VI. in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-
five years, that being the age of our Saviour ; and
Paul II. and Sixtus IV. in 1475, brought it down to
every twenty-five, that every perfon might have the
benefit of it once in his life. Boniface IX. granted
the privilege of holding jubilees to feveral princes and
monafteries: for inftance, to the monks of Canterbury^
who had a jubilee every fifty years ; when people
flocked from all parts to vifit the tomb of Thomas k
Becket. Jubilees are now become more frequent, and
the pope grants them as often as the church or himfelf
have occafion for them. There is ufually one at the
inauguration of a new pope. To be entitled to the pri¬
vileges of the jubilee,, the bull enjoins fallings, alms,
and prayers. It gives the priefts a full power to abfolve
in all cafes, even thofe otherwife referved to the pope;,
to make commutations of vows, &c. in which it dif¬
fers from a plenary indulgence. During the time of ju¬
bilee, all other indulgences are fufpended.
One of our kings, viz. Edward III. caufed his birth,
day to be ebferved in manner of a jubilee, when h<*
becauw*:
"Jubilee
!!.
Judaifm.
j u D [ 392 ] J U D
became fifty years of age, in 1362, but never before or
after. This he did by releafing prifoners, pardoning
all offences except treafon, making good laws, and
granting many privileges to the people.
There are particular jubilees in certain cities, when
feveral of their feafts fall on the fame day j at Puy en
Velay, for inftance, when the feaft of the Annuncia¬
tion happens on Good-Friday j and at Lyons when
the feaft of St John Baptift concurs with the feaft of
Corpus Chrifti.
In 1640, the Jefuits celebrated a folemn jubilee at
Rome j that being the centennary or hundredth year
from their inftitution ; and the fame ceremony was ob-
ferved in all their houfes throughout the world.
JUGAL AN, or Yucatan, a large province of
New Spain in North America, which is a peninfula.
It lies oppofite to the ifland of Cuba, and contains
abundance of timber, proper for building (hips ; as
alfo fugar, caflia, and Indian corn. The original in¬
habitants are few, they having been very ill ufed by
the Spaniards. Merida is the capital town. It is a
flat level country ; and is very unhealthy, which may
be owing to the frequent inundations.
JUDAH, the fourth fon of Jacob, and father of
the chief of the tribes of the Jews, diftinguilhed by
his name, and honoured by giving birth to the Mefliah,
died 1636 B. C.
Judah Hakhadojh, or the Saint, a rabbi celebrated
for his learning and riches, lived in the time of the
emperor Antoninus, and was the friend and preceptor
of that prince. Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice,
tells us, that Rabbi Judah, w ho was very rich, collected
about 26 years after the deftruftion of the temple, in
a book which he called the Miftna, the conftitutions
and traditions of the Jew ifh magiftrates who preceded
him. But as this book was fhort and obfcure, tw'o
Babyloniih rabbis, Rabbina and Afe, colle&ed all the
interpretations, difputes, and additions, that had been
made until their time upon the Mifnia, and formed the
book called the Babylonijh Talmud or Gemara; which
is preferable to the Jerufalem Talmud, compofed fome
years before by Rabbi Jochanan of Jerufalem. The
Mifnia is the text of the Lalmud j of which we have a
good edition in Hebrew and Latin by Surenhufius,
with notes, in 3 vols folio. It were to be wilhed the
fame had been done to the Gemara.
The Kingdom of JUDAH was of fmtill extent compar¬
ed with that of the kingdom of Ifrael ; confiding on¬
ly of tw'o tribes, Benjamin and Judah : its eaft boun¬
dary, the Jordan ; the Mediterranean its weft, in com¬
mon with the Danites, if we except fome places reco¬
vered by the Philiftines and others taken by the kings
of Ifrael j on the fouth, its limits feem to have been
contradled under Hadad of the royal progeny of Edom,
(1 Kings xi. 14.).
Tribe of JuDAH, one of the 12 divifions of Palefiine
by tribes (Jolh. xv.), having Idumea on the fouth,
from the extremity of the Lacus Afphaltites, alfo the
Wildernefs of Zin, Cadefbarnea, and the brook or river
of Egypt ; on the eaft, the faid lake ; on the w'eft the
Mediterranean j and on the north, the mouth of the
faid lake ; where it receives the Jordan, Bethfemes,
Thimna, quite to Ekron on the fea.
JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and rites of the
Jews. Judaifm was but a temporary difpenfation, and
was to give way, at leaft the ceremonial part of it, at
the coming of the Meflias. For a complete fyftem of
Judaiim, fee the books of Mofes. Judaifm was ancient¬
ly divided into feveral fefts 5 the principal whereof were
the Pharifees, Sadducees, and Eflenians.
At prefent there are two feels among the Jews, viz.
the Caraites, who admit of no rule of religion but the
law written by Mofes ; and the Rabbinifts, who add
to the law the traditions of the Talmud.
JUDAS Maccabeus, a celebrated general of the
Jews, renowned for his many victories over his enemies,
at laft {lain in battle, 261 B. C. See {Uijlory of the)
Jews, N° 13.
JuDAS-Tree. See Cercis, Botany Index.
JUDE, St, brother of St James the younger, and
fon of Jofeph (Mat. xiii. 55.). He preached in Mefo-
potamia, Arabia, Syria, Idumea ; and died in Berytus
for. the confeflion of Chrift. He wrote that epiftle
which goes under his name, and after the death of molt
of the apoftles. He was cruelly put to death for re¬
proving the fuperftition of the Magi.
Jude, or the General epiflle of Jude, a canonical
book of the New Teftament, written againft the here¬
tics, who, by their diforderly lives and impious doc¬
trines, corrupted the faith and good morals of the Chri-
ftians. St Jude dra\ys them in lively colours, as men
given up to their paflions, full of vanity, conducing
themfelves by worldly wifdom, and not by the fpirit of
God.
JUDEA, in Ancient Geography, taken largely, either
denotes all Paleftine, or the greater part of it; and thus
it is generally taken in the Roman hifiory: Ptolemy,
Rutilinus, Jerome, Origen, and Eufebius, take it for
the whole of Paleftine. Here we confider it as the third
part of it on this fide the Jordan, and that the fouth-
ern part is diftindl from Samaria and Galilee : under
which notion it is often taken, not only in Jofephus,
but alfo in the New L'eftament. It contained four
tribes ; Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Simeon, toge¬
ther with Philiftia and Idumea j fo as to be compri-
fed between Samaria on the north, Arabia Petraea on
the fouth, and to be bounded by the Mediterranean
on the weft, and by the lake Afphaltites, with part
of Jordan, on the eaft. Jofephus divides it into 11 to-
parchies ; Pliny into 10 ; by which it has a greater
extent than that juft mentioned. See Palestine.
JUDENBURG, a confiderable town of Germany,
in the circle of Auftria, and capital of Upper Stiria,
with a handfome caftle ; the public buildings are a
caftle, a college, and two convents. It is feated on
the river Meur. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 4'7. 10.
JUDEX, Matthew, one of the principal writers
of the Centuries of Magdeburg, was born at Tipplef-
wolde in Mifnia, in 1528. He taught theology with
great reputation \ but met with many difquiets in the
exercife of his miniftry from party-feuds. He wrote
feveral works and died in 1564.
JUDGE, a chief magiftrate of the law', appointed to
hear caules, to explain the laws, and to pafs fentence.
Judges, in Jewifh antiquity, certain fupreme ma¬
giftrates who governed the Ifraelites from the time of
Jofhua till the reign of Saul. Thefe judges refembled
the Athenian archons or Roman dictators. The dig¬
nity
Jutlaifa*
u D r 595 ] J U B
Judges, nity of judge was for life, but not always in uninter-
Judgement. fueceffion. God himfelf, by fome exprefs de-
w v claration of his will, regularly appointed the judges :
But the Ifraelites did not always wait for his appoint¬
ment, but fometimes chofe themfelves a judge in times
of danger. The power of the judges extended to af¬
fairs of peace and war. They were protestors of the
la ws, defenders of religion, avengers of all crimes $
but they could make no laws, nor impofe any new bur¬
dens upon the people. They lived without pomp or re¬
tinue, unlefs their own fortunes enabled them to do it j
for the revenues of their office corffifted in voluntary
prefents from the people. They continued from the
death of Jolhua till the beginning of the reign of Saul,
being a fpace of about 339 years.
Judges, for ordinary affairs, civil and religious,
were appointed by Mofes in every city to terminate
differences j in affairs of greater confequence, the dif¬
ferences were referred to the prieds of Aaron’s family,
and the judge of the people or prince at that time
eftabliffied. Mofes likewife fet up two courts in all
the cities, one confiding of prieds and Levites, to de¬
termine points concerning the law and religion j the
other confiding of heads of families, to decide in civil
matters.
Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Teda-
ment, fo called from its relating the date of the If-
raelitcs under the adminidration of many illudrious
perfons who were called judges, from being both the ci¬
vil and military governors of the people, and who were
raifed up by God upon fpecial occafions, after the death
of Jolhua, till the time of their making a king. In the
time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral remark¬
able occurrences, which are recorded in this book. It
acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a new genera¬
tion which fprung up after the death of Jofliua ; and
gives us a diort view of the difpenfations of heaven to¬
wards this people, fometimes relieving and delivering
them, and at others feverely chadifing them by the
"hands of their enemies.
SeleB JUDGES (^Judices feleBi'), m Antiquity, were
perfons fummoned by the prcetor to give their verdift
in criminal matters in the Roman courts, as juries do
in ours. No perfon could be regularly admitted into
this number till he was 25 years of age. The Sortitio
Judicum, or impannelling the jury, was the office of
the Judex ^uefionis, and was performed after both par¬
ties were come into court, for each had a right to re-
je£l or challenge whom they pleafed, others being fub-
dituted in their room. The number of the Judices fe~
JeBi varied, according to the nature of the charge.
When the proper number appeared, they were fworn,
took their places in the fubfellia, and heard the trial.
JUDGEMENT, among logicians, a faculty or ra¬
ther aft of the human foul, whereby it compares its
ideas, and perceives their agreement or difagreement.
Bee Metaphysics ; and Logic, Part II.
JUDGEMENT, in Law, is the fentence pronounced by
the court upon the matter contained in the record.
Judgements are of four forts. Fird, where the fafts are
confeffed by the parties, and the law determined by
the court \ as in cafe of judgement upon demurrer; fe-
eondly, where the law is admitted by the parties, and
the fafts difputed ; as in the cafe of judgement on ver-
diB; thirdly, where both the fa ft and the law arifing
Vol. XI.' Part I.
thereon are admitted by the defendant; which is the J’utlgem'efif,
cafe of judgements by confejjhn or default; or, ladly, •—
where the plaintiff is convinced that either faft or
law, or both, are infufficient to fupport his aftion,
and therefore abandons or withdraws his profecution ;
which is the cafe in judgements upon a rimfuit or re¬
traxit.
I he judgement, though pronounced or awarded by
the judges, is not their determination or fentence, but
the determination and fentenee of the law. It is the
conclufion that naturally and regularly follows from
the premiffes of law and faft, which Hands thus : A~
gainlt him who hath rode over my corn, I may recove-t
damages by law : but A hath rode over my corn 5
therefore I ffiall recover damages againft A. If the
major propofition be denied, this is a demurrer in law :
if the minor, it is then an iffue of faft : but if both be
confeffed or determined to be right, the conclufion
or judgement of the court cannot but follow. Which
judgement or conclufion depends not therefore on the
arbitrary caprice of the judge, but on the fettled and
invariable principles of juftice. The judgement, in
ffiort, is the remedy prefcribed by law for the redrefs
of injuries ; and the fuit or aftion is the vehicle or
means of admimftering it. What that remedy may be,
is indeed the refult of deliberation and ftudy to point
out; and therefore the ftyle of the judgement is, not
that it is decreed or refolved by the court, for then the
judgement might appear to be their own ; but, “ it is
confidered,” conjideratum ejl per cunatn, that the plain¬
tiff do recover his damages, his debt, his poffeflion, and
the like : which implies that the judgement is none of
their own j but the aft of law, pronounced and declar¬
ed by the court, after due deliberation and inquiry.
See Blackf. Comment. Hi. 396.
Judgement, in criminal cafes, is the next ft age of
profecution, after trial and CONVICTION are pall, in
fuch crimes and mifdemeanors as are either too high
or too low to be included within the benefit of clergy.
For when, upon a capital charge, the jury have
brought in their VERDICT guilty in the prefence of the
prifoner j he is either immediately, or at. a convenient
time foon after, afked by the court, if he has any
thing to offer why judgement ffiould not be awarded
againft him ? And in cafe the defendant be found guil¬
ty of a mifdemeanor (the trial of which may, and
does ufually, happen in his abfence, after he has once
appeared), a capias is awarded and iffued, to bring
him in to receive his judgement; and if he abfconds, he
may be profecuted even to outlawry. But whenever he
appears in perfon, upon either a capital or inferior con-
viftion, he may at this period, as well as at his arraign¬
ment, offer any exceptions.to the indiftment, in arreji
or flay of judgement : as for want of fufficient certainty
in fetting forth either the perfon, the time, the place,
or the offence. And if the objeftions be valid, the
whole proceedings (hall be fet afide j but the party may
be indifted again. And we may take notice, 1. That
none of the llatutes of jeofails, for amendment of er¬
rors, extend to indiftments or proceedings in criminal
cafes } and therefore a defeftive indiftment is not aided
by a verdift, as defeftive pleadings in civil cafes are.
Z.MThat, in favour of life, great ftriftnefs has at all Black ft.
times been obferved, in every point of an ifidiftment.Conmcnt.
Sir Matthew Hale indeed complains, “ that this Rrift-
3 D nefe
J U 1)
Juilgr ment
■ nds is grown to be a blemifh and inconvenience in the
' law, and the adminillration thereof: for that more of¬
fenders efcape by the over-eafy ear given to excep¬
tions in indictments, than by their own innocence j
and many times grofs murders, burglaries, robberies,
and other heinous and crying offences, remain un¬
pun i {lied by thefe unfeemly niceties : to the reproach
of the law, to the fhame of the government, to the
encouragement of villany, and to the dilhonour of
God.” And yet, notwithftanding this laudable zeal,
no man was more tender of life than this truly excel¬
lent judge.
A pardon alfo may be pleaded in arreft of judge¬
ment j and it has the fame advantage when pleaded
here as when pleaded upon arraignment ; viz. the
faving the attainder, and, of courfe, the CORRUP¬
TION of blood : which nothing can reftore but parlia¬
ment, when a pardon is not pleaded till after fentence.
And certainly, upon all accounts, when a man hath
obtained a pardon, he is in the right to plead it as foon
as poflible. See Pardon.
Praying the benefit of clergy may alfo be ranked
among the motions in arreft of judgement. Ste Ben e^t
of Clergy.
If all the refources fail, the court muft pronounce
that judgement which the law hath annexed to the
crime. Of thefe fome are capital, which extend to the
life of the offender, and confiit generally in being hang¬
ed by the neck till dead ; though in very atrocious
crimes other circumftances of terror, pain, or difgrace,
are fuperadded : as, in treafons of all kinds, being
drawn or dragged to the place of execution ; in high
treafon affefting the king’s perfon or government, em-
bowelling alive, beheading, and quartering ; and in
murder, a public diffeftion. And in cafe of any
treafon' committed by a female, the judgement is, to be
burned alive. But the humanity of the Englilh nation
has authorized, by a tacit con font, an almoft general
mitigation of fuch parts of thefe judgements as favour
of torture or cruelty : a fledge or hurdle being ufually
allowed to fuch traitors as are condemned to be drawn ;
and there being very few inftances (and thofe acciden¬
tal or by negligence) of any perfon’s being embowel-
led or burned, till previoufly deprived of fenfation by
ftrangling. Some punifhments confift in exile or ba-
rnffnnent, by abjuration of the realm, or tranfpor-
tation beyond the feas : others, in lofs of liberty,
by perpetual or temporary imprifonment. Some ex¬
tend to confifcation, by forfeiture of lands, or move¬
ables, or both, or of the profits of lands for life : others
induce a difability of holding offices or employments,
being heirs, executors, and the like. Some, though
rarely, occafion a mutilation or difmembering, by cut¬
ting off the hand or ears : others fix a lafting ftigma
on the offender, by flitting the noftrils or branding in
the hand or face. Some are merely pecuniary, by fta-
ted or difcretionary fines: and, laftly, there are others
that confift principally in their ignominy, though moft
of them are mixed with fome degree of corporeal
pain •, and thefe are infli£ted chiefly for fuch crimes
as either arife from indigence, or render even opu¬
lence difgraceful. Such as whipping, hard labour in
the houfe of correttion, the pillory, the flocks, and the
ducking-ftool.
Pifgufting as this catalogue may fcem, it will afford
[ 39+ 1
J U D
pleafure to a Britiffi reader, and do honour to the Bri--
tilh laws, to compare it with that (hocking apparatus of
death and torment to be met vith in the criminal codes
of almoft every other nation in Europe. And it is
moreover one of the glories of our law, that the na¬
ture, though not always the quantity or degree, of
punilhment is afcertained for every offence j and that
it is not left in the bread of any judge, nor even of a
jury, to alter that judgement which the law has be¬
forehand ordained for every fubjett alike, without re-
fpe£t of perfons. For if judgements were to be the
private opinions of the judge, men would then be
(laves to their magiftrates; and would live in fociety,
without knowing exactly the conditions and obliga¬
tions which it lays them under. And, befides, as
this prevents oppreffion on the one hand j fo, on
the other, it ftilies all hopes of impunity or mitiga-*
tion, with which an offender might flatter himfelf if
his puniffiment depended on the humour and diferetion
of the court. Whereas, where an eftabliffied penalty
is annexed to crimes, the criminal may read their
certain confequence in that law, which ought to be
the unvaried rule, as it is the inflexible iudee, of his
a£tions.
Judgement of God. See Judicium Dei.
J UDIC ATURE, the quality or proieffion of thofe
who adminifter juftice.
Judicature is alfo ufed to fignify the extent of the
jurifdiftien of the judge, and the court wherein he fits
to render juftice.
JUDICIA centumviralia, in Roman antiquity,
were trials before the Centumviri, to whom the prettor
committed the decifion of certain matters of inferior
nature, like our juftices of peace at the quarter fef-
(ions. During the judicia centumviraiia, a fpear wras
ftuck up in the forum, to fignify that the court was fit¬
ting.
JUDICIUM CalumnIjE, was an aftion brought
againft the plaintiff for faife accufation. The punifli-
ment, upon conviction, was inufio front is, or branding
in the forehead. See Inustio.
JUDICIUM Dei, Judgement of God, was a term anci¬
ently applied to all extraordinary trials of fecret crimes jr
as thofe by arms, and (ingle combat j and the ordeals,
or thofe by fire, or red-hot ploughffiares, by plung¬
ing the arm in boiling water, or the whole body in
cold w'ater ; in hopes God would work a miracle, rather
than fuffer truth and innocence to perifli. Siftper de-
fendere non pofjit, judicio Deifcil. aqua vel ferro, fieret
de eo jujlitia.——Thefe cuftoms were a long time kept up
even among Chriftians j and they are (till in ufe in fome
nations. See Battel, Ordeal, See.—Trials of this
fort were ulually held in churches in prefence of the
bithops, priefts, and fecular judges; after three days
fading, confeffion, communion, and many adjurations
and ceremonies deferibed at large by Du Cange.
JUDICIUM Barium denotes a trial by a man’s equals,
i. e. of peers by peers, and of commoners by com¬
mons. In magna charta it is more than once infilled
on as the principal bulwark of our liberties, but efpeci-
ally by chap. 29. that no freeman (hall be hurt in ei¬
ther his perfon or property, nif per legale judicium pa-
rium fuorum vel per legem terree. And this was even
efteemed in all countries a privilege of the higheft and
moft beneficial nature.
'udgf me»t
.11
Judicium,.
Judicium
Judicium
i!
Jugglers.
J u G [3
JUDICIUM Falji, was an action which lay againft the
judges for corruption or unjufl: proceedings.
j JUDICIUM Prmvaricationis, was an a ft ion brought
againft the profecutor, after the criminal was acquit¬
ted, for ffcppreffing the evidence of, or extenuating his
guilt, rather than urging it home, and bringing it to
light.
JUDOIGNE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Brabant. Near this town the duke of Marlborough
gained that fignal viftory over the French in 1706,
called the battle of Ramil lies. It is feated on the river
Gele, 13 miles fouth eaft of Louvain, and 16 north of
Namur.
IVEACH, the name of two baronies of Ireland, in
the county of Down, and province of Ultler. They
are diftinguifhed into Upper and Lower Iveach, and
the former is by much the largeft barony in that coun¬
ty. The name of Iveach, or Hy Veach, is faid to be
taken from Achaius, in Irifh called Eackach, grand-fa¬
ther to King Coalbpaig, as much as to fay “ the terri¬
tory of Eachach j” fur hy, in the Iriih language, is a
common adjeftive, denoting not only the heads and
founders of families, but alfo the territories poilefled by
them. Iveach (including both baronies) was otherwife
called Magennis's country, and in Queen Elizabeth’s
time w?.s governed by Sir Hugh Magennis, efteemed
to have been one of the moft polite of all the natives in
thofe parts. Through part of this barony runs a chain
of mountains conliderably high, known by the name of
Iveach mountains.
IUERNUS, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
fouth-weft of Ireland. Now Dunkerarn, (Camden) ; ■
called Donckyne by the natives, lituated on the river
Maire, in the piovince of Munfter.
Iuernus, or lERNUS (Ptolemy), a river in the fouth-
welt of Ireland. Now called the Maire, or Kenmare,
running from eaft to weft, in the province of Munfter.
IVES, St, a fea-port town of Cornwall in England,
feated on a bay of the fame name ; which is chiefly
frequented by fifhermen, for the taking of pilchards.
By this trade, and that of Cornifh flates, it has thriven
greatly, and 20 or 30 fail of Ihips now belong to it. It
is a corporation, governed by a mayor, recorder, &c.
and it fends two members to parliament. Here is a
handfome fpacious church, and a grammar-fehool, which
was founded by Charles I.
Ives, St, is alfo the name of a town ifi Huntingdon-
ftiire, 64 miles from London. It has a fine ftone bridge
over the Oufe, had in the ninth century a mint, and
was noted for its medicinal waters. Great part of it
was burnt down fome years ago, but it was rebuilt,
Here is a very good market on Monday for fatted cat¬
tle brought from the north ; and there are two fairs in
the year. Here Oliver Cromwell rented a farm before
he was chofen a burgefs for Cambridge.
JQGEPiUM, in Roman antiquity, a fquare of I 20
Homan feet ; its proportion to the Englifh acre being
as 10.000 to 16.097.
JUGGLERS, a kind of people whofe profeflion has
not been often deemed either refpeftable or ufeful.
Yet Profeflor Beckmann defends them, and pleads
ably the caufe of the praftifers of legerdemain, in the
third volume of his Hiftory of Inventions, including
rope-dancers, and fuch as exhibit feats of uncommon
strength. He places all thefe under the general deno-
95 1 J G G
minatioti of jugglers j and taking it for granted that
every ufeful employment is full, he contends that there
would not be room on the earth for all its prefent in¬
habitants, did not fome of them praftife the art of
juggling.
“ Thefe arts, he obferves, are not unprofitable, for
they afford a comfortable fubfiftence to thofe who prac-
tife them, which they ufually fpend upon the fpot, and
this he confiders as a good reafon why their flay in a
place ought to be encouraged. He is alfo of opinion
that if the arts of juggling ferved no other end than
to amufe the moft ignorant of our citizens, it is proper
that they ftiould be encouraged, for the fake of thofe
who cannot enjoy the more expenfive deceptions of an
opera. They convey inftruftion in the moft acceptable
manner, and ferve as an antidote to fuperftition. We
fcarcely think, however, that it is innocent to entice
the labouring poor, by ufelefs deceptions, to part with
their hard-earned pittance to idle vagabonds, whofe life
cannot be comfortable, which is palled amidlt feenes of
the moft grovelling diffipation.
Juggling is certainly of very great antiquity. The
deception of breathing out flames was praftifed by
fome of the Haves in Sicily about 150 years before the
commencement of the Chriftian aera. It is, however,
praftifed in modern times with much greater dexterity.
The ancients made ufe of naphtha, a liquid mineral
oil, which kindles when it only approaches a flame.
According to Plutarch, Alexander the Great was af-
tonifhed and delighted with the fecret effefts of naph¬
tha, which were exhibited to him at Ecbatana. Won¬
der has been excited in modern times by perfons who
could walk over burning coals or red-hot iron, which
is eafily done by rendering the fkin of the feet callous
and infenfible, fo that the nerves under it are fecured
from injury. We are told by Beckmann, that the
Hirpi, who dwelt near Rome, jumped through burning
coals j that women were accuftomed to walk over burn¬
ing coals at Caftabala, near the temple dedicated to
Diana j that the exhibition of balls and cups is often
mentioned in the works of the ancients 5 and that the
various feats of horfemanfhip exhibited in our c'rcufes
paffed, in the I3th century, from Egypt to the Byzan¬
tine court, and thence over all Europe.
JUGL ANS, the Walnut, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polyandria clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
JUGORA, a confiderable province of Mufcovy, de¬
pending on the government of Archangel. It has the
title of a duchy j and is inhabited by a kind of Tartars,
who are very favage, and much of the fame difpofition
with the Samoiedes.
JUGULAR, among anatomifts, is applied to certain
veins and glands of the neck. See Anatomy.
JUGULARES, in the Linnsean fyftem, is the name
of an order or divifion of fifh, the general charafter of
which is, that the ventral fins are placed before the
peftoral. See Ichthyology Index.
JUGUM, an humiliating mode of punifhment in¬
flicted by the victorious Romans upon their vanquiflied
enemies. It was thus : They fet up two fpears, and lay¬
ing a third acrofs, in the form of a gallows, they order¬
ed thofe who had furrendered themfelves to pafs under
this ignominious erection, without arms or belts. None
3 D 2 buffered
J V I [ 396 ] J U I
fuffered this difgrace of pafTingy^ jugo but fuch as had
been obliged to furrender.
JUGUIITHA, the illegitimate fon of Manaftabal
the brother of Micipfa. Mieipfa and Manaftabal were
the fons of Mafiniffa king of Numidia. Micipfa, who
had inherited his father’s kingdom, educated his ne¬
phew with his two fons Adherbal and Hu-mpfal 5 but
as he faw that the former was of an afpiring difpofition,
he lent him with a body of troops to the aftiftance of
Scipio, who was befteging Numantia, hoping to lofe a
youth whofe ambition fteraed to threaten the traiiquil-
liiy of h is children. His hopes were fruftrated 5 Ju-
gurtha (bowed himfelf brave and aftive, and he en¬
deared himfelf to the Roman general. Micipfa ap¬
pointed h.m lucceftor to his kingdom with his two
fans ; but the kindnefs of the father proved fatal to the
children. Jugurtha deftroyed Hiempfal, and (tripped
Adherbal of his poffeftii ms, and obliged dm to tly to
Rome for farety. The Romans liftened to the well-
grounded complaints of Adherbal •, but Jngurtha% gold
prevailed among the fenators, and the fuptdiant mo¬
narch, forfaken in his diftrel.->, perilh' d by the fnares
of his enemy. Coecilius Metellus was at tail lent a-
ga’mft Jugurtha -, and bis firmnefs and ucctis (oon re¬
duced the crafty Numidian, obliging him to fly among
his favage neighbours for fupport. Marius and Sylla
fucceeded Metellus, and fought with equal fuccefs.
Jugurtha was at laft betrayed by his father-in-law Boc-
chus, from whom he claimed affiftance ; and lie was
delivered into the hands of Sylla ic6 years before the
Cnriftian era. He was expofed to the view of the
Roman people, and dragged in chains to adorn the
triumph of Marius. He was afterwards put in a pri-
fon, where he died fix days after of hunger.
IVICA, or YVica, the name of an ifland in the
Mediterranean. See Yvica.
JUICE, denotes the fap of vegetables, or the li¬
quors of animals. See Anatomy, Blood, Plants,
Sap, &c.
The juices of feveral plants are exprefled to obtain
their eflential (alts, and for feveral medicinal purpofes,
with intention either to be ufed without further prepa¬
ration, or to be made into fyrups and extrafb. The
general method of extra&ing thefe juices is, by pound¬
ing the pi mt in a marble mortar, ana then by putting
it into a prefs. Thus is obtained a muddy and green
liquor, which generally requires to be clarified, as we
fhail (oon obferve. i he juices of all plants are not
extracted with equal eafe. Some plants, even when
freih, contain fo little juice, that water mult be added
while they are pounded, otherwife fcarcely any juice
would be obtained by expreflion. Other plants, which
contain a confiderable quantity o*' juice, furnifh by
ex predion but a fmall quantity of it, becaufe they con¬
tain alfo much mucilage, which, renders the juice fo
vifcid that it cannot flow. Water mult alfo be added
lo theie plants to obtain their juice. The juices thus
obtained from vegetables by a mechanical method, are
uot, properly fpeaking, one of their principles, but
rather a collection of all the proximate principles of
plants which are foluble in water ; fuch as the fapona
ce.ous extractive matter, the mucilage, the odoriferous
principle, all the faline and faccharine fubftances ; all
Yibich are difiblved in the water of the vegetation of
a
the plants. Befides all thefe matters, the juice con- Juke,
tains fome part of the refinous fubftance, and the green ^T”-
colouring matter, which in almoft: all vegetables is of
a refinous nature. Thefe two latter fubftances, not
being (oluble in water, are only interpofed between the
parts of the other principles which are diffolved in the
juice, and confequently difturb its tranfparency. They
neverthelefs adhere together in a certain degree, and
fo ftrongly in moft juices, that they cannot be fepara-
ted b) filtration alone. When therefore thefe juices
are to be clarified, form previous preparations muft be
ufed by which the filtration may be facilitated. Juices
which are acid, and not very mucilaginous, are ipon-
taneoufly clarified by reft and gentle heat. The juices
of moft antncorbutic plants abounding in falme vola¬
tile principles, may be dilpofed to filtration merely
by immerfion in boiling water and as they may be
contained in clo(e bottles, while they are thus heated
in a water bath, their faline volatile part, in which
their medicinal qualities chiefly coniift, may thus be
prelerved. Fermentation is alio an effectual method of
clarifying juices which art fufceptible of it; for ail li¬
quors which have fermented, clarify fpontaneoufly af¬
ter fermentation. But this method is not uled to ela-
rifv juices, becauie many of them are fufceptible of on¬
ly an imperfedl iermentation, and becaufe the qualities
of moft of them are injured by that procefs. The me¬
thod of clarification moft generally uled, and indilpen-
fably nectffary for thofe juices which contain much
mucilage, is boiling with the white of an egg. This
matter, which has the property of coagulating in
boiling water, and of uniting with mucilage, does ac¬
cordingly, when added to the juice of plants, unite
with and coagulate their mucilage, and feparates it
from the juice in form of feum, together with the
greateft pari of the refinous and earthy matters which
difturb its tranfparency. And as any of thefe refi¬
nous matters which may remain in the liquor, after this
boiling with the whites of eggs, are no longer retain¬
ed by the mucilage, they may eafily be feparated by
filtration.
The juices, efpecially before they are clarified, con¬
tain almoft all the fame, principles as the plant itfelf j.
becauie in the operation by which they are extradit'd,
no decompofition happens, but every thing remains, as
to its nature, in the fame ftate as in the plant The
principles contained in the juice are only feparated from
the groffer oily, earthy, and refinous parts, which com-
pofe the folid matter that remains under the prefs.
Thefe juices, when well prepared, have therefore the
fame medicinal qualities as the plants from which they
are obtained. They muft evidently differ from eaclv
other as to the nature and proportions of the princi¬
ples with which they are impregnated, as much as the
plants from which they are extra&ed differ from each
other in thofe refpedls.
Moft vegetable juices coagulate when they are ex¬
pofed to the air, whether they are drawn out of the
plant by wounds, or naturally run ouc though what
is called naturally runrr.ng out, is generaliy the effect of
a wound in the plant, from a fort of canker, or fome
other internal caufe. Different parts of the fame plant
yield different juices. The fame veins in their courfe
through the different parts of the plant yield juices of
a
J U I r 397 1 . j u I
Juice, a different appearance. Thu.' the juice in the rout of'
"’"V"" the cow-parfnep is of a brimftone colour j but in the
Italic it is white.
Among thofe juices of vegetables which are clammy
and readily coagulate,/ there are fome which readily
break with a whey. The great wild lettuce, with the
fmell of opium, yn Ids the great eft plenty of milky juice
of any known Britifli plant. When the ftalk is wound¬
ed with a knife, the juice flows out readily like a thick
cream, and is white and ropy ; but if thefe wounds are
made at the top of the (talks, the juice that flows out
of them is daflied with a purple tinge, as if cream had
been fprinkltd over with a few drops of red wine.
Some little time after letting this out, it becomes much
more purple, and thickens; and finally, the thicker
part of it fepavates, and the thin whey fwims at top.
The whey or thin part of this feparated matter is eaii-
ly prefled out from the curd.by fqueezing between the
fingers, and the curd .will then remain white ; and on
waihiug with water it becomes like rags. The purple
whey (for in this is contained all the colour) loon dries
into a purple cake, and may be crumbled between the
fingers into a powder of the fame colour. The white
curd being dried and kept for fome time, becomes hard
and brittle. It breaks with a (hining fur fact-' like n fin,
and is inflammable ; taking fire at a c andle, and burn¬
ing all away with a ftrong flame. The fame thick part
being held over a gent'e heat, will draw out into tough
long threads, melting like wax. The purple cake made
from the whey is quite different from this j and when
held to a candle learce flames at all, but burns to a
black coal. The whole virtue of the plant feems alfo
to confift in this thin part of its juice : for the coagu-
lum or curd, though looking like wax or refin, has no
tatle at all ; whereas the purple cake made from the
ferum is extremely bitter, and of a tafte fomewhat re-
fembling that of opium.
Of the fame kind with the wild lettuce are the
throatwort, fpurge, and many other plants. Tliefe
are all replete with a milky juice which leparates into
curds and whey like that already deferibed. But this,
though a common lawr of nature, is not univerlal ; for
there are many plants which yield the like milky
juices without any feparation enfuing upon their ex-
travafation. The white juice of the fonchus never fe-
parates, but dries into an uniform cake : the common
red wild poppy bleeds freely with a milky juice ; and
the heads or capfules of feed bleed not Id’s freely than
the reft of the plant, even after the flower is fallen.
This juice, on being received into a (hell or other fmall
veflel, foon changes its white to a deep yellow colour,
and dries into a cake which feems refioous and oily,,
but no whey feparates from it. The tragopogon, or
goatVbeard, when wounded, bleeds freely a milky
juice 5 it is at firft white, but becomes immediately
yellow, and then more and moie red, till at length it
is wholly of a dulky red. It never ieparates, but
dries together into one cake ; and is oily and refinous,
but of an infipid tafte. The great bindweed alfo bleeds
freely a white juice; the flowers, as well as the (talks
and leaves, affording this liquor. It is of a (harp tafte;
and as many of the purging plants are of this clafs, it
would be worth trying whether this milk is not pur¬
gative.
Thefe juices, as well as the generality of others Juke,
which bleed from plants, are white like milk; but
there are fome of other colours. The juice of the
great celandine is of a fine yellow colour ; it flows
from the plant of the thicknefs of cream, and foon
dries into a hard cake, without any whey feparating
from it. Another yellow juice is yielded by the feed-
veffels of the yellow centaury in the month of July,
when the feeds are full grown. This is very clammy;
it foon hardens altogether into a cake without any
whey feparating from it. It fticks to the fingers like
birdlime, is of the colour of pale amber, and will ne¬
ver become harder than foft wax if dried in the (hade ;
but if laid in the fun, it immediately becomes hard like
refin. Thefe cakes burn like wax, ai d emit a very
pleafant fmell. The great angelica alfo yields a yel-
lowjfli juice on being wounded ; and this will not har¬
den at all, but if kept feveral years will ftill be foft
and clammy, drawing out into threads or half melted
refin.
Another kind of juices very different from all thefe,
ate thoie of a gummy nature. Some of thefe remain
liquid a long time, and are not to be dried without
the afliftance of heat ; and others very quickly harden
of thenffelves, and are not inflammable. The gum of
the juice of rhubarb leaves foon hardens ; and is after¬
wards foluble in common water, and (parkles when put
into the flame of a candle. The clufters of the com¬
mon honeyfuckle are full of a liquid gum. This they
frequently throw out, and it falls upon the leaves,
where it retains its own form. The red hairs of the
ros folis are all terminated by large bladders of a thin
watery fluid. This is alfo a liquid gum ; it fticks to
the fingers, draws out into long threads, and (lands the
force of the lun all day. In (he centre of each of thefe
dew-drops there is a (mall red bladder, which (lands
immediately on the fummit of the red hair, and con¬
tains a purple juice which may be fqueezed out of it.
The pinguicula, or butterwort, has alio a gummy
matter on its leaves in much greater quantity than the
ros folis.
Some plants yield juices which are manifeftly of an
oily nature. Thefe, when rubbed, are not at all of a *
clammy nature, but make the fingt is glib and (lippery,
and do not at all harden on being expofed to the air.
If the ftalk of elecampane be wounded, there flow's
out an oily juice fwimming upon a watery one. The
ftaik of the hemlock alfo afford a fimilar oily liquor
fwimming upon the other ; and in like manner the
white mullein, the berries of ivy, the bay, juniper,
dog-berry tree, and the fruit of the olive, when wound¬
ed, (how their oil floating on the watery juice. Some
of thefe oily juices, however, harden into a kind of
refin. Oui ivy yields fuch a juice very abundantly;
and the juice of the fmall purple-berried juniper is of
the fame kind, being hard and fat, and not very gum¬
my. If the bark of the common ivy is wounded in
March, there will ooze out a tough and greafy matter
of a yellowifli colour, which, taken up between the
fingers, feels not at all gummy or ftii king, but melts
in handling into a fort of oil, which in procefs of
time hardens and crufts upon the wou ds, and looks
like brown fugar. It burns with a lading flame, and
fmells very Itrong. The tops of tho wild lettuce, and
Juice
fl
Julian.
J U L [ ,
the leaves growing near the tops, if examined with a
magnifying glafs, fhow a great number of fmall blad-
w ders or drops of an oily juice of a brownifh colour, har¬
dening into a kind of refin •, they are eafily wiped off
when of any fize, and are truly an oily juice a little
hardened. It is probable, alfo, that the fine blue flour
or powder, called the bloomy upon the furface of our
common plums, is no other than fuch an oily juice exu-
dating from their pores in fmall particles, and harden¬
ing into a fort of refiir.
JUJUBES, in the Materia M.edicay the name of a
iruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Lin¬
naeus makes a fpecies of rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in
pedtoral aecodJions j but they are now feldom ufed on
thefe occafions, and are fcarce at all heard of in pre-
fcnption, or to be met with in our (hops.
JUL, or Jol, a Gothic word fignifying a “ fumptu-
ous tieat j” and particularly applied to a religious fefti*
val fiift among the heathens and afterwards among
Chriftians.^ By the latter it was given to Christmas j
which is Hill known under the name of /«/, or Tool, in
Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden ; nay, even
in the north of Britain, and whence the month of Ja-
nuarius by the Saxons was ftyled Giuli, i. e. “ the Fef-
tival.” As this feaft had originally been dedicated by
our heathen anceftors to the fun, their fupreme deity j
io the Chriftians, for the purpofe of engaging the minds
of their Ethnic (gentile) brethren, ordered tt (hould be
celebrated in memory of the birth of Chrift : and thus
it has been through ages a feaft of joy and entertain¬
ment. We are indebted to Procopius for the firft ac¬
count of this feaft.
JULEP, in Pharmacy, a medicine compofed of fome
proper liquor and a fyrup or fugar, of extemporaneous
preparation, without decoftion. See Materia Me-
DICA Index.
JULIAN, the famous Roman emperor, ftyled the
Apoftate, becaufe he profeflfed the Chriftian religion
before he afcended the throne, but afterwards openly
embraced Paganifm, and endeavoured to abolifti Chrif-
tianity. He made no ufe of violence, however, for
this purpofe j for he knew that violent meafures had
always rendered xt more flouriftiing : he therefore be¬
haved with a polite mildnefs to the Chriftians j recal¬
led all who had been b^niflied on account of religion
under the reign of Conftantius ; and undertook to per¬
vert them by his careffes, and by temporal advantages
and mortifications covered over by artful pretences :
but. he forbade Chriftians to plead before courts of
juft ice, or to enjoy any public employments. He even
prohibited their teaching polite literature ; well know¬
ing the great advantages they drew from profane au¬
thors in their attacks upon Paganifrn and irreligion.
-I hough he on all occafions (bowed a fovereign con¬
tempt for the Chriftians, whom he always called Gali¬
leans, yet he. v'a.s fenfible of the advantage they ob¬
tained by their virtue and the purity of their manners ;
and therefore inceffantly propofed their example to the
Pagan priefts. At laft, however, when he found that
all other methods failed, he gave public employments
to the moft cruel enemies of the Chriftians, when the
cities in moft of the provinces were filled with tumults
|ind feditions, and many of them were put to death ;
I
Julian.
9§ ] JUL
T. hough it has been pleaded by Julian’s apologifts, that
the behaviour of the Chriftians furniftied fufficient pre- r—
tence for moft of his proceedings againft them, and
the animofities among themfelves furniftied him with
the means 3 that they were continually prone to fedi-
tion, and made a merit of infulting the public woifhip $
and, finally, that they made no fcruple of declaring,
that want of numbers alone prevented them from en¬
gaging in an open rebellion. Hiftorians mention, that
Julian attempted to prove the falfehood of our Lord’s
prediaion with refpea to the temple of Jerufalem ;
and refolved to have that edifice rebuilt by the Jews,
about 300 years after its deftruaion by Titus : but
all their endeavours ferved only the more perfeaiy to
verify what had been foretold by Jefus Chrift 3 for the
Jews,, who had aflembled from all parts to Jerufalem,
digging the foundations, flames of fire burft forth and
confumed the workmen*. However, the Jews, who * See 7^
were obftinately bent on accompliftiing that work, rvfalem*
made feveral attempts'3 but it is faid, that all who en¬
deavoured to lay the foundation perifhed by thefe
flames, which at laft obliged them entirely to abandon
the work. Julian being mortally wounded in a battle
with the Perfians, it is faid, that he then catched in
his hand fome of the blood which flowed from his
wound; and throwing it towards heaven, cried, “ Thou
Galilean haft conquered.” But notwithftanding this
popular report, Theodoret relates, that Julian difco-
vered a different difpofition 3 and employed his laft mo¬
ments in converfing with Maximus the philofopher
on the dignity of the foul. He died the following
night, aged 32. For a particular account of his reign
and exploits, fee (Hi/lory of) Constantinople, N° 7.
33—66..
No prince was ever more differently reprefented by
different authors ; on which account it is difficult to
form a true judgment of his real charafler.- It muft,
however, be acknowledged, that he was learned, libe¬
ral, temperate, brave, vigilant, and a lover of jufticeJ
but, on the other hand, he had apoftatifed to Paga¬
nifm 3 wras an enemy to the Chriftian religion 3 and
was, in faff, a perfecutor, though not of the moft fan-
guinary clafs. We have feveral of his difcourfes or ora¬
tions; fome of hisjetters ; a treatife intitled Mfopogon,
which is a fatire on the inhabitants of Antioch ; and
fome other pieces, all written in an elegant ftyle. They
were publilhed in Greek and Latin by Father Petau in
1630 in quarto; and of which Spanheimius gave a fine
edition in folio in 1696. His moft famous work was
that compofed againft the Chriftians, of which there are
fome fragments in Cyril’s refutation of it.
Julian Period, in Chronology, a period fo called, as
being adapted to the Julian year.
It is made to commence before the creation of the
world. Its principal advantage lies here, that the fame
years of the cycles of the fun, moon, and indidlion, of
which three cycles it was made to confift by Jofeph Sea-
liger in 1580, belonging to any year of this period,-
will never fall together again till after the expiration of
7980 years. I here is taken for the firft year of this
period that which hath the firft of the cycle of the fun,
the firft of the cycle of the moon, and the firft of the
inditftion cycle, and fo reckoning on.
The firft year of the Chriftian era is always, in our
fyftems
Julian.
tl
Julius II.
J U L [ 399 ] J U N
fyftems of chronology, the 4714th of the Julian pe¬
riod.
To find what year of the Julian period any given
year of Chrift anfwers to : To the given year of Chrift
add 4713, becaufe fo many years of the Julian period
were expired A. D. 1 5 and the fum gives the year of
the Julian period fought.
On the contrary, having the year of the Julian period
given, to find what year of Chriit anfwers thereto : From
the year of the Julian period given fubtra£l 4713, and
the remainder will be the year fought.
Julian, S(, a harbour on the fouth of Patagonia, in
South America, where (hips ufually touch that are
bound to the South feas. S. Lat. 48. 15.
J17LIERS, a duchy in the circle of Weftphalia, in
Germany, feated between the rivers Maefe and Rhine,
and bounded by Prufiian Guelderland on the north,
by the electorate of Triers on the fouth, by the electo¬
rate of Cologne on the eaft, and by the Netherlands on
the weft. It is about 60 miles long, and 30 broad ;
and is a very plentiful country, abounding in cattle,
corn, and fine meadows, and is well fupplied with
wood ; but it is molt remarkable for a fine breed of
horfes, and woad for dyeing, which is gathered here
in abundance. The chief towns are Juliers, Aix-la-
Chapelle, Duren, Munfter-Eifel, Bedbur, Wefin-
burgh, and Lafteren. The duchy of Juliers is now
annexed to France, and forms part of the department
of the Roer.
Juliers, a city, capital of the duchy of Juliers in
Weftphalia j fome think this city was founded by Ju¬
lius Coefar or Julia Agrippina j but this is much quef-
tioned by others, becaufe it is not mentioned before
Antoninus’s Itinerary and Theodofius’s Tables. The
town is fmall, but well fortified, and neatly built 5 the
houfes are of brick, and the ftreets broad and regular.
The citadel is large and very ftrong, containing a pa¬
lace of the ancient dukes and a fpacious piazza. In
the fuburbs there is a monaflery of Carthufians, nobly
endow ed by feveral dukes of Juliers. The town is but
poorly inhabited, though they have a fine woollen ma¬
nufactory in this country, and likewife another of linen.
It was taken by Prince Maurice of Naflau in 1610, and
by the Spainards in 1622. It is feated on the river
Roer, in E. Long. 6. 18. N. Lat. 50. 55.
JULIO Romano. See Romano.
JULIUS Cjesar. See Cjesar.
Julius II. Julian de la Rovere, pope, remarkable for
his warlike difpofition, and his political negociations :
by the latter, he engaged the principal powers of Eu¬
rope to league w ith him againfl the republic of Venice,
called the league of Cambray, figned in 1508. The
Venetians having purchafed peace by the ceffion of part
of Romania, Julius turned his arms againft Louis XII.
king of France, and appeared in perfon armed cap-a-
pee, at the fiege of Mirandola j which place he took
by aflault in 1511. But proceeding to excommunicate
Louis, the king wifely turned his own weapons againft
him, by calling a general council at Pifa : at which
the pope refufing to appear, was declared to be fufpend-
ed from the holy fee ; and Louis, in his turn, excom¬
municated the pope, who died foon after in 1512. He
built the famous church of St Peter at Rome, and was
a patron of the polite arts.
JULIUS Vicus, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Julius Vi-
Nernetes in Gallia Belgica ; fituated between the Tres c“s
Tabernae and Noviomagus. Now Germerfheim, a town Jui e>
of the Lower Palatinate, on the weft fide of the Rhine.
E. Long. 15. 8. N. Lat. 49. 12.
Julius Pollux. See Pqllux.
I ULUS, a fon of Afc&nius, born in Lavinium. In
the fucceflion to the kingdom of Alba, iEneas Sylvius,-
the fon of Aeneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him.
He was, however, made chief prieft.
Iulus, a genus of infeCIs of the order aptera. See
Entomology Index.
JULY, the feventh month of the year j during
which the fun enters the fign Leo. The word is de¬
rived from the Latin Julius, the furname of C. Csefar
the dictator, w ho w as born in it. Mark Antony firft
gave this month the name July, which before was call¬
ed ^uintilis, as being the fifth month of the year in
the old Roman kalendar eftabliihed by Romulus, which
began in the month of March. For the fame reafon,
Auguft was called Sextilis ; and September, October,
November, and December, ftill retain the name of
their firft rank.
^ace fequitur, numero turbo notata fuo. Ovid. Faft.
On the 19th day of this month the dog-days are
commonly fuppofed to begin ; when, according to
Hippocrates and Pliny, the fea boils, wine turns four,
dogs go mad, the bile is increafed and irritated, and all
animals decline and languifu.
JuLT-Flowers. See Dianthus, Botany Index.
JUMIEGE, a town of Normandy in France, and in
the territory of Caux, w ith a celebrated Benedi&ine
abbey. It is feated on the river Seine, in E. Long,
o. 55. N. Lat. 49. 25.
JUNCI lapldei, the name given by old authors to
a fpecies of coral, of the tubularia kind, and compofed
of a congeries of fmall tubules. See Tubularia,
Helminthology Index.
JUNCTURE, a joint or doling of two bodies.
See Joint.
Juncture, in Oratory, is a part of compofition
particularly recommended by Quintilian, and denotes
fuch an attention to the nature of the vowels, confo-
nants, and fyllables, in the connexion of words, with
regard to their found, as will render their pronunciation
moft eafy and pleafant, and beft promote the harmony
of the lenience. Thus the coalition of two vowels,
occafioning a hollow and obfcure found, and like¬
wife of fome confonants, rendering it harlh and rough,,
fliould be avoided : nor fhould the fame fyllable be
repeated at the beginning and end of words, becaufe
the found becomes hereby harlh and unpleafant.—
The follow-ing verfe in Virgil’s Aineid is an example
of juncture.
Anna virumque cano, Trojce qui primus ab oris.
JUNCU5, the Rush, a genus of plants belonging to
the hexandria clafs $ and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 5th order, Tripeialoidecc. See Botany
Index.
JUNE, thelixth month of the year, during which
the fun enters the fign of Cancer. The word comes
x from
J U N
Juns
n
Junius.
from tKe Latin Junius, which fome derive a Junone,
Ovid, in the 6th of his Fa/lt, makes the goddefs {ay,
Jumus a noflro nomine nomen habet.
Others rather derive i t a junior ibus, this being for young
people as the month of May was for old ones.
Jumus ejl juvenum ; qui fuit ante fenum.
In this month is the fumraer folftice.
J UNGERM ANNI A, a genus of plants of the na¬
tural order of algaj, and belonging to the cryptogamia
clafs. See Botany Index.
JUNGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the fynge-
tiefia clafs. See Botany Index.
JUNIPERQS, the Juniper Tree; a genus of
plants belonging to the monoecia clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 51ft order, Conifer^.
See Botany Index.
JUNIUS, Adrian, one of the moll learned men of
the age in which he lived, was born in Hoorn in Hol¬
land in 1511. He travelled into all parts of Europe,
and pra&ifed phyfic with reputation in England, where,
among other works, he compofed a Greek and Latin
Lexicon, to which he added above 6500 words ; an
Epithalamium on the marriage of Queen Mary with
King Philip of Spain ; and Animadverfa et de Coma
Comment a riu x, ^ which is the moll applauded of all his
works. He died in 1575.
Junius, Francis, profelfor of divinity at Leyden,
was born at Bourges in 1545, of a noble family, and
ftudied fome time at Lyons. Bartholomew Aneau,
who was principal of the college in that city, gave him
excellent inftm&ions with regard to the right method
of ftudying. He was remarkable for being proof
againft all temptations to lewdnefs; but a libertine fo
far overpowered him by his fophiftry, that he made
him an atheiit; however, he foon returned to his firft
faith ; and, averfe as he was to unlawful love, he had
no averfion ^ to matrimony, but was married no lefs
than four times. He was employed in public affairs
by Henry IV.; and at lad was invited to Leyden to
he profeffor of divinity ; which employment he dif-
charged with honour, till he was fnatched away by tho
plague in 1602. Du Pin fays, he was a learned and
judicious critic. He wrote, in conjunction with Em¬
manuel Tremellius, a Latin verfion of the Hebrew text
01 the Bible. Pie alfo pubiithed Commentaries on a
great part of the Holy Scriptures; and many other
works, all in Latin.
Junius, Francis, or Francis da Jon, the fon of the
preceding, wa» born at Heidelberg in 1589. Pie at
fidt defjgned to devote hunfelf to a military life ; but
after the truce concluded in 1609, he-' applied himfelf
entirely to Itudy. He came to England in 1620, and
lived 30 years in the earl of Arundel’s family. He was
greatly efteeraed not only for his profound erudition,
but alfo for the purity of his manners; and was fb paf-
honateJy lond of the liudy of the northern languages,
that, oeing informed there were fome villages in Frief-
land where the ancient language of the Saxons was pre-
lervcd, he went and lived two years in that country.
Ho returned to England in 1675; and after fpending a
yen' at Oxford, retired to Wlndfor, in order to vilit
Voffius, at wh : ■ houfe he died in 167^. The nniver-
fity oi: Oxford, to which he bequeathed his manufcripis,
1 400 ]
J U N
erefted a very handfome monument to his memory. He Junius
wrote, 1. De Piflura Veteran., which is admired by all !!
the learned ; the belt edition of it is that of Rotterdam Juncniilla-
in 1694'. He pubhlhed the fame work at London in
Englilh. 2, An explication of the old Gothic manu-
feript, called the Silver one, becaufe the four Gofpels
are there written in filver Gothic letters; this was pub-
lifned with notes by Thomas Marefehal or Marlhal.
3. A large commentary on she Harmony of the four
Golpels by latian, which is it ill in manufcript. 4. A
Gloffary in five languages, in which he explains the
origin of the Northern languages; publilhed at Oxford
in 1745, in folio, by Mr Edward X.ce.
JUNK, in fea language, a name given to any rem¬
nants or pieces of old cable, which is ufually cut into
fmall portions, for the purpofe of making points, matts,
galkets, fen nit, &c.
JUNO, in Pagan worftiip, was the filler and wife of
Jupiter, and the goddefs of kingdoms and riches; and
alfo ilyled the queen of heaven: ihe prefided over mar¬
riage and childbirth, and-was reprefented as the daugh¬
ter of Saturn and Rhc^a. She married Jupiter ; but was
not the molt complaifant wife: for according to Homer,
that god was fometimes obliged to make ufe of all his
authority to keep her in due fubjeftion ; and the fame
author obferves, that on her entering into a confpiracy
againft him, he punifhed her by fufpending her in the
air with two anvils fallened to her feet, and golden
manacles on her hands, while all the other deities look¬
ed on without a poffibility of helping her. However,
her jealoufy made her frequently find opportunities of
interrupting her hufband in the courfe of his amours j
and prompted her to punilh with unrelenting fury Eu-
ropa, Semele, lo, Latona, and the reft of his miftref-
fes. Jupiter himfelf having conceived without any
commerce with a female, Juno, in revenge, conceived
Vulcan by the wind, Mars by touching a ftower point¬
ed out to her by the goddefs Flora, and Hebe by eating
greedily of lettuces,
Juno, as the queen of heaven, preferved great ftatei
her ufual attendants were Terror and Boldnefs, Caftor,
Pollux’, and 14 nymphs; but her moft faithful attend¬
ant was the beautiful Iris, or the rainbow. Homer
deferibes her in a chariot adorned with precious ftones,
the wheels of which were of ebony, and which was
drawn by borles with reins of gold. But Ibe is more
commonly painted drawn by peacocks. She was repre¬
fented in her temple at Corinth, feated on a throne,
with a crown on her head, a pomegranate in one hand,
and in the other a feeptre with a cuckoo on its top.
This ftatue was of gold and ivory.
Some mythologifts fuppofe that Juno fignifies the
air : others, that Ihe was the Egyptian Ifis; w ho
being reprelented under various figures, was by the
Greeks and Romans reprefented as fo many diftindl
deities.
JUNONALIA, a feftival obferved by the Romans
in honour of Juno, It was inftituted on account of
certain prodigies that happened in Italy, and was cele¬
brated by matrons. In the folemnity two white cows
were led from the temple of Apollo into the city
through the gate called Carmentahs, and two images of
Juno, made of cyprtfs, w ore borne inproceftion. Then
marched 27 girls, habited in long robes, Tinging a
hymn to the goddels; then came the decemviri, crown¬
ed
J u P [ 401 ] J U P
Junonalia ed with laurel, in veftments edged with purple. This
Ju'Uer PoinPous company, going through the Vicu^Jt/garias^
. had a dance in the great field of Rome j from thence
they proceeded through the Forum Boamum to the
temple of Juno, where the victims were facrificed by
the decemviri, and the cyprefs images were left fiand-
ing. Th* feflival is not mentioned in the fajli of
Ovid, but is fully defcribed by Livy, lib. vii. dec. 3.
The hymn ufed upon the occafion was compofed by
Livius the poet.
> JUNTO> in matters of government, denotes a feleft
council for taking cognizance of affairs of great eonfe-
quence, which require Itcrecy.
In Spain and Portugal, it fignifie? much the fame
with convention, affemblv, or board, among us : thus
we meet with the junto of the three eftates, of com¬
merce, of tobacco, &c. See Board, &c.
IVORY, in Natural Hijlory, &c. a hard, folid, and
firm fubiianee, of a white colour, and capable of a very
good polifh. It is the tulk of the elephant •, and is
hollow from the bale to a certain height, the cavity
being filled up with a compael medullary fubftance,
feeming to have a great number of glands in it. It is
obferved, that the Ceylon ivory, and that of the ifland
of Vchem, do not become yellow in the wearing, as
all other ivory does •, for this reafon the teeth of thefe
places bear a larger price than thofe of the coaft of
Guinea.
Hardening, Softening, and Staining of IvORT. See
Bones end Horns.
JUPI PER, the fupreme god of the ancient Pagans.
The theologifts, according to Cicero, reckoned up three
Jupiter's ; the firft and feeond of whom were born in
Arcadia : of thefe two, the one fprang from Aether,
the other from Coelus. The third Jupiter was the fon
of Saturn, and born in Crete, where they pretended
to (how his fepulchre. Cicero in other places fpeaks
of fevcral Jupiters who reigned in different countries.
The Jupiter, by whom the poets and divines under-
ftand the fupreme god, was the fon of Saturn king of
Crete. He would have been devoured by his father
as foon as born, had not his mother Rhea fubtiituted a
Hone inffead of the child, which Saturn immediately
fwallowed. Saturn took this method to deftroy all his
male children, becaufe it had been foretold by Coelus
and Terra, that one of his forts (hould deprive him of
his kingdom. Jupiter, being thus faved from his fa¬
ther’s jaws, was brought up by the Curetes in a den
on Mount Ida. Virgil tells us, that he was fed by
the bees ; out of gratitude for which, he changed them
from an iron to a golden colour. Some fay, that his
nurfes were Amalthsea and Melifla, who gave him
goats milk and honey ; and others, that Amaltha^a
was the name of the goat which* nourifhed him, and
which, as a reward for her great fervices, was chan¬
ged into a conftellalion. According to others, he was
fed by wild pigeons, who brought him ambrofia from
Oceanus •, and by an eagle, who carried neflar in his
beak from a deep tock : for which he rewarded the
-former, by making them the foretellers of w’inter and
fummer ; and the laft by giving him immortality, and
making him hi« thunderbearer. When grown up, he
drove his father out of heaven, and divided the em¬
pire of the world with his brothers. For himfelf, he
had heaven and earth. Neptune had the fea and wa-
Vol. XI. Part II.
ters ; and Pluto hell. The Titans undertook to def- Jupiter1,
troy Jupiter, as he had done his father. Thefe Titans —-v~“-
were giants, the fons of Titan and the Earth. They
declared war againit Jupiter, and heaped mountains
upon mountains, in order to fcale heaven : but their
efforts were unfuccefsful Jupiter overthrew them with
his thunder, and (hut them up under the waters and
mountains, from which they were not able to get
out.
Jupiter had feveral wives : the firft of whom, named
Mein, he is faid to have devoured when big with child,
by which he himfelf became pregnant •, and Minerva
iffued out of his head, completely armed and fully
grown. His fecond was Themis ; the name of his
third is not known ; his fourth was the celebrated Ju¬
no, whom he deceived under the form of a cuckoo,
winch to flrun the violence of a ftorm fled for fhelter to
her lap. He was the father of the Mufes and Graces ;
and had a prodigious number of children by his mif-
treffes. He metamorphofed himfelf into a latyr to en¬
joy Antiope 5 into a bull, to carry off Eurnpa ; into
a fwan, to abufe Leda •, into a (bower of gold, to cor¬
rupt Danae} and into feveral other forms to gratify
his pafiions. Pie had Bacchus by Semele, Diana and
Apollo by Latona, and was the father of Mercury and
the other gods.
The heathens in general believed that there was but
one iupreme God ; but when they confidered this one
great being as influencing the affairs of the world,
they gave him as many different names : and hence
proceeded their variety of nominal gods. When he
thundered or lightened, they called him Jupiter ^ when
he calmed the fea, Neptune; when he guidtd their
councils, Minerva; and when he gave them (Length
in battle, Mars. In proeefs of time they ufed differ¬
ent reprefentations of this Jupiter, &c. and confidered
them, vulgarly at lead, as lo many different perlons.
They afterward regarded each of them in different
views: e. g. The Jupiter that (Lowered down.bleffings
w as called the Kind Jupiter; and uh«n punifhing, the
Terrible Jupiter. There was alfo one J ,piter for Eu¬
rope, and another for Africa 5 and in Europe, there
was one great Jupiter who was the particular friend of
the Athenians, and another who was the tpecial pro-
teftor of the Romans ; nay, there was fcarce a town
or hamlet perhaps, in Italy, that had not a Jupiter of
its own : and the Jupiter of Terracina or Jupiter
Anxur, reprefented in medals as young and beavdlefs,
with rays round his head, more refembled Apollo than
the great Jupiter at the Capitol. In this way Jiipiter
at length had temples and different charafters almoft
everywhere: at Carthage, he was called Ammon; in
Egypt, Serapis; at Athens, the great Jupiter was
the Olympian Jupiter ; and at Rome the greateft Ju¬
piter was the Capitoline Jupiter, who was the guar¬
dian and benefaftor of the Romans, and whom they
called the “ bell and greateff Jupiter Jupilir optimus
mnximus. The figure of this Jupiter was reprefented
in his chief temple on the Capitoline hill, as fitting on
a curule chair ; with the fulmen or thunder, or raiher
lighming in one hand, and a feeptre in the other.
This fulmen in the figures of the old artills was al¬
ways adapted to the charafter under which they were
to represent Jupiter. If his appearance was to be
mild and calm, they gave him the comic fulmen or
3 E bundlfe
/
J U P [4
Jtipiter. bundle of flames wreathed clofe together, held down
' in his hand : When punifhing, he holds up the fame
figure, with two tranfverfe darts of lightning, fome-
times with wings added to each fide of it, to denote
its fwiftnefs j this was called by the poets the three¬
forked bolt of Jove : and when he was going to do
fume exemplary execution, they put in his hand a
handful of flames, all let loofe in their utmoft fury j
and fometimes filled both his hands with flames. The
fuperiority of Jupiter was principally manifefted in that
air of majefty which the ancient artifls endeavoured to
exprefs in his countenance : particular attention was
paid to the head of hair, the eyebrows, and the beard.
There are feveral heads of the mild Jupiter on ancient
feals $ where his face has a mixture of dignity and eafe
in it, admirably defcribed by Virgil, ^En. i. ver. 256.
The ftatues of the Terrible Jupiter were generally of
black marble, as thofe of the former were of white :
the one fitting with an air of tranquillity j the other
Handing, more or lefs difturbed. The face of the one
is pacific and ferene j of the other angry or clouded.
On the head of the one the hair is regular and com-
pofed ; in the other it is fo difcompofed, that it falls
half way down the forehead. The face of the Jupiter
Tonans refembles that of the Terrible Jupiter j he is
reprefented on gems and medals as holding up the
triple bolt in his right hand, and Handing in a chariot
which feems to be whirled on impetuoufiy by four
horfes. Thus he is alfo defcribed by the poets. Ovid,
Deian. Here. v. 28. j Horace, lib. i. od. 4. v. 8. Jupi¬
ter, as the intelligence prefiding over a fingle planet, is
reprefented only in a chariot and pair : on all other oc-
eafions, if reprefented in a chariot, he is always drawn
by four horfes. Jupiter is well known as the chief ruler
of the air, whofe particular province was to direct the
rains, the thunders, and the lightnings. As the dif-
penfer of rain, he w as called Jupiter Pluvius; under
which chara&er he is exhibited feated in the clouds,
holding up his right hand, or extending his arms al-
moft in a flraight line each way, and pouring a flream
of hail and rain from his right hand upon the earth j
whilH the fulmen is held down in his left. The wings
that are given him relate to his character of prefiding
over the air : his hair and beard in the Antonine pil¬
lar are all fpread down by the rain, which defeends in
a fheet from him, and falls for the refreihment of the
Romans j whilfl their enemies are reprefented as Hruck
with the lightnings, and lying dead at their feet.
Some confider a great part of the fable of Jupiter to
include the hiftory of Noah and his three fons j and
that Saturn is Noah, who faw all mankind perilh in
the waters of the deluge $ and who, in fome fort, fwal-
lowed them up, by not receiving them into the ark.
Jupiter is Ham ; Neptune, Japheth j and Shem, Pluto.
The Titans, it is thought, reprefent the old giants,
who built the tower of Babel, and whofe pride and
prefumption God had confounded, by changing their
language, and pouring out the fpirit of difeord and
divifion among them. The name of Jupiter, or Jovis
Pater, is thought to be derived from Jehovah, pro¬
nounced with the Latin termination Jovis inHead of Ja¬
va ; and in medals we meet with Jovis in the nomina¬
tive, as well as-oblique cafes: for example, Jovis cuf-
tos, Jovis propugnator, Jovis Jlator, To the name Jo-
>2 ] j u R
vis was added peter ; and afterwards, inHead of “ Jo¬
vis pater,” Jupiter was ufed by abbreviation.
1 he name Jupiter was not known to the Hebrews
till the reign of Alexander the Great, and the kings
his fuccefibrs. Antiochus Epiphanes commanded the
idol of Jupiter Olympius to be placed in the temple at
Jerufalem j and that of Jupiter the defender of flran-
gers in the temple on Mount Gerizim, 2 Macc. vi. 2.
While St Paul and St Barnabas were at Lyltra, they
were taken for gods, becaufe they cured one who had
been lame from his birth, and that by an expreflion
only j St Paul was taken for Mercury, by reafon of his
eloquence $ and St Barnabas for Jupiter (Adis xiv. 11.
12.), on account probably of his good mien.
Jupiter, it, in AJlronomy, one of the fuperior pla¬
nets, remarkable for its brightnefs j and which by its
proper motion feems to revolve round the earth in about
twelve years. See Astronomy Index.
JURA, one of the Hebrides, or Weflern Iflands
of Scotland, lying oppofite to Knapdalein Argylelhire,
is fuppofed to be about 34 miles long and 10 broad.
It is the moH rugged of all the Hebrides $ and is com-
pofed chiefly of vail mountains, naked, and without 4
poflibility of cultivation. Some of the fouth and weH-
ern fides only are improveable, and in good feafons as
much bear and oats are raifed as will maintain the in¬
habitants j though by the diHillatipn, as Mr Pennant
fuppofes, of their grain, they fometimes want. Bear
produces four or five fold, and oats threefold. Sloes are
the only fruits of the illand j befides the berries of the
naountain-afh, from which an acid for punch is obtained,
and a kind of fpirit is alfo diflilled. Neceflity hath in-
ftrufled the inhabitants in the ufe of native dyes.
Thus the juice of the tops of heath boiled fupplies
them with a yellow j the roots of the white water lily
with a dark brown $ thofe of the yellow water iris
with a black ; and ga/ium verum, ru of the ifianders,
with a very fine red, not inferior t© madder. On the
hills is fome paflure for cattle $ and the produce, when
Mr Pennant vifited the ifland, amounted to about 300
or 400 head of black cattle, fold annually at 3I. each j
in 1805, the number of black cattle annually export¬
ed amounted to 500, which bring at an average 81.
each ; and about 1000 flieep, which bring il. each 5
but goats are lefs numerous than formerly : about 100
horfes are alfo fold annually. The other animals of Ju¬
ra are about 100 Hags j though thefe mufl formerly
have been much more numerous, as the original name
of the ifland was Deir-ay, or the ijle of deer, fo call¬
ed by the Norwegians on account of the abundance
of deer found in it. Here alfo Mr Pennant had
fome obfeure account of a worm that, in a lefs perni¬
cious degree, refembles the FURIA ufernalis of Lin¬
naeus. The fllan, a little worm of Jura, fmall as
thread, and not an inch in length, infinuates itfelf un¬
der the ikin, caufes a rednefs and great pain, flies fwift-
ly from place to place 5 but is cured by a poultice of
cheefe and honey. Of the mountains of Jura, thofe
from their fhape called the paps, are the mofl remark¬
able. There are only three very large ones : the biggeH
called Beinn-an-oir, or the mountain of gold^xtt, farthefl
to the north •, the fecond is called Beinn-fjeunta, or the
hallowed mountain ; and the third, Beinn-a-chaolois, or
the mountain of the found, is the leafl of the three. Mr
Pennant
4
J U R [ 4°3 J I V R
Jura. Pennant afcended the firft with great labour and dif-
 ' ficulty. It is compofed of vaft (tones covered with
mofs near the bafe ; but all above bare, and uncon-
nefled with each other. The whole, he fays, Items a
cairn, the work of the fons of Saturn. The grandeur
of the profpeft from the top abundantly made amends
for the fatigue of afcending the mountain. Jura itfelf
afforded a ftupendous fcene of rock, varied with innu¬
merable little lakes. From the well fide of the hill ran
a narrow ftripe of rock terminating in the lea, and cal¬
led the jlide of the old hag. To the fouth appeared Hay
extended like a map beneath his feet j and beyond
that the north of Ireland j to the eaft two other iflands,
Cantyre, Arran, and the frith of Clyde bounded by
Ayrffiirej an amazing trail of mountains to the north-
eaft as far as Benlomond; Skarba finiftied the northern
view \ and over the weftern ocean were fcattered Co-
lonfay and Oranfay, Mull, Iona, and its neighbouring
ifles ; and ftill further, the long extents of Tirey and
Col, juft apparent. The other paps are feen very di-
ilinilly, but all of them inferior in height. Mr Banks
and his friends mounted that to the fouth, and found
■the height to be 2359 feet $ but this is far overtop¬
ped by Beinn-an-oir. The ftones of this mountain are
white, a few red, quartzy, and compofed of fmall
grains •, but fome are brecciated, or filled with cryftal-
line kernels of an amethyftine colour. The other ftones
of the ifland are, a cinereous flate, veined with red,
and ufed here as a whetftone j a micaceous fandftone j
and between the fmall ifles and Arfin, a micaceous
quartzy rock-ftone. On the ■weft fide of the ifland there
is an anchoring place called Whitfarian ; towards the
north end is a bay called Da'1/ yau/; and on the fame
coaft is formed another riding place for veflels among
feveral fmall iflands. Between the north end of Jura
and the fmall ifle of Skarba, there is a famous whirl¬
pool, called Cory Bhrecan, from Brecan fon to a king
of Denmark, who periftied in this gulf. His body
being call aftiore on the north fide of Jura, was buried
in a cave, and his grave is ftill diftinguiihed by a
tombftone and altar. In this vortex, which extends
about a mile in breadth, the fea begins to boil and
ferment with the tide of flood, increafing gradually to
a number of whirlpools, which, in the form of pyramids,
fpout up the water, with a great aoife, as high as the
mart of a fmall veflel, agitated into fuch a foam as
makes the fea appear white even at the diftance of two
leagues. About half-flood the violence begins to de-
creafe, and continues to do fo till about half an hour
after high water : then it boils as before, till within
an hour of low w-ater, when the fmalleft fiftiing boat
may crofs it without danger.
Jura is furnilhed with many rivulets and fprings of
excellent water, and the air is remarkably healthy j its
falubrity being increafed by the high*fituation, perpe¬
tually fanned by breezes. It is, however, but ill peo¬
pled ; and did not contain above 700 or 800 inhabi¬
tants at the time it was vifited by Mr Pennant. The
number in 1805 has increafed to 1 loo. The women are
prolific, and very often bear twins. The inhabitants
live to a great age, and are liable to few diftempers.
Men of 90 can work-, and there was living in Pennant’s
time a woman of 80, who could run down a (beep.
The inhabitants are all Proteftants, but addi61ed to
fome fuperftitions. The parilh is fuppofed to be the
largeft in Great Britain, and the duty the moft dan¬
gerous and troublefome : it confifts of Jura, Oranfay,
Colonfay, Skarba, and feveral little ifles divided by
narrow and dangerous founds j forming a length of
not lefs than 60 miles 5 fupplied by only one minifter
and an afliftant.
The very old clans of Jura are the Mactlvuys and
the Macraines; but it feems to have changed matters
more than once. In 1549, Donald of Cantyre, Mac-
guillayne of Doward, Macguillayne of Kinlochbuy,
and Macduffie of Colonfay were the proprietors; Mac-
lean of Mull had alfo a (hare in 1586. Mr Campbell
of Jura, and Mr Macneil of Colonfay, are now' (1807)
the only proprietors of this ifland ; but by far the
greateft part belongs to the former.
Jura is alfo the name of a chain of mountains in
Switzerland, beginning in the canton of Zurich, ex¬
tending from thence along the Rhine into the canton
and bifliopric of Bafle, ftretching into the canton of So-
leure and the principality of Neuchatel, and branching
out towards the Pays de Vaud ; feparating that coun¬
ty from Tranche Compte and Burgundy, and continued
beyond the Genevan territories as far as the Rhone^-
Many elevated valleys are formed by different parts of
this chain in the country of the Pays de Vaud ; among
which one of the moft remarkable is the valley of the
lake of Joux, on the top of that part of the chain na¬
med Mont Joux. It contains feveral populous villages,
and is beautifully diverfified with wood, arable land,
and pafture. It is watered by two lakes ; the largeft
of which is that of Joux already mentioned. Thi> has
one (hore of a high rock covered with wood ; the op-
pofite banks forming a gentle afcent, fertile and well
cultivated ; behind which is a ridge covered with pines,
beech, and oak wood. The fmaller lake, named Bre-
net, is bordered with fine corn fields and villages; and
the ftream which iffues from it is loft in a gulf named
Entonnoir, or the Tunnel, where the people have placed
feveral mills which are turned by the force of the fall¬
ing current. The river Orbe iffues from the other fide
of the mountain about two miles from this place ; and
probably owes its origin to the fubterraneous ftream
juft mentioned. The largeft lake is fupplied by a ri¬
vulet which iffues from the bottom of a rock, and lofe^
itfelf in it. The valley contains about 3000 inhabi¬
tants, remarkable for their induftry. Some are watch¬
makers ; but the greateft number employ themfelvesin
polifhing cryftals, granites, and marcafites. The coun¬
try is much infefted with bears and wolves. In afcend¬
ing to this place there is a very extenfive profpeft of
great part of the Pays de Vaud, the lake of Geneva,
and that of Neuchatel, which from that high point of.
view appear to be nearly on a level; though M. deLuc
found the latter to be 159 feet above the level of the
lake of Geneva.
JURATS, Jurats, magiftrates in the nature of
Aldermen, for the government of feveral corpora-?
tions. Thus we meet with the mayor and jurats of
Maidftone, Rye, Winchelfea, 8tc.—So alfo Jerfey has
a bailiff and twelve jurats, or fwom affiftants, to go¬
vern the ifland.
IVREA, an ancient and ftreng town of Italy, in
Piedmont, and capital of Canavez, with a ftrong fort,
3 E 2 n
Jura
1)
Ivrea.
—-v—^
J U R
liui.
a bitlinp’s fee, the title of a marquifate, and an ancient
caiur. it is iubjeCd to the king of Sardinia, and feat-
ed .;n the river Doria between two hiiis, in E. Lonp.
7- 48. N. Lat. 45. 1 2.
JUR1EU, Petkr, an eminent French Proteftant
divine, called ironically by the Pap ids the Goliath of
the Protedants, was born in 1637. was educated
in England under his maternal uncle Peter du TVlou-
Jin, and took orders in the Englilh church •, but re¬
turning to fucceed his father as pallor of a reformed
congregation at Mer in the diocefe of Blois, he was
made profeffor of divinity and Hebrew at Sedan, where
he acquired great reputation. This univerfity being
taken from the Proteflants, a profeflbrfhip of divinity
was founded for him at Rotterdam j and he was alfo
appointed minifter of the Walloon church in the fame
town. Being now in a place of liberty, he gave full
fence to an imagination naturally warm, and applied
him felt to ftudy the book of Rovdation, of which he
fancied he had by a kind of infpiration difeovered the
true meaning •, a notion that led him to many enthulx-
aflical conjectures. He was moreover fo unfortunate
as to quarrel with his belt friends for oppofing his vi-
fionary opinions, which produced violent difputes be¬
tween him and Meffrs Bayle and de Beauval. He died
in 1713 ; and left a great number of efteemed works
behind him.
JURIN* Dr James, a dillinguilhed perfon, who cul¬
tivated medicine and mathematics with equal fuccefs.
He was fecretary of the Royal Society in London, as
well as prefident of the College or Phyficians there.
He had great difputes with Michelotti upon the mo¬
ment of running waters, with Robins upon dillind vi-
lion, and with the partizans of Leibnitz upon moving
bodies. A treatife of his “ upon Vifion” is printed in
Smhh’s “ Optics.” He died in 17^0.
JURfSCONSUL 1 US (/b7«.r), among the Romans,
w’as a perfon foamed in the law 5 a mafter of the
Roman jurifprudence •, who was confulted on the inter¬
pretation of the laws and cuftoms, and on the diffi¬
cult points in law fuits. The fifteen books of the Di-
geils wore compiled wholly from the anfwers or re¬
port^ of the ancient jurifeonfulti. Tribonianus, in
deflroying the 2000 volumes from whence the Code
and Digeft were taken, has deprived the public of a
world of things which would have given them light
into the ancient office of the jurifconfulti. We thould
fcarcely have known any thing beyond their' bare
names, had not Pomponius, who lived in the fecond
century, taken care to preferve fome circumftances of
their office.
1 he Roman jurifconfulti feem to have been the fame
with our chamber cnunfdlors, who arrived at the ho¬
nour of being confulted through age and experience,
but never pleaded at the bar. Their pleading advo¬
cates or lawyers never became jurifconfulti. See Ad¬
vocate.
In the times of the commonwealth, the advocati had
by much the more honourable employment, as being
in the ready way to attain the hi >heft preferments.
They then defpifed the ju ifconfulti, calling them in
derifion fo'mularii and l%ulei, as having invented cer¬
tain fotms and monnfyllables, in order to give their
anfwers the greater appearance of gravity and my ft cry.
3
r 404 i
JUS
Jus.
Bat in procefs of time they became fo much efleemed, JurlfconfwL
that they were called prudentes and fnpuntet, and the tus
emperors appointed the judges to follow their advice.
Auguftus advanced them to be public officers of the
empire •, fo that they were no longer confined to the
petty councils of private peTons.—Bern. Rutilius has
written the lives ot the moil famous jmifeonfuki who
have lived within thele 2000 years.
J URISDICI ION, a power or authority which a
man has to do juftice in cafes of complaint made before
him. There are two kinds of jurifdiaion, the one «•-
dejtajlical, the other fecit lar.
Secular JURISDICTION belongs to the king and his
juftices or delegates. The courts and judges at Weft-
minfter have jurifdiaion all over England, and are not
reftrained to any county or place j but all other courts
are confined to their particular jurifdiaion, which if
they exceed, whatever they do is erroneous. There are
three forts of inferior juriidi&ians ; the firft is tenere
placita, to hold pleas, and the plaintiff may foe either
there or in the king’s courts. Another is the conu-
lance of pleas, where a right is invetled in the lord of
the branch lie to hold pleas 1 and he is the only perfon
that can take advantage of it, by claiming his fran-
chife. I he third lort is an exempt jurifdiaion, as
where the king grants to fome city, that the inhabi¬
tants fhall be fued within their city, and not elfewhere y
though there is no jurifdiaion that can withftand a cer¬
tiorari to the foperior courts.
Ecclefiaflical JURISDICTION belongs to biffiops and
their deputies.
Biffiops, &c. have two kinds of jurifdiaion ; the one
internal, which is exercifed over the confidence in thin vs
Purely fpiritual ; and this they are iuppofed to hold im¬
mediately of God.
1 he other is contentious, which is a privilege fome
princes have given them of terminating difputes be¬
tween ecclefiaftics and laymen.
JURISPRUDENCE, the fcience of what is juft or
unjuft ; or the knowledge of law's, rights, cuftoms, fta-
tutes, &c. neceffary for the adminiftration of juftice.
See Law.
JUROR. Jurator, in a legal fenfe, is one of thofe
twenty-four or twelve men who are fworn to deliver
truth upon fuch evidence as ffiall be given them touch¬
ing any matter in queftion. The puniffiment of petty
jurors attainted of giving a verdia contrary to evi¬
dence, willingly, is very fevere.
JURY, a certain number of men fworn to inquire
into and try a matter of faa, and to declare the truth
upon foch evidence as ffiall appear before them.
Juries are, in thefe kingdoms, the fopreme judges
in all courts and in all caufes in which either the life,
property, or reputation, of any man is concerned : this
is the diftinguiffiing privilege of every Briton, and one
of the moft glorious advantages of our conftitution 5 for
as every one is tried by his peers, the meaneft lubjea
is as fafe and as free as the greateft. See the article
Trial.
JURT Mafl, whatever is fet up in room of a maft
that has been loft in a ftorm or an engagement, and to
which a fo.ffer yard, ropes, and fails, are affixed.
JUS CORON2E. See HereditartRight, and Suc¬
cession.
Jus-
jus r 405 i jus
Jus Deliberandi, in Scots Law, tnat right which an
heir has by law of deliberating for a certain time
whether he will reprefent his predeceffor.
Jus Devolutum, in Scots Laxv, the right of the church,
of prefenting a miniiter to a vacant parifh, in cafe the
patron fltall negledt to ufe that right within the time
limited by law.
Jus Mariti, in Scots Laxv, the right the hufband ac¬
quires to his wife’s moveable eilate, in virtue of the
marriage.
Jus ReliBa, in Scots Laxv, the right the wife has in
the goods in communion, in cafe of the previous deceafe
of the hufband.
Jus Preventionis, in Scots Laxv, the preferable right
of jurifdiftion acquired by a court, in any caule to
which other courts are equally competent, by having
exercifed the firit adt of jurifdiftion.
jus Civile, amongft the Romans, fignified no more
than the interpretation given by the learned, of the
laws of the twelve tables, though the phrafe now ex¬
tends to the whole fyftem of the Roman laws.
Jus Civitatis, fignifies freedom of the city of Rome,
which-entitled thofe perfons who had obtained it to
moil of the privileges of Roman citizens—yet it differs
from Jus J^uiritum, which extends to all the advan¬
tages which a free native of Rome w’as entitled to—
the'difference is much the fame as betwixt denvzation
and naturalization with u .
Jus Honorarium, was a name given to thofe Roman
laws which were made up of edicts of the fupreme m..-
giilrates, particularly the praetors.
Jus Imnginis, was the right of ufing pictures and
ffatues amongft the Romans, and had iome refemblance
to the right of bearing a coat of arras amongft us.
This honour was allowed to none but thole whofe an-
ceftors or themfelves had borne feme curule office, that
is, had been Curule JEdife, Cenfor, Praetor-, or Conful.
The ufe of ftatues, &c. which the Jus l mag in is
gave, was the exhibiting them in funeral procefftons,
&e. See Image.
Jus Papirianum, was the law' of Romulus, Numa,
and other kings of R. ime, collected into a body by Sex-
tu> Papirius, who lived in the time of Tarquin the
Proud ; which accounts for the name.
Jus Trium Liberorum, was a privilege granted to
fuch perfons in the city of Rome as had three children,
by which they were exempted from all troublefome
offices. The fame exemption was granted to any per-
fon who lived in other parts of Italy, having four
children , and thofe that lived in the provinces, pro¬
vided they had five (or as fome lay feven) children,
were entitled to the lame immunities. This was good
policy, and tended to the population of the empire.
For a further account of thefe privileges, fee Chil¬
dren.
JUSSICA, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Cahjcanthemcc. See Botany
Index.
JUST, a fportive kind of combat on horfeback, man
again!! man, armed with lance1-.. The word is by
fome derived from the French jou/le, of the Latin juxta,
becaufe the combatants fought near one another Sal-
mafiu.-. derives it from the modern Greek %ouJlra, or
lather which is ufed in this fenle by Nicepho-
rus Gregorius. Others derive it from juffia, which in
the corrupt age of the Latin tongue was ufed for this *,u^ice
exercife, by reafon it was fuppoied a more juft and
equal combat than the tournament.
The difference between jufts and tournaments con-
fifts in this, that the latter is the genus, of which the
former is only a fpecies. Tournaments included all
kinds of military (ports and engagements made out
of gallantry and diverfions: Jufts were thofe particu¬
lar combats where the parties w'ere near each other,
and engaged with lance and fword. Add, that the
tournament was frequently performed by a number of
cavaliers, wffio fought in a body : 'The juft was a fingle
combat of one man again!! another.—Though the jufts
were ufually made in tournaments after a general ren¬
counter of all the cavaliers, yet they were fomotimes-
fingly, and independent of any tournament. See Tour¬
nament.
He wffio appeared for the firft time at a juft, forfeit¬
ed his helm or cafque unlefs he had forfeited before at
a tournament.
JUSTICE, in a moral fenfe, is one of the four car¬
dinal virtues, which gives every perfon his due.
Civilians diftinguifh juflice into two kinds : commu¬
nicative and dijlributive. The former eilablifhes fair
dealing in the mutual commerce between man and
man ; and includes fincerity in our difeourfe, and in¬
tegrity in our dealings. The effed! of fineerity is mu¬
tual confidence, fo neceffary among the members of
the fame community •, and this mutual confidence is
fuftained and preferved by the integrity of curcondudl.
Dijlributive juftice is that by which the differences
of mankind are decided, according to the rules of equi¬
ty. The former is the juftice of private individuals y
the latter of princes and magiftrates.
Fidelity and truth are the foundation of juftice. As
to be perfectly juft is an attribute of the Divine Na¬
ture, to be fo to the utmoft of our ability is the glory
of man.
The following examples of this virtue are extrafled
from various authors.
1. Among the feveral virtues of Ariftides, that for
v'hich he was mofl renowned was juftice ; becaufe this,
virtue is of moft general ufe, its benefits extending to.
a greater number of perfons, as it is the foundation,
and in a manner the foul, of every public office and
employment. Hence it was that Ariftides, though in
low circumilances, and of mean extradfion, obtained
the glorious furname of the Jujl; a title, fays Plu¬
tarch, truly royal, or rather truly divine : but of which,
princes are feldom ambitious, becaufe generally igno¬
rant of its beauty and excellency. They choofe ra¬
ther to be called the conquerors of cities and the thun¬
derbolts of wTar, preferring the vain honour of pomp¬
ous titles, which convey no other idea than violence
and (laughter,, to the folid glory of thofe expreffive of
goodnefs and virtue. How much Ariftides deferved
the title given him, will appear in the following in-
ftances *, though it ought to be obferved, that he ac¬
quired it not by one or two particular aftions, but by
the whole tenor of his conduct.
Themiftocles having conceived the defign of fup-
planting the Lacedaemonians, and of taking the go¬
vernment of Greece out of their hands, in order to put
it into thofe of the Athenians, kept his eye and his
thoughts-
JUS [ 406 1 JUS
Jgfhcc. thouglits continually fixed upon that great project;
" and as he was not very nice or fcrupulous in the choice
of his meafures, whatever tended towards the accom-
plifhing of the end lie had in view he looked upon as
juft and lawful.
On a certain day then he declared in a full aflembly
of the people, that he had a very important defign to
propofe 5 but that he could not communicate it to the
people, becaufe its fuccefs required it Ihould be carried
on with the greateft fecrecy : he therefore defired they
would appoint a perfon to whom he might explain
himfelf upon the matter in queftion. Ariftides was
unanimoufty fixed upon by the whole aflembly, who
referred themfelves entirely to his opinion of the affair j
fo great a confidence had they both in his probity and
prudence. Themiftocles, therefore, having taken him
afide, told him that the defign he had conceived was
to burn the fleet belonging to the reft of the Grecian
ftates, which then lay in a neighbouring port; and by
this means Athens would certainly become miftrefs of
all Greece. Ariftides hereupon returned to the affem-
bly, and only declared to them that indeed nothing
could be more advantageous to the commonwealth than
Themiftocles’s projeft, but that at the fame time no¬
thing in the world could be more unjuft. All the
people unanimoully ordained that Themiftocles ftiould
entirely defift from his projeft.
There is not perhaps in all hiftory a fa& more wor¬
thy of admiration than this. It is not a company of
philofophers (to whom it cofts nothing to eftablifti fine
maxims and fublime notions of morality in the fchool)
who determine on this occafion that the confideration
of profit and advantage ought never to prevail in pre¬
ference to what is, honeft and juft j but the whole peo¬
ple wdio are highly interefted in the propofal made to
them, that are convinced it is of the greateft import¬
ance to the welfare of the ftate, and who, however, re-
je£t it with unanimous confent, and without a mo¬
ment’s hefitation ; and for this only reafon, that it is
contrary to juftice. How black and perfidious, on the
other hand, was the defign wdiich Themiftocles pro-
pofed to them, of burning the fleet of their Grecian
confederates at a time of entire peace, folely to aggran¬
dize the power of the Athenians ! Had he a hundred
times the merit afcribed to him, this Angle action
would be fufficient to fully all his glory j for it is the
heart, that is to fay, integrity and probity, which con-
ftitutes and diftinguilhes true merit.
2. 1 he government of Greece having pafled from
Sparta to the Athenians, it was thought proper under
this new government to lodge in the ifle of Delos
the common treafure of Greece j to fix new regula¬
tions with regard to the public money ; and to lay
fuch a tax as might be regulated according to the re¬
venue of each city and ftate, in order that the ex-
pences being equally borne by the feveral individuals
who compofed the body of the allies, no one might
have reafon to murmur. The difficulty was to find a
perfon of fo honeft and incorrupt a mind, as to dif-
charge faithfully an employment of fo delicate and
dangerous a kind, the due adminiftration of which fo
nearly concerned the public welfare. All the allies
call their eyes on Anilides j accordingly they in veiled
him with full powers, and appointed him to levy a tax
on each of them, relying entirely on his wifdom and
juftice. The citizens had no caufe to repent their Juftice.
choice. He prefided over the treafury with the fideli- v""" v ■-
ty and difintereftednefs of a man who looks upon it as
a capital crime to embezzle the fmalleft portion of an¬
other’s poffeflions, w-ith the care and a£livity of a fa¬
ther of a family in the management of his own eftate
and with the caution and integrity of a perfon who
confiders the public money as facred. In fine, hfe fuc-
ceeded in what is equally difficult and extraordinary,
viz. to acquire the love of all in an office in which he
who efcapes the public odium gains a great point.
Such is the glorious character which Seneca gives of a
perfon charged with an employment of almoft the fame
kind, and the nobleft eulogium that can be given to
fuch as adminifter public revenues. It is the exaft
picture of Ariftides. He difcovered fo much probity
and wifdom in the exercife of this office, that no man
complained ; and thole times were confidered ever af¬
ter as the golden age j that is, the period in which
Greece had attained the higheft pitch of virtue and
happinefs.
While he was treafurer-general of the republic, he
made it appear that his predeceffors in that office had
cheated the ftate of vaft fums of money, and among
the rtft Themiftocles in particular j for this great man,
with all his merit, was not irreproachable on that head;
for which reafon, when Ariftides came to pafs his ac¬
count, Themiftocles raifed a mighty fadlion againft
him, accufed him of having embezzled the public
treafure, and prevailed fo far as to have him condemned
and fined. But the principal inhabitants, and the
moft virtuous part of the citizens* rifing up againft fo
unjuft a fentence, not only the judgment was reverfed
and the fine remitted, but he was elefted treafurer
again for the year enfuing. He then feemed to repent
of his former adminiftration : and by fhowing himfelf
more tra&able and indulgent towards others, he found
out the fecret of pleafing all that plundered the com¬
monwealth $ for as he neither reproved them nor nar¬
rowly infpe£led their accounts, all #iefe plunderers,
grown fat with fpoil and rapine, now extolled Arifti¬
des to the Ikies. It would have been eafy for him, as
wfe perceive, to have enriched himfelf in a poll of that
nature, which feems, as it were, to invite a man to it
by the many favourable opportunities it lays in his
way ; efpeeially as he had to do with officers, who for
their part were intent upon nothing but robbing the
public, and would have been ready to conceal the
frauds of the treafurer their mailer, upon condi¬
tion he did them the fame favour. Thefe very offi¬
cers now made intereft with the people to have him
continued a third year in the fame employment: but
when the time of ele£lion was come, juft as they were
on the point of ele&ing Ariftides unanimoufly, he
rofe up, and warmly reproved the Athenian people :
“ What (fays he), when I managed your treafure with
all the fidelity and diligence an honeft man is ca¬
pable of, I met with the moft cruel treatment, and the
moft mortifying returns j and now that I have aban¬
doned it to the mercy of thefe robbers of the repub¬
lic, I am an admirable man and the bell of citizens! I
cannot help declaring to you, that I am more alhamed
of the honour you do me this day, than I was of the
condemnation you pafled againft me this time twelve-
months j and with grief I find that it is more glorious
with
JUS [ 407 ] JUS
Juftice. with us to be complaifant to knaves than to fave the
—v—^ treafures of the republic.” By this declaration he li-
lenced the public plunderers and gained the efteem of
all good men.
3. In the Univerfal Hiftory we meet with the fol¬
lowing remarkable inftance of a fcrupulous regard to
juftice in a Perlian king named Noufchirvan. Having
been out a hunting, and defirous of eating feme of the
venifon in the field, feveral of his attendants went to a
neighbouring village and took away a quantity of fait
to feafon it. The king fufpefting how they had a&ed,
ordered that they ftiould immediately go and pay for
it. Then turning to his attendants, he faid, “ This is
a fmall matter in itfelf, but a great one as it regards me:
for a king ought ever to be juft, becaufe he is an exam¬
ple to his fubje&s $ and if he fwerves in trifles, they
will become diffolute. If I cannot make all my people
juft in the fmalleft things, I can atleaft fhow them it is
poftible to be fo.”
Thefe examples, to which many more might be
added, are highly pleafing to a fagacious and virtuous
mind j but the fenfual and brutal part of mankind,
who regard only the prefent moment, who fee no ob¬
jects but thofe which fall under the cognizance of the
corporeal eye, and eftimate the merit of every adtion
by the gain which it produces, have always confidered
juftice and utility as independent of each other. They
put utility in the balance againft honefty every day;
and never fail to incline the beam in favour of the for¬
mer, if the fuppofed advantage is thought to be con-
fiderable. They have no regard to juftice but as they
reckon to gain by it, or at leaft not to lofe 5 and are
always ready to defert it when it expofes them to any
danger or threatens them with any lofs. From this
difpofition of mind proceeds that avidity of wealth
and that habitual fraud which perpetually embroil ci¬
vil fociety: from this fatal fource arifes that deluge of
iniquity which has overflowed the w'orld; from this
preference of intereft to honefty proceed every unjuft
litigation and every adt of violence. And yet nothing
is more certain than that “ Whatever is unjuft muft,
upon the whole, be difadvantageous $” which might
be proved thus :
Nothing is advantageous or ufeful but that which
has a tendency to render us happy: the higheft advan¬
tage, or abfolute utility, is complete happinefs $ and
to this happinefs, whatever is advantageous or ufeful
is relative as to an ultimate end } and nothing that is
not thus relative to happinefs can properly be faid to
be advantageous or ufeful. But whatever is unjuft, is fo
far from tending to promote, that it deftroys our hap¬
pinefs j for whatever is unjuft is contrary to the Divine
will: but it is not poflible that we (hould become hap¬
py by refilling that will 5 becaufe of this will our hap¬
pinefs is the immediate objedt. God is not a tyrant,
proud of uncontroulable power, who impofes capricious
laws only as tells of our obedience, and to make us
feel the weight of his yoke $ all his precepts are leflbns
which teach us how to be happy. But it is the will
of God that we Ihould be juft j from whence it fol¬
lows, that no true happinefs can be acquired by thofe
who are unjuft. An adlion, therefore, which is con¬
trary to the will of God, muft be inconfiftent with
our true intereft j and confequently, fo far from being
ufeful or expedient, it muft inevitably produce ruin
and mifery. Injuftice fometimes meets with the p»- Juftice.
nilhment it deferves in this world $ but if it Ihould
efcape here, it does not fellow that it will for ever
efcape. It proves, on the contrary, that there is ano¬
ther world in which the fates of mankind will be im¬
partially decided.
But to prevent the dreadful confufion which the
miftaken notion of intereft had introduced among man¬
kind, it became neceflary to have recourfe to the in¬
nate principles of juftice j to fufpend the balance and
difplay the fword, for the determination of differences
and the punilhment of guilt. This is the reafon and
origin of diftributive juftice, which became the necef-
fary appendage of fovereignty. Accordingly, in an¬
cient times, princes adminiftered juftice in perfon and
without delay $ but at length being embarralfed and
oppreffed by the multiplicity of bufinefs which in-
creafed with their dominions, or diverted from their
attention to civil government by the command of ar¬
mies, certain law s were eftabliftied with great folemnity
to adjuft and determine the differences which might arife
among the members of the fame community, and to re-
prefs the infolence of thofe who dared to violate the pu¬
blic peace, by poffelling them with the dread either of
corporeal punifhment or infamy. The execution of
thefe laws was put into the hands of fubordinate judges.
Thefe delegates of the fovereign power were called ma-
giftrates ; and thefe are the perfons by whom juftice is
at this time adminiftered, except in particular cafes, in
which the fovereign himfelf interferes. But by whom-
foever this kind of juftice is adminiftered, it ought to
be done fpeedily, impartially, and without expence to
the parties.
4. Ariftides being judge betw-een two private per¬
fons, one of them declared, that his adverfary had
greatly injured Ariftides. “ Relate rather, good friend
(faid he, interrupting him), what wrong he hath done
thee ; for it is thy caufe, not mine, that I now fit
judge of.”—Again : Being defired by Simonides, a
poet of Chios, who had a caufe to try before him, to
ftretch a point in his favour, he replied, “ As you
would not be a good poet if your lines ran Contrary to
the juft meafures and rules of your art; fo I fhould
neither be a good judge nor an honeft man if I decided
aught in oppofition to law and juftice.”
5. Artabarzanes, an officer of Artaxerxes king of
Perfia, begged his majefty toconfer a favour upon him y
which if complied with wrould be an a<ft of injuftice.
The king being informed that the promife of a con-
fiderable fum of money was the only motive that in¬
duced the officer to make fo unreaibnable a requeft,
ordered his treafurer to give him thirty thoufand da-
riufe.s, being a prefent of equal value with that which
he was to have received. Giving him the order for
the money, “ Here, take (fays the king) this token
of my friendlhip for you : a gift of this nature cannot
make me poor 5 but complying with your requeft
would make me poor indeed, for itwrouldmake me un-
juft.”
6. Cambyfes king of Perfia was remarkable for
the feverity of his government and his inexorable re^
gard to juftice. The prince had a particular favourite
whom he made a judge •, and this judge reckoned him¬
felf fo fecure in the credit he had with his mafter, that
without any more ado caufes were bought and fold in
JUS r 408 ] JUS
the courts of judicature as openly as provilions in the
market. But when Cambyfes was informed of thefe
proceedings, enraged to find his friendftiip fo ungrate¬
fully abul'ed, the honour of his government proftituted,
and the liberty and property of his iubjefts facrifieed to
the avarice of his wretched minion, he ordered him to
be feized and publicly degraded ; after which he com¬
manded his ikin to be ftripped over his ears, and the
feat of judgment to be covered w ith it as a warning to
others. At the fame time, to convince the world that
this feverity proceeded only from the love of juftice, he
permitted the fon to fucceed his father in the honours
and office of prime minifter.
7. When Charles duke of Burgundy, furnamed the
Boldy reigned over fpacious dominions, now fwallow-
ed up by the power of France, he heaped many fa¬
vours and honours upon Claudius Ilynfault, a Ger¬
man, who had ferved him in his wars againfi the in-
fults of bis neighbours. The prince himfelf was a
perfon of fingular humanity and juitice ; and being
prepoffeffed in favour of Ilynfault, upon the deceafe of
the governor of the chief town of Zealand gave him that
command. He was not long feated in that govern¬
ment before he cart his eyes upon Sapphira, a woman
of exquifite beauty, the wife of Paul Danvclt, a
wealthy merchant of the city under his proteftion
and government. Rynfault was a man of a warm
conftitution, and violent inclination to women. He
knew what it was to.enjoy the fatisfaftions which are
reaped from the poffeffion of beauty $ but was an ut¬
ter itranger to the decencies, honours, and delicacies,
that attend the paffion toward them in elegant minds.
He could with his tongue utter a paffion with which
his heart was wholly untouched. In ffiort, he was
one of thofe brutal minds which can be gratified with
the violation of innocence and beauty, without the
lead pity, paffion, or love for that with which they are
fo much delighted.
Rynfault being refolved to accompliffi his will on
the wife of Danvelt, left no arts untried to get into
a familiarity at her houfe 5 but (he knew his character
and difpofition too well not to ffiun all occafions that
might enfiiare her into his converfation. The gover¬
nor, defpairing of fuccefs by ordinary means, appre¬
hended and imprifoned her hulband, under pretence of
an information that he was guilty of a correfpondence
with the enemies of the duke to betray the town into
their poffeffion. This defign had its defired effe6i •,
and the wife of the unfortunate Danvelt, the day be¬
fore that which was appointed for his execution, prei
fented herfelf in the hall of the governor’s houfe, and
as he paffe^ through the apartment threw herfelf at
his feet, and holding his knees, befeeched his mercy.
Rynfault beheld her with a diffembled fatisfadlion 5
and affuming an air of thought and authority, he bid
her rife, and told her fire mull follow him to his clo-
fet ; and alking her whether fire knew the hand of the
letter he pulled out of his pocket, went from her,
leaving this admonition aloud : “ if you would fave
your hufband, you mull give me an account of all yoifc
know, without prevarication •, for every body is fa-
tisfied that he is too fond of you to be able to hide
from you the names of the reft of the confpirators,
or any other particulars whatfoever.” He w^ent to
-his clofet, and foon after the lady was fent for to an
audience. The fervant knew his diftance when mat- Jifftice,
ters of ftate were to be debated ; and the governor, y—
laying afide the air with which he had appeared in
public, began to be the lupplicant, and to rally an
afflitftion which it was in her power eafily to remove.
She eafily perceived his intention \ and, bathed in
tears, began to deprecate fo wicked a defign. Lull,
like ambition, takes all the faculties of the mind and
body into its fervice and fubjedlion. Her becoming
tears, her honeft anguiffi, the wringing of her hands,
and the many changes of her pofture and figure in the
vehemence of fpeaking, were but fo many attitudes ir-
which he beheld her beauty, and farther incentives of
his defire. All humanity was loft in that one appetite j
and he fignified to her in fo many plain terms, that he
w'as unhappy till he poffeffed her, and nothing lefs
ftiould be the price of her hulband’s life ; and fire
rauft, before the following noon, pronounce the death
or enlargement of Danvelt. After this notification,
when he faw Sapphira enough diftrafted to make the
fubjeft of their dileourfe to common eyes appear dif¬
ferent from what it was, he called his fervants to con¬
duct her to the gate. Loaded with iniupportable
affliftion, ffie immediately repairs to her hufhand, and
having fignified to the gaolers that fhe had a propofal
to make to her hufband from the governor, the was
left alone with him, revealed to him all that had
paffed, and reprefented the endlefs confiidl fire was in
between love to his perfon and fidelity to his bed. It
is eafy to imagine the ffiarp affliction this hontft pair
wrere in upon fueh an incident, in lives not ufed to
any but ordinary occurrences. The man was bridled
by fhame from fpeaking what his fear prompted upon
fo near an approach of death •, but let fall words that
fignified to her, he ftiould not think her polluted,
though fhe had not confeffed to him that the governor
had violated her perfon, fince he knew' her will bad no
part in the action. She parted from him with this
oblique permiffion, to fave a life he had not relolution
enough to refign for the fafety of his honour.
The next morning the unhappy Sapphira attended
the governor, and being led into a remote apartment,
fubmitted to his defires. Rynfault commended her
charms j claimed a familiarity after what had paffed
between them •, and wdth an air of gaiety, in the
language of a gallant, bid her return and take her
hufband out of pfifon : but, continued he, my fair
one mull not be offended that I have taken care he
fhould not be an interruption to our future affignations.
Thefe laft words foreboded what fhe found when fhe
came to the gaol, her hufband executed by the order e£
Rynfault.
It was remarkable, that the woman, who was full
of tears and lamentations during the whole courfe of
her affliflion, uttered neither figh nor complaint, but
flood fixed with grief at this confummation of her
misfortunes. She betook herfelf to her abode •, and,
after having in fblitude paid her devotion to Him who
is the avenger of innocence, fhe repaired privately to
court. Her perfon, and a certain grandeur of fur¬
row negligent of forms, gained h^r admittance to
the duke her fovereign. ^s foon as fhe came into the
prefence, fhe broke forth into the following words':
“ Behold, O mighty Charles, a wretch weary of life,
though it lias always been fpent with innocence and
virtue.
JUS C 4*9 ] JUS
Jiifttce.
\
Vfitue. It Is not in your power to redrefs my injuries,
but it is to avenge them j and if the proteftion of the
diitreffed, and the punifliment of oppreffors, is a tafk
worthy of a prince, I bring the duke of Burgundy
ample matter for doing honour to his own great name,
and of wiping infamy off mine.” When (he had fpo-
ken this, the delivered to the duke a paper reciting her
ftory. He read it with all the emotion that indigna¬
tion and pity could raife in a prince jealous of his ho¬
nour in the behaviour of his officers and the profperity
of his fubjefts.
Upon an appointed day R.ynfault was fent for to
court, and in the prefence of a few of the council
confronted by Sapphira. The prince alking, “ Do
you know that lady ?” Rynfault, as foon as he could
recover his furprife, told the duke he would marry
her, if his highnefs would pleafe to think that a repa¬
ration. The duke feemed contented w'ith this anfwer,
and Hood by during the immediate folemnization of
the-ceremony. At the cOnclufion of it he told Ryn¬
fault, “ Thus far you have done as conftrained by my
authority : I ffiall not be fatisfied of your kind ufage
of her, till you lign a gift of your whole eltate to
her after your deceafe.” To the performance of this
alfo the duke was a witnefs. When thefe two a6ts
were executed, the duke turning to the lady, told
her, “ It now remains with me to put you in quiet
poffeffion of what your hufband has fo bountifully be¬
llowed on you }” and ordered the immediate execution
of Rynfault.
8. One of the greateft of the Turkiffi princes was
Mamood or Mahmud the Gaznevide. His name is
Hill venerable in the eaft j and of the noble parts of
his character a regard to juftice was not the leaft. Of
this the following example is related by Mr Gibbon in
his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.—As he fat
in the divan, an unhappy fubjedl bowed before the
throne to accufe the infolence of a Turkifh foldier who
had driven him from his houfe and bed. “ Sufpend
your clamours (faid Mahmud) ; inform me of his next
vifit, and ourfelf in perfon will judge and puniffi the
offender.” The fultan followed his guide $ invefted
the, houfe with his guards 5 and extinguiffiing the
torches, pronounced the death of the criminal who
had been feized in the aft of rapine and adultery.
After the execution of h’s fentence,the lights were re¬
kindled, and Mahmud fell proftrate in prayer 5 then
rifing from the ground, he demanded fome homely
fare, which he devoured with the voraeioufnefs of hun¬
ger. The poor man, whofe injury he had avenged,
was unable to fupprefs his aftoniihment and curiofity 5
and the courteous monarch condefeended to explain
the motives of this lingular behaviour. “ I had reafon
to fufpeft that none except one of my fons could dare
to perpetrate fuch an outrage j and I extinguidied the
lights that my juftice might be blind and inexorable.
My prayer was a thankfgiving on the difcovery of the
offender j and fo painful was my anxiety, that I had
paffed three days wdthout food fmce the firft moment
of your complaint.” ,
9. In Bourgoanne’s Travels in Spain, vol. ii. p. 364.
the following anecdote is given of Peter III. of Caffile.
A canon of the cathedral of Seville, affefted in his
drefs, and particularly in his Ihoes, could not find a
workman to his liking. An unfortunate Ihoemaker,
Vol. XI. Part II.
to whom he applied after quitting many others, hav¬
ing brought him a pair of Ihoes riot made to pleafe v
his tafte, the canon became furious, and feizing one
ef the tools of the ffioemaker, gave him with it fo many
blows upon the head as laid him dead upon the floor.
The unhappy man left a widow, four daughters, and a
fon 13 years of age, the eldeft of the indigent family.
They made their complaint to the chapter: the ca¬
non was profecuted, and condemned not to appear in
the choir for a year. The young fhoemaker having
attained to man’s eftate, was fcarcely able to get a
livelihood j and overwhelmed with wretchednels, fat
down on the day of a proceffion at the door of the
cathedral of Seville in the moment the proceffion pafs-
ed by. Amongfi: the other canons he perceived the
murderer of his father. At the fight of this man filial
affeftion, rage, and defpair, fo far got the better of
his reafon, that he fell furioufly upon the prieft, and
ftabbed him to the heart. The young man wras feized^
convifted of the crime, and immediately condemned
to be quartered alive, Peter, whom we call the Cruel)
and whom the Spaniards, with more reafon, call the
Ever, of juflice, xvas then at Seville. The affair came
to his knowledge j and after learning the particulars,
he determined to be himfelf the judge of the young
ffioemaker. When he proceeded to give judgment,
he firfl: annulled the fentence juft pronounced by the
clergy : and after alking the young man what profef-
fion he was, “ I forbid you (faid he) to make ffioes for
one year to come.” v
10, In Gladwin’s Hiftory of Kindoftan, a lingular
faft is related of the emperor Jehangir, under whofe
father Akber the Mogul empire in Hindoftan firft ob¬
tained any regular form. Jehangir fucceeded him at
Agra on the 22d of Oftober, 16055 and the firft or¬
der which he iffued on his acceffion to the throne w as
for the conftruftion of the golden chain of jujlice. It
was made of pure gold, and meafured 30 yards, con¬
fiding of 60 links, weighing four maunds of Hindo¬
ftan (about 400 pounds avoirdupois). One end of this
chain was fufpended from the royal baftion of the for-
trefs of Agra, and the other faftened in the ground
near the fide of the river. The intention of this ex¬
traordinary invention was, that if the officers of tho
courts of law were partial in their decifions, or dilatory
in the adminiftration of juftice, the injured parties
might come themfelves to this chain 5 and making £t
noife by lhaking the links of it, give notice that they
were waiting to reprefent their grievances to his ma-
jefty.
Justice is alfo an appellation given to a perfon de¬
puted by the king to adminifter juftice to his fubjefts,
whofe authority arifes from his deputation, and not by
right of magiftracy.
Of thefe juftices there are various kinds in England,
viz.
Chief Justice ojthe King's Bench, is the capital
juftice of Great Britain, and is a lord by his office. His
bufinefs is chiefly to hear and determine all pleas of
the crown 5 that is, fuch as concern offences againll:
the crown, dignity, and peace of the king 5 as trea-
fons, felonies, &c. This officer was formerly not only
chief juftice, but alfo chief baron for the exchequer,
and mailer of the court of wards. He ufually fat in
the king’s palace, and there executed that office, for-
3 F merly
JUS [ 410 ] J u S'
Juftice. rnerij performed per cornitem palatu ; he determined
■’ in that place all tl>e dilferences happening between the
barons and other great men. He had the prerogative
of being viceregent of the kingdom whenever the king
went beyond fea, and was ufually chofen to that office
out of the prime nobility j but his power was redu¬
ced by King Richard L and King Edward I. His
office is now divided, and his title changed from capi-
tolis Jlnglice jvjiitiarius, to capitahs jujlitiarius ad pia-
cita coram rege tenenda, or capitalis jujiitiarius band
regu.
Chief JUSTICE cf the Common P/eas, he who with his
affiftants hears and determines all caufes at the common
law; that is to fay, all civil caufes between com¬
mon perfons, as well perfonal as real j and he is alfo a
lord by his office.
JUSTICE of the For eft, is a lord by his office, who
has power and authority to determine offences commit-
ed in the king’s forefts, &c. which are not to be de¬
termined by any other court of juftice. Of thefe there
are two ; whereof one has jurifdifffion over all the fo¬
refts on this fide Trent, and the other beyond it.
By many ancient records it appears to be a place
of great honour and authority, and is never beftowed
but on fome perfon of great diftinction. The court
where this juftice fits, is called \\\q jitjhce feat of the f-
ref, held once every three years, for hearing and de¬
termining all trefpaffes within the foreft, and all claim
of franchifes, liberties, and privileges, and all pleas and
caufes whatfoever therein ariiing. This court may fine
and imprifon for offences within the foreft, it being a
court of record j and therefore a writ of error lies from
hence to the court of King’s Bench. The laft court
of juftice feat of any note was that held in the reign
• of Charles I. before the earl of Holland. After the
Reftoration another was held for form’s fake before the
earl of Oxford*, but fince the revolution in 1688, the
foreft laws have fallen into total difufe, to the great
advantage of the fubjedt.
This is the only juftice who may appoint a deputy :
lie is alfo ctlWcA juftice in eyre of the joreft.
JUSTICES of dffvze, were fuch as were wont by fpe-
cial commiffion to be font into this or that county
to take affizes for the eafe of the fubjedts. For,
whereas thefe adtions pafs always by jury, fo many
men might not without great damage and charge be
brought up to London 5 and therefore juftices, for this
purpofe, by commiffions particularly authorized, were
lent down to them. Thefe continue to pafs the cir¬
cuit by two and two twice every year through all
England, except the four northern counties, where
they go only once, defpatching their feveral bufineffes
by feveral commiffions ; for they have one commiffion
to take affizes, another to deliver gaols, and another
pf oyer and terminer. In London and Middlefex a
court of general gaol-delivery is held eight times in
the year.
All the juftices of peace of any county wherein the
affizes are held, are bound by law to attend them, or
eife are liable to a fine 5 in order to return recogni¬
zances, &e. and to affift the judges in fuch matters as
lie within their knowledge and jurifdidtion, and in
which fome of them have been probably concerned,
by way of previous examination. See Assizes and
.1 UR Y.
JUSTICES in Eyre, (jufitiarii itinerantes, or trran. Juftice;
tesft, were thofe who were anciently lent with commif-
fion into divers counties to hear fuch caufes efpecially
as were termed pleas of the crown ; and that for the
eafe of the fubjedt, who muft elfe have been hurried to
the courts of Weftminfter, if the caufes were too high
for the county courts.
According to fome, thefe juftices were lent once in
feven years •, but others fuppofe that they Mere
fent oftener. Camden fays, they were inftituted in
the reign of King Henry 'll. A. D. 1184,5 but they
appear to be of an older date.
'ihey were fomewhat like our juftices of affize at
this day, though for authority and manner of proceed¬
ing very different.
JUSTICES of Gaol-Delivery, thofe commiffioned to
hear and determine eaufes appertaining to fuch as for
any offence are call into prifon. Juftices of gaol-de¬
livery are empowered by the common law to proceed
upon indidments of felony, trefpafs, &e. and to order
execution or reprieve 5 and they have power to dif-
charge fuch prifoners as upon their trials lhall be ac¬
quitted 5 alfo all fuch againft nhom, on proclamation
made, no evidence appears to indid 5 which juftices
ot oyer and terminer, &c. may not do. 2 Hawk. 24,
25. But thefe juftiees having nothing to do with any
perfen not in the cuftody of the prifon, except in fome
ipecial cafes 5 as if fome of the accomplices to a felo¬
ny may be in fuch prifon and fome of them out of
it, the juftices may receive an appeal againft thofe who
are out of the prifon as veil as thole who are in it 5.
which appeal, after the trial of luch prifoners, Ihail be
removed into B. R. and procefs iffue from them againft;
the reft. But if thofe out of prifon be omitted in the
appeal, they can never be put into any other 5 becaufe
there can be but one appeal for the felony. In this
way the gaols are cleared, and all offenders tried, pu-
nifhed, or delivered, in every year.—Their commillion
is turned over to the juftices of affize.
JUSTICES of Nift Prius, are now the fame with juf¬
tices oj ajjize. It is a common adjournment of a eaufe
in the common pleas to put it oft' to fueh a day, Niji
prius juficiariivenerint ad cas partes ad capiendo s afjizas:
from which claufe of adjournment they are cal led jufii-
ces of nift prius, as well as juftices of affize, on account
of writ and adions they have to deal in.
JUSTICES of Oyer and Terminer, M ere juftices depu¬
ted on fome fpecial occafions to hear and determine par¬
ticular caufes.—The commiffion of oyer and terminer
is direded to certain perfons, upon any infurredion,
heinous demeanour, or trefpafs committed, vho mult
firft inquire, by means of the grand jury or inqueft,
before they are empowered to hear and determine by
the help of the petit jury. It was formerly held that
no judge or other lawyer could ad in the commiffion
of oyer and terminer, or that of gaol-delivery, with¬
in the county M'here he v as borti or inhabited 5 but it
was thought proper by 12 Geo. II. cap. 27. to allow
any man to be a juftice of oyer and terminer and gene¬
ral gaol-delivery v.ithin any county of England.
JUSTICES of the Peace are perfons of intereft and
credit, appointed by the king’s commiffion to keep the
peace of the county M'here they live.
Of thefe fome for fpecial relpcd are made of the
quorum, fo as no bulinefs- of importance may be de-
1 patched
J U S [ Ati } JUS
fpatclied without the prefence or afloat of them or
one of them. Every jultice of peace has a fepa-
rate power, and his office is to call before him,
examine, ifiue warrants for apprehending, and commit
to prifon all thieves, murderers, wandering rogues j
thofe that hold confpiracies, riots, and almoft all delin¬
quents which may occaflon the breach of the peace
and quiet of the fubjeft ; to commit to prifon fuch as
cannot find bail, and to fee them brought forth in due
time to trial *, and bind over the profecutors to the ah
fizes. And if they negleft to certify examinations and
informations to the next gaol-delivery, or do not bind
over profecutors, they ffiould be fined. A jultiee may
commit a perfon that doth a felony in his own view
without a warrant •, but if on the information of ano¬
ther, he mult make a warrant under hand and feal for
that purpofe. If complaint and oath be made before
a juftice of goods ftolen, and the informer, fufpefting
that they are in a particular houfe, fhows the caufe of
his fufpicion, the jultice may grant a warrant to the
conftable, &c. to fearch in the place fufpedted, to
feize the goods and perfon in whofe cultody they are
found, and bring them before him or fome other juf¬
tice. The fearch on thefe warrants ought to be in
the day time, and doors may be broke open by con-
ftables to take the goods. Jultices of peace may make
and perfuade an agreement in petty quarrels and
breaches of the peace, where the king is not entitled to
a fine, though they may not compound offences or take
money for making agreements. A juftice hath a dif-
cretionary power of binding to the good behaviour ;
and may require a recognizance, with a great penalty of
one for his keeping of the peace, where the party bound
is a dangerous perfon, and likely to break the peace,
and do much mifchief 5 and for default of fureties he
may be committed to gaol. But a man giving fecu-
rity for keeping the peace in the king’s bench or chan¬
cery, may have a fuperfedeas to the juftices in the coun¬
ty not to take fecurity • and alfo by giving furety of
the peace to any other juftice. If one make an affault
upon a juftice of peace, he may apprehend the offend¬
er, and commit him to gaol till he finds fureties for
the peace ; and a juftice may record a forcible entry
on his own poffeffion j in other cafes he cannot judge
in'his own caufe. Contempts againft juftices are pu-
niflrable by indi&ment and fine at the feffions. Juf¬
tices ihall not be regularly puniffied for any thing done
by them in feffion as judges-, and if a juftice be tried
for any thin'y done in his office, he may plead the ge¬
neral iffue, and give the fpecial matter in evidence $
and if a verdift is given for nim, or if the plaintiff be
nonfuit, he ftiall have double cofts; and fuch adtion
ihali only be laid in the county where the offence is
committed, 7 Jac. 5. 21 Jac. cap. 12. But if they
are guilty of any mifdemeanour in office, informa¬
tion lies againft them in the king’s bench, where they
fhall be puniffied by fine and imprifonment \ and all
perfons who recover a verdict againft a juftice for any
wilful or malicious injury, are entitled to double
cofts. By 24 Geo. II. cap. 44. no writ ffiall be fued
out againft any juftice of peace, for any thing done
by him in the execution of his office, until notice in
writing ffiall be delivered to him one month before the
fuing out of the fame, containing the caufe of action,
See. within which month be may tender amends j and
if the tender be found fufficient, he (hall have a verdict, hi!t
&c. Nor ffiall any action be brought againft a juf-
tice for any thing done in the execution of his office,
unlefs commenced within fix months after the a£t corn*-
mitted.
A juftice is to exercife his authority only withinjhev
county where he is appointed by his commiffion, not.
in any city which is a county of itfelf, or town corporate,
having their proper juftices, &c. but in other town:,
and liberties he may. The power and office of juftices
terminates in fix months after the demife of the crown,
by an exprefs writ of difeharge under the great feal, by
writ of fuperfedeas, by a new commiffion, and by ac-
ceffion of the office of ffieriff or coroner.
The original of juftices of the peace is referred to
the fourth year of Edward III. They were firft called
confervators or wardens of the peace, elected by the
county upon a writ diredted to the ffieriff: but the
power of appointing them was transferred by ftatutes
from the people to the king -, and under this appella¬
tion appointed by 1 Edward III. cap. 16. Afterwards
the ftatute 34 Edw* III. cap. 1. gave them the power
of trying felonies, and then they acquired the appella¬
tion of jujlice. They are appointed by the king’s
fpecial commiffion under the great feal, the form of
which was fettled by all the judges, A. D. 1590-, and
the king may appoint as many as he fliall think fit in
^very county in England and Wales, though they are
generally made at the diferetion of the lord chancellor,
by the king’s leave. At firft the number of juftices
was not above two or three in a county, 18 Edw. III.
cap* 2. Then it w as provided by 34 Edw. III. cap. r.
that one lord, and three or four of the moft worthy
men in the county, with fome learned in the law, ffiould
be made juftices in every county. The number was
afterwards reftrained firft to fix and then to eight, in
every county, by I 2 Ric. II. cap. 10. and 14 Ric. II.
cap. 11. But their number has greatly increafed fince
their firft inftitution* As to their qualifications, the
ftatutes juft cited direct them to be of the belt repu¬
tation and moft; worthy men in the county ; and the
ftatute 13 Ric. II. cap. 7. orders them to be of the
moft fuffieient. knights, efquires, and gentlemen of the
law; and by the 2 Hen. V. flat. I* cap. 4. and flat. 2.
cap. 1. they muft be reftdent in their feveral coun¬
ties. And by 18 Hen. VI. cap. it. no juftice was to
be put in commiffion, if he had not lands to the value
of 20I. per annum* It is now enacted by 5 Gv-o. II.
cap. ii* that every juftice ffiall have i~el per mum,
clear of all deduftions ; of which he mull . v* e oath
by 18 Geo. II. cap. 20. And if he a6is without fuch
qualification, he (hall forfeit look It is a Mb provided
by 5 Geo. II. that no pradtifing attorney, folicitor,
or proftor, ffiall be capable of adling as a juftice of the
peace*
Justices of the Peace within Liberties, are juftices
of the peace who have the fame authority in cities or 0-
ther corporate towns as the others have in counties ; and
their power is the fame; only that thefe have the affize
of ale and beer, wood, and vidtuals, &c. Juftices of
cities and corporations Eire not within the qualification
adl, 5 Geo. II. cap. 18.
Fountain of JUSTICE, one of the charadlers or attri¬
butes of the king. See Prerogative.
By the fountain of juftice the law does not mean the
' 3 F 2 author
t
JUS [41
luftlce. author or original, but only the difiribulor. Juftice is
“'■'V—""' not derived from the king as from his free gift ; but
he is the fteward of the public, to diipenfe it to whom
it is due. He is not the ipring, but the refervoir, from
whence right and equity are conduced, by a thoufand
channels, to every individual. The original power
of judicature, by the fundamental principles of fociety,
is lodged in the fociety at large : but as it would be
impracticable to render complete juftice to each indivi¬
dual, by the people in their collective capacity, there¬
fore every nation has committed that power to certain
feleCt magiftrates who with more eafe and expedition
can hear and determine complaints : and in England
this authority has immemorially been exercifed by the
king or his fubftitutes. Pie therefore has alone the
right of erefting courts of judicature : for though the
conftitution of the kingdom hath intrufted him with the
whole executive power of the laws, it is impoflible, as
well as improper, that he Ihould perfonally carry into
execution this great and extenfive truft: it is confe-
quently neceflary that courts fhould be ereCted, toaflift
him in executing this power ; and equally neceffary,
that, if ereCted, they Ihould be ere&ed by his authority.
And hence it is that all jurifdiftions of courts are either
mediately or immediately derived from the crown ;
their proceedings run generally in the king’s name,
they pafs under his feal, and are executed by his of¬
ficers.
It is probable, and almoft certain, that in very early
times, before our conftitution arrived at its full perfec¬
tion, our kings in perfon often heard and determined
caufes between party and party. But at prefent, by
the long and uniform ufage of many ages, our kings
have delegated their whole judicial power to the judges
of their feveral courts 5 which are the grand depofitory
of the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and have gain¬
ed a known and ftated jurifdiclion, regulated by cer¬
tain and eftablifhed rules, which the crown itfelf can¬
not now alter but by aft of parliament. And in order
to maintain both the dignity and independence of the
judges in the fuperior courts, it is enafted by the flat.
13 W. III. c. 2. that their commiflions fhall be made,
not, as formerly, durante beneplacito, but quamdiu
bene fe gefferint, and their falaries afcertained and efta-
blilhed} but that it may be lawful to remove them on
the addrefs of both houfes of parliament. And new,
by the noble improvements of that law in the ftatute of
2 Geo. III. c. 23. enafted at the earned recommenda¬
tion of the king himfelf from the throne, the judges are
continued in their offices during their good behaviour,
notwithftanding any demife of the crown (which was
formerly held immediately to vacate their feats), and
their full falaries are abfolutely fecured to them during
the continuance of their commiffions *, his majerty hav¬
ing been pleafed to declare, that he looked upon the
independence and uprightnefs of the judges, as elfential
to the impartial adminiftration of juftice •, as one of the
feeft fecurities of the rights and liberties of his fubjefts 5
and as moft conducive to the honour of the crown.”
In criminal proceedings or profecutions for offen¬
ces, it would ftill be a higher abfurdity, if the king
perfonally fat in judgment} becaufe, in regard to thefe,
he appears in another capacity, that of profecutor. All
offences are either againft the king’s peace, or his
crown and dignity j and are fo laid in every indift-
a
2. ] JUS
ment. hoV tHough in their confequences they gene- Juftrce.
rally feem (except in the cafe of treafon and a very few
others) to be rather offences againft the kingdom than
the king j yet, as the public, which is an inviiible bo¬
dy, has delegated all its power and rights, with regard
to the execution of the laAvs, to one vifible magiftrate,
all affronts to that power, and breaches of thofe rights
are immediately offences againft him, to whom they
are fo delegated by the public. He is therefore the
proper perfon to profecute for all public offences and
breaches of the peace, being the perlon injured in the
eye of the law. And this notion was carried fo far in
the old Gothic conftitution (wherein the king was
bound by his coronation oath to conferve the peace),
that in cafe of any forcible injury offered to the perfon
of a fellow fubjeft, the offender was accufed of a kind
of perjury, in having violated the king’s coronation
oath } dicebatur fregijfe juramentum regis ju r a turn. And
hence alfo arifes another branch of the prerogative, that
pardoning offences j for it is reafonable that he only
who is injured fhould have the power of forgiving. See
Pardon.
In this diftinft and feparate exiftenee of the judicial-
power in a peculiar body of men, nominated indeed,
but not removable at pleafure, by the crown, confifts
one main prelervative of the public liberty ; which can¬
not fubfift long in any ftate, unlefs- the adminiftration
of common juftice be in fome degree feparated both
from the legiflative and alfo fromihe executive power.
Were it joined with the legiflative, the life, liberty, and
property of the fubjeft would be in the hands of arbi¬
trary judges, whofe decifions would be then regulated
only by their own opinions, and not by any fundamen¬
tal principles of law, which, though legiflators may de¬
part from, yet judges are bound to obferve. Were it
joined with the executive, this union might foonbe an
overbalance for the legiflative. For which reafon, by
the ftatute of 16 Car. I. c. 10. which abolifhed the.
court of ftar-chamber, effeftual care is taken to remove
all judicial power out of the hands of the king’s privy-
council who, as then was evident from recent inftances,
might foon be inclined to pronounce that for law which
was moft agreeable to the prince or his officers. No¬
thing therefore is more to be avoided in a free confti¬
tution, than uniting the provinces of a judge and a rni-
nifter of ftate. And indeed, that the abiolute power,
claimed and exercifed in a neighbouring nation, is more
tolerable than that of the eaftern empires, is in a great
meafure owing to their having veiled the judicial power
in their parliaments ; a body feparate and diftinft from
both the legiflative and executive : and if ever that
nation recovers its former liberty, it will owe it to the '
efforts of thofe affemblies. In Turkey, where every
thing is centered in the fultan or his minifters, defpotic
power is in its meridian, and wears a more dreadful
afpeft.
A confequence of this prerogative is the legal ubi¬
quity of the king. His majefty, in the eye of the law,
is always prefent in all his courts, though he cannot
perfonally diftribute juftice. His judges are the mirror
by which the king’s image is reflefted. It is the regal
office, and not the royal perfon, that is always prefent
in court, always ready to undertake profecutions, or
pronounce judgment, for the benefit and proteftion of
the fubjeft. And from this ubiquity it follows, that
the
JUS
[ 413 ]
JUS
Juitin.
juflice the ^ing can never be nonfuit 5 for a non fait is the
defertion of the fuit or aftion by the non-appearanee
, ®f the plaintiff in court. For the fame reafon alfo in
the forms of legal proceedings, the king is not faid to
appear by his attorney, as other men do •, for he al¬
ways appears, in contemplation of law, in his own pro¬
per perfon.
From the fame original, of the king’s being the
fountain of juftice, we may alfo deduce the prerogative
of ifl'uing proclamations, which is veiled in the king
alone. See Proclamation.
Justice Seat. See Fobest Courts.
JUSTICIA, Malabar Nut , a genus of plants^
belonging to the diandria clafs } and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Ferfonata:. See
Botany Index.
JUSTICIAR, in the old Englilh laws, an officer
inftituted by William the Conqueror, as the chief of¬
ficer of Hate, who principally determined in all cafes,
civil and criminal. He was called in Latin Capitalis
jujiicianus totius Anglia:„ For Justiciar in Scotland,
fee Law Index.
JUSTICIARY, or Court of Justiciary, in
Scotland. See Law Index.
JUSTIFICATION, in Law, fignifies a maintain¬
ing or Ihowing a fufficient reafon in court why the de¬
fendant did what he is called to anfwer. Pleas in
juftification mull fet forth fome fpecial matter : .thu^
on being fued for a trefpals, a perfon may juftify it by
proving that the land is his own freehold } that he
entered a houfe, in order to apprehend a felon •, or by
virtue of a warrant to levy a forfeiture, or in order to
take a diftrefs j and in an affault, that he did it out of
neceffity.
Justification, in Theology, that adl of grace
which renders a man juft in the fight of God, and
worthy of eternal happinefs. See Ihlology.
Different feels of Chriftians hold very different opi¬
nions concerning the dodlrine of juftification •, fome
contending for juftincation by faith alone, and others
by good works.
JUSTIN, a celebrated hiftorian, lived, according
to the moft probable opinion, in the fecond century,
under the reign of Antoninus Pius. He wrote, in ele¬
gant Latin, an abridgement of the hiftory of Trogus
Pompeius •, comprehending the actions of almoft all
nations, from Ninus the founder of the Affyrian empire
to the emperor Auguftus. Hie original work, to the
regret of the learned, is loft : this abridgement, being
written in a polite and elegant ftyle, was probably the
reafon why that age negledled the original. The bell
editions of Juftin are,, ad uftim Delphmi in qto} and
cum notis variorum et Gronovh, in 8vo.
Justin, St, commonly called Jujhn Martyr, one of
the earlieft and moft learned writers of the eaftern
church, wras born at Neapolis, the ancient Sechem of
Paleftine. His father Prifcus, a Gentile Greek, brought
him up in his own religion, and had him educated in all
the Grecian learning. To complete his ftudies he tra¬
velled to Egypt, and followed the feft of Plato. But
one day walking by the fea fide wrapt in contemplation,
he was met by a grave perfon, of a venerable afpedl ;
who, falling into difeourfe with him, turned the conver-
fation by degrees from the excellence of Platonifm to
the fuperior perfection of Chriftianity j and xeafor.ed fo
Judin
well, as to raife in him an ardent curiofity to inquire
into the merits of that religion 5 in confequence of which iani-
inquiry he was converted about the year 132. On his . ^1
embracing that religion, he quitted neither the profef-
fion nor the habit of a philofopher j but a perfecution
breaking out under Antoninus, he compofed An Apology,
for the ChriJHans; and afterwards prefented another to
the emperor Marcus Aurelius, in which he vindicated
the innocence and holinefs of the Chrilhan religion a-
gainft Crefcens a. Cynic philofopher, and other calum¬
niators. He did honour to Chriftianity by his learning
and the purity of his manners 5 and fuffered martyrdom
in 167. Befides his two Apologies, there are ftill ex¬
tant his Dialogue with Trypho, a Jewj two treatifes ad-
dreffed to the Gentiles, and another on the unity of God,
Other w'orks are alfo aferibed to him. dhe belt editions
of St Juftin are thofe of Robert Stephens, in 1551 and
1371, in Greek and Latin j. that of Morel, in Greek
and Latin, in 1656; and that of Don Prudentius Ma-
randus, a learned Benedictine, in 1742* in folio.
JUSTINIAN I. fon of Juftin the elder,, was made
Csefar and Auguftus in 527, and foon after emperor.
He conquered the Perfians by Belifarius his general,
and exterminated the Vandals j regained Africa } fub-
dued the Goths in Italy j defeated the Moors j and re-
ftored the Roman empire to its primitive glory. See
(Hiftory of) CONSTANTINOPLE, No. 93—97 3 an^
Italy, No. 12, &c. ^ _
The empire being now in the full enjoyment of a
profound peace and tranquillity, Juftinian made the
beft ufe of it, by coliefling the immenfe variety and
number of the Roman laws into one body. To this
end he felefted ten of the moft able lawyers in the em¬
pire ; who, revifing the Gregorian, 1 heodofian, and
Hermogenian codes, compiled one body, called Codex
Juflinianus. This may be called the Jlatute law, as
confifting of the referipts of the emperors. But the
reduflion of the other part was a much more difficult
talk : it was made up of the. decifions of the judges
and other magiftrates, together with the authoritative
opinions of the moft; eminent lawyers, all which lay Mat¬
tered, without any order, in no lefs than 2000 volumes
and upwards. Thefe w^ere reduced to the number of
50 ; but ten years were fpent in. the reduflion.
The defign was completed in the year-553, and the
name of Digejls or Pandells given to it. Befides
thefe, for the ufe chiefiy of young ftudents in the law,
and to facilitate that ftudy, Juftinian ordered four books
of inftitutes to be drawn up, containing an abftraft or
abridgement of the text of all the lawsj and laftlyq
the laws of modern date, pofterior to that of the former,
were thrown into one volume in the year 541, called
the Novella, or New Code.
This emperor died in the year 565, aged 83, in the
39th of his reign, after having built a great number
of churches j particularly the famous Sanfla Sophia at'.
Conftantinople, which is efteemed a mafterpiece of ar-
chiteflure.
JUSTINIANI, St Laurence, the firft patriarch
of Venice, was born there of a noble family in 1381.
He died in 1485 •, he left feveral religious works, which
were printed together at Lyons in 1568, in one volume
folio, with his life prefixed by his nephew. He was
beatified by Clement VII. in 1 524, and he was canon¬
ized by Alexander VIII. in 1690.
Justiniani,
Jufliniani
II
Juvenal.
J u v r 414 ]
JuSTlNIAKl, Bernard, was born nt Venice in 1408* tafte of the
He obtained the fenators robe at the age of 19, ferved
_ the republic in feveral embaflies, and was elefted pro¬
curator of St Mark in 1474. He was a learned man,
and wrote the Hiftory of Venice, with fome other works
of confiderable merit; and died in 1498,
Justiniani, Augujlin, bishop of Nebbio, one of the
moft learned men of his time, was defcended from a
branch of the fame noble family w ith the two foregoing;
and wras born at Genoa in 1480. He affifted at the
fifth council of Lateran, where he oppofed fome articles
of the concordat between France and the court of
Rome. Francis I. of France made him his almoner :
and he was for five years regius profeffor of Hebrew at
Paris. He returned to Genoa in 1522, where he dif-
charged all the duties of a good prelate ; and learning
and piety flourilhed in his diocefe. He perifhed at fea
in his paffage from Genoa to Nebbio, in 1536. He
compofed feveral pieces j the moft confiderable of which
is Bfalterium llebrceum, Greecum, Arabicum, et Chal-
deum, cum tribus Latinis interpretationibus et glojjis.
This w'as the firft pfalter of the kind printed j and there
is alfo aferibed to the fame prelate a tranflation of
Maimonides’s More Nevochim.
JUSTNESS, the exa&nefs or regularity of any
thing.
Juftnefs is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of thought, lan¬
guage, and fentiments. The juftnefs of a thought
confifts in a certain precifion or accuracy, by which
every part of it is perfeftly true, and pertinent to the
fubjeft. Juftnefs of language confifts in ufing proper
and well chofen terms j in not faying either too much
or too little. M. de Mere, who has written on juft¬
nefs of mind, diftinguifhes two kinds of juftnefs 5 the
one arifing from tafte and genius, the other from good
fenfe or right reafon. There are no certain rules to be
laid down for the former, viz. to fhew the beauty and
exaftnefs in the turn or choice of a thought j the latter
confifts in the juft relations which things have to one
another.
JUTES, the ancient inhabitants of Jutland in Den¬
mark.
JUTLAND, a large peninfula, which makes the
principal part of the kingdom of Denmark. It is
bounded on the fouth-eaft by the duchy of Flolftein, and
is furrounded on the ether fides by the German ocean
and the Baltic fea. It is about 180 miles in length
from north to fouth, and 50 in breadth from eaft to
weft. The air is very cold but wholefome ; and the
foil is fertile in corn and paftures, which feed a great
number of beeves that are fent to Germany, Holland,
and elfewhere. This was anciently called the Cimbrian
Cherfonefus, and is fuppofed to be the country from
whence the Saxons came into England. It is divided
into turn parts, called North and South Jutland: the
latter is the duchy of Slefwick, and lies between North
Jutland and the duchy of Holftein ; and the duke of
that name is in poffeflion of part of it, whofe capital
town is Gottorp \ for which reafon the fovereign is
called the duke of Holflein Gottorp,
JUVENAL, Decius Junius, the celebrated Ro¬
man fatirift, was born about the beginning of the em¬
peror Claudius’s reign, at Aquiuum in Campania. His
father was probably a freed man, who being rich,
gave him a liberal education, and, agreeably "to' the
Juxon.
J U X
imes bred him up to eloquencey in which Juvcfial
he made a great progrefs, firft under Fronto the gram¬
marian, and. afterwards, as is generally conjectured,
under Quintilian ; after which he attended the bar,
and made a diftinguiftied figure there for many year's
by his eloquence. In the practice of this profefliop
he had improved his fortune and intereft at Rome be¬
fore he turned his thoughts to poetry, the very ftyla
of which, in his fatires, Ipeaks a long habit of decla¬
mation} redolent declaniatorem, fay the cri¬
tics. It is fard he was above 40 years of age when hq
recited his firft eflay to a fmall audience of his friends j
but being encouraged by their applaufe, he ventured a
greater puolication j which reaching the ears of Paris,
Domitian’s favourite at that time, though but a panto¬
mime player, whom our fatirift had feverely infulted,
that minion made his complaint to the emperor j who
fent him thereupon into baniftnuent, under pretence of
giving him the command of a cohort in the army,
which was quartered at Pentapolis, a city upon the
frontiers of Egypt and Libya.
After Domitian’s death, our fatirift returned to
Rome, fufhciently cautioned not only againft attack-
mg the characters of thofe in power, under arbitrary
princes, but againft all perfonal reflections upon the
great men then living j and therefore he thus wifely
concludes tire debate he is fuppofed to have maintain¬
ed for a while with a friend on this head, in the firft
fatire, which feetns to be the firft he wrote after his
baniftiment :
Ettperiar quid concedatur in illos
Quorum Elaminia tegitur cinis aique Latina.
u 1 will try what liberties I may be allowed with thofe
whofe alhes lie under the Flaminian and Latin ways,”
along each fide of which the Romans of the firft quality
ufed to be buried.—It is believed that he lived till the
reign of Adiian in 128. There are ftill extant 16 of
his fat ire.y, in which he difeovers great wit, ftrength,
and keenne-fs, in his language : but his ftyle is not per¬
fectly natural j and the obfeenities with which theft;
fatires are filled render the reading of them dange¬
rous to youth.
JUVENCUS, Caius Vecticus Aquilinus, one
of the firft of the Chriftian poets, was born of an illuf-
trious family in Spain. About the year 320 he put
the life of Jefus Chrift into Latin verfe, of which he
compofed four books. In this work he followed clofe-
ly the text of the evattgelifts : but his verfes are writ¬
ten in a bad tafte and in bad Latin.
JUVENTAS, in Mythology, the goddefs who pre-
fided over youth among the Romans. This goddefs
was long honoured in the Capitol, where Servius Tul¬
lius ereCted her flatue. Near the chapel of Minerva
there wras the altar of Juventas, and upon this altar a
picture of Proferpine. The Greeks called the god¬
defs of youth Hebe', but it has been generally fiip-
pofed that this was not the fame with the Roman Ju-
tyentas.
JUXON, Dr William, archbifhop of Canterbury,
was born at Chichefter in 1682. He was educated at
Merchant Taylors fchool, and from thence defied into
St John’s college, Oxford, of which he became prefi-
dent. King Charles I. made him biihop of London ;
and in 1635 promoted him to the poft of lord high
treafurer
Juxon
J U X [4
Jiixon. treafurer of England. The whole nation, and efpeci-
—r*— ally the nobility, were greatly offended at this high
office being given to a clergyman •, but he behaved fo
well in the adminiftration, as foon put a flop to all the
clamour raifed againft him. This place he held no
longer than the 17th of May 1641, when he prudently
refigned the ttaff to avoid the ftarm which then threat¬
ened the court and the clergy. In the following Fe¬
bruary an act paffed, depriving the bifnops of their
votes in parliament, and incapacitating them from any
temporal jurifdiftion. In thefe leading fteps, as well
as the total abolition of the epifeopal order which fol¬
lowed he vras involved with his brethren^ but neither
as a bifhop nor as treafurer was a tingle accufation
brought againft him in the long parliament. During
the civil wars he relided at his palace at Fulham,
where his meek, inoffenftve, and affable manners,
notwithftanding his remaining Heady in his loyalty
to the king, procured him the vifits of the principal
perfons of the oppofite party, and refpedl from all.
In 1648 he attended his majefty at the treaty in the
ifle of Wight j and by his particular defire, waited
upon him at Cotton-houfe Weftm'infter, the day af¬
ter the commencement of his trial j during which he
frequently vifited him in the office of a fpiritual fa¬
ther •, and his majefty declared he was the greateft
comfort to him in that afflidtive fituation. He like-
v.dfe attended his majefty on the fcaffold, where the
king, taking off his cloak and george, gave him the
latter : after the execution, our pious biffiop took care
of the bodyq which he accompanied to the royal cha¬
pel at Windfor, and flood ready with the common-
prayer book in his hands to perform the laft ceremony
for the king •, but was prevented by Colonel Which-
eot, governor-of the caftle. He continued in the quiet
poffeffion of Fulham palace till the enfuing year 1649,
when he was deprived, having been fpared longer
than any of his brethren. Fie then retired to his own
eftate in Gloucefterlhire, where he lived in privacy
till the Reftoration, when he wras prefented to the fee
is 1 . J Y N
of Canterbury j and in the little time he enjoyed it,
expended in buildings and reparations at Lambeth
palace and Croydon houfe near 15,000!. He died in u
1663; having bequeathed 7000I. to St John’s col¬
lege, and to other charitable ufes near 5000I. He
publifhed a lermon on Luke xviii. 31. and Some Con-
liderations upon the A61 of Uniformity.
JUXTAPOSITION, is ufed by philofophers to
denote that fpecies of growth which is performed by
the appofition of new matter to the furface or outfide
of old. In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to intus-,
fufeeption; wffiere the growth of a body is performed
by the reception of a juice within it diffufed through,
its canals.
IVY. See Hedera, Botany Index.
IXIA, a genus of plants belonging to the triandria
clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 6th
order, Enfatce. See Botany Index.
IXION, in fabulous hiftory, king of the Lapithe,
married Dia, the daughter of Deionius, to whom he re-
fufed to give the cuftomary nuptial prefents. Deionius
in revenge took from him his horfes: when Ixion, dii •
fembling his refentment, invited his father-in-law to a
feaft, and made him fall through a trap-door into a
burning furnace, in which he was immediately con-
fumed. Ixion being afterwards flung with remorfe for
his cruelty, ran mad-, on which Jupiter, in compaflion,
not only forgave him, but took him up into heaven,
where he had the impiety to endeavour to corrupt Juno,
Jupiter, to be the better affured of his guilt, formed a
cloud in the refemblance of the goddels, upon which
Ixion begat the centaurs : but boafting of his happi-
nefs, Jove hurled him down to Tartarus, where he lies
fixed on a wheel encompaffed wfith ferpents, which,
turns w ithout ceafing.
IXORA, a genus of plants belonging to the tetran-
dria clafs \ and in the natural method ranking under
the 47th order, Steliaice.
JYNX, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
pic*. See Ornithology Index.
KThe tenth letter, and feventh confonant of our
3 alphabet-, being formed by the voice, by a gut¬
tural expreffion of the breath through the mouth, to¬
gether with a depreflion of the lower jaw and opening
of the teeth.
Its found is much the fame with that of the hard f,
or qu: and it is ufed for the moft part only before e,
.% and /?, in the beginning of words j as ien, kill, know,
&c. It uftd formerly to be always joined with c at
the end of words, but is at prefent very properly omit¬
ted, at leaft in words derived from the Latin : thus,
for pub lick, mufick, &c. we Jay public,mu/w, &c. How¬
ever in monofyllables, it is ftill retained, zsjack, block,
mock, &c.
K is borrowed from the Greek kappa $ and was but
little ufed among the Latins : Prilcian looked on it as
a fuperlluous letter; and fays it was never to be ufed
except in words borrowed from the Greek. Dauf-
quius, after Salluft, obferves that it was unknown to
the ancient Romans. Indeed we feldom find it in any
Latin authors, excepting in the word haler.da-, where
it fometimes ftands in lieu of a c.—Carthage, however,
is frequently fpelt on medals with a A'j SALVIS AUG.
ET CAES. fee. Kart, and fometimes the letter K alone
flood for Carthage.—M. Berger has obferved, that a
capital K, on the reverfe of the medals of the emperors
of Conftantinople, fignified Konjiantinus; and on the
Greek medals he will have it to fignify KOIAH ETPI A,
“ Coelefyria.”
Quintilian tells us, that in his time feme people had
a
'K
Kabobi-
quas.
K A B [416
a rniftaken notion, that wherever the letter c and a oc¬
curred at the beginning of a word, k ought to be-ufed
inftead of the c. See C.
' Lipfius obferves, that K was a ftigma anciently
marked on the foreheads of criminals with a red-hot
]
K A J
iron.
The letter K has various fignifications in old char¬
ters and diplomas 5 for inifanee KR. Hood for c/10-
rus ; KR. C. for ear a civitas; KRM. for carmen; KR*
AM. N. for earns amicus nq/ier; KS. chaos; KT.
capita totifus, &c.
The French never ufe the letter k excepting in a
few terms of art and proper names borrowed from other
countries. Ablancourt, in his dialogue of the letters,
brings in k complaining, that he has been often in a
fair way to be banifhed out of the French alphabet,
and confined to the countries of the north.
K is alfo a numeral letter, fignifying 250, according
to the verfe,
K quoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebil.
When it had a ftroke .at top, K, it Hood for 2 50,000,
K on the French coinage denotes money coined at
Bourdeaux.
KAARTi\, a kingdom in Africa, through which
Mr Park paffed from the Gambia to the Niger. Ac¬
cording to him the country confilts of fandy plains and
rocky hills, the level part of it being the moft exten-
five. It is inhabited by Negroes, many of whom retain
all their ancient fuperftitions, although converted to the
religion of Mahomet. White men, he informs us, are
Grangers in the kingdom of Kaarta j and Mr Park’s
appearance had nearly the fame effett upon them w hich
ignorant people in our own country attribute to ghofts.
Mr Park was well received by the king at Kemmoo,
who at the fame time informed him with ingenuous
franknefs, that he could not protect him, being then
at war with the king of Bambarra, but he gave him a
guard to Jarra, the frontier town of the neighbouring
kingdom of Ludamar. From our author’s account of
this war, it feems to be highly impolitic to liberate the
negroes from flavery till civilization and Chriitianity be
introduced into Africa. Kemmoo, the metropolis of
this kingdom, lies in N. Lat. 14. 15. W. Long. 7. 20.
KAAT’s BA AN, a town of New York, on the
-weft bank of Hudfon’s river, feven miles fouth of
Kaat’s Kill.
KAAT’S-KILL, a townfhip of New York, on the
weft bank of Hudfon’s river ; five miles fouth of Hud-
fon city,^ and 125 north of New York. It contained
$645 citizens in 1795, of whom 345 were ele&ors and
305 Haves.
Kaat’s-kill Mountains, a majeftic ridge of
mountains in the vicinity of the above townfhip, which
are the firft part of the Alleghany mountains.
KABA. See Mecca.
KABOBIQUAS, a nation in the fouth of Africa,
who are reported never to have feen a white man till
the year 1785, when they were vifited by M. Vaillant.
On his approach they felt his hair, hands, feet, and
almoft every part of his body. His beard aftonifhed
them, and they fuppofed that his whole body was co¬
hered with hair. The children were greatly alarmed,
but prefents of fugarcandy foon reconciled them. The
chief fhowed him every mark of refpeft, whom he re
prefents as a majeftic figure, with a long mantle made Kabobf-
of.our jackal fkins, I he hair of the people is very T*139
fhort, curled, and ornamented with fmall copper but- Jf
tons. Although they go almoft naked, the females , KaJuag^
are remarkably chafte, and very referved. Their only
ornaments arfe glafs beads* M.* Vaillant aflures us that
he never faw a nation fo difinterefted, as they vied
with each other in generofity. Many of them gave
away gratuitoully, and'without receiving any thing in
return, part of their herds and flocks. They are alfo
of .a courageous and martial chara&er, making ufe of
poifoned arrows and lances with long points. They
are extremely obedient to their chief, whofe will is a
law. . They believe in a fupreme being who governs
all things, and who exifts far beyond the ftars. They
have no idea of a future exiftence, or of rewards and
punifhments, and have neither worfhip, facrifices, ce¬
remonies, nor priefts. Their country lies between Long.
16. 25. and 19. 25. eaft of Paris, and between 22°
and 250 S. Lat.
KAHESH, Kadesh-barnea, or En-mishpat, in
Ancient Geography, a city celebrated for feveral events.
At Kadefh, Miriam the After of Mofes died, (Numb*
XX.. 1.) Here it was that Mofes and Aaron, ftiowing
a diftruft in God’s power ivhen they fmote the rock at
the waters of ftrife, were condemned to die, without
the confolation of entering the promifed land (Numb*
xxvii.. 14.) The king of Kadelh was one of the prin¬
ces killed by Joftma (xii. 22.) This city was given
to the tribe of Judah, and was fituated about eight
leagues from Hebron to the fouth.
Mr Wells is of opinion, that this Kadefh which
■was fituated in the wildernefs of Zin, was a, differ¬
ent place from Kadefh-barnea in the wildernefs of
Paran.
KADMONzEI, or CaDMONvEi, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a people of Paleffine, faid to dwell at the
foot of Mount Hermon 5 which lies eaft:, and is the
reafon of the appellation, with refpeft to Libanus,
Phoenicia, and the northern parts of Palefline. Called
alfo Hevcci (Mofes.)
EiEMPbERIA, Zedoary, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the monandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 8th order, dcitamineeC.
See Botany Index.
KAJUAGA, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
fouth-eaft and fouth by Bambouk j on the weft by
Bondon and Foota Terra j and on the north by the
river Senegal. The air and climate are more pure
and healthy than at any of the fettlements towards the
coaft 5 the face of the country is pleafingly diverfified
with hills and valleys, and the windings of the river Se¬
negal make the feenery on its banks extremely beau¬
tiful. The inhabitants are called Serawoollies, who
have a jet black complexion, in which refpeft they are
not to be diftinguifhed from the Jaloffs. . The govern¬
ment is monarchical, and the regal authority, accord¬
ing to Mr Park, is fufficiently formidable. The people
are deemed tolerably fair and juft in their dealings, and
indefatigable in their exertions to acquire wealth.
Their language abounds with gutturals, and there¬
fore is not fo harmonious as that which is fpoken by the
Foulahs-, but it is worth a traveller’s while to obtain a
knowledge of it, as it is generally underftood in many
kingdoms of Africa, Joag is the frontier town, en¬
tering
K: A L [
Kajaaga terlng from Pifania, furrounded by a bigh wall, and is
K.a!en lar ^uPP°^e^ t0 contain 2000 inhabitants. It is fituated in
  N. Lat. 14. 25. W. Long. 9. 46.
KAINSI, the Hottentot name of a fpecies of ante¬
lope, denominated by the Dutch, on account of its agi¬
lity, k/'p-fpvinger. It is of a yellovvifh gray-colour, and
of the fize of a kid of a year old. See Capra, Mam¬
malia /Wer.
KALENDAR, a diftribution of time, accommo¬
dated to the ufes of life •, or a table or almanack, con¬
taining the order of days, weeks, months, feafts, &c.
happening throughout the year. See Time, Month,
Year, &c.
It is called ha/endar, from the word kalendce, an¬
ciently wrote in large charaflers at the head of each
month. See K A LENDS.
The days in kalendars were originally divided into
o&oades, or eights; but afterwards, in imitation of the
Jews, into hebdomaJes, or fevens; which eullom, Sca-
1'iger obferves, was not introduced among the Romans
till after the time of Theodofius.
Tin re are divers kalendars, according to the differ¬
ent forms of the year and dillributions of time efla-
blilhed in different countries. Hence the Roman, the
Jewiih, the Perfian, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c.
kalendars.
The ancient Roman kalendar is given by Ricciolus,
Struvius, Danet, and others j by which we fee the or¬
der and number of the Roman holidays and work days.
The three Chriftian kalendars are given by Wolfius
in his Elements of Chronology.
The Jewiih kalendar was fixed by Rabbi Hillel about
the year 360. from which time the days of their year
may be reduced to thofe of the Julian kalendar.
The Roman KALENhAR owed its origin to Romulus:
but it has undergone various reformations fince his
time. That legiflator diffributed time into feveral pe¬
riods, for the ufe of the people under his command :
but as he was much better verfed in matters of wTar
than of aftronomy, he only divided the year into ten
months, making it begin in the fpring, on the firft of
March •, imagining the fun made his courfe through all
the feafons in 304 days.
Romulus’s kalendar was reformed by Numa, who
added two months more, January and February j pla¬
cing them before March : fo that his year confilled of
339 days, and began on the firll of January. He chofe,
ho wever, in imitation of the Greeks, to make an in¬
tercalation of 43 days; which he divided into two parts;
intercalating a month of 22 day's at the end of each
two years ; and at the end of each two years more
another of 23 days ; which month, thus interpofed, he
called Marcedomus, or the intercalary February.
But thefe intercalations being ill obferved by the
pontiffs, to whom Numa committed the care of them,
eccafioned great diforders in the conftitution of the
year ; which Csefar, as fovereign pontiff, endeavour¬
ed to remedy. lo this end, he made choice of Sofi-
genes, a celebrated aftronomer of thofe times ; who
found, that the difpenfation of time in the kalendar
could never be lettled on any fure footing without hav-
ing regard to the annual courfe of the fun. Accord-
3''ng^) as the; fun’s yearly courfe is performed in 365
days fix hours, he reduced the year to the fame num¬
ber of days c the year of this corre&ion of the kalen-
Vol. XI. Part II.
417 ] K A L
dar was a year of confufion ; they being obliged^ in Kalendar."
order to fwallow up the 65 days that had been im-
prudently added, and which occafioned the confufionj
to add two months befides the Marcedonius, which
chanced to fall out that year ; fo that this year con*
filled of 15 months, or 445 days. This reformation
was made in the year of Rome 708, 42 or 43 years be¬
fore Chrift.
The Roman kalendar, called alfo Julian kalendar^
from its reformer Julius, is difpofed into quadriennial
periods; whereof the firlt three years, which he called
communes, confift of 363 days; and the fourth, bijfextile^
of 366 ; by reafon of the fix hours, w hich in four years
make a day or fomewhat lefs, for in 134 years an inter¬
calary day is to be retrenched. On this account it was,
that Rope Gregory XIII. with the advice of Clavius
and Ciaconius, appointed, that the hundredth year of
each century fliould have no biffextile, excepting in
each fourth century : that is, a fubtraftion is made of
three biffextile days in the fpace of four centuries ; by '
reafon of the 11 minutes wanting in the fix hours where¬
of the biflextile confifts.
The reformation of the kalendar, or the new fhjlc
as we call it, commenced on the 4th of 061ober 1 382,
when ten days were thrown out at once, fo many ha¬
ving been introduced into the computation fince the
time of the council of Nice in 325, by thedefeft of 11
minutes.
Julian Chrijlian KALENDAR, is that wherein the
days of the week are determined by the letters A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, by means of the folar cycle ; and the new
and full moons, efpecially the pafehal full moon, with
the feaft of Eaffer, and the other moveable feafts de¬
pending thereon, by means of golden numbers, rightly
difpofed through the Julian year. See Cycle, and
Golden Number.
In this kalendar, the vernal equinox is fuppofed to
be fixed to the 21ft day of March: and the cycle of 19
years, or the golden numbers, conftantly to indicate
the places of the new' and full moons; yet both are er¬
roneous. And hence arofe a very great irregularity in
the time of Eafter. To fhow this error the more ap¬
parently, let us apply it to'the year 1715. In this
year, then, the vernal equinox falls on the 10th of
March ; and therefore comes too early by 11 days. The
pafchal full moon falls on the 7th of April ; and there¬
fore too late, with regard to the cycle, by three days.
Eaffer, therefore, which fliould have been on the 10th
of April, weis that year on the 17th. The error here
lies only in the metemptofis, or poflpofition of the
moon, through the defeiff of the lunar cycle. It the 0
full moon had fallen on the 1 ith of March, Eafter would
have fallen on the 13th of March; and therefore the er¬
ror arifing from the anticipation of the equinox would
have exceedingly augmented that arifing from the
poftpofition. Thefe errors, in courfe of time, were fo
multiplied, that the kalendar no longer exhibited any
regular Eafter. Pope Gregory XIII. therefore, by the
advice of Aloyfius Lilius, in 1582, threw io days out
of the month of O&ober, to reftore the equinox to its
place, viz. the 2ift of March; and thus introduced the
form of the Gregorian year, with fuch a provifion as
that the equinox ftiould be conftantly kept to the 21ft
of March. The new moons and full moons, by advice
of the fame Lilius, were not to be indicated by golden
3 G numbers-’
K A L [ 41
Kalendar. numbers, but by epa&s. The kalendar, however, was
•—»v'" 1 ' ftiH retained in Britain without this correction: whence
there wras a difference of 11 days between our time and
that of our neighbours. But by *24 Geo. II. c. 23. the
Gregorian computation is eftablifhed here, and accord-
ly took place in 1752.
Gregorian KALENDAR, is that which, by means of
epacls, rightly difpofed through the feveral months,
determines the new7 and full moons, and the time of
Eafter, with the moveable feafts depending thereon, in
the Gregorian year.
The Gregorian kalendar, therefore, differs from the
Julian, both in the form of the year, and in that epa£ls
are fubftituted in lieu of golden numbers : for the ufe
and dilpohtion whereof, fee Epact.
Though the Gregorian kalendar be preferable to
the Julian, yet it is not without its defefts (perhaps
as Tycho Brahe and Caflini imagine, it is impoflible
ever to brin^ the thing to a perfect juftnefs). For, firit,
The Gregorian intercalation does not hinder, but that
the equinox fometimes fucceeds the 2ift of March as
far as the 23d; and fometimes anticipates it, falling on
the 19th j and the full moon, which falls on the 20th of
March, is fometimes the pafchal 5 yet not fo account¬
ed by the Gregorians. On the other hand, the Gre-
gorians account the full moon of the 22d of March the
pafchal j which yet falling before the equinox, is not
pafchal. In the Hrff cafe, therefore, Eafter is celebrat¬
ed in an irregular month j in the latter, there are two
Eafters in the fame ecclefiaitical year. In like manner,
the cyclical computation being founded jon mean full
moons, which yet may precede or follow the true one
by fume hours, the pafchal full moon may fall on Sa¬
turday, which is yet referred by the cycle to Sunday :
whence, in the firft cafe, Eafter is celebrated eight
days later than it (hould be j in the other, it is cele¬
brated on the very day of the full moon, with the Jews
and Qmartodeciman hereties j contrary to the decree
of the council of Nice. Scaliger and Calvifius fhow
other faults in the Gregorian kalendar, arifing from
the negligence and inadvertency of the authors j yet
is this kalandar adhered to by the Romans throughout
Europe, &c. and uied wherever the Roman breviary is
ufed.
Reformed or CorreBed KALENDAR, is that which,
felling afide all apparatus of golden numbers, epabts,
and dominical letters, determines the equinox, with the
pafchal full moon, and the moveable feafts depending
ihereon, y aftronomical computation, according to the
Rudolphtne Tables.
% This kalendar was introduced among the Proteftant
ftates of Germany in the year 1 jco, when 11 days were
at once thrown out of the month of February j fo that
in 1700 February had but 18 days: by this means,
the correfted ftyle agrees with the Gregorian. This
alteration in the form of the year they admitted for a
time 5 in expiation that, the real quantity of the
tropical year being at length more accurately deter¬
mined by obfervation, the R raanifts would agree with
them on fome more convenient intercalation.
ConflruBion of a KALENDAR or Almanack. 1. Com¬
pute the fun’s and moon’s place for each day of the
year •, or take them from ephemerides. 2. Find the
dominical letter, and by means thereof diftribute the ka-
3 ] K A L
lendar into weeks. 3. Compute the time of £after, and Kalendar.
thence fix the other moveable feafts. 4. Add the im- —v—
moveable feafts, with the names of themartyrs. 5. To
every day add the fun’s and moon’s place, with the ri-
fing and fetting of each luminary ; the length of day
and night j the erepufcula, and the afpefls of the planets.
6. Add in the proper places the chief phafes of the
moon, and the fun’s entrance into the cardinal points j
i. e. the folftices and equinoxes j together with the
riling and the fetting, efpecially heliacal, of the planets
and chief fixed ftars. See Astronomy.
The duration of the crepufcula, or the end of the
evening and beginning of the morning twilight, to¬
gether with the fun’s rifing and fetting, and the length
of days, may be transferred from the kalendars of one
year into thofe of another ; the differences in the fe¬
veral years being too fmall to be of any confideration
in civil life.
Hence it appears, that the conftrudtion of a kalendar
has nothing in it of myftery or difficulty, if tables of
the heavenly motions be at hand.
Some divide kalendars or almanacks into public and
private, perfedl and imperfedl j others into Heathen
and Chriftian.
Public almanacks are thofe of a larger fize, ufually
hung up for common or family ufe 5 private are thofe
of a fmaller kind, to be carried about either in the hand,
inferibed on a ftaff, or in the pocket j perfect, thofe
which have the dominical letters as well as primes and
feafts inferibed on them j imperfedt, thofe which have
only the primes and immoveable feaffs. Till about the
fourth century, they all carry the marks of heathenifm
from that age to the feventh, they are generally divided
between heathenifm and Chriffianity.
Almanacks are of fomewbat different compofition,
fome containing more points, others fewer. The effen-
tial part is the kalendar of months and days, w’ith the
rifing and fetting of the fun, age of the moon, &c.
To thefe are added various parerga, altroncmical, aftro-
logical, meteorological, chronological, and even politi¬
cal, rural, medical, &c. as calculations and accounts
of eclipfes, foiar ingreffes, afpedls, and configurations of
the heavenly bodies, lunations, heliocentrical and geo-
centrical motions of the planets, prognoftics of the
weather, and predictions of other events, tables of the
planetary motions, the tides, terms, intereff, twilight,
equation, kings, &c.
Ge la lean, or Jellalcean KALENDAR, is a correction ■
of the Perfian kalendar, made by order of Sultan Gela-
leddan, in the 467 th year of the Hegira; of Chrift 1089.
Kalendar, is ufed for the catalogue or fafti an¬
ciently kept in each church of the faints both umver-
fal and thofe particularly honoured in each church ;
w ith their biftrops, martyrs, &c. Kalendars are not to
be confounded with martyrologies; for each church
had its peculiar kalendar, whereas the martyrologies
regarded the whole chui'ch in general, containing the
martyrs and confeffors of all the churches. From all
the feveral kalendars were formed one martyrology : fo
that martyrologies are pofterier to kalendars.
Kalendar, is alfo applied to divers other compo-
fitions refpefting the 12 months of the year.
In this fenfe, Spenfer has given the ftiepherd’s ka¬
lendar ; Evelyn and Miller the gardener’s kalendar, &c.
Kalendar,
K A L
KaleiwUr Kalendar, is alfo extended to an orderly table or
11 enumeration of perfons or things.
Kaiench. ^ Lord Bacon wiihes for a kalendar of doubts. A late
writer has given a kalendar of the perfons who may in¬
herit eftates in fee-fimple.
Kalendar, Kalendarium, originally denoted, among
the Romans, a book containing an account of moneys
at intereft, which became due on the kalends of Janu¬
ary, the ufoal time when the Roman ufurers let out
their money.
Kalendar Months, the folar months, as they ftand
in the kalendar, viz. January 31 days, &c.
AJlronomical KALENDAR, an inftrument engraved
upon copper plates, printed on paper, and palled on
board, with a brafs Aider which carries a hair, and (hows
by infpe&ion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcen-
iion, declination, tiling, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a
greater exaftnefs than our common globes will {how.
Kalendar of Prifoners. See Calendar.
KALENDAR Brothers, a fort of devout fraternities,
compofed of ecc'eliaftics as well as laymen j whofe chief
bufinefs vras to procure maffes to be faid, and alms dif-
tributed, for the fouls of fuch members as were de-
ceafed. They were alfo denominated kalend-brothers,
becaufe they ufually met on the kalends of each month,
though in fome places only once a quarter.
KALENDARIUM festum. The Chriftians re¬
tained much of th§ ceremony and wantonnefs of the
kalends of January, which for many ages w as held a
feaft, and celebrated by the clergy with great indecen¬
cies, under the names fejlum kalendarum, or hypodiaco-
norum, or Jiultorum, that is, “ the feaft of fools fome-
times alfo libertas decembrica. The people met malked
in the church j and in a ludicrous way proceeded to
the election of a mock pope, or bilhop, who exercifed
a jurifdiflion over them fuitable to the feftivity of the
occalion. Fathers, councils, and popes, long laboured
in vain to reftrain this licenfe, which prevailed at the
clofe of the 15th century.
KALENDERS. See Calenders.
KALENDS, or Calends, in the Roman chrono¬
logy, the firft day of every month.—The word is form¬
ed from xxXtti, I call or proclaim ; becaufe, before the
publication of the Roman fafti, it was one of the offices
of the pontifices to w’atch the appearance of the new
moon, and give notice thereof to the rex facrificulus ;
upon which a facrifice being offered, the pontiff fum-
moned the people together in the Capitol, and there
with a loud voice proclaimed the number of kalends,
or the day whereon the nones would be j which he did
by repeating this formula as often as there were days
of kalends, Calo Juno Novella. Whence the name
calendce was given thereto, from calo, calare. This is
the account given by Varro. Others derive the appel¬
lation hence, That the people being convened on this
day, the pontifex called or proclaimed the feveral
feafts or holidays in the month \ a cuftom which con-
ti ied no longer than the year of Rome 450, when
C. Flavius, the curule aedile, ordered the falti or ka¬
lendar to be fet up in public places, that everybody
might know the differences of times, and the return of
the feftivals.
The kalends were reckoned backwards, or in a re¬
trograde order. Thus, v. g. the firft of May being
the kalends of May j the laft or the 30th of April was
K A L
thzpridie kalendarutn, or fecond of the kalends of May ;
the 29th of April, the third of the kalends, or before
the kalends j and fo back to the 13th, where the ides
commence } which are likewife numbered invertedly
to the fifth, where the nones begin $ which are num¬
bered after the fame manner to the firft day of the
month, which is the kalends of April. See Ides, and
Non£s.
The rules of computation by kalends are included
in the following verfes ;
Prima dies men/is cujufque ejl diEfa kalendse :
Sex Maius nonas, 0Bober, Julius, et Mars ;
^uatuor at reliqui: habet idvr quihbet 0B0.
Inde dies reliquos omnes die efj'e kalendas j
^uas retro numerans dices a menfe fequente.
To find the day of the kalends anfwering to any day
of the month We are in $ fee how many days there are
yet remaining of the month, and to that number add
two : for example, fuppofe it the 22d day of April ;
it is then the 10th of the kalends of May. For April
contains 30 days : and 22 taken from 30, there remain
8 \ to which two being added, the fum is 10. The reafon
of adding two is, becaufe the laft day of the month is call¬
ed fecundo kalendas, the laft but one tertio kalendas, &c.
The Roman writers Jaemfelves are at a lofs for the
reafon of this abfurd ana whimfical manner of comput¬
ing the days of the month : yet it is ftill kept up in
the Roman chancery j and by fome authors, out of a
vain affeftation of learning, preferred to the common,
more natural, and eafy manner.
Kalends are alfo ufed in church hiftory to denote
conferences anciently held by the clergy of each dean-
ry, on the firft day of every month, concerning their
duty and conduft, efpecially in what related to the im-
pofition of penance.
Kalends of January, in Roman antiquity, was a
folemn feftival confecrated to Juno and Janus $ where¬
in the Romans offered vows and facrifices to thofe dei¬
ties, and exchanged prefents among themfelves as a
token of friendfhip.
It was only a melancholy day to debtors, who were
then obliged to pay their interefts, &c. Hence Ho¬
race calls it trifles kalendce; Lib. I. Serm. Sat. 3.
KALI, the fpecific name of a plant which yields the
fubftance alfo called kali or alkali. See Salsola.
KALISH, a province of Lower Poland, with the
title of a palatinate. It is bounded on the weft by the
palatinate of Bofnia, on the eaft by that of Syrad, on
the north by Regal Pruflia, and on the fouth by Silefia.
Kalifli is the capital town. >
Kalish, a town of Lower Poland, and capital of a
palatinate of the fame name, where the Jefuits had a
magnificent college. It is feated on the river Prof-
na, in a morafs, which renders it difficult of accefs,
E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 52. 20.
KALMIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the de-
candriaclafs j and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
KALMUCS, a tribe of Tartars, called alfo Eluths,
inhabiting the larger half of what the Europeans call
Weflern Tartary. Their territory extends from the
Cafpian fea, and the river Talk or Ural, in 72 degrees
of longitude from Ferro, to Mount Altay, in no de¬
grees, and from the 40th to the 5 2d degree of north
3 G 2 latitude )
[ 419 1
Kalends
11
K A L T - 420
whence it may be computed about 1930 miles
Kalmucs. latitude
v *n length from weft to eaft, and in breadth from north
to fouth about 650 miles where broadeft. It is bound¬
ed on the north by Ruflia and Siberia, from which it
is feparated by a chain of mountains ; on the eaft by
Mount Altay ; on the fouth by the countries of Karazm
and the two Bukharias, from which it is alfo feparated,
partly by a chain of mountains and partly by fome ri¬
vers. See Tartary.
Of the Kalmuck Tartars the following curious ac-
«ount is given by Profeffor Pallas.—They are in gene-
ral, fays he, of a middle fize, and it is even rare to fee
among them a perfon that is tall ; the women efpecial
ly are of low ftature, and have very agreeable features.
1 heir limbs are neatly turned, and very few have any
defe&s contra&ed in infancy. Their education being
left folely to nature, procures for them a well formed
body and found conftitution. The only deleft which
is common among them is their having the thighs and
legs iomewhat bent. A fat perfon is hardly ever to be
met with ; the richeft and moft diftinguilhed, though
they lead a life fufficiently indolent, and enjoy abun¬
dance of every thing they deftre, are never exctflively
.forpulent. Their fkin is pretty fair, efpeeially when
young : but it is the cuftom of the lower fort to allow
their male children to go quite naked both in the heat
of the fun and in the fmoky atmofphere of their felt
huts : the men too deep naked, covered only with their
drawers ; and from thefe circumftances they acquire
that yellowifh brown colour which charafterizes them.
The women, on the contrary, have a very delicate com¬
plexion } among thofe of a certain rank are found fome
with the moft beautiful faces, the whitenefs of w hich is
fet off by the fine black of their hair ; and in this as
well as. in their features they perftftly refemble the
figures in Chinefe paintings.
The phyfiognomy which diftinguilhes the Kalmucs,
is pretty generally known. Strangers are made to be¬
lieve that it is frightfully deformed } and though in¬
deed there are very ugly men to be found, yet in ge¬
neral their countenance has an opennefs in it that be-
fpeaks a mild, a frank, and focial difpofition. In
many it is of a roundifh fhape, and exceedingly agree¬
able ; among the women fome would be thought beau¬
ties even in thofe European cities where the tafte is
moft fcrupulous. The charafteriftic features of a Kal-
muc or Mongul countenance are the following : The
interior angle of the eye is placed obliquely downwards
towards the nofe, and is acute and fleftiy • the eyebrows
are black, narrow, and much arched j the nofe is of a
ftrufture quite Angular, being generally flat and broken
towards the forehead •, the cheek bone is high, the head
and face very round ; the eye is dark, the lips thick -md
flelhy, the chin fhort, and the teeth exceedingly white,
continuing fo to old age 5 the ears are of an enormous
fize, Handing out from the head. T hefe charafters are
more or lefs vifible in each individual ; but the perfon
that poffeffes them all in the higheft degree is confider-
ed as the moft beautifully formed.
Among all the Mongul nations, the men have much
lefs beard than in our European countries, and among
the Tartars it appears much later. The Kalmucs have
moft of it; and yet even with them the beard is very
fcanty and thin, and few have much hair on any other
past of the body..
1 K A L
People that lead a paftoral life enjoy the bodily fen- Kalmucs.
fes in the greateft perfeftion. The Kalmucs find the  v—'
fubtility of their fente of fmell very ufeful in their mili¬
tary expeditions, for by it they perceive at a diftance the
fmoke of a fire or the fmell of a camp ; there are many
of them who can tell by applying the nole to the hole
of a fox, or any other quadruped, if the animal be w ithin
or not. They hear at a great diftance the trampling of
horfes, the noife of any enemy, of a flock of flieep, or
even of ftrayed cattle j they have only to ftretch them-
felves on the ground, and to apply their ear clofe to
the turf. But nothing is more aftonifhing than the
acutenefs of fight in moft of the Kalmucs, and the ex¬
traordinary diftance at which they often perceive very
minute objefts, fuch as the duft raifed by cattle or horfes,
and this from places very little elevated 5 in immenfe
level deferts, though the particular inequalities of the
furface, and the vapours which in fine weather are feea
to undulate over the foil in great heats, confiderably in-
creafe the difficulty. They are alfo accuftomed to trace
the print of a foot in thefe deferts by the fight alone.
. Thefe people poffefs many good qualities, which
give them a great fuperiority over the w andering Tar¬
tars. A certain natural fagacity, a focial difpofition,
hofpitality, eagernefs to oblige, fidelity to their chiefs,
much curiofity, and a certain vivacity accompanied
with good humour, which hardly ever forfakes even
the moft wretched among them, form the fair fide of
their charafter. On the other hand, they are carelefs,
fuperficial, and want true courage 5 befides, they are
remarkable for credulity, diftruft, and a natural incli¬
nation authorized by cuftom for drunkennefs and de¬
bauchery, but efpecially for a great degree of cun¬
ning, which they too often praftife. The difpofition
to indolence is common and natural, efpecially among
the men, to all Afiatic nations, who lead a kind of
life exempt from fubjeftion and devoid of aftivity j
but this is lefs to be perceived among the Kalmucs,
on account of their natural vivacity, and does not pre¬
vent their endeavours to oblige. Thofe among them
who exercife any little trade, or who are reduced by
poverty to hire themfelves to the Ruffians either for
labour or for fiftiing, are very affiduous and indefati¬
gable. They fleep but little, going to reft late and
rifing with the km. To fleep through the day, unlefs
a perfon is drunk, is confidered by them as diffionour-
able. But their extreme dirtinefs can neither be dif-
guifed nor juftified, and proceeds much more from
their education, from the flovenlinefs attached to the
profeffion of a herdi'man, and from levity, than from
lazinefs : for the Kalmuc women are indefatigable in
whatever concerns domeftic matters : and it is for this
reafon, as well as on the fcore of fenfualily, that the
Kirguifians are eager to feize and carry them off' when¬
ever an opportunity prefents itfelf.
With regard to the intelleftual faculties of the Kal¬
mucs, notwithftanding their want of inllruftion and
information, they poilefs good natural parts, an exc el¬
lent memory, and a ftrong defire to learn. They ac¬
quire the Ruffian language with great facility, and
pronounce it well ; in which laft article they very much
furpafs the Chinei'e. It would be very eafv to civilize
them, if their petulance and manner of life did not ren¬
der it imprafticable.
Although the Kalmucs are generally of a fanguine
and-.
K A L [ 421 T K A L
itatmucs. and choleric temperament, they live more amicably to-
"■ * gether than one could expeft in a people that lead To
independent a life. They feldom come to blows even
over their cups, and their quarrels are hardly ever
bloody. A murder very rarely happens, though their
anger has fomething in it exceedingly fierce. It would
feem that the morality of their religion, though ex¬
ceedingly idolatrous, has been able to moderate their
natural difpofition in this refpeft •, for in confequence
of their dogmas, with regard to the tranfmigration of
fouls, every wanton murder either of men or beads is
thought a deadly fin.
The Kalmucs are exceedingly affable ; and of fo fo-
cial a difpofition, that it is rare for a traveller to per¬
ceive another, even at the diftance of feveral miles,
without going to falute him, and to inqure into the
object of his journey. When a troop of Kalmucs
perceive any perfon at a diftance, it is cuftomary for
them to detach one of their number to the next emi¬
nence, from whence he makes a fignal with his cap for
the perfon to draw near. If this fignal is not obeyed,
the perfon is confidered as an enemy or a robber, and
is often purfued as fuch. They enter willingly into
friendfhips: but thefe connexions are not quite difin-
terefted ; for to give and to receive prefents are with
them effential articles. A mere trifle, however, is luf-
ficient to induce them to do you all manner of fervice ;
and they are never ungrateful as far as they are able.
Adverfity cannot deprive them of courage nor alter
their good humour. A Kalmuc will never beg if he
Mere in the extremeft mifery, but rather endeavour to
acquire a fubfiftence by cheating : and when no other
vay remains, he will hire hirnfelf to lome rich iadi-
vidual of his nation, or to fome Ruffian, either as a
herdfman, a fifherman, or for any other fort of la¬
bour. Very few of the rich value themfelves much
upon their wealth : but thofe who do, (how no con¬
tempt for the poor of their own nation •, though the
meaner fort pay their court very obfequioufly to the
rich, who are always furrounded with a fwarm of idle
dependants.
Nothing can be more prudent than that exercife of
hofpitality praclifed by wandering nations : it is of the
greateft advantage to thofe among them who travel
aerofs their deferts ; and each individual who praffifes
it, may rely on reaping the benefit of it wherever
he goes. A Kalmuc provided with a horfe, with
arms and equipage, may ramble from one place to ano¬
ther for three months together,, without taking with
him either money or provifions. Wherever he comes
he finds either, diftant relations or friends, to whom he
is attached by the ties of hofpitality, from whom he
meets with the kindeft reception, and is entertained in
the belt manner their circumftances afford. Perhaps he
lodges in the firft unknown cottage he finds upon his
road and fcarce has he entered it, but his wants are
fupplied with the moft affectionate cordiality. Every
ftranger, of whatfoever nation, never fails to be well
received by a Kalmuc j and he may depend upon ha¬
ving his effeCts in the greateft fecurity the moment he
has put himfelf under the protection of his hoft : for to
rob a gueft is confidered by the Kalmucs as the moft
abominable of all crimes.
When the mafter of the houfe fits down to meat in
qojppany with others of inferior rank, he begins in-
3,
deed by ferving himfelf and his family, but whatever
remains is diftributed among the affiftants. When they
fmoke tobacco, the pipe circulates inceffantly from one
to another. When any one receives a prefent either
of meat or drink, he divides it faithfully with his com¬
panions, even though of inferior rank. But they are
much more niggardly of their other effeCts, and efpeci-
ally of their cattle, and do not willingly give thefe
away except when they hope to receive a fuitable re¬
turn : or if any relation has accidentally fuffered the
lofs of his flocks, he is fure to be moft willingly aflift^
ed. Perhaps too it may be related as an article of their
hofpitality, that they abandon their wives to their
friends with the greateft facility, and in general they
are very little inclined to jealoufy.
Their robberies are never committed upon their
equals, and even the greater part of the rapine exer-
cifed on other tribes is founded on hatred or national
quarrels ; neither do they willingly attempt this by
open force, but prefer the machinations of cunnings
which are fo natural to them. It muft alfo be con-
fefled, that it is only thofe that live with princes, and
in camps where thefe hold their courts,or their pritfts*
that are moft addifted to thefe pratftices ; while the
common people, fatisfied with the pleafures of the paf-
toral life, fpend their days in innocent fimplicity, and
never attack the property of another till forced by ne-
ceffity, or led by their fuperiors who fliow them the ex¬
ample.
The Kalmucs are very faithful to their lawful prince ^
they endure every fort of oppreflion, and yet are with
difficulty induced to revolt j but if they belong to a
prince who has not become fo by right of lucceflion,
they very eafily rebel. They honour old age. When
young men travel with fuch as are older than them¬
felves they take upon them the whole care of the cat¬
tle as well as of the feaft. They are exceedingly pru¬
dent in matters that relate to their fovereign or their
nation, or which are recommended to their dire&iorv
by the priefts, to whom they yield an unreferved obe¬
dience.
The moveable habitations of the Kalmucs are thofe
felt huts with a conical roof in ufe among all the
roaming Afiatics. The truly ingenious invention of
thefe tents was undoubtedly conceived in the eaftern
parts of Afia, and moft probably by the Mongul nap
tions. As they can be entirely taken to pieces and
folded in a fmall compafs, they are very ufeful, and
perfectly agree wdth the migratory life of thefe people,
who are ftill ignorant of the ufe of carriages. The
frame of thefe huts, and the felt they are covered with^
though made as light as poffible, yet are a iuffi-
cient load for a camel or two oxen. But the capacity
of thefe huts, their warmth in winter, their ftrength in
refilling tempefts and excluding rain, abundantly com-
penfate for this inconvenience. The wood endures
many years *, and though the felt begins to break into
holes in the fecond year, the common people, who do
not confider it as difgraceful to have them mended and
patched, make them ferve a good deal longer. The
huts are in general ufe from the prince down to the
meaneft Kalmuc, differing only in fize and in the em-
bellifhments within. In winter, they are warm even
when heated with the dried exertmrnts of their cattle,
to which they are often obliged to have recourfe, fox
want*.
KalmuoS,
K A L
want of oilier combuftibles, in many places of the de¬
fects which are deftitute of wood. In fumnaer they
remove the felt to enjoy the frefli air.
The mailer of the tent has his bed placed oppofite
to the door behind the fire place. The bedheads are
low and made of wood. The rich adorn their beds
wdth curtains, and fpread carpets or felt upon the
ground. When a Kalmuc poffeffes an idol, he places
it near the head of his bed, and fets before it feveral
fmall confecrated cups full of water, milk, or other
food. Before this fort of altar he fixes in the ground
the trunk of a tree, on which he places a large iron
bafin deftined to receive the libations of all the drink
he makes ufe of in a day. On feftivals the idol is de¬
corated, the lamps are lighted, and perfumes burnt be¬
fore it.
The riches of’the Kalmucs, and their whole means
of fubiiftence, depend on their Hocks, which many of
them reckon by hundreds, and even by thoufands. A
man is thought capable of living on his poffeffions when
he is mailer of ten cows with a bull, eight mares with
a llallion. The animals they have in greatell abundance
are horfes, horned cattle, and Iheep. Camels, which
require time and pains to rear, cannot multiply much
with them ; they are befides too delicate ; and it is
only the rich or the priefts who poffefs any of them.
Their horfes are but fmall, too weak for the draught,
and too wild : but they do not yield to any in fwift-
nefs, and fupport with eafe the weight of a man.
They may be made to gallop for feveral hours fuccef-
fively without injury j and when neceffity requires it,
they can pafs twice 24 hours without drinking. They
have a little hoof, but very hard ; and they may be
ufed at all times without being {hod. In this country
the horfes live and perpetuate themfelves without any
afiiftance from man. The Kalmucs callrate the greater
part of their male foals, and at the fame time flit their
nolfrils, that they may breathe more freely when they
run. The flallions are never feparated from the mares,
that there may be always plenty of milk. The flallions
are leaders of the herd, and often wander at a diflance
into the deferts at the head of their females, defending
them from the wolves with the greateft intrepidity.
The Kalmucs have the art of breaking a young horfe
without ufing a bridle. They feize him before he is
two years old by means of a noofe fixed to the end of
a long pole •, an inftrument they ufe in taking their
riding horfes which feed in the midft of the herd.
They put no faddle at firfl on the colt they mean to
break, but tie a flraft girth round his body ; by the
help of which the horfeman can keep himfelf firm.
When he is mounted, the horfe is abandoned to his
fury : they allow him to run and agitate himfelf as
much as he pleafes on the open plain till he is fatigued.
The horfeman is folicitous only to keep himfelf fall ;
and when the horfe begins to abate of his impetuofity,
he urges him again with the whip till his ftrength is al-
moll gone : he is then faddled and bridled, and made
to go for fome time at a moderate pace ; after which
he is entirely tamed.
The horned cattle of the Kalmucs are of a beautiful
lhape. I hey keep more bulls than are necelTary for
the cows, and employ a great number of them as bealts
of burden for carrying their houfes and their other
K A L
furniture from place to place. They think a bull
equal to 50 cows, h hefe and the mares give milk only
while they fuckle their calves or their foals, which are
accordingly kept clofe to the tents during the day, and
only fuffered to fuck freely during the night ^ a prac¬
tice which the Kalmucs pretend makes their cattle
llronger and more durable. They generally milk their
mares three or four times a-day, and fometimes every
two hours when the herbage is abundant. The cows
are milked but twice a-day.
The Kalmuc Iheep are of the fame fpecies with thofe
found in all Great Tartary, having large tails like a
bag, exceedingly fat, and which furnilh a fuet as foft
as butter. They have alfo large pendant ears, and
their head is much arched. Their wool is coarfe, and
the ewes feldom have horns. One ram is fuffieient for
a hundred ewes. Little ufe is made of the milk. The
wool is fit for nothing but to make felt for the tents.
A great many Iheep die during winter, and a greater
number Hill of the early lambs : the Ikins of which are
wrought into thofe fine furs fo much elleemed in Ruf-
fia and foreign parts.
Camels belong only to the rich 5 for they are very
dear, multiply very flowly, and are fubje£l to many
difeafes. The deferts of the Wolga, and almolt all
thofe of the fouthern parts of Great Tartary, furnifh
excellent pallure for thefe animals •, but they require
not only much attention in winter, but they mull be
continually under the eye of the herdfmen 5 for not-
w ithftanding the advantage of their llature, they are
of all animals lealt able to defend themfelves againll
the wolf. They are guarded with much care againil
the violence of the cold and the winds of winter j
neverthelefs many of them die of a confumption ac¬
companied with a diarrhoea, occafioned moll probably
by the moilture of their pafture and of the feafon. This
difeafe, for which no remedy has been found, makes
them languiflr for fix months or more. They are in
general fo delicate, that a flight wound or blow often
proves fatal to them. Befides, no animal is fo much
tormented with infedls ; and they often die in fummet:
of thofe they fwallow in eating the leaves of the oak
and of the birch. The meloeprofcarabrtus, which covers
all the plants in many of thofe places where they feed,
is generally fatal to them. In fpring, when they call
their hair, and which falls at once from every part of
their body, they are expofed to the bite of the fpider-
fcorpion, an animal very common in fouthern coun¬
tries. The wound inflifted by this infe£l on the Ikin
thus naked is fo venomous, that the camel dies of it in
lefs than eight days, fometimes in three. In winter,
and efpecially after rutting time, w'hich happens at the
end of March, the camel becomes lean and weak ; the
bunch upon their back grows flabby, and hangs down
upon the fide, nor does it recover its plumpnefs till
fummer.
Camels milk is thick, unftuous, and of a faltilh
tafte, efpecially when the animals frequent pailures
abounding with faline plants •, and this lalt property
makes the Kalmucs fond of it to tea. They make uie
of the hair for fluffing culhions, and for making ropes,
packthread, and felt. It may be wrought into the
moll beautiful camlets, or into the finelt and fofteft
cloths. The camels with tw'o bunches are a very un-
eafy
[ 422 ]
mucs.
K A L [ 423 1
eafy feal to the perfon who mounts them *, their trot is
K A M
1 fo heavy, and even their walk, fo rude, that he receives
the moft violent (hocks at every ftep.
When a Kalmuc horde intends to remove in feareh
of frelh pafture, which in fummer neceffarily happens
every four, fix, or eight days, people are in the firlt
place defpatched to reconnoitre the belt place for the
khan or prince, for the lama, and for the huts con-
taining the idols. Thefe begin the march, and are fol¬
lowed'by the whole troop, each choofing for himfelf
the place he thinks moil convenient. The camel that
is loaded with the moil precious furniture is decorated
with little bells, the reft march in a firing one behind
another, and the bulls with burdens are driven on be¬
fore. On fhefe days the women and girls drefs them-
felves in their beft clothes, and lay on abundance of
paint. They have the charge, together with the boys,
of leading the flocks and the beads of burden 5 and on
the road they beguile the tedioufnefs of the journey
with their fongs.
The Kalmucs are fupplied by their flocks with milk,
cheefe, butter, and flefh, which are the principal ar¬
ticles of their food. With regard to the laft, they are
fo little fqueamifh, that they not only eat the fleih of
their own difeafed cattle, but that of almoft every fort
of wild bead, and the poor will even feed upon carrion.
They eat, however, the roots and (talks of many plants ;
fuch as the bulbous-rooted chervil and dandelion, &c.
which they ufe both boiled and raw.
Their ordinary drink is the milk of mares or cows j
but the former is for feveral reafons preferred. 1 his,
when freih, has indeed a very difagreeable tafte of gar-
lie : but befides that it is much thinner than cow milk,
it takes as it grows four a very agreeable vinous flavour;
it yields neither cream nor curd, but furniihes a very
wholefome refreihing beverage, which fenfibly ine¬
briates when taken to excefs. They never make ufe
of new milk, and (till lefs of milk or of water that
have not been boiled. Their milk is boiled as foon as
it is taken from the animal 5 when it is cold it is pour¬
ed into a large leathern bag, in which there remains
as much of the old milk as is fufficient to turn the new
quantity four, for they never think of cleanfing thofe
bags •, and as the infide is lined with a cruft depoftted
by the cafeous part of the milk and other impurities,
it is eafy to imagine that a naufeous fmell muft exhale
from them. But this is precifely the circumftance in
which the fecret confifts of communicating to the milk
a vinous fermentation.
In fummer, and as often as the Kalmucs procure
much milk from their flecks, they never fail to intoxi¬
cate themfelves continually with the fpirituous liquor
which they know how to diftil from it. Mares milk is
the moft fpirituous 5 and the quantity meant to be di-
itilled remains twenty-four hours in fummer, and three
or four days in winter, in thofe corrupted bags we
mentioned, to prepare it for the operation. The cream
is left, but the butter which forms at top is taken
off and referved for other purpofes. Cows milk yields
one-thirtieth part, and mares milk one-fifteenth part,
of fpirit. This liquor is limpid and very watery, and
confequently does not take fire, but is capable of being
long kept in glafs bottles. The rich Kalmucs increafe
its ftrength by a fecond diftillation.
Thefe people are exceedingly fond of tea and tobac- Kalmucs
co. The former is fo dear, as it comes to them from KaiJ[fin
China by the way of Ruflia, that the poor people ^
fupply its place with various wild plants ; fuch as a
fpecies of liquorice, the feed of the (harp-leaved dock,
the roots ef wild angelica, and the feed of the Tarta¬
rian maple.
The Kalmucs are excellent horfemen. Their arms
are lances, bows, and arrows, poniards, and crooked
fabres, though the rich have fire arms. They wear,
when at war, coats of mail, which coft fifty horfes, and
their helmets are gilded at top. They are fond of fal¬
conry, and hunting of all forts is their principal amufe-
ment. Their pafiion for play, efpecially with thofe who
play cards, is carried to as great excefs among them as-
in any other nation.
The greater part of their time is fpent in diverfions -7
and however miserable their manner of life may feem to
us, they are perfeftly happy with it. Ihey cannot en¬
dure for any time the air of a clofe room; and think
our cuftom of living in houfes infupportable. The
greateft part of them, notwilhftanding of the apparent
unhealthinefs of their way of life, arrive at a vigorous
old age-, their difeafes are neither frequent nor danger¬
ous. Men of 80 or 100 years old are not uncommon j
and at that age they can dill very well endure the ex-
erci(e of riding. Simple food, the free air which they
con ft ant ly breathe, a hardy vigorous conftitution, con¬
tinual exercife without fevere labour, and a mind free
from care, are the natural caufes of their health and
longevity.
It is very remarkable, that a migratory people, whofe
manner of life feems fo congruous to the natural liberty
of mankind, (hould have been fubje&ed from time im¬
memorial to the unlimited authority of an abfolute fove-
reign. The Monguls of Afia afford the only inftanee
of it j for neither written records nor ancient tradition
have preferved the fmalleft trace of their ever having
enjoyed a (late of independence. On the contrary,
they acknowledge that they have at all times been fub-
je£l to khans and princes, whofe authority has been
tranfmitted to them by fucceflion, and is confidered as
a right perfectly eftabliftied, facred, and divine.
KAMAKURA, a famous ifland of japan, about
three miles in circumference, lying on the fouth coaft
of Niphon. It is here they confine their great men
when they have committed any fault. The coaft of
this ifland* is fo deep, that they are forced to be lifted
up by cranes.
KAMEEL, Kamel, or Camely a machine for lift¬
ing (hips. See Camel.
KAMINIECK, a very ftrong town of Poland, and
capital of Podolia, with two cattles and a bithop’s
fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1672, who gave
it back in 1690, after the treaty of Carlowitz. It is
feated on a craggy rock, in E. Long. 26. 45. N. Lat.
48. 58.
KAMSIN, the name of a hot foutherly wind com¬
mon in Egypt, of which we find the following deferip-
tion in Mr Volney’s Travels.—Thefe winds, fays he,^
are known in Egypt by the general name of winds of
$0 days ; not that they laft 50 days without intermif-
fion, but becaufe they prevail more frequently in the
50 days preceding and following the equinox. Tra¬
vellers
KatnSn,
&amtfehat
ka.
K A M [ 424
Vellers have mentioned them under the denomination
of poifonous winds, or, more correctly, hot winds of the
defer!. Such in faft is their quality ; and their heat
is fometimes fo exceffive, that it is difficult to form
any idea of its violence without having experienced itj
blit it may be compared to the heat of a large oven at
the moment of drawing out the bread. When thefe
winds begin to blow, the atmofphere affumes an alarm¬
ing afped. The iky, at other times fo clear in this
climate, becomes dark and heavy ; the fun lofes his
fplendour and appears of a violet colour 5 the air is
not cloudy, but gray and thick, and is in fa& filled
with an extremely fubtile dull, which penetrates every•»
where. This wind, always light and rapid, is not at
firlt remarkably hot* but it increafes in heat in proper*
tion as it continues. All animated bodies foon dif-
cover it by the change it produces in them. The
lungs, which a too rarefied air no longer expands, are
contrafled, and become painful. Refpiration is ffiort
and difficult j the fkin parched and dry, and the body
eonfumed by an internal heat. In vain is recourfe had
to large draughts of water j nothing can reftore perfpi-
I'ation. In vain is coolnefs fought for; all bodfes in
which it is ufual to find it deceive the hand that touches
them. Marble, iron, water, notwithftanding the fun
110 longer appears, are hot. The ftreets are deferted,
and the dead filence of night reigns everywhere. The
inhabitants of towns and villages ffiut themfelves up
in their houfes, and thofe of the defert in their tents
or in wells dug in the earth, where they wait the
termination of this deftru&ive heat. It ufually lafts
three days, but if it exceeds that time it becomes
infupportable. Woe to the traveller whom this wind
ffirprifes remote from {belter: he muft fuffer all its
horrible effe&s, which fometimes are mortal. The
danger is moft imminent when it blows in fqualls ; for
then the rapidity of the wind increafes the heat to fuch
a degree as to caufe hidden death. This death is a
real luffocation ; the lungs being empty are convulfed,
the circulation is difordered, and the whole mafs of
blood driven by the heart towards the head and breafl;
whence the haemorrhagy at the nofe and mouth which
happens after death. This wind is efpecially deflruc-
tive to perfons of a plethoric habit, and thofe in whom
fatigue has deflroyed the tone of the mufcles and the
Veflels. The corpfe remains a long time warm, fwells,
turns blue, and foon becomes putrid. Thefe accidents
are to be avoided by flopping the nofe and mouth
with handkerchiefs ; an efficacious method likewife is
that praftifed by the camels. On this occafion thefe
animals bury their nofes in the fand, and keep them
there till the fquall is over. Another quality of this
wind is its extreme aridity, which is fuch, that water
fprinkled on the floor evaporates in a few minutes.
By this extreme drynefs it withers and ftrips all the
plants ; and by exhaling too fuddenly the emanations
from animal bodies, crifps the Ikin, clofes the pores,
and caufes that feveriflr heat which is the conflant ef¬
fect of fupprefied perfpiration.
KAMTSCHATK A, KamschatKa, or Kamchat¬
ka ; a large peninfula in the north-eaftern part of A-
fia, lying between 510 and 62° of north latitude, and
between 1730 and 182° of eaft longitude from the ifle
of Ferro. It is bounded on the eaft and fouth by the
fea-of Kamtfchatka, on the weft by the feas of Ochotlk
RAM
and Penffiinlk, and on the north by the country of the Kanit/clteti
Koriacs, kat'
This peninfula was not difeovered by the Ruffians   
before the end of the laft century. It is probable,^1.*
however, that fome of that nation had vifited Kamtf- vifue'd by
chatka before the time above mentioned. For when d e Ruf/
Volodomir Atlaffoff entered upon the conqueft 0fllans*
this peninfula in 1697, ha found that the inhabitants
had already fome knowledge of the Ruffians. A com¬
mon tradition as yet prevails among them, that long
before the expedition of Atlaffoff, one Feodotoff and
his companions had refided among them, and had in¬
termarried with the natives; and they ftill ftiow the
place where the Ruffian habitations flood. None of
the Ruffians remained when Atlaffoff firft vifited
Kamtfchatka. They are faid to have been held in
great veneration, and almoft deified by the natives :
who at firft imagined that no human power could hurt
them, until they quarrelled among themfelves, and
the blood was feen to flow from the wounds which
they gave each other* and foon after, upon a fepara-
tion taking place, they were all killed by the natives.
—-Thefe Ruffians were thought to be the remains of
a (hip’s crew who had failed quite round the north-
eaftern promontory of Afia called Tfchuhvtjloi Nofs.
I he account we have of this voyage is as follows.—
In 1648, fevbn kotches or Veffels failed from the mouth
of the river Kovyma or Kolyma, lying in the Frozen
ocean in about 720 north latitude, and i73°or 174°
eaft longitude from Ferro, in order to penetrate into
the eaftern ocean. Four of thefe were never more heard
of; the remaining three were commanded by Simon
Deflmeff, Gerafim Ankudinoff, two chiefs of the Coff
facs, and Feodotoff Alexeef, head of the Promyflile-
nics, or wandering Ruffians, who occaiionally vifited
Siberia. Each Veffel was probably manned with
about 30 perfons. They met with no obftru&ions
from the ice ; but Ankudinoff’s veffel was wrecked"
on the promontory above mentioned, and the crew
were diftributed on board the two remaining veflels.
Thefe two foon after loft fight of each other, and
never afterw ards rejoined. Deflmeff Was driven about
by tempeftuous winds till Oflober, when he was ftiip-
wrecked on the northern part of Kamtfchatka. Here
he was informed by a woman of Yakutlk, that Feo¬
dotoff and Gerafim had died of the feurvy ; that part
of the crew had been (lain ; and that a few had
efcaped in fmall veflels, who had never afterwards
been heard of; and thefe were probably the people
who, as we have already mentioned, fettled among the
Kamtfchatkans.
As the inhabitants of this country were neither nu- Subdutd
merous nor warlike, it required no great force to fub-the^r ^
due them ; and in 1711 the whole peninfula was final¬
ly reduced under the dominion of the Ruffians.—For
fome years this acquifition was of very little confe-
quence to the crown, excepting the fmall tribute of
furs exa&ed from the inhabitants. The Ruffians in¬
deed occafionally hunted, in this peninfula, foxes,
wolves, ermines, fables, and other animals, whofe
(kins form an extenfive article of commerce among the
eaftern nations. But the fur trade carried on from
thence was very inconiiderable, until the feries o£
illands mentioned in the next article were difeovered ;
frnce which time the quantities of furs brought from
thefe
K A M [ 425 ] K A M
KaiVitfchat-tliefe inlands have greatly increafed the trade of Kamtf-
chatka, and rendered it an important part of the Ruf-
v fian commerce.
Country "1 he face °f the country throughout the peninfula
delcribed. is chiefly mountainous. It produces in fome parts
birch, poplars, elders, willows, underwood, and ber¬
ries of different forts. Greens and other vegetables
are raifed with great facility j fuch as white cabbage,
turnips, radifhes, beet root, carrots, and fome cucum¬
bers. Agriculture is in a very low ftate, owing
chiefly to the nature of the foil and the fevere hoar-
frofls : for though fome trials have been made with
refpedl to the cultivation of grain, and oats, barley,
and rye, have been fown, yet no crop has ever been
procured fuflicient in quantity or quality to anfvver the
trouble of raifing it. Hemp, however, has of late
years been cultivated with great fuccefs.—Every year
a veffel belonging to the crown fails from Ochotlk to
Kamtfchatka laden with fait, provifions, corn, and
Ruflian manufactures j and returns in June or July of
4 the following year with Ikins and furs.
Volcanoes. Many traces of volcanoes have been obferved in this
peninfula $ and there are fome mountains which are
in a burning ftate at prefent. The molt confiderable
of thefe is fituated near the middle of the peninfula.
In 1762, a great noife was heard iffuing from the in-
fide of that mountain, and flames of fire were feen to
burft from different parts. Thefe flames were imme¬
diately fucceeded by a large ftream of melted fnow
water, which flowed into the neighbouring valley, and
drowned two natives who were there on a hunting
party. The afhes and burning matters thrown from
the mountain were fpread over a furface of 300 verfts.
In 1767 was another difcharge, but lefs confiderable.
Every night flames of fire were obferved ftreaming
from the mountain j and confiderable damage was done
by the eruption which attended them. Since that year
no flames have been feen j but the mountain emits a
5 eonftant fmoke.
Population, Kamtfchatka is divided by the Ruflians into four di-
&c- ftri£ls $ and the government of the whole is dependent
upon, and fubjtft to, the infpeffion of the chancery of
Ochotfk. The whole Ruflian force Rationed in this
peninfula amounts to no more than 300 men. The
preient population of Kamtfchatka is very fmall, a-
mounting to fcarce 4000 fouls. 'Formerly the inhabit¬
ants were more numerous j but in 1768, the fmall-
pox carried off 5368 perfons. There are now only
about 700 males in the whole peninfula who are tribu¬
tary, and a few more than 100 in the neighbouring
iflands, called the Kurile IJles, who are fubjeft to Ruflia.
The fixed annual tribute confifts in 279 fables, 464 red
foxes, 50 fea otters with a dam, and 38 cub otters.
All furs exported from Kamtfchatka pay a duty of 10
per cent, to the crown j the tenth part of the cargoes
bought from the neighbouring iflands is alfo delivered
6 into the cuftoms.
Manners, Many of the natives of Kamtfchatka have no fixed
&-c. of the habitations, but wander from place to place with their
natives. herds of rein deer; others have fettled habitations, and
refide upon the banks of the rivers and the fhore of the
Penfchinfk fea, living upon fifh and fea animals, and
fuch herbs as grow upon the fhore : the former dwell
in huts covered with deer fkins ; the latter in places
dug out of the earth. The natives are divided into
Vol. XI. Part II.
three different peoples, namely, the Kamtfchatkans,K.amtfcha.t-
Koreki, and Kuriles. The Kamtfchatkans live upon ka’
the fouth fide of the promontory of Kamtfchatka : the
Koreki inhabit the northern parts on the coaft of the
Penfchinfka fea, and round the eaftern ocean almoft to
the river Anadir, whofe mouth lies in that ocean almoft
in 68° N. Lat. : the Kuriles inhabit the iflands in that
fea, reaching as far as thofe of Japan. The Kamtfchat¬
kans have this particular cuftom, that they endeavour
to give every thing a name in their language which
may exprefs the property of it; but if they, do not un-
derrtand the thing quite well themfelves, then they take
a name from fome foreign language, which perhaps has
no relation to the thing itfelf; as, for example, they
call a prieft bogbog, becaufe probably they hear him ufe
the w'ord bogbog, “ God;” bread they call bnghtatin
augsh, that is Ruflian root; and thus of feveral other
words to which their language is a ftranger.
It appears probable, that the Kamtfchatkans lived
formerly in Mungalia beyond the river Amur, and
made one people with the Mungals ; which is farther
confirmed by the following obfervations, fuch as the
Kamtfchatkan having feveral words common to the
Mungal Chinefe language, as their terminations in
ong, ing, oang, chin, cha, ching, kfii, kfung; it would
be ftill a greater proof, if we could fhow feveral words
and fentences the fame in both languages. The Kamtf¬
chatkans and Mungals alfo are both of a middling fta-
ture, are fwarthy, have black hair, a broad face, a
ftiarp nofe, with the eyes falling in, eyebrows fmall
and thin, a hanging belly, {lender legs and arms; they
are both remarkable for cowardice, boafting, and fla-
vifhnefs to people who ufe them hard, and for their ob-
ftinacy and contempt of thofe who treat them with
gentlenefs.
Although in outward appearance they referable the
other inhabitants of Siberia, yet the Kamtfchatkans dif¬
fer in this, that their faces are not fo long as the other
Siberians ; their cheeks ftand more out, their teeth are
thick, their mouth large, their ftature middling, and
their (boulders broad, particularly thofe people who in¬
habit the fea coaft.
Both men and women plait their hair in twro locks,
binding the ends with fmall ropes. When any hair
ftarts out, they few it with threads to make it lie dole;
by this means they have fuch a quantity of lice, that
they can fcrape them off by handfuls, and they are na-
fty enough even to eat them. Thofe that have not na¬
tural hair fufficient, wear falfe locks, fometimes as much
as weigh 10 pounds, which makes their head look like
a haycock. But many of the women already wear
their hair, and are nearly dreffed in the fame manner
as the Ruflians, whofe language is the moft prevalent.
It may be faid in praife of the Ruffians, that though
they have eftablilhed a defpotic government in this
rude climate, it is tempered by a mildnefs and equity
which prevent its inconveniences from being felt. The
taxes levied on the Kamtfchadales are fo trifling, that
they may be regarded only as a mark of gratitude to
the fovereign. La Peroufe confidered the people of this
peninfula as the fame with thofe of the bay of Caftries,
their mildnefs and probity being fimilar, and their per¬
fons very little different. 7
Their trade is almoft entirely confined to procure Trade,
the immediate neceffaries and conveniencies of life,
3 H They
K A M
jK.amtfchat» They'fell the Koreki fables, fox and white dog (kins,
, k dried muihrooms, and the like, in exchange for clothes
made of deer fkins and other hides. Their domeftic
S
Cannot
number
above
twenty.
trade confills in dogs, boats, diflies, troughs, nets,
hemp yarn, and provirtons: and this kind of barter is
carried on under a great ihow of friendftiip ; for when
one wants any thing that another has, he goes ireely to
vifi: him, and without any ceremony, makes known his
wants, al l hough perhaps he never had any acquaintance
with him before : the hort is obliged to behave accord¬
ing to the curtom of the country, and give his gueft
what he has occaiion fir j but he may aftei wares return
the viiit, and mull be received m the <ame manner.
They fill altnoll evety place in heaven and earth with
dirfe rent fniiits, and ofte: them faevirtets upon every oc-
cahon. Some carry little idols about them, or have
them placed in their dwel.ings.
It is very diverting to fee them attempt to reckon
above ten : for having reckoned the fingers of both
hands, they clafp them together, which lignifies ten ;
then they begin with their toes, and count to twenty j
after which they are quite confounded, and cry, Met-
chu ? that is. Where ihall I take more ? They reckon
ten months in the year, feme of which are longer and
(tune rtiorter; for they do not divide them by the
change^ of the moon, but by the order of particular
occurrences that happen in thofe regions. They com¬
monly divide our year into twm, fo that winter is one
year and fummer another : the fummer year begins
in May, and the winter in November. They do not
diilinguifti the days by any particular appellation, nor
form them into weeks or months, nor yet know how
many days are in the month or year. They mark
their epochs by fome remarkable thing or other ; fuch
as the arrival of the Ruffians, or the firrt expedition to
9 Kamtfchatka.
Their laws. If any one kills another, he is to be killed by the
relations of the perfon (kin. They burn the hands of
people who have been frequently caught in theft $ but
for the fidt offence the thief mull reftore what he
hath ftolen, and live alone in folitude, without expell¬
ing the affillance of others. They have no difputes
about their land or their huts, every one having land
and water more than fufficient for his wants. They
think themfelves the happiell people in the world, and
look upon the Ruffians who are fettled among them
with contempt. However, this notion begins to change;
for the old people who are confirmed in their culloms
drop off, and the young ones being converted to the
ChritUan religion, adopt the cuftoms of the Ruffians,
and defpife the barbarity and fuperftition of their an-
ceftors. The Greek religion has been eltablifhed among
them without perfecution or violence. The vicar of
Paratounka is the fon of a native by a Ruffian woman.
The people have inured themfelves to the extremes of
heat and cold, by going into vapour baths, coming out
covered with perfpiration, and then rolling themidves
in the fnow.
In every oftrog or large village, by order of her im¬
perial majefty, is appointed a chief, who is foie judge
in all cates except thole of Ijfe and death j and not only
thofe chiefs, but even the common people, have their
chapels for worrtiip. Schools are alfo erected in al-
moft every village, to which the Kamtfchatkans fend
tReir children with great pleafure *, by this means it is
426 1 K A M
to be hoped that barbarity w ill be in a {hort time rooted Kamtfchat.
out from amongrt them. ka.
Under the name of ojlrog is underftood every ha- ~
bitation confifting of one or more huts, all furrounded Manner of
by an earthen wall or pallifado.—The huts are built building
in the following manm r : they dig a hole in the earth u,eir huts,
about five feet deep, the breadth and length propor¬
tioned to ;he number of people di figned to live in it.
In the middle of this hole ihey plant four thick wood¬
en pillars 5 over theie thty lay balks, upon which
they form the roof or ceiling, leaving in the middle a
Iqua-e opining which ferves them for a window and
ch mni y j this they cover with grats and earth, f#
that the outward appearance is like a round hillock j
but within they are an oblong Iquare, with the fire
in one of the long ^ides of the Iquare : between
e pillars round the walls of thtir huts they make
th
benches, upon which each family lies feparattly ; but
on that lidi oppofite to the fire there are no benches,,
it bei g defigned for theii kitchen furniture, in which
they dr' Is their vitluals for themfelves and dogs. In
thole huts where '.here are no benches, there are balks
la.d upon the floor, and covered with mats. They
adorn the walls of their huts with mats made of grafs.
They enter their huts by ladders, commonly placed
near the fire hearth ; fo that, when they are heating
the. ir huts, the ftepa of the ladder become fo hot, and
the fmoke fo thick, that it is almoft impoflible for
a flranger to go up or down without being burnt,
and even tlifl. d to death j but the natives find no dif¬
ficulty in it ; und though they can only fix their toes-
on the rteps of the ladder, they mount like fquirrels j.
nor do the women hefitate to go through this fmoke
with their children upon their fhoulders, though there
is another opening through which the women are al¬
lowed to pafs j but if any man pretend to do the
fame, he would be laughed at. The Kamtfchatkans
live in thefe huts all the winter, after which they go
into others called baiagans ; thefe ferv-e them not only
to live in during the lummer, but alfo for magazines.
They are made in the following manner : Nine pillars,
about two fathoms long, or more, are fixed in the
ground, and bound together with balks laid over them,
wmich they cover with rods, and over all lay grats,
faftening fpars, and a round fliarp roof at top, w hich
they cover with bramble, and thatch with grafs. They
faften the lower ends of the fpars to the balks with
ropes and thongs, and have a door on each fide, one
chreclly oppofite to the other. They make ufe of the
fame kind of huts to keep their fifh, &c. till winter
conies on, when they can more eafily remove it ; and
this without any guard, only taking away the ladders.
If thefe buildings were not fo high, the wild hearts,
would undoubtedly plunder them ; for notwithlland-
ing all their precaution, the bears fornetimes climb up
and force their way into their magazines, efpecially in
the harvert, when the fifh and berries begin to grow
fcarce.
The fouthern Kamtfchatkans commonly build their
villages in thick woods and other places which are na¬
turally ftrong, not lets than 20 verlls from the fea j
and their iummer habitations are near the mouths of
the rivers; but thofe who live upon the* Penfchinfka
fea and the ealtern ocean build their villages very
near the fuore. They look upon that river near which
their
K A M E 427 ] K A M
g.arotfchat* their village is fituated as the inheritance of their
ka- tribe.
jn order to kindle fire, they ufe a board of dry
Method of wood with round holes in the fides of it, and a fraall
Kindling round flick j this they rub in a hole till it takes fire;
ire. and inftead of tinder they ule dry grafs beat foft.
Thefe inflruments are held in fuch efteem by the Kamtf-
chatkans, that they are never without them, and they
value them more than our fteels and Hints ; but they
are exceffively fond of iron inflruments, fuch as hatch¬
ets, knives, or needles *, nay, at the firfl arrival of the
Ruffians, a piece of broken iron was looked upon as a
great prefent ; and even now they receive it with
thankfulnefs, finding ufe for the lead fragment, either
to point their arrows, or make darts, which they do
by hammering it out cold between two Hones. As
fome of them delight in war, the Ruffian merchants are
forbid to fell them any warlike inflruments : but they
are ingenious enough to make fpears and arrows out of
the iron pots and kettles which they buy ; and they are
fo dexterous, when the eye of a needle breaks, as to
make a new eye, which they will repeat until nothing
x2 remains but the point.
Conftruc- The Kamtfchatkans make their boats of poplar
rion et ^ wrood •, but the Kuriles not having any wood of their
eirboavs. own, make ufe of what is thrown on fhore by the fea,
and is fuppofed to come from the coafts of Japan,
China, or America. The northern inhabitants of
Kamtfchatka, the fettled Koreki and Tfchukotfkoi,
for want of proper timber and plank, make their boats
of the fkins of fea animals. They few the pieces to¬
gether with whales beards, and caulk them with mofs
or nettles beat fmall. Thefe boats hold two perfons $
one of which fits in the prow, and the other in the
Hern. They pufh them againft the flream with poles,
which is attended with great trouble : when the cur¬
rent is flrong, they can fcarcely advance two feet in
ten minutes ; notwithflanding which, they will carry
thefe boats, fully loaded, fometimes twenty verfls, and
when the flream is not very flrong, even thirty or forty
Verfls. The larger boats carry thirty or forty pood ;
when the goods are not very heavy, they lay them upon
a float or bridge refling upon two boats joined toge¬
ther. They ufe this method in tranfporting their
provifions down the ftream, and alfo to and from the
iflands.
their Their clothes for the moft part are made of the
clothes. fkins of deer, dogs, feveral fea and land animals, and
even of the fkins of birds *, th»fe of different animals
being frequently joined in the fame garment. They
make the upper garment after twro fafhions j fome¬
times cutting the fkirts all of an equal length, and
fometimes leaving them long behind in form of a train,
with wide fleeves of a length to come dow n below the
, knee, and a hood or caul behind, which in bad wea¬
ther they put over their heads below their caps j the
opening above is only large enough to let their heads
pafs : they few the fkins of dogs feet round this open¬
ing, with which they cover their faces in cold ftormy
weather; and round their fkirts and fleeves they put a
border of white dog fkin ; upon their backs they few
the fmall fhreds of fkins of different colours. They
commonly wear two coats 5 the under coat with the
hair fide inwards, the other fide being dyed with alder j
and the upper with the hair outwards. For the upper
garment they choofe black, white, or fpeckled fkins, Kamtfchat-
the hair of which is moft efteemed for the beauty of its [ia"
colour. > _ < '   
Men and women without diflinftion ufe the above-
mentioned garments, their drefs only differing in their
under clothing and in the covering of their feet and
legs. The women have an under garment, which they
commonly wear at home m the houte, confifting of
breeches and a waifteoat fewed together. I he breeches
are wide like thofe of the Dutch fkippers, and tie be¬
low the knee j the waillcoat is wide above, and drawn
round with a firing. The fummer habits are made of
dreffed fkins without hair : their winter garment is
made of deer or flone-ram fkins with the hair on. The
undrefs or houlehold habit of the men is a girdle of
leather with a bag before, and likewife a leathern apron
to cover them behind j thefe girdles are fewed with hair
of different colours. The Kamtfchatkans ufed formerly
to go a hunting and fifhing during the fummer in this
drefs j but now this fafhion is changed, and they wear
linen fhirts, which they buy from the Ruffians.
The covering of their feet and legs is made of fkins
of different forts: in the fummer time, during the rains,
they wear the fkins of feals with the hair outwards : but
their moft common covering is the fkin of the legs of
the rein deer, and fometimes of the legs of other beads,
the fhaggieft they can find, to preferve them againd the
cold. But the bufkins which both the Coffacks and
Kamtfchatkans ufe in their fined drefs are made in the
following manner: the foie is of white feal fkin, the
upper part of fine white leather, the hind quarters of
white dog fkin j what comes round the legs is of dreffed
leather or dyed feal fkin j the upper parts are embroi¬
dered. Thefe bufkins are fo extraordinary, that if a
bachelor is obferved to wear them, he is immediately
concluded to be upon a fcheme of courtdrip.
They wear the fame fort of caps as the people of
Yakutfki. In fummer they have a fort of hats of birch
bark tied about their head. The Kuriles ufe in the
fummer time caps made of plaited grafs. The women’s
head drefs is the perukes that we formerly mentioned ;
and thefe were fo dear to them, that when they came
to be Chridians they were with difficulty prevailed
upon to quit this drefs for one more decent: however,
at prefent, round the Ruffian fettlements, all is entire¬
ly changed, the women wearing fhirts, ruffles, waid-
coats, caps, and ribbands j which change nobody now
complains of except the very old people. The women
do all their w ork in mittens j they formerly never waffl¬
ed their faces, but now they ufe both w hite and red
paint: for white paint they make ufe of a rotten wood;
and for red a fea plant, which they boil in feals fat,
and rubbing their cheeks with it, make them very red.
They drefs mod in the winter time, efpecially when
they either receive or pay vifits.
The common clothes for a Kamtfchatkan and his fa¬
mily will not cod him lefs than 100 rubles ; for the
coarfed worded dockings, which cod in Ruflia 20
kopeeks, cannot be bought here for lefs than a ruble ;
and all other things are fold in the fame proportion.
The Kuriles are more able to buy good clothes than
the Kamtfchatkans : for they can purchafe for one feu
beaver as much as the Kamtfchatkans can for twenty
foxes ; and one beaver cods the Kuriles no more trou¬
ble than five foxes do the Kamtfchatkans $ for he mud
3 H 2 l»<*
K A M r 428 ] K A M
Kamtfchat-be a good hunter who catches more than ten foxes in
. ^ the winter j and a Kurile thinks himfelf unlucky if he
doth not catch three beavers in the feafon j belides
which, great numbers are thrown upon the fliore by
14. ftorms.
Their diet. Kamtfchatkans divide their filh into fix parts j
the fides and tails are hung up to dry $ the back and
thinner part of the belly are prepared apart, and ge¬
nerally dried over the fire j the head is laid to four in
pits, and then they eat it like fait fifh, and efteem it
much, though the (link is fuch that a ftranger cannot
bear it ; the ribs and the flefli which remain upon them
they hang up and dry, and afterwards pound for ufe j
the. larger bones they likewife dry for food for their
dogs : in this manner all thefe different people prepare
the yokola, which is their principal food, or, one may
fay, houfehold bread j and they eat it for the molt part
dry.
I heir fecond favourite food is caviare, or the roes of
fifh, which they prepare three different ways. They
dry the roe whole in the air ; or take it out of the fkin
which envelopes it, and fpreading it upon a bed of
grafs, dry it before the fire ; or, laftly, make rolls of
it with the leaves of grafs, which they alfo dry. They
never take a journey or go to hunting without dry
caviare ; and if a Kamtfchatkan has a pound of this,
he can fubfift without any other provifion a great
while ; for every birch and alder tree furnifhes him
with bark, which with his dried caviare makes him
an agreeable meal j but they cannot eat either fepa-
rately, for the caviare flicks like glue to the teeth j
and it is almoft impoflible to fwallow the bark, chewed
ever fo long by itfelf. There is ftill a fourth method,
which both Kamtfchatkans and Koreki ufe in prepar¬
ing their caviare : the firft, having covered the bottom
of a pit with grafs, they throw the frefh caviare into it,
and leave it there to grow four : the Koreki tie theirs
in bags, and leave it to four j this is efteemed their
moft delicate difh.
There is a third fort of diet, called by the Kamtf-
ehatkans chuprihi, which is prepared in this manner :
in their huts, over the fire-place, they make a bridge
of flakes, upon which they lay a heap of fifh, which
remains there, until the hut becomes as warm as a bag¬
nio. If there is no great thicknefs of fifh, one fire ferves
to drefs it •, but fometimes they are obliged to make
two, three, or more fires. Fifh drefled in this manner
is half roafted half fmoked, but has a very agreeable
tafte, and may be reckoned the beft of all the Kamtf-
chatkan cookery : for the whole juice and fat is prepa¬
red with a gradual heat, and kept in by the fkin, from
which they may when done enough be eafily feparated j
and as foon as it is thus dreffed, they takeout the guts,
and fpread the body upon a mat to dry : this they af¬
terwards break fmall, and putting it into bags, carry
it along with them for provifion, eating it like the yo¬
kola.
The Kamtfchatkans have a difh which they efteem
very much, called huigul: it is fifh laid to grow four in
pits 5 and though the fmell of it is intolerable, yet the
Kamtfchatkans efteem it a perfume. This fifh fome¬
times rots fo much in the pits, that they cannot take it
out without ladles \ in which cafe indeed they ufe it for
feeding their dogs.
As for the flefk of land and the larger fea animals,
4
they boil it in their troughs with feveral different Karntfchat-
herbs and roots j the broth they drink out of ladles ka-
and bowls, and the meat they take out upon boards,
and eat in their hands. The whale and fea horfe fat
they alfo boil with roots.
There is a principal difh at all their feafts and en¬
tertainments, called felagat which they make by pound¬
ing all forts of different roots and berries, with the ad¬
dition of caviare, and whale and feals fat.
Before the conqueft, they feldom ufed any thing for
drink but plain water, unlefs when they made merry j
then they drank water which had flood fome time upon
mufhrooms. At prefent they drink fpirits as faft as the
Ruflians. After dinner they drink u'ater : and when
they go to bed at night, fet a veffel of water by them,
with the addition of fnow or ice to keep it cold, and
alw’ays drink it up before morning. In the winter
time, they amufe themfelves frequently by throwing
handfuls of fnow into their mouths: and the bride¬
grooms, who work with the fathers of their future brides,
find it their hardeft talk to provide fnow for the fa¬
mily in fummer time j for they muft bring it from the
higheft hills, be the wreather what it will, otherwife
they would never be forgiven.
The Kamtfchatkans commonly travel in fledges w f
drawn by dogs. The animals ufed for this purpofe travelling
differ very little from the common houfe dogs j they with dogs,
are of a middling fize, of various colours, though there
feem to be more white, black, and gray, than of any
other. In travelling, they make ufe of thofe that are
eaftrated, and generally yoke four to a fledge. They
drive and diredl their dogs with a crooked flick about
four feet long, which they fometimes adorn with dif¬
ferent coloured thongs j this is looked upon as a great
piece of finery. They drive their fledge fitting upon
their right fide, with their feet hanging down j for it
would be looked upon as a difgrace for a man to fit
down at the bottom of the fledge, or to make ufe of
any perfon to drive him, nobody doing this but the
women. It is very difficult to travel in thefe fledges j
for unlefs a man keeps the exaft balance, he is liable
every moment from the height and narrownefs of them -
to be overturned : in a rugged road this wmuld be very
dangerous, as the dogs never flop till they come to
fome houfe, or are entangled by fomething upon the
road ; efpecially in going down fteep hills, when they
run with all their force, and are fcarcely to be kept in j
for which reafon, in defcending any great declivity,
they unyoke all the dogs except one, and lead them
foftly down. They likewife walk up hills j for it is as
much as the dogs can do to drag up the fledge empty.
After a deep fnow, before it has been hardened by a
froft, there is no travelling with dogs till a road be
made, which is effe&ed by a man going before upon
fnow flioes, whom they call brodovfkika. The fnow
fhoes are made of two thin boards, feparated in the
middle, bound together at the ends, and with the fore
part bent a little upwards. The brodovfkika, having
one of thefe fhoes upon each foot, leaves the dogs and
fledge, and going on clears the road for fome way 5
then returning, leads forward the dogs and fledge fo far
as the yoad is made 5 a method which he muft continue
till he comes to fome dw elling houfe. This is very la¬
borious j and it happens fo often, that no driver ever
fets out without his fnow fhoes. When a ftorm of driven
fnow
K A M [ 429 1 K A M
Karotfchat-fnow furprifes them, they are obliged with all hafte to
ka^ feek the (belter of fome wood, and ftay there as long
"v as the tempeft lafts, which fometimes is a whole week.
If they are a large company, they dig a place for
themfelves under the fnow, and cover the entry with
wood or brambles. Sometimes they hide themfelves
in caves or holes of the earth, wrapping themfelves up
in their furs ; and when thus covered, they move or
turn themfelves with the greateft caution left they
fhould throw off the fnow, for under that they lie as
warm as in their common huts: they only require a
breathing place j but their clothes muft not be tight
or hard girt about them, for then the cold is unfuffer-
able. Another danger attending travellers is, that in
the fevereft froft feveral rivers are not quite frozen
over; and as the roads for the moft part lie clofe upon
the rivers, the banks being very fteep, fcarce a year
paffes without many being drowned. A difagreeable
circumftance alfo to thofe who travel in thefe parts,
is their fometimes being obliged to pafs through copfes,
where they run the rifk of having their eyes fcratched
out or their limbs broken ; for the dogs always run
moft violently in the worft roads, and, to free them¬
felves, very often overturn their driver. The beft tra¬
velling is in the month of March or April, when the
fnow is turned hard or frozen a little at top j however,
there is ftill this inconvenience attending it, that fome¬
times travellers are obliged to lodge two or three nights
in defert places; and it is difficult to prevail upon the
Kamtfchatkans to make a fire either for warming them¬
felves or dreffing vi&uals, as they and their dogs eat
dried fiffi, and find themfelves fo warm wrapped in
their furs, that they want no other heat ; nay, all the
people in this climate bear cold fo well, that they deep
in the open air as found as others in a warm bed, and
awake next morning perfectly refreftied and alert. This
feems to be fo natural to all here, that fome of them
have been feen to lie down with their backs unco¬
vered againft a fire, and notwithftanding the fire has
been burnt out long before morning, they continued to
deep on very comfortably, and without any inconve¬
nience.
The bay of Avatfcha is defcribed by M. Peroufe as
the fineft, moft convenient, and the fafeft that is to be
met with in any part of the world. The entrance is
narrow, the bottom is mud, and excellent holding
ground. Two vaft harbours, one on the eaftern, and
the other on the weftern fide, are capable of containing
all the ffiips of the French and Englilh navy. The
village of St Peter and St Paul is fituated on a tongue
of land, which forms a little port behind the village, in
which three or four veffels might be laid up for the
winter. It is found to be in N. Lat. 53. 1. E. Long.
156. 30. from Paris.
IJlands in the fea of KAMTSCHATKA. So many of
thefe have been difcovered by the Ruffians, that the ex-
iftence of almoft a continued chain of iflands between
the continents of Afia and America is now rendered ex¬
tremely probable. Many further difcoveries of great
importance to fcience, however, remain yet to be made.
The principal iflands already known are the Kurile ifles,
which ftretch fouth-weft towards the coafts of China or
Japan, and are almoft uninhabited ; thofe Called Beer-
ing's and Copper iflands, the Aleutian ifles, and Fox
iflands, or LyJJie OJlrova, lie almoft dire&ly eaft, ftretch-
ing nearly to 230° of longitude eaft from Ferro. TheKamtfchat-
firft project of making difcoveries in that tempeftuous , ka-
fea which lies between Kamtfchatka and America was v
fet on foot by Peter the Great of Ruffia. Captains
Beering and Tfchirikoff were employed in the under¬
taking ; the former of whom was fihipwrecked and died
on the ifland which is ftill called by his name. As this
lies at no great diftance from Kamtfchatka, the inhabi¬
tants of the latter foon ventured over to it, as the fea-
otters and other animals of that kind were accuftomed
to refort thither in great numbers. 16.
Mednoi Oftroff, or Copper ifland, which lies in full Copper
fight of Beering’s ifland, was next vifited. This ifland'^an<^e“
has its name from the great quantity of copper withtcn e *
which the north-eaft coaft of it abounds, the only fide
which is known to the Ruffians. It is waffied up by the
fea, and covers the ffiores in fuch abundance that many
ffiips might be loaded with it. Perhaps an India tra¬
der might make a profitable voyage from thence to
China, where this metal is in high demand. This cop¬
per is moftly in a metallic or malleable ftate, and many
pieces feem as if they had formerly been in fufion.
The ifland is not high j but has many hillocks, each
of which has the appearance of having formerly been
a volcano. With this kind of hillocks all the iflands
in the fea of Kamtfchatka abound, infomuch that not
a Angle ifland, though ever fo fmall, was found with¬
out one; and many of them confifted of nothing elfe.
In ffiort, all the chain of iflands above mentioned may
without any ftretch of imagination be confidered as
thrown up by fome late volcanoes. The apparent no¬
velty of every thing feems to juftify this conjedlure :
nor can any objeftion be derived from the vegetable
productions with which thefe iflands abound ; for the
fummer after the low er diftriift of Zutphen in Holland
was gained from the fea, it. was covered over with wild
muftard.—All thefe iflands are fubjeCl to frequent and.
violent earthquakes, and abound in fulphur. We
are not informed whether any lava is found upon
them ; but a party-coloured ftone as heavy as iron,
probably a lava, is mentioned as being found there.
From this account it is by no means improbable that
the copper above mentioned has been melted in fome
eruption.
Beering’s ifland is fituated eaft from Kamtfchatka, in Beering’s
the 185th degree of longitude j and Copper ifland about ifl tnct and
one degree more to the eaftward, and in the latitude of^e Aleu_
540 north. The former is from 70 to 80 verfts Iong,tian lfles*
and ftretches from north-weft to fouth-eaft in the fame
direftion as Copper ifland. The latter is about 50
verfts in length. About 300 verfts eaft by fouth of
Copper ifland lie the Aleutian ifles ; of which Attak is
the neareft : it is rather larger than Beering’s ifland,
and ftretches from weft to fouth-eaft. From thence
about 20 verfts eaftward is fituated Semitffii, extending
from weft to eaft ; and near its extremity is another
fmall ifland. To the fouth of the ftrait which feparates
the two latter iflands, and at the diftance of 40 verfts
from both of them, lies Shimiya in a fimilar pofition,
and not above 25 verfts in length. All thefe iflands
lie between 54 and 55 degrees of north latitude. Tg
The Fox iflands are fituated eaft-north-eaft from the Fox idands*
Aleutians: the neareft of thefe, Atchak, is about 800
verfts diftant; it lies in 56® north latitude, and extends
from weft-fouth-weft towards eaft-north-eaft. 1> greatly
refembles
K A M
Kamtfcbat
Tea,
*9
Manner*,
&c. of tbe
inhabitants.
refembles Copper Ifland, and is provided with a com
modious harbour on the north. From thence all the
other iflands of this chain ft retch in a direction towards
north-eaft by eaft. The next to Atchak is Amlak, and
about 15 verfts diftant; it is nearly of the fame fize,
and has a harbour on its fouth fide. Next follows Sau-
gagamak, at about the fame diftance, but fomewhat
{mailer; from thence is 50 verfts to Amuchta, a fmall
rocky iftandj and the latter to Yunakfan, another
foiall ifland. About 20 verfts from Yunakfan there is
a clufter of five fmall iflands, or rather mountains, Ki-
galgift, Kagamila, Tfigulac, Ulaga, and Tana-Unok ;
and which are therefore called by the Ruflians Pat
Soph', or the Five Mountains. Of thefe Tana-Unok
lies moft to the north-eaft, towards w'hich the weitern
point of Umnak advances within the diftance of 20
verfts.
Umnak ftretches from fouth-weft to north-eaft 5 it is
150 verfts in length, and has a very confiderable bay
on the weft end of the northern coaft, in which there
is a fmall ifland, or rock, called Adugak: and on the
fouth fide Shemalga, another rock. The weftern point
of Aghunalafhka, or Unalaftika, is feparated from
the eaft end of Umnak by a ftrait near 20 verfts in
breadth. The pofition of thefe two illands is fimi-
lar j but Aghunalafhka is much the largeft, and is
above 200 verfts long. It is divided towards the north-
eaft into three promontories, one of which runs out in
a wefterly direftion, forming one fide of a large bay
®n the north coaft of the iftand : the fecond ftretches
•ut north-eaft, ends in three points, and is conne&ed
with the ifland by a fmall neck of land. The third, or
moft foutherly one, is feparated from the laft mentioned
promontory by a deep bay. Near Unalaftika towards
the eaft lies another fmall ifland called Shir kin. About
20 verfts from the north-eaft promontory of Aghuna-
laftika lie four iflands : the firft, Akutan, is about half
as big as Umnak j a verft further is the fmall ifland A-
kun j a little beyond is Akunok ; and laftly, Kigalga,
which is the fmalleft of thefe four ; and ftretches with
Akun and Akunok almoft from north to fouth. Ki¬
galga is fituated about the 61ft degree of latitude.
About 100 verfts from thence lies an ifland called Uni¬
mak, upon which a Ruffian navigator (Captain Krenit-
-zin) wintered; and beyond it the inhabitants faid there
was a large traft of country called Alafika, of which
they did not know the boundaries.
The Fox iflands are in general very rocky, without
containing any remarkably high mountains : they are
deftitute of wood ; but abound in rivulets and lakes,
which are moftly without fifli. The winter is much
milder than in Siberia; the fnow feldom falls before the
beginning of January, and continues on the ground till
the end of March. There is a volcano in Amuchta,
and fulphur is produced on another ifland ; in feme’
others are fprings hot enough to boil provifions. Sul¬
phureous flames are alfo fometimes feen at night upon
the mountains of Unalaflika and Akutan.
1 he Fox iflands are tolerably populous in proportion
to their fize The inhabitants are entirely free, and
pay tribute to no one ; they are of a middle ftature,
anti In e, both in fumroer and winter, m holes dug in
the earth No figns of religion were found among
them. Several perfons indeed pafs for forcerers, pre¬
tending to know things paft and to come; and are
2
[ 430 1
K A M
accordingly held in high efteem, but w ithout receivingKamtfUiat.
any emolument. Filial duty and refpea towards the ka-
aged are not held in eftimation by thefe iflanders 
They are not, however, deficient in fidelity towards
each other ; they are of a lively and cheerful temper,
though rather impetuous, and naturally prone to anger.
In general, they do not obferve any rules of decency j
but follow all the calls of nature publicly and without
the leaft relerve. Their principal food confifts in fifli,
and other lea animals, fmall {hell fifli, and fea plants;
their greateft delicacies are wild lilies and other roots,
together with different kinds of berries. When they
have laid in a ftore of proviflons, they eat at any time
of the day without diftin&ion; but in cafe of neceffity,
they are capable of falling feveral days together. They
feldom heat their dwellings: but when they are defirous
of warming themfelves, they light a bundle of hay, and
Hand over it; or elfe they fet fire to train oil, which
they pour into a hollow' ftone. They feed their chil¬
dren when very young with the coarftft flelh, and for
the moft part raw. If an infant cries, the mother im¬
mediately carries it to the fea fide, and, be it fummer
or winter, holds it naked in the water until it is quiet.
This cuftom, it is faid, is fo far from doing the children
any harm, that it hardens them againft the cold ; and
accordingly they go barefooted through the winter
without the leaft inconvenience. They are alfo
trained to bathe frequently in the fea; and it is an
opinion generally received among the iflanders, that by
thefe means they are rendered bold and fortunate in
filhing.
The men wear ftiirts made of the ikins of cormo¬
rants, fea-divers, and gulls ; and in order to keep out
the rain, they have upper garments of the bladders and
other inteftines of fea-lions, fea-calves, and whales,
blown up and dried. They cut their hair in a circular
form quite clofe to their ears ; and ftiave alfo a round
place on the top. The women, on the contrary, let
the hair defeend over the forehead as low as the eye¬
brows, and tie the remaining part in a knot upon the
top of the head. They pierce the ears, and hang in
them bits of coral, which they get from the Ruffians.
Both fexes make holes in the griftles of their nofes,
and in the under lips, in which they thruft pieces of
bone, and are very fond of luch kind of ornaments.—
They mark alfo and colour their faces with different
figures. They barter among one another fea-otters,
fea-bears, clothes made of birds ikins and of dried in¬
teftines, ikins of, fea-lions and fea-calves for the cover¬
ings of their canoes, wooden maiks, darts, thread made
of finews and hair of rein deer.
Their houfehold uteniils are fquare pitchers and
large troughs, which they make out of the wood dri¬
ven aihore by the fea. Their weapons are bows and
arrows pointed with flint, and javelins of two yards in
length, which they threw from a fmall board. Inftead
of hatchets, they ufe crooked knives of flint or bone.
Some iron knives, hatchets, and lances, were obferved
among them, which they had probably got by plun¬
dering the Ruffians.
According to the reports of the oldeft inhabitants
of Umr.ak and Unalaftika, they have never been enga¬
ged in any war, either amorgft themfelves or with
ineir neighbours, except with the people of Alaftika,
the occafion of which was as follows; The fon oi the
toigon \
K A M [ 43
K[smtfcliat- toigon or chief of Uirmak had a maimed hand j and
ka. fome inhabitants of Alathka, who came to vifit upon
‘-"■v  that iflmd, fadened to his arm a drum, out of mockery,
and invited him to dance. The parents and relations
of the boy were offended at this iniult : hence a quar¬
rel enfued ; and from that time the people have lived
in continual enmity, attacking and plundering each
other by turns. According to the reports of the idand-
ers, there are mountains upon Alaihka, and woods of
great extent at fome diliance from the coafl. The na¬
tives wear clothes made of the {kins of rein-deer, wolves,
and foxes, and are not tributary to any of their neigh¬
bours. The inhabitants of the Fox iflands feetn to have
no knowledge of any country beyond Alafhka, which
is one of the molt eatteriy iflands yet mfcovered in
thefe Teas, and is probably not far distant from the con¬
tinent of-America.
Fcalts are very common among thefe ifl inders*, and
more particularly when the inhabitants of one itland are
vifited by thofe of the others. The men of the village
meet their guefts, beating drums, and preceded by the
women who fing and dance. At the conchjlion of the
dance, the holts invite them to partake of die feaiU j
after which ceremony, the former return tirll to their
dwellings, place mats in order, and ferve up their belt
provilion. The guefts next enter, lake their places,
and, after they are latisfied, the diverfions begin. F.rit,
The children dance and caper, at the tame time mak¬
ing a noife with their fma'l drurm, while the owners of
the huts of both fexes fing. Next, The men dance al
molt naked, tripping after one another, and beating
drums of a larger fize: when thele are weary, they are
relieved by the women, who dance in their clothes, the
men continuing in the mean time to fi^g and beat their
drums. At laft the fire is put out which had been
kindled for the ceremony. The manner of obtaining
fire is by rubbing two pieces of dry wood againlt each
other, or molt commonly by finking two Hints toge¬
ther, and letting the fparks fall upon fome lea otters
hair mixed with fulphur. If any forcerer is prefent, it is
then his turn to play his tricks in the dark if not, the
guelts immediately retire to their huts, which are
made on that occalion, of their canoes and mats. The
natives who have feveral wives do not w ithhold them
from their guefts j but where the owner of the hut has
himfelf but one wife, he then makes the offer of a fe¬
male fervant.
The hunting feafon is principally from the end of
O&ober to the beginning of December $ during which
time they kill great numbers of young fea bears for
their clothing. They pafs all December in feaftings
and diverfions fimilar to thofe above mentioned : with
this difference, however, that the men dance in wooden
malks, reprefenting various fea animals, and painted
red, green, or black, with coarfe coloured earths found
upon their ifiands.
During thefe feftivals, they vifit each other from vil¬
lage to village, and from illand to iftand. The feafts
concluded, malks and drums are broken to pieces, or
depofited in caverns among the rocks, and never after¬
wards made ufe of. In fpring they go out to kill old
fea bears, fea lions, and whales. During fummer, and
even in winter when it is calm, they row out to fea, and
catch cod and other filh. Their hooks are of bone 5
and for lines they make ufe of a firing mado of a long
ka
Kaolin.
1 ] KAO
tenacious fea-weed, which is fometimes found in thofe Kamtff h^t-
feas near 160 yards in length.
Whenever thfcy are wounded in any encounter, or
bruifed by any accident, they apply a fort of yellow
root to the wound, and fait for fome time. When their
head aches, they open a vein in that part with a ftone
lancet. When they want to glue the points of their
arrows to the fhafts, they ftrike their nofe till it bleeds,
and ufe the blood as glue.
Murder is not punilhed among them •, for they have
no judge. The following ceremonies are uied in the
burial of the dead. The bodies of poor people am
wrapped up in their own clothes, or in mats j then
laid in a grave, and covered over with earth. The
bodies of the rich are put, together with their clothes
and arms, in a fmall boat made of the wood driven
aihore by the fea : this boat is hung upon poles pla¬
ced crofswife y and the body is thus left to rot in the
open air.
1'be cuftoms and manner' of the inhabitants of the
Aleutian iiles are nearly fimilar to :hole of the inhabi¬
tants of the Fox iflands. The former indeed are ren¬
dered tributary, and entirely lubjml to ttuflia j and
molt of them have a flight acquaintatn e with the Kuf-
fian language, which- they have learned from the crews
of the different veffeis who nave landed tneie.
KAN, or Khan, the name of an officer in Perfia,
anlwenng to that of governor in Europt —l here are
kins of provinces, countries, and cities, w ho have dif¬
ferent additions to diitinguiih iherr,
KANGDROO. See Didelphis, Mammalia.
Index.
KANiSCA, a very ftrong town of Lower Hungary,
capital of the county ot Selawar. It was taken by tins
Imptrialifts in 1690. It is h aled on the river I^iave,
in E, Long. ly. ^7. N Lat. 46. 23.
KAN- FCHEOU FuU, a flounlhing town of Chi¬
na, in the province of Kiang fi. Its rivers, port, riches,
and population, all contribute to altiad ftrangers. A
day’s journey from this city is a very rapid current,
almoit 20 leagues in length, which flows with great
hnpetuolity over a number of fcattered rocks that are
level with the water. Travellers here are in gr< at
danger of being loft, unlels they take care to be ton-
duded by one of the pilots of the country j after this
paffage the river becomes twice as large as the Seine
at Rouen ; and is continually covered with loaded barks
and other veffeis under fail.—Near the walls of this-
ci'y is a very long bridgi, compofed of 130 boats join¬
ed together by ftrong iron chains. The cuitomhoufe is
upon this bridge, where a receiver conftantly refides to
vifit all vtffels, and examine if they have paid the du¬
ties iinpoled on the commodities with which they are
loaded. Two or three moveable boats are fo placed,
that by their means the bridge can be opened or fliut,
to give or refufe a paffage j and no barks are ever
permitted to pafs until they have been examined. In
the territory belonging to this city, a great number
of thofe valuable trees grow, from which varniffi di-
ftills. Its diftridt is extenfive, and contains 12 cities
of *he third elafs.
KAOLIN, the name of an earth which is ufed as
one of the two ingredients in oriental porcelain. Some
of this earth was brought from China, and examined
by Mr Reaumur. He found that it was perfectly n>
fufible
K A R
Kaolin
, H
Kareck.
fufible by fire, and believed that it was a talky earth j
but Mr Macquer obferves, that it is more probably
* °f an argillaceous nature, from its forming a tenacious
pafte with the other ingredient called petuntfe, which
has no tenacity. Mr Bomare fays, that by analyzing
fome Chinefe kaolin, he found it was a compound
earth confiding of clay, to which it owed its tenacity $
of calcareous earth, which gave it a meally appear¬
ance ; of fparkling cryftals of mica ; and of fmall gra¬
vel, or particles of quartz cryftals. He fays, that he
has found a fimilar earth upon a ftratum of granite, and
conjectures that it may be a decompofed granite. This
conjefture is the more probable, as kaolins are frequent¬
ly found in the neighbourhood of granites. See Por¬
celain.
K AOUTCHOUK. See Caoutchouc,Chemistry
Index.
KARAITES. See Caraites.
KARAT. See Caract.
KARECK, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, which was
once fubjeCt to the Dutch. It was vifited by Mr Ives
in 1758. He found the fouth part of the ifland well
cultivated, with agreeable fields of corn, and produ¬
cing plenty of efculent vegetables. In the middle are
very high hills abounding with a variety of Ihells.
Some fragments torn from their fides afforded an op¬
portunity of obferving an immenfe quantity of oyfters,
fcallop, cockle, and other {hells. The common tree
here is the banian, but without thofe luxuriant (hoots,
which in fome other places go downward and take
root in the ground. The lavender cotton is alfo found
here j and the ifland abounds with fowl of various
kinds. Pearl oyfters are alfo found, but at confiderable
depths.
This fettlement was founded by Baron Kniphaufen,
who having left the Pruflian fervice on fome difguft,
entered into that of France, afterwards went to the
Eaft Indies, and was appointed refident to the Dutch
faCtory at Baffora. Here he became an objeCt to the
avarice and rapacity of the Turkifti governors ; who ha¬
ving got him accufed of capital crimes, he was at laft
glad to compound with them for 50,000 rupees, the
whole fum he was worth, befides giving directions how
they might fqueeze other 50,000 from his fucceffor in
office (who in truth wiihed him turned out) and the
banian who did the bufinefs of the Dutch faCtory, and
who had likewife been concerned in underftand prac¬
tices againft him.
The new refident was overjoyed at his acceffion,
but loft all patience when he found himfelf obliged to
pay 30,000 rupee# to the governor as a compliment
on his entering into a poft of fuch confequence. Nor
had the banian much better reafon to be fatisfied, be¬
ing obliged to pay down 20,000 rupees to make up
the fum which was to fatisfy the rapacity of the go¬
vernor.
Baron Kniphaufen failed from Baffora the very day
after he was fet at liberty ; but having landed on this
ifland, he, in conjunftion with an Arabian ftieick, form¬
ed the plan of the fettiement. He then carried a let¬
ter from the ftieick to the governor and council of
Batavia, in which the former propoied to give up
the fovereignty of the ifland. Before fetting out
for this place, however, the baron took care to de-
fpatch a meffenger acrofs the defert to Conftantinople,
C 432 ]
K A R
Karnac.
acquainting the Dutch ambaffador with the treatment Kareck
he had received, and requefting liberty of the grand
vifier for the Dutch to fettle at Kareck. The mef¬
fenger returned with a favourable anfwer before the
baron came back from Batavia. The governor of
Baffora, then, having attempted in vain to perfuade
him to return to that place, wrote a letter of complaint
to Batavia, accufing the baron in terms of the utmoft
exaggeration, but without any mention of the 100,000
rupees. The baron, however, having got intelligence
of this proceeding, ufed fuch diligence that he got back
to Batavia in the very fliip which carried the letter.
Being thus prefent on the fpot to anfwer the charges
brought againft: him, he acquitted himfelf fb well that
his fcheme was inftantly approved of, and he was lent
back with two {hips and 50 men to "take poffeffion of
Kareck, whofe inhabitants at that time amounted to no
more than ICO poor fiftiermen.
Confiderable difficulties now occurred in the efta-
bliftnnent of the new colony j for he had but very few
materials with him, and the government of Batavia
was very 1W in fending him the fuccours they had
promifed. He was therefore obliged to fend for work¬
men from Perfia and Arabia, with whofe affiftance he
built a fmall compaft fort, ftrong enough to defend it-
felf againft any of the country powers, and any (hips
ufually failing to India, excepting thofe of our Eall
India Company. Nor was he content with putting
himfelf in a pofture of defence, but even commenced
hoftilities againft the Turks ; and by detaining two
veffels very richly laden, which happened to touch at
the ifland, he at laft obliged the governor of Baffora
to pay back the 100,000 rupees he had extorted,
30,000 of which he reftored to his fucceflbr in office
at Baffora, and 20,000 to the banian. When Mr Ives
vifited him, he informs us, that furprifing progrefs had
been made during the little time the baron had held
the fovereignty of the ifland, and that he intended to
make it a ftrong and wealthy place j at the fame time
that he difeovered his tafte for literature by advancing
a fum of money for books and inftruments of various
kinds, which were afterwards punctually fent. After
that time, however, the baron quitted the fervice of the
Dutch } and the ifland is again in poffeffion of the
ftieick of Bundaric, to whom it formerly belonged. It
is about five miles long and two in breadth ; lying
nearly in the middle of the Perfian gulf, about feven
leagues from each fide, and about 30 leagues from the
mouth of Baffora river, where all (hips bound to that
port muft call for pilots.
KARLE, a Saxon word ufed in our law, fometimes
Amply for a man $ and fometimes, with an addition,
for a fervant or clown. Thus the Saxons call a feaman
bufear/i, and a domeftic fervant hufcarle. From hence
comes the modern word churl.
K ARM ATI ANS, a fed of Mohammedans, who
occafioned great diforders in the empire of the Arabs,,
See Bagdad, N° 49.
KARNAC, the name of a village near Thebes in
Upper Egypt, and built on a fmall part of the file of a
fingle temple, the circumference of which, it is faid, it
would require half an hour to walk round. The ruins
of this temple, which are yet vifible, feem to indicate,
according to Denon, that it was the largeft in the
world j and he thinks it probable, that the temple of
Karnac,
K A T . . [4
Karnac Kavnac, as well as that of Luxor, was built in the time
li t o of Sefoftris, when Lgypt was in the higheft degree of
profperity. The plan of this temple is faid to be noble
and grand-, but Denonfuppofesthat the embellilhments
were added long after the building of the temple, as
they exhibit a more correft and chafte ftyle. The por¬
tico alone is compofed of 100 columns, the fmalleft of
which are not lefs than 74 feet in diameter, and the
largeft 12.
KASSON, a populous kingdom in the north of
Africa, the metropolis of which lies in N. Lat. 14. 33.
W. Long. 8. 43. The king of the country was ex¬
tremely kind to Mr Park, although his fon plundered
him in a very {hocking manner. He fays that the
number of towns and villages, and the extenfive culti¬
vation around them, exceeded every thing he had then
feen in Africa. A grofs calculation may be formed of
the number of inhabitants in this enchanting plain, from
confidering that the king of Kaffon can raife 4000 fight¬
ing men by the found of his war drum. It is remark¬
able, that although the people poiTefs abundance of corn
and cattle, both high and low make no fcruple of eating
rats, moles, fquirrels, fnails, and locufts. What is per¬
haps no lefs fingular, the women of this country are
not allowed to eat an egg, although they are ufed by the
men without any fcruple in the prefence of their wives.
The method of converting the negroes to the reli¬
gion of Mahomet is worthy of notice. Mr Park affures
us that he faw the whole inhabitants of Teefce, a large
unwalled town of Kaffon, inftantly converted. While
he refided in that town, an embaffy of 10 people be¬
longing to Almami Abdulkader, king of Foota Torra,
a country to the weft of Bondou, arrived at Teefce $
and defiring Tiggity Sego the governor to call an
affembly of the inhabitants, publicly made known the
determination of their king-p44 that unlefs all the
people of Kaffon would embrace the Mahometan reli¬
gion, and evince their converiion by faying eleven pu¬
blic prayers, he (the king of Foota Torra) could not
poffibly Hand neuter in the prefent conteft, but would
certainly join his arms to thofe of Kajaaga.” Such a
meffage from fo potent a prince created great alarm ;
and the inhabitants, after deliberating for fome time,
agreed to conform themfelves to his will and pleafure,
renouncing Paganifm and embracing the do£trinesof the
falfe prophet.
KASTRIL, or Kestril, a fpecies of falcon. See
Falco, Ornithology Index.
K ATT EG ATTE, a noted fea, lying between part
of Jutland and the coaft of Sweden, and towards the
latter covered with a great number of iiles. It is al-
moft clofed at the extremity by the low Daniih iflands
of Sealand and Funen, which had in old times been
(with Sweden) the feat of the Suiones. Between the
firft and the coaft of Sweden is the famous found, the
paffage tributary to the Danes by thoufands of ftnps.
Thefe iflands were of old called Codonania, and gave
to the Kattegatte the name of Sinus Codonanus. Its
greateft depth is 3 5 fathoms. It decreafes as it ap¬
proaches the found j which begins with 16 fathoms,
and near Copenhagen ftiallows to even four. The Ro¬
man fleet, under the command of Germanicus, failed,
according to Pliny, round Germany, and even doubled
the Cimbricum Promontorium, and arrived at the iflands
which fill the bottom of the Kattegatte ; either by ob-
Vol. XL Part II.
33
Keate;
] K E A
fervation or information, the Romans were acquainted Kattegatte
with 23. One they called Glejfaria, from its amber, . ll
a foil'd abundant to this day on part of the fouth fide ,
of the Baltic. A Roman knight was employed by
Nero’s mailer of the gladiators to coiledl in thefe parts
that precious production, by which he became perfectly
acquainted with this country.
KAUFFBEUREN, a free and imperial town of
Germany, fituated on the river Wardach, in E. Long.
10. 53. N. Lat. 47. 57.
KAY, Quay, or Key. See Kb:y.
KAZY, in the Eait Indies, a Mahometan judge or
magiitrate ; appointed originally by the court of Delhi
to adminifter juftice'according to their written law 5 but
particularly in matters relative to marriages, the fales
of houfes, and tranfgreflions of the Koran. He attefts
or authenticates writings, which under his feal are ad¬
mitted as the originals in proof.
KEATE,George, Esq. F. R. S,an eminentEngliih
writer, was born in 1730, and educated at Kingfton fchool,
after which he went to Geneva, where he refided for iome
years, and became acquainted with M. Voltaire. When
he made the tour of Europe, he became a ftudent in the
Inner Temple, was called to the bar, but did not meet
with fuch encouragement as to induce him to perfevere.
In the year 1760 he publiihed his Ancient and Modern
Rome, a poem which was received with confiderable
applaufe, and the following year he gave the world
A ihort Account of the Ancient Hiftory, prefent Go¬
vernment and Laws of the Republic of Geneva, 8vo.
dedicated to Voltaire, who once intended to tranilate
it into French, but afterwards abandoned his defign.
In 1762 he produced an Epiftle from Lady Jane
Gray to Lord Guildford Dudley j and next year the
Alps, a poem, believed to be the beft he ever wrote,
for truth’ of defcription, vigour of fancy, and beauty of
verfification. In 1764 appeared Netley Abbey, and in
1765, The Temple Student, an Epiftle to a Friend, in
which he rallies his own want of application to the
ftudy of the law, and his confequent want of fuccefs in
that profeffion. In 1766 he publiihed a poem to the
memory of Mrs Cibber, of whofe talents as an aftrefs
he entertained a very high opinion. He married in
1769 Mifs Hudfon, and about the fame period he pu-
bliflred Ferney, an Epiftle to Voltaire. Having praifed
with energy the beauties of that philofopher’s poetical
works, he introduces a grand panegyric on the im¬
mortal Shakefpeare, whom Voltaire ufed every effort to
depreciate, probably from a fpirit of envy. Thiseulo-
gium made the mayor and burgeffes of Stratford pre¬
fent our author with a ftandiih mounted with filver,
made out of the famous mulberry tree which Shake¬
fpeare had planted.
In 1775 appeared his Monument in Arcadia, a dra¬
matic poem ; and in 1779 he publiihed his Sketches
from Nature, taken and coloured in a Journey to Mar¬
gate, juftly allowed to be an elegant compofition. In
the year 1787 came out The Diitreffed Poet, a feri«-
comic poem, in three cantos, occafioned by a long and
vexatious law-fuit. His laft work was perhaps the
moft honourable of the whole, both to his head and to
his heart. Captain Wilfon of the Antelope packet
having fuffered ihipwreck cn the Pelew iflands, was re-
fufed any farther command, and reduced to diftrefs,
which induced the humane Keate to publifn an account
3 I of
\
Keate
11
KetL
K E E [ 434 ]
of thefe iflands for the benefit of that gentlcrnan; which, foms ;
it is faid, brought him about 900 guineas in the fpace
of a year. This work is written with much elegance,
although it is probable the amiable part of the manners
of the natives of Pelew is fomewhat highly coloured.
The life of this poet was fpent without any viciffi-
tudes of fortune ; he was poffeffed of a very ample
eilate, which he never attempted to increafe but by
prudence in the management of it. He was a man of
beneficence and hofpitality, and enjoyed the favour of
mankind in a very high degree. His health had been
gradually declining towards the clofe of his life. He
died in June 1797, leaving one daughter.
KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahometans
to that part of the world where the temple of Mecca
is fituated, towards which they are obliged to turn
themfelves when they pray,
KEDAH, in Ancient Geography, a di ft riel in the
defert of the Saracens (fo called from Cedar, the fon of
Ilhmael), according to Jerome, who in another place
fays that Kedar was uninhabitable, on the north of A-
rabia Felix. Kedarem, the people *, who dwelt in tents
like the other Scenites (Pfalm cxx.), were rich in cat¬
tle (Ifaiah lx.), of a fwarthy complexion (Canticles i.),
and excellent at the bow (Ifaiah xxi.).
KEDES, in Ancient Geography, a city of refuge and
Levitieal in the tribe of Naphtali, on the confines of
Tyre and Galilee 5 (Jofephus). Jerome calls it a fa-
cerdotal city, fituated on a mountain 20 miles from
Tyre, near Paneas, and called Cidiffus; taken by the
king of Affyria.—Another Kedes in the tribe of Iffachar
(x Chron. vi. 72.) which feems to be called Kijhion
(Joftiua xix.).
KEDGE, a fmall anchor, ufed to keep a (hip fteady
whilft (he rides in a harbour or river, particularly at the
turn of the tide, when (he might otherwife drive over
her principal anchor, and entangle the (lock or flukes
with her flack cable, fo as to loofen it from the
ground. This is accordingly prevented by a kedge
rope that hinders her from approaching it. The hed¬
ges are particularly uleful in tranfporting a (hip i. e.
removing her from one part of the harbour to ano¬
ther, by means of ropes which are faftened to thefe
anchors. They are generally furniflied with an iron
(lock, which is eafily difplaced for the convenience of
flowing them.
K ED RON, or Cedron, in Ancient Geography, a
town which, from the defeat and purfuit of the Syrians
( 1 Mac. xvi.), appears to have flood on the road which
led from the Higher India to Azotus : in this war it
was burnt by the Jews.
Kedron, or Cedron, in Ancient Geography. St John
calls it a brook, but Jofephus a deep valley between Je-
rufalem and Mount Olivet to the eaft *, called alfo Ke-
dron from its blacknefs. A brook only in winter, or
in rainy weather, according to Maundrel.
KEEL, the principal piece of timber in a (hip,
which is ufually firft laid on the blocks in building. If
we compare the carcafs of a (hip to the (keleton of the
human body, the keel may be confidered as the back¬
bone, and the timbers as the ribs. It therefore fup-
ports and unites the whole fabric, fince the ftem and
, (lern poll, which are elevated on its ends, are in fome
meafure a continuation of the keel, and ferve to con-
ne£l and enclofe the extremities of the Tides by tran-
K E E
as the keel forms and unites the bottom by tim- K>el
bers. , K ^ r
The keel is generally compofed of feveral thick, tel;er^
pieces placed lengthwife, which, after being fcarfed
tooether, are bolted, and clenched upon the upper fide.
When thefe pieces cannot be procured large enough to
afford a fufficient depth to the keel, there is a ftrong
thick piece of timber bolted to the bottom thereof, call¬
ed the falfe keel, which is alio very ufeful in preferving
the lower fide of the main keel. In ourlargcft (hips of
war, the falie keel is generally compofed of two pieces,
which are called the upper and the lower falje keels.
See MIDSHIP-Frame.
The lowed plank in a drip’s bottom, called the gar-
loard-Jlreak, has its inner edge let into a groove or
channel cut longitudinally on the fide of the keel : the
depth of this channel is therefore regulated by the
thicknefs of the garboard ftreak.
Keel is alio a name given to a lowr flat-bottomed
veffel, ufed in the river Tyne to bring the coals down
from Newcaftle and the adjacent parts, in order to load
the colliers for traniportation.
KEEL-Hauling, a punifliment inflidled for various
offences in the Dutch navy. It is performed by
plunging the delinquent re'peatedly uitfier the Hup s
bottom on one fide, and hoiiting him up on the other,
after having paffed under the keel. Ihe blocks or
pullies by which he is fufpended are faflened to the
oppofite extremities of the main yard, and a weight of
lead or iron is hung upon his legs, to fink him to a
competent depth. By this apparatus he is diawn oole
up to the yard-arm, and thence let fall iuddenly into
the fea, where, paffing under the (hip’s bottom, he is
hoifted up on the oppofite fide of the veffel. As this
extraordinary fentence is executed with a lerenity of
temper peculiar to the Dutch, the culprit is allowed
fufficient intervals to recover the fenfe of pain, of
which indeed he is frequently deprived during the
operation. In truth, a temporary infenfibility to his
fufferings ought by no means to be conlirued into a
ddrefpedl of his judges, when we confider that this
punifliment is fuppofed to have peculiar propriety in
the depth of winter, whilft the flakes of ice are
floating on the dream j and that it is continued till
the culprit is almoft fuffocated for want of air, be¬
numbed with the cold of the water, or dunned with
the blows his head receives by ftriking the (hip’s
bottom.
KEELSON, a piece of timber which may be pro¬
perly defined the interior or counter part of the keel j
as it is laid upon the middle of the floor timbers, im¬
mediately over the keel, and like it compofed of Se¬
veral pieces (carted together. In order to fit with
more fecurity upon the floor timbers and crotches, it
is notched about an inch and a half deep, oppofite to
each of thofe pieces, and thereby firmly fcored down
upon them to that depth, where it is fecured by ipike-
nails. The pieces of which it is formed are only half
the breadth and thicknefs of thofe of tne keel.
The keel fon ferves to bind arid unite the floor-timbers
to the keel. It is confined to the keel by long bolts,
which, being driven from without through feveral of
the timbers, are forelocked or clenched upon rings on
the upper fide of the keelfon.
KEEPER or THE great seal, is a lord by his
Keeper
II
Ivelil.
K E H
[ 435 3
K E I
office, and ftyled lord keeper of the great feal of Great
Britain ; lie is always one of the privy council. All
grants, charters, and commiffions of the king under the
great feal, pafs through the hands of the lord keeper ;
for without that feal many of thofe grants, &c. would
be of no force, the king being, in the interpretation of
the law, a corporation, and therefore paiies nothing
but by the great feal, which is alfo faid to be the pu¬
blic faith of the kingdom, being in the higheft efteem
and reputation. ^ _
Whenever there is a lord keeper, he is invefted with
the fame place, authority, pre-eminence, juriidi&ion,
or execution of law’s, as the lord chancellor of Great
Britain is veiled with.
The lord keeper is conftituted by the delivery of
the great feal, &c.
KEEPER of the privy feal, is alfo a lord by his office,
through whofe hands all -grants, pardons, &c. pafs
before they come to the great feal } and even fome
things pafs his hands which do not pafs the great feal
at all. This officer is alfo one of the privy council,
yet was anciently called clerk of the privy feal. His
duty is to put the feal to no grant, &c. without a pro¬
per warrant; nor with warrant where it is againft law,
or inconvenient, but lhall firft acquaint the king there¬
with.
KEEPING, in Painting, denotes the reptefenta-
tion of obje£ls in the fame manner that they appear
to the eye at different diilances from it; for which the
painter Ihould have recourfe to the rules of perlpeflive.
There are two inftances in w'hich the famous Raphael
Urbin has tranfgreffed thefe rules : in one of his car¬
toons, reprefenting the miraculous draught of fillies, the
men in each of the two boats appear of full fize, the
features of their faces being ftrongly marked ; and the
boats are reprefented fo fmall, and the men fo big,
that any one of them appears fufficient to fink either
of the boats by his own bare weight : and the fowls on
the Ihore are alfo drawn fo big, as to feem very near
the eye of the obferver, who could not poffibly, in that
cafe, diftinguilh the features of the men in the difiant
boats. Or, fuppofing the obferver to be in either of
the boats, he could not fee the eyes or beaks of the
fowls on the (bore. The other inftance occurs in his
hiftorical picture of our Saviour’s transfiguration on
the mount ; where he is reprefented with thofe who
were then with him, almoft as large as the reft of his
difciples at the foot of the mount, with the father and
mother of the boy whom they brought to be cured ;
and the mother, though on her knees, is more than
half as tall as the mount is high. So that the mount
appears only of the fize of a little hay-rick, with a few
people on its top, and a greater number at its bottom
on the ground ; in which cafe, a fpeflator at a little
diftance could as well diftinguilh the features of thofe
at the top as thofe on the ground. But upon any large
eminence, deferving the name of a mount, that w'ould
be quite impoffible.
KEHL, or Keil, a very important fortrefs of Ger¬
many, feated on the banks of the Rhine, built by the
French after a defign of Marfhal Vauban, for the de¬
fence of Stralburg, from which it is a mile and a half
diftant. It was ceded to the empire in 1697, by the
treaty of Ryfwick. The French retook it in iyo$,
and it was reftored to the empire by the treaty of liaf-
tadt. During the time of the French revolution, this
fortrefs changed mafters feveral times ; but aiter i8ox,
it was demoliftied in terms of the treaty of peace. E.
Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 48. 40.
KEILL, Dr John, a celebrated aftronomer and
mathematician, was born at Edinburgh in 167 5, and
ftudied in the univerfity of that city. In 1694 he wewt
to Oxford ; where, being admitted of Babol college,
he began to read lectures according to the Newtonian
fyftem in his private chamber in that college. He is
faid to have been the firft who taught Sir llaac New¬
ton’s principles by the experiments on which they are
founded : and this, it feems, he did by an apparatus of
inftruments of his owrn providing, by which means he
acquired a great reputation in the univerfity. I he
firft fpecimen he gave the public of his {kill in mathe¬
matical and philofophical knowledge, was hitf Exami¬
nation of Dr Burnet’s theory of the earth, with Re¬
marks on Mr Whifton’s theory • and thefe theories be¬
ing defended by their refpeftive inventors, drew from
Mr Keill An Examination of the reflections on the
theory of the earth, together with A Defence of the re¬
marks on Mr Whifton’s new theory. In xy01? j16 pnh*
liftied his celebrated treatife, entitled, Introduclio adve-
ram phyjicam, which only contains 14 leftures ; but in
the following editions he added two more. This worse
has been tranflated into Englilh, under the title of
An introduction to natural philofophy. Afterwards,
being made fellow of the Royal Society, he publilhed,
in the Philofophical TranfaCtions, a paper of the laws
of attraction ; and being offended at a paffage in the
jrffla eruditorum of Leipfic, warmly vindicated againft
Mr Leibnitz Sir Ifaac Newton’s right to the honour
of the firft invention of his method of fluxions. In
1709 he went to New’ England as treafurer of the
Palatines. About the year 1711, feveral obj eft ions
being urged againft Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy, in
fupport of Des Cartes’s notions of a plenum, Mr Keili
publifhed a paper in the Philofophical i ranlaCtions
on the rarity of matter, and the tenuity of its cumpo-
fition. But while he was engaged in this difpute,
Queen Anne was pleafed to appoint him her decy-
pherer ; and he continued in that place under King
George I. till the year 1716. He had alfo the de¬
gree of doCtor of phyfic conferred on him by the uni¬
verfity of Oxford in I7I3’ -^e 1° i?21, -^-e
publiftied, befides the works already mentioned, Intro-
duElio ad veratn ajlronomiatn, which was tranflated in¬
to Englifh by Dr Keill himfell; and an edition of Com-
mandinus’s Euclid, w ith additions of his own..
Keill, James, M. D. an eminent phyfician, and
brother of the former, was born in Scotland about
the year 1673 ; and having travelled abroad, read lec¬
tures of anatomy with great applaufe in the univerfities
of Oxford and Cambridge, by the latter of which he
had the degree of doCtor of phyfic conferred upon him.
In 1700 he fettled at Northampton, where he had
confiderable praCtice as a phyfician ; and died there of
a cancer in the mouth in puhl^Hie^> I*
Englifti tranflation of Lemery’s chemiftry. 2. An
account of animal fecretion, the quantity of blood in
the human body, and mufcular motion. 3. A treadle
on anatomy. 4. Several pieces in the Philofophical
TranfaCtions.
KEISERSBERG, a town 0f Alface in Franco,
3 I 2 and
Ketil
 K E I [ 4.
K- lirri- ancl jn the bailiwick of Haguenau, which has belonged
k'.,‘S to the French ever lince the year 1548. It is feated
Keith. *n a pleasant country, in E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat.
■ " y mm' 48. IO.
KEISERSLAUTERN, a town of Germany, in the
Lower Palatinate, belonging to the eledlor Palatine j
feated on the river Louter, in E. Long. 7. 51. N. Lat.
49. 22.
KEISERTOUL, a town of Switzerland, in the
county of Baden, with a bridge over the Rhine, and a
caftle. It belongs to the bilhop of Conftance, and is
lituated in E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 47. 10.
KEISERWERT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, the diocefe of Cologne, and the duchy
of Berg ; fubjeft. to the eleftor Palatine. The forti¬
fications are demoliftied. It is feated on the Rhine,
in E. Long. 6. 49. N. Lat. 51. 16.
KEITH, James-Francis Edward, field-marfhal
in the Pruflian fervice, was the younger fon of Wil¬
liam Keith, earl marlhal of Scotland ; and was born in
1696. He was deligned by his friends for the law;
but his inclination led to arms,' and the firft occafion
of drawing his fword was at the age of 18 years,
when the rebellion broke out in Scotland. Through
the inftigation of his mother, he joined James’s party,
was wounded at the battle of Sheriffmuir, and made
his efcape to France. Here he applied himfelf to mi¬
litary ftudies ; and going to Madrid, he by the intereft
of the duke of Liria obtained a commilTion in the
Irifli brigades, then commanded by the duke of Or¬
mond. He afterwards attended the duke of Liria,
when he went ambafiador to Mufcovy ; and being by
him recommended to the Czarina, was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant-general, and invelted with the order
of the black eagle. He diftinguithed himfelf by his
valour and conduft in the Ruffian fervice, and had no
inconfiderable ffiare in the revolution that raifed Eli¬
zabeth the daughter of Peter the Great to the throne :
he alfo ferved in feveral embaffies; but finding the
honours of that country but a fplendid kind of flavery,
he left that court and entered the Pruffian fervice.
The king of Pruffia made him field-marffial of the
Pruffian armies, and governor of Berlin ; and dillin-
guilhed him lo far by his confidence, as to travel in
difguife with him over a great part of Germany, Po¬
land, and Hungary. In bufinefs, he made him his
chief counfellor; in his diverfions, his chief compa¬
nion. The king was much pleafed with an amufement
which the marlhal invented in imitation of the game
of chefs. The marlhal ordered feveral thoufand fmall
ilatues of men in armour to be call by a founder ; thefe
he would fet oppoiite to each other, and range them in
battalia, in the fame manner as if he had been drawing
up an army ; he would bring out a party from the wings
or centre, and Ihow the advantage or difadvantage re-
fulting from the diffei'ent draughts which he made.
In this manner the king and the marlhal often amufed
themfelves, and at the fame time improved their mili¬
tary knowledge. This brave and experienced general,
after many important fervices in the wars of that illuf-
trious monarch, was killed in the unfortunate affair of
Hochkirchen, in the year 1758.
The family of Keith was among the moll ancient
in Europe. In 1010 the Scots gained a complete
viftory over the Danes at Camus town in Angus;
l
)6 ] K E L
King Malcolm II. as a reward for the fignal bravery Keitk
of a certain young nobleman who purfued and killed If
Camus the Danilh general, bellowed on him feveral,
lands, particularly the barony of Keith in Eall Lo- 'r~"
thian, from which his poiferity affumed their furname.
The king alfo appointed him hereditary great ma-
refchal of Scotland, which high office continued in his
family till the year 1715, when the lall earl engaged
in the rebellion, and forfeited his ellate and honours ;
and thus ended the family of Marefchal, after ferving
their country in a diftinguilhed capacity above 700
years.
KELLINGTON, or Kilkhampton, a town of
Cornwall in England, which fends two members to
parliament. W. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 35. 36.
KELLS, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Meath, and province of Leinller, 31 miles from Dub¬
lin. This place gives title of vifeount to the family of
Cholmondeley ; and near it is Headfort, the magnificent
feat of Lord Beclive. This town is pleafantly fituated
on the river Blackwater, and has four fairs. It was
anciently called Kenanus, and afterwards Kenlis. In
former ages it was one of the moft famous cities in
the kingdom ; and on the arrival of the Engliffi was
walled and fortified with towers. In 1178 a caftle
was erefled where the market place now is; and op-
poftte to the caftle was a crofs of an entire ftone, or¬
namented with bas-relief figures and many curious in-
fcriptions in the ancient Irifti charadler. Within a
fmall diftance was the church of St Senan ; and on
the fouth of the churchyard is a round tower which
meafures 99 feet from the ground, the roof ending in
a point ; and near the top were four windows oppofite
to the cardinal points. There was a celebrated mo-
naftery founded here in 550 for regular canons, and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It owed its origin to
St Columba, to whom the fite of the abbey was grant¬
ed by Dermod Maccarval, or Dermod the fon of Ker-
vail king of Ireland. An epifcopal fee was afterwards
erefted here, which in the 13th century was united to
that of Meath. A priory or hofpital was alfo erefted
by Walter de Lacie, lord of Meath, in the reign of
Richard I. for crofs-bearers or crouched friars follow¬
ing the order of St Auguftin. There was likewife
a perpetual chantry of three priefts or chaplains in the
parilh church of St Columba in Kells to celebrate mafs
daily ; one in the Rood chapel, another in St Mary’s
chapel, and a third in the chapel of St Catherine the
virgin.
Kelds is alfo the name of a village in the county
of Kilkenny, 64 miles from Dublin, fituated on Kings
river ; and was noted for a priory of Auguftines, built
and richly endowed by Geoffroy Fitzroberts, who
came into this kingdom with Strongbow\ The prior
of this place had the title of lord fpiritual, and as fuch
fat in the houfe of peers before the Reformation ; the
ruins only of this abbey now remain : a fynod was
held in it anno 1152, when John Paparo, legate from
Rome, made one of the number of bifhops that were
convened there at that time to fettle the affairs of the
church.
There is a third place of the above name, fituated in
the county of Antrim and province of Ulfter, 89 miles
from Dublin.
KELLY, Hugh, an author of confiderable re¬
pute,
K E L
Kelly, pule, was born on the banks of Kiliarney lake in Ire-
—v—' land in 1739. His father, a gentleman of good fa¬
mily, having reduced his fortune by a feries of unfore-
feen misfortunes, was obliged to repair to Dublin that
he might endeavour to fupport himfelf by his perfonal
induftry. A tolerable fchool education was all he
could afford to his fon *, who was bound an apprentice'
to a Haymaker, and ferved the whole of his time with
diligence and fidelity. At the expiration of his in¬
dentures, he fet out for London to procure a liveli¬
hood by his bufinefs 5 where he encountered all the
difficulties a perfon poor and without friends could be
fubjeCt to on his firft arrival in town. Happening,
however, to become acquainted with an attorney, he was
employed by him in copying and tranfcribing ; an occu¬
pation which he prolecuted with fo much affiduity,
that he is faid to have earned about three guineas a-week,
an income which, compared to his former gains, might
be deemed affluent. Tired, however, of this drudgery,
he foon after, about 1762, commenced author, and w-as
intrufted with the management of the Lady’s Mufeum,
the Court Magazine, the Public Ledger, the Royal
Chronicle, Owen’s Weekly Poll;, and lome other pe¬
riodical publications, in which he wrote many origi¬
nal effays and pieces of poetry, which extended his
reputation, and procured the means of fubfiftence for
himfelf, his wife to whom he was then lately married,
and a growing family. For feveral years after this pe¬
riod, he continued writing upon a variety of fubjeds,
as the accidents of the times chanced to call for the af-
ffflance of his pen ; and as during this period politics
were the chief objefts of public attention, he employed
himfelf in compofing many pamphlets on the important
queftions then agitated, the greater part of which are
now buried in oblivion. Among thefe, however, was
a Vindication of Mr Pitt’s Adminiftration, which Lord
Chefterfield makes honourable mention of in the fe-
cond volume of his letters. In 1767J the Babler ap¬
peared in two pocket volumes, which had at firlt been
inferted in Owen’s Weekly Chronicle in fingle papers ;
as did the Memoirs of a Magdalene, under the title of
Louifa Mildtnay. About 1767 he was tempted by
the fuecefs of Churchill’s Rofciad to write fome ftric-
tures on the performers of both theatres, in two
pamphlets, entitled Thefpis, which gave great offence
to fome of the principal perfons at each houfe. The
talents for fatire, which he difplayed in this work,
recommended him to the notice of Mr Garrick, who
in the next year caufed his firft play of Falfe Delicacy
to be a£ted at Drury Lane. It was received with great
applaufe •, and from this time he continued to write for
the .ftage with profit and fuccefs, until the laft period
of his life. As his reputation increafed, he beg^n to
turn his thoughts to fome mode of fupporting his
family lefs precarious than by writing, and for that
purpofe entered himfelf a member of the Middle Tem¬
ple. After the regular fteps had been taken, he was
called to the bar in 1774, and his proficiency in
the ftudy of the law afforded promifing hopes that he
might make a diftinguifhed figure in that profeffion.
His fed&ntary courfe of life had, however, by this
time injured his health, and fubjedted him to much af-
ftidtion. Early in 1777 an abfcefs formed in his fide,
which after a few days illnefs put a period to his life.
K E L
He was the author of fix plays befxdes that above men- Kelly
tioned. . . k Un
KELP, a term which is ufed in Britain to fignify e '
the faline fubftance obtained by burning fea-weed, which
is chiefly employed in the manufacture of green-glafs.
Different fpecies of fea-weed, belonging to the genus
fucuf, and order a/gce, are cultivated for this purpofe.
Thefe plants are thrown on the rocks and Ihores in
great abundance, and in the fummer months are raked
together and dried as hay in the fun and wind, and af¬
terward burnt to the afhes called kelp. The procefs of
making it is thus : The rocks, which are dry at low
water, are the beds of great quantities of fea-weed j
which is cut, carried to the beach, and dried : a hol¬
low is dug in the ground three or four feet wide ;
round its margin are laid a row' of ftones, on which
the fea-weed is placed, and fet on fire within, and
quantities of this fuel being continually heaped upon
the circle, there is in the centre a perpetual flame,
from which a liquid like melted metal drops into the
hollow beneath j when it is full, as it commonly is ere
the clofe of day, all heterogeneous matter being remo¬
ved, the kelp is wrought with iron rakes, and brought
to an uniform confiftence in a ftate of fufion. When
cool, it confolidates into a heavy dark-coloured alka¬
line fubftance, which undergoes in the glafs-houfes a
fecond vitrification, and when pure affumes a perfeCt
tranfparency. See Soda, Chemistry Index.
KELSO, a town of Roxburghfflire in Scotland,
pleafantly lituated on the river Tweed, in W. Long.
1. 20. N. Lat. 55. 38. Of this town Mr Pennant
gives the following defcription. It is built much after
the manner of a Flemilh town, with a fquare and town-
houfe. The population in 1801 amounted to 4196 fouls.
Kelfo has a very confiderable market, and great quan¬
tities of corn are fold here weekly by fample. The
abbey of Tyronenfians was a vaft pile, and, to judge
by the remains, of venerable magnificence. The w'alls
are ornamented with falfe round arches, interfering
each other. Such interfeftions form a true Gothic arch :
and may as probably have given rife to that mode as
the arched ftiades ef avenues. The fteeple of the church
is a vaft tower. This houfe was founded by David I.
when earl of Cumberland. He firft placed it at Sel¬
kirk, then removed it to Roxburgh, and finally, when
he came to the crown, fixed it here in 1128. Its reve¬
nues were in money about 2000I. Scots a-year. The
abbot was allowed to wear a mitre and pontifical
robes ; to be exempt from epifcopal jurifdidtion, and
permitted to be prefent at all general councils. The
environs of Kelfo are very fine : the lands confift
of gentle rifings, enclofed with hedges, and extreme¬
ly fertile. They have much reafon to boaft of their
profpefts. From the Chalkheugh is a fine view of
the forks of the rivers, Roxburgh hill, Sir John
Douglas’s neat feat, and at a diftance Fleurus j and
from Pinnacle hill is feen a vaft extent of country,
highly cultivated, watered with long reaches of the
Tweed, well wooded on each margin. Thefe borderers
ventured on cultivation much earlier than thofe on the
weft and eaft, and have made great progrefs in every
fpecies of rural economy. Turnips and cabbages for
the ufe of cattle cover many large tradls j and pota¬
toes appear in vaft fields. Much wheat is raifed in
r 437 3
Kelfo
II
Ken.
K E .N [ 438
the neighbourhood, part of which is fent up the frith
of Forth, and part into England. The fleeces here are
very fine. The wool is fent into Yorkfhire, to Lin¬
lithgow, or into Aberdeenfhire, for the flocking ma-
nufadlure ; and fome is woven here into a cloth called
,plainsy and fold into England to be dreffed. Here is
alfo a confiderable manufadlure of white leather, chief-
]y to fupply the capital of Scotland. A fine flone
bridge of fix arches over the Tweed, near its confluence
with the Teviot, was in 1798 carried away by a flood.
It has fince been rebuilt.
KEMPIS, Thomas, a pious and learned regular
canon, was born at the village of Kemp, in the dio-
cefe of Cologne, in 1386; and took his name from
that village. He performed his fludies at Deventer,
in the community of poor fcholars eftablifhed by Ge¬
rard Groot; and there made great progrefs in the fci-
ences. In 1399 entered the monaftery of the re¬
gular canons of Mount St Agnes, near Swol, of which
his brother was prior. Thomas a Kempis there diflin-
• guiflied himfelf by his eminent piety, his refpedl for
his fuperiors, his charity to his brother canons, and
his continual application to labour and prayer. He
-died in 1471, aged 90. The belt editions of his
works, which confifl of fermons, fpiritual treatifes, and
lives of holy men, are thofe of Paris in 1649, an(^
'of Antwerp in 1607. The famous and well-known
book Be Imitations Chrifti, which has been tranflated
into almoft all the languages of the world, though it
has almoft always been numbered among the works of
'Thomas a Kempis, is alfo found printed under the name
- of Gerfon ; and on the credit of fome MSS. has been
fince afcribed to the abbot Gerfon of the order of St
Benedift. Th is has occafioned a violent difpute be¬
tween the canons of St Augultine, and the Bene-
diflines : but while devout Chriftiahs find fpiritual
■ comfort in the work, the name of the writer is of
fmall importance.
KEMPTEN, a free and imperial town of Germa¬
ny, in Lower Suabia, and in Algow, and alfo in the
territory of the abbot of Kempten, who is a prince of
the empire, and has a voice in the diet. The inhabi¬
tants are Proteftants *, and it has been feveral times
taken, but has always recovered its liberty. It is
feated on the river Iller. E. Long. 10. 33. N. Lat.
47- 47*
Kempten, a territory in the circle of Suabia, in
Germany, between the bifhopric of Augfburg and the
barony of Walburg. It is about 17 miles long and
broad ; and has no confiderable place but the towns of
Kempten and Kauff beuren, which are imperial.
KEN, Thomas, an eminent Englifh bifhop in the
17th century, was bred at Winchefter fcbool, whence
he went to Oxford 4 and in 1669 wak made a prebend
of Winchefter. In 1675, the year of the Jubilee, he
travelled to Rome ; and ufed to fay, He had reafon to
.give God thanks for his travels, having returned more
confirmed of the purity of the reformed religion than
he was before. He was appointed by King Charles II..
to attend the lord Dartmouth at the demolifhing of
Tangier j and at his return was made chaplain to his
majefty, as he was fome time after to the princefs of
Orange, then refiding in Holland. In 1685 he was
'confecrated biihop of Bath and Wells. The month
following he attended King Charles II. at his death j
4
]
K E N
and gave clofe attendance at the royal bed for three
whole days and nights, watching proper intervals to
fuggeft pious and proper thoughts on that ferious occa-
^fion. In the following reign he zealoufiy oppofed the
progrefs of Popery ; and in June 1688, he, with five
other biftiops, and the archbilhop of Canterbury, was
committed prifoner to the Tower of London, for fub-
fcribing a petition to his majefty againft the declara¬
tion of indulgence. Upon the Revolution, however, he
refufed to take the oaths to King William and Queen
Mary, on which account he was deprived of his biftiop-
ric. Her majefty Queen Anne beftowed on him a
yearly penfion of 200I. to his death in 1710. He pub-
lilhed feveral pious books. His charity was fo great,
that when, he was bilhop of Bath and Wells, having
received a fine of 4000I. he gave a great part of it to
the French Proteftants.
KENDAL, a town of Weftmoreland, feated in a
valley among hills, on the weft fide of the river Can
or Ken, over which there are two ftone bridges, and
one of wood which leads to the caftle now in ruins.
It is a large handfome place •, and has two long ftreets,
which crofs each other. The inhabitants have driven
a trade with the cotton and woollen manufactory
throughout England ever fince the reign of Edw. III.
and particular law's were enaCted for regulating Ken¬
dal cloths as early as Richard II. and Henry IV. It
is of note alfo for the manufactory of cottons, drug¬
gets, ferges, hats, worfted and yarn (lockings, &c.
Queen Elizabeth incorporated it with aldermen and
burgeffes j and King James I. with a mayor, recorder,
town-clerk, 12 aldermen, 24 burgeffes or common-
council-men, and 2 attorneys. There are 7 companies
here who have each their hall, viz. mercers, fheer-
men, cordwainers, glovers, tanners, taylors, and pevv-
terers. Here is an elegant town-hall •, and there is a
court of confidence, which was granted by George III.
for debts under 40s. It has a large beautiful church,
which ftands on the other fide of the brook called
Blmdbeck, out of the liberty of the town $ a large,
neat, and handfome building, 18c feet long, and 99
broad, w ith five aifies, each parted by a-row of eight
pillars, and a ftrong fquare fteeple. Near it is Ab-
boPs hall, the refidence of the abbot when this church
belonged to an abbey diffolved by Henry VIII. In
1755, a new' chapel was ereCted in the middle of the
town, befides which there are twelve chapels of eafe
belonging to it. The Diffenters and Quakers have
meeting-houfes. The free grammar-fihool is well
endowed ; and alfo a charity fihool for 10 boys and
16 girls, who are all clothed as well as taught. Eaft-
ward of the town, on the oppofite fide of the river, on
a hill, from whence is a fine profpeft, Hand the ruins
of a caftle, wherein was born Catherine Parr, the fixth
wife of Henry VIII. By means of inland navigation,
it has communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee,
Kibble, Oufe, Trent, Davwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c. •, which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leieefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
Here are kept the feftions of the peace for this part of
the county called the barony of Kendal; and there is a
very great market on Saturday, with all kinds of pro-
vifions and woollen yarn, which the girls bring hither
in
Ken,
Kendal.
KEN [ 439 I K E N
Kendal, Jn large bundles. It has fairs on May 6, and Nov. 8.
K-enne1, i The river here, which runs half through the town in a
ftony channel, abounds with trout and falmon j and on
the banks of it live the dyers and tanners. In 1801
the population was eftimated at nearly 8ooo. Ken¬
dal is 256 miles N. N. W. from London, and in W.
Long. 2. 49. N. Lat. 54. 21.
KENNEL, a term uied indifferently for a puddle,
a water courfe in the ftreets, a houfe for a pack of
hounds, and the pack or -cry of hounds themfelves.
Mr Beckford, in his Effay on Hunting, is very par¬
ticular in defcribing a kennel for hounds ; and a ken¬
nel he thinks indifpenfably neceffary for keeping thofe
animals in px-oper health and order. “ It is true (fays
he) hounds may be kept in barns and (tables j but thofe
who keep them in fuch places can bed inform you
whether their hounds are capable of anfwering the pur-
pofes for which they are defigned. The fenfe of fmell-
ing is fo exquilite in a hound, that I cannot but fup-
pofe that every (tench is hurtful to it. Cleanlinefs is
not only abfolutely neceffary to the nofe of, the hound,
but alfo to the prefervation of his health. Dogs are
naturally cleanly ; and feldom, if they can help it,
dung where they lie. Air and fre(h draw are neceffary
to keep them healthy. They are fubje6t to the mange j
a diforder to which poverty and naftinefs will very
much contribute. The kennel drould be fituated on
an eminence j its front ought to be to the eaft, and
the courts round it ought to be wide and airy to admit
the funbeams at any time of the day. It is proper that
it (hould be neat without and clean within j and it is
proper to be near the mafter’s houfe, for obvious reafons.
It ought to be made large enough at firft, as any ad¬
dition to it afterwards may fpoil it in appearance at
lead.” Two kennels, however, in our author’s opi¬
nion, are abfolutely neceffary to the wellbeing of
hounds : “ When there is but one (fays he), it is fel¬
dom fw'eet; and when cleaned out, the hounds, parti¬
cularly in winter, fuffer both while it is cleaning, and
afterwards as long as it remains wet.”
When the feeder fird comes to the kennel in a morn¬
ing, he (hould let out the hounds into the outer court j
end in bad weather, (hould open the door of the hunting
kennel (that in which the hounds defigned to hunt next
day are kept), led w^ant of red {hould incline them to
go into it. The lodging room {hould then be cleaned
out, the doors and windows of it opened, the litter
(haken up, and the kennel made fweet and clean before
the hounds return to it again.—The floor of each lodg¬
ing room fliould be bricked, and Hoped on both fides to
run to the centre, with a gutter left to carry off the
water, that when they are wa(hed they may foon be
dry. If water {hould remain through- any fault in the
floor, it mud be carefully mopped up; for damps are
always very prejudicial.
The kennel ought to have three doors ; two in the
front and one in the back ; the lad to have a lattice
window in it with a wooden {butter, which is conflant-
ly to be kept clofed when the hounds are in, except in
fummer, when it (hould be left open all the day.
At the back of Mr Beckford’s kennel is a houfe
thatched and furzed up on the fides, big enough to con¬
tain at lead a load of draw. Here {hould be a pit ready
to receive the dung, and a gallows for the flefli. The
gallows (hould have a thatched roof, and a circular
board at the pods to prevent vermine from climbing up. Kennel,
He advifes to enclofe a piece of ground adjoining to the Kennet.
kennel for fuch dog horfes as may be brought alive j it
being fometimes dangerous to turn them out w here other
horfes go, on account of the diforders with which they
may be infe&ed. In fome kennels a dove is made ufe
of; but where the feeder is a good one, Mr Beckford
thinks that a mop properly ufed will render the dove
unneceffary. “ I have a little hay rick (fays he) in
the grafs yard, which I think is of ufe to keep the
hounds clean and fine in their coats. You will fre¬
quently find them rubbing themfelves againd it. The
(hade of it is alfo ufeful to them in fummer. If ticks
at any time be troublefome in your kennel, let the
w'alls of it be w'ell waftied; if that (hould not dellroy
them, the walls mud then be white waflied.”
Befides the directions already given concerning the
fituation of the kennel, our author recommends it to
have a dream of water in its neighbourhood, or even
running through it if poffible. There fliould alfo be
moveable dages on wheels for the hounds to lie on.
The foil ought at all events to be dry.
To Kennel, a term applied by fox-hunters to a fox
when he lies in his hole.
KENNET, Dr White, a learned Englifii writer
and bilhop of Peterborough, in the 18th century, bred
at St Edmund hall, Oxford j where he foon diffinguiflr-
ed himfelf by his vigorous application to his dudies,
and by his tranflations of fevtral books into Englifli,
and other pieces which he publilhed. In 1695 our
author publifhed his Parochial Antiquities. A lermon
preached by him on the 30th of January 1703 at
Aldgate expofed him to great clamour. It was print¬
ed under the title of A compajjionate inquiry into the
caufes of the civil war. In 1706, he publilhed his Cafe
of Impropriations, and two other trads on the fame
fubjed. In 1706, he publiflied the third volume of
The Complete Hidory of England (the two former
volumes compiled by Mr Hughes). In 1709, he pub-
liftied A Vindication of the Church and Clergy of
England from fume late reproaches rudely and unjudly
cad upon them : and A true Anfwer to Dr Sacheve-
rel’s Sermon. When the great point in Dr Sache-
verel’s trial, the change of the minidry, was gained, and
very drange addreffes were made upon it,. there was to
be an artful addrefs from the bifliop and clergy of Lon¬
don, and they who w'ould not fubfcribe it were to be
reprefented as enemies to the queen and the minidry.
Dr Kennet fell under this imputation. He w as expofed
to great odium as a low churchman, on account of
his conduft and w ritings. When he was dean of Pe¬
terborough, a very uncommon method wras taken to
expofe him by Dr Walton, re£tor of the church of
Whitechapel : for in the altar-piece- of that church,
which was intended for a reprefentatiom of Chrifl and
his 12 apodles eating the paffover and lad (upper, Ju¬
das the traitor w'as drawn fitting in an elbow-chair,
drtffed in a black garment, with a great deal of the
air of Dr Rennet’s face. It was generally faid that
the original (ketch w as for a bifliop under Dr Walton’s
difplcafure $ but the painter being apprehenfive of an
a&ion of Seandalum Magnatum, leave was given to drop
the bifliop, and make the dean. This giving general
offence, upon the complaint of others (for Dr Ken¬
net never fnw it, or feemed to regard it), the bifliop
K E N
Kennct,
'Kenuicott
[
of London ordered the picture to be taken down.
^ I7I3> prefented the Society for Propagating the
Gofpel with a great number of books fuitable to their
defign j publiihed his Bibliotheca America rue Brimordia,
and founded an antiquarian and hiitorical library at
Peterborough. In 1715, he publiihed a fermon’en¬
titled, The Witchcraft of the prefent Rebellion, and af¬
terwards feveral other pieces. In 1717 he was enga¬
ged in a difpute with Dr William Nicholfon, bilhop
of Caiiifle, relating to fome alterations in the bilhop
of Bangor’s famous fermon •, and difliked the proceed¬
ings of the convocation againft that bifhop. Upon
the death of Dr Cumberland bilhop of Peterborough,
he was promoted to that fee, to which he was confe-
crated in 1718. He fat in it more than ten years,
and died in 1728. He was an excellent philologift, a
good preacher, whether in Englilh -or Latin, and well
verfed in the hiftories and antiquities of our nation.
Kennet, Bafl, a learned Englifh writer, and bro¬
ther to the preceding, was educated in Corpus Chrilti
college, in the univerfity of Oxford, where he became
fellow. In 1706, he went over chaplain to the Englilh
factory at Leghorn j where he met with great oppofi-
tion from the Papifts, and was in danger from the in-
quilxtion. He died in the year 1714. He publilhed
Lives of the Greek poets; the Roman Antiquities }
a volume of Sermons preached at Leghorn : A tranf-
lation into Englifh of Puffendorf’s Treatife of the Law
of Nature and Nations. He was a man of moll ex¬
emplary integrity, generofity, piety, and modefty.
KENNICOIT, Dr Benjamin, well known in the
learned world for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew
Bible and other valuable publications, was born at
Totnefs in Devonlhire in the year 1718. His father
'■vas the parifh clerk of Totnefs, and once mailer of a
charity fchool in that town. At an early age young
Kennicott fucceeded to the fame employ in the fchool,
being recommended to it by his remarkable fobriety
and premature knowledge. It was in that fituation he
wrote the verfos on the recovery of the honourable
Mrs Courtney from a dangerous illnefs, which recom¬
mended him to her notice, and that of many neigh¬
bouring gentlemen. They, with laudable generofity
opened a fubfcription to fend him to Oxford. In judg¬
ing of this performance^they may be fuppofed to have
conlidered not fo much its intrinfic merit, as the cir-
cumftances under which it was produced. For though
it might claim juft praife as the fruit of youthful in-
duftry ftruggling with obfcurity and indig ence, as a
poem it never rifes_ above mediocrity, and generally
links below it. But in whatever light thefe verfes were
confidered, the publication of them was foon followed
by fuch contributions as procured for the author the
advantagesofan academical education. In theyear 1744
he entered at Wadham college j and it was not long
before he diftinguilhed himfelf in that particular branch
ot ftudy in which he afterwards became fo eminent.
His two differtations on the Tree of Life, and The
violations of Cain and Abel, came to a fecond edition
io early as the year 1747, and procured him the fin-
gular honour of bachelor’s degree conferred on him
grans by the univerfity a year before the ftatutable
, J-h6 difiertations were gratefully dedicated to
thole benefactors whofe liberality had opened his way
to the univerfity, or whofe kindnefs had made it a
440 ] KEN
In fcene not only of manly labour, but of honourable Kennicott.
friendlhip. With fuch merit, and fuch fupport, he'  
was a fuccelsful candidate for a fellowfhip of Exeter
college, and foon after his admiftion into that fociety,
he diftinguilhed himfelf by the publication of feveral
occalional fermons. In the year 1753 he laid the
foundation of that ftupendous monument of learned
induftry, at which the wife and the good will gaze
with admiration, when prejudice, and envy, and in¬
gratitude fliall be dumb. This he did by publilhincr
his firft difleration. On the State of the printed Het
brew text, in which he propofed to overthrow the
then prevailing notion of its abfolute integrity. The
fitft blow indeed, had been ftruck long before, by
Capellus, in his Critic a Sacra, publilhed after his
death by his fon, in 1650—a blow which Euxtorf,
with all his abilities and diale&ical fkill, was unable to
ward off. But Capelins having no opportunity of
confulting MSS. though his arguments were fupported
by the authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch, of pa¬
rallel pafiages, and of the ancient verfions, could ne¬
ver abfolutely prove his point. Indeed the general
opinion was that the Hebrew MSS. contained none.,
or at leaft very few' and trifling variations from the
printed text: and with refpedl to the Samaritan Pen¬
tateuch very differentopinions were entertained. Thofe
w ho held the Hebrew verity, of courfe condemned the
Samaritan as corrupt in every place where it deviated
from the Hebrew ; and thofe who believed the He¬
brew to be incorreft, did not think the Samaritan of
fufficient authority to corre& it. Befides the Samari¬
tan itfelf appeared to very great advantage ; for no
Samaritan MSS. were then known, and the Pentateuch
itfelf was condemned for thofe errors which ought ra¬
ther to have been aferib'ed to the incorreanefs of the
editions. In this differtation, therefore, Dr Kennicott,
proved that there were many Hebrew MSS. extant’
which, though they had hitherto been generally fup¬
pofed to agree with each other, and with the Hebrew
text, yet contained many and important various read-
ings j and that from thofe various readings confider-
able authority was derived in fupport of the ancient
verfions. He announced the exiftence of fix Samari¬
tan MSS. in Oxford only, by which many errors in
the printed Samaritan might be removed 5 and he at¬
tempted to prove, that even from the Samaritan, as it
was already printed, many paffages in the Hebrew
might undoubtedly be correfted. This work, as it
was reafonable to expedft, was examined with great fe-
verity both at home and abroad. In fome foreign uni-
verlities the belief of the Hebrew verity, on its being
attacked by Capellus, had been infifted on as an arti¬
cle of faith.—7/7^ Capelli fententia adco non approbata
fuit fidei fociisj ut potius He/vetii theologi, et fpeciatim
Genevenfes, anno 1678, peculiari canone caverint, ne
quis in ditionefuo minifler ecclefce recipiatur, niji fatea-
tur publicc, textutn Ilebrceum, ut hodie eft in exemplari-
bus hi afore has, quoad confonantes ct vocales, divinum
et authenticum ejfe, (Wolfii Biblioth. Heb. tom. ii. p,
27.). And at home this do&rine of the corrupt ftate
of the Hebrew text was oppofed by Comings and Bate,
two Hutchinfonians, with as much violence as if the
w hole truth of revelation were at flake.
The next three or four years of Dr Kennicott’s life
w-ere principally fpent in fearching out and examining
Hebrew
KEN [ 441 ] KEN
Kennlcott. Hebrew manufcripts, though he found leifure not only
to preach, but to publifh feveral occafional fermons.
About this time Dr Kennicott became one of the king’s
resellers at Whitehall 5 and in the year 1759 we find
im vicar of Culham in Oxfordshire. In January 1760
he published his fecond differtation on the Slate of the
Hebrew Text : in which, after vindicating the autho¬
rity and antiquity of the Samaritan Pentateuch, he dif-
anned the advocates for the Hebrew verity of one of
their moft Specious arguments. They had obferved
that the Chaldee Paraphrafe having been made from
Hebrew MSS. near the time of Chrift, its general
coincidence with the prefent Hebrew Text muSt evince
the agreement of this lad with the MSS. from which
the paraphrafe was taken. Dr Kennicott demonstrated
the fallacy of this reafoning, by Showing that the Chal¬
dee Paraphrafe had been frequently corrupted, in order
to reconcile it with the printed text ; and thus the wea¬
pons of his antagonists wrere fuccefsfully turned upon
themfelves. He appealed alfo to the writings of the
Jews themfelves on the Subject of the Hebrew' Text,
and gave a compendious history of it from the clofe of
the Hebrew canon down to the invention of printing,
together with a defeription of 103 Hebrew manuicripts
which he had difeovered in England, and an account
of many others preferved in various parts of Europe.
A collation of the Hebrew manufcripts was now loudly
Called for by the moft learned and enlightened of the
friends of -biblical criticifm ; and in this fame year
(1760) Dr Kennicott emitted his propofals for collat¬
ing all the Hebrew’ manufcripts prior to the invention
of printing, that could be found in Great Britain and
Ireland, and for procuring at the fame time as many
collations of foreign manufcripts of note, as the time
and money he Should receive would permit. His find
fubferibers were the learned and pious ArchbiShop
Seeker, and the delegates of the Oxford prefs, who,
with that liberality which has generally marked their
character, gave him an annual fubfeription of 40!. In
the firff year the money received was about 500 gui¬
neas, in the next it arofe to 900, at which fum it con¬
tinued ftationary till the tenth year, when it amounted
to 1003. During the progrefs of this work, the irduf-
try of our author was rewarded by a canonry of Christ
Church. He was alfo prefen ted, though we know not
exactly when, to the valuable living of Mynhenyote,
in Cornwall, on the nomination of the chapter of Exe¬
ter. In 1776 the find volume was published, and in
1780 the whole was completed. If now we confider
that above 600 MSS. wrere collated, and that the whole
work occupied 20 years of Dr Kennicott’s life, it muSt
be owned that facred criticifm is more indebted to him
than to any fcholar of any age. Within two years of
his death, he refigned his living in Cornwall, from
confcientious motives, on account of his not having a
profpeff of ever again being able to vifit his parifh.
Although many good and confcientious men may juifly
think, in this cafe, that his profedional labours carried
on elfewhere might properly have entitled him to retain
this preferment, and may apply this reafoning in other
cafes ; yet a condufd fo Signally disinterested deferves
certainly to be admired and celebrated. Dr Kennicott
diet at Oxford, after a lingering illnefs, September 18.
1783 ; and left a widow, who was filter to the late Ed¬
ward Chamberlayne, Efq. of the treafury. At the
Vol. XI. Part II.
time of his death he was employed in printing Remarks Kennicott
on Select PaSTages in the Old Teftament ; which were ^ ^
afterwards published, the volume having been comple- ^nin®-
ted from his papers. v—
KENO. See Kino.
KENRICK, William, an author of considerable
abilities, was the fon of a citizen of London, and
brought up, it is faid, to a mechanical employment,
Thi«, however, he feems early to havt abandoned ; and
to have devoted his talents to the cultivation of letters,
by which he fupported himfelf during the reft of a life
which might be laid to have pafled in a ftate of warfare,
as he wa» feldom without an enemy to attack or to de¬
fend himfelf from. He was for feme time Student at
Leyden, where he acquired the title of J. U. D. Not
long after his return to England, he fit ured away as a
poet in Epiftles Philofophical and Moral, 1759, ad-
dreffed to Lorenzo j an avowed defence of infidelity,
written whilst under confinement for debt, and with a
declaration that he was “ much lefs ambitious of the
character of a poet than of a philofopher.” From this
period he became a writer by profeSlion •, and the Pro¬
teus Shapes under which he appeared, it would be a
fruitlefs attempt to trace. He was for a considerable
time a writer in the Monthly Review • but quarrelling
with his principal, began a new review of his own.
When our great lexicographer’s edition of Shakefpeare
firft appeared in 1765, it was followed in a fortnight by
a pamphlet, entitled, “ A Review of Dr Johnfon’s new
Edition of Shakefpeare, in which the ignorance or in¬
attention of that editor is expofed, and the poet defend¬
ed from the perfecution of his commentators, 1765.”
This pamphlet was followed by an examination of it,
and that by a Defence in 1766 ; in w hich year he pro¬
duced his pleafant comedy of Falftaff’s Wedding, at
firft intended to have been given to the public as an
original play of Shakefpeare retrieved from obfeurity,
and is. it mult be acknowledged, a happy imitation of
our great dramatic bard. With the celebrated Englifh
Rofciu.- Dr Kenrick was at one time on terms of the
ftrifteft intimacy : but took occafion to quarrel with
him in print, in a mode too unmanly to be mentioned.
In politics alfo he made himfelf not a little confpicu-
ous ; particularly in the difpute between his friends
Wilkes and Horne. He w’as the original editor of The
Morning Chronicle \ whence being outled for negledl,
he let up a new’ one in oppofition. He tranflated in
a very able manner the Emilius and the Eloifa of
RouSTeau 5 the Elements of the Hiftory of England,
by Milot (to injure, if pollible, a translation o{ the
fome work by Mrs Brooke) ; and produced feveral
dramatic performances, together with an infinite vai ie y
of publications both original and translated. To him
alfo the public are indebted for the collection (imp. r-
feft as it is) of the Poetical works of Robert L oyd,
M. A. 1774, 2 vols 8vo Dr Kenrick, died June 9.
*777*
KENSINGTON, a village of Middlefex, on the
weftern road from London, near two miles from Hyde-
Pa;k Corner. It is extremely populous ; and befides
the palace, now negleCted, contains many genteel
houfes and feveral boarding fchools. The palace,
which w’as the feat of the lord chancellor Finch, af¬
terwards earl of Nottingham, was purchased by Kmg
William j who greatly improved it, and cauled a royal
3 K road
KEN
Kenfing-
ton,
Kent.
[ 442 ]
KEN
road to be made to it, through St James’s and Hyde
Parks, with lamp polls eredted at equal diftances on
     each fide. Queen Mary enlarged the gardens. Her
filler Queen Anne improved what Mary had begun $
and was fo pleafed with the place, that file frequently
fupped during the fummer in the greenhoufe, which
is a very beautiful one : but Queen Caroline completed
the defign by extending the gardens from the great
road in Kenfington to Adlion j by bringing 'what is
calied the Serpentine river into them ; and by taking
in fome acres out of Hyde Park, on u;hich file caufed a
mount to be eredled, with a chair on it that could be
eafily turned round for Ihelter from the wind, fince
decayed. This mount is planted about with ever¬
greens, and commands a fine view over the noble gar¬
dens, and the country fouth and well. They were
originally defigned by Kent, and were afterwards
much improved by Brown ; and though they contain
no linking beauties, which their flat fituation will not
admit, yet they have many pleafing parts, and afford
much delight to the inhabitants of London, particu¬
larly to thofe whofe profeflions will not allow of fre¬
quent excurfions to more dillant places. Thefe gar¬
dens, which are three miles and a half in compafs, are
kept in great order. The palace indeed has none of
that grandeur which ought to appear in the refidence
of a Britifh monarch 5 but the royal apartments are
noble, and fome of the piftures good. It was at this
place King William, Prince George of Denmark,
Queen Anne, and King George II. died. The old
church w'as pulled down in 1696, and a much better
one built in its room. Part of this village, from the
palace gate to the Bell, is in the parifh of St Marga¬
ret’s, Weftminfter. The population of Kenfington in
1801 was eftimated at 8556.
KENT, one of the counties of England, fituated
at the fouth-eafi: corner of the ifland, and from thence
enjoying many advantages. The capacious aeftuary of
the Thames wafhes its northern parts, as the fea does
the fouth-eaft ; whence fome with no great impro¬
priety have ftyled it a peninfula. In point of extent,
this is the fifth (hire in South Britain, little lefs in its
dimenfions than the province of Holland ; larger in
fize than the duchy of Juliers in Germany ; and almoft
exadlly equal to that of Modena in Italy Kent is,
•with great appearance of truth, fuppofed to be fo
ftyled from the ancient Britith word kant, fignifying a
corner, or, when applied to a country, a head-land.
It is certain, that the Romans beftowed the name of
Cantium on the province, and on its moft confpicueus
promontory the North Foreland ; and from the diftridl
they inhabited, the people were called Cantu; which
has prevailed even to our times, when Kent, and the
the men of Kent, are the common appellatives. It is
however probable, that thefe Cantii were not the ori¬
ginal inhabitants, but a later colony from thje'bppo-
fite continent, eftablifiied here, like the Belgae, not
long before the Roman invafion. At the time of Cae-
far’s coming, this fpacious and fertile region was di¬
vided into four principalities, or, as they are, accord¬
ing to the manners of thofe days, commonly called,
Campbell's kingdoms. It was his obfervatien of thefe people, that
Political ^py were particularly diftinguilhed by their civility
and politenefs ; a charafter which their defendants
have preferved. When that wife people became ma-
Hhirney.
fters of the fouthern parts of the ifiand, this province
received the moft confpicuous marks of their attention,v
as appears from the Rations which they fo prudently
eftablilhed, while their government fiourilhed in its
full vigour. The care they took of the ports on the
fea coaft as foon as it came to be in danger, and the
feveral fortreffes which they ere & fed for the defence of
their fubje&s againft the fudden attempts of barba¬
rous invaders, are evidences of the fame kind. Thefe
forts, fo prudently difpofed, and fo well fecured, were
under the direction of a particular great officer, called
Littoru Saxonici Comes, i. e. the count of the Saxon
ffiore 5 which office feems to have been preferved by
the Britiffi monarchs who governed here, after the Ro¬
mans quitted the ifle. The Saxon kings of Kent dif-
charged this truft in their legal capacity, from th®
middle of the fifth to the beginning of the ninth cen¬
tury. Under the northern princes, this poll was again
revived, though with a change of title, in the Lord
Warden of the Cinque Ports. Indeed, under all govern¬
ments, the people of Kent have been efpecially confi-
dered 5 as appears from their claim to the poll of ho¬
nour in our land armies, and the privileges granted to
their havens, in confideration of their undertaking the
defence of our channel.
As to the climate of this county, it varies accord¬
ing to the fituation of places. In the low fiat lands,
and efpecially in the marffies, the air is heavy, moift,
and unhealthy j and yet not to fuch a degree as it has
been fometimes reprefented ^ for, with a little care and
caution, ftrangers, as well- as natives, quickly reconcile
their conftitutions to the temperature even of thefe
parts, and live in them without much inconveniency
or apparent danger. But, in reference to the reft of
the county, the air is as thin, pure, and wholefome, as
in any part of Britain. There is no region more hap¬
pily or more beautifully diverfified in regard to foil, fo
that every kind thereof is, fomewhere or other, to be
met within its bounds \ and in no Afire are any of
thefe foils more fertile than they are in this. The
Weald yields vaiiety of fine tifnber, particularly of
chefnut \ the middle part has very rich arable land,
annually bearing every fpecies of grain in immenfe
plenty, and thefe excellent in their feveral forts. There
are alfo many beautiful orchards, which produce a va¬
riety of fine fruits, and more efpecially apples and cher¬
ries, which were introduced here from Flanders by
one Richard Harris, who was the king’s fruiterer, in
the reign of Henry VIII, The flat country is re¬
nowned for its meadows ; and Rumney marffi has
hardly its equal. We may from this concife deferip-
tion very eafily collect, that the natural products of
Kent are numerous, and of great value. In the
bowels of the earth they find, in feveral places, a rough
hard ferviceable ftone for paving, which turns to fomc
advantage 5 but not fo much as their exquifite fullers
earth, rich marl, and fine chalk, which are there in
abundance. If wre except iron ore, indeed they have
no mines ; but there are prodigious heaps of copperas
ftones thrown on the coaft. The ifle of Sheppey, and
all the adjacent ffiore as far as Reculver, is juitly fa¬
mous for its wheat. Thanet is in no lefs credit for its
barley, or rather was fo; for now it produces, through
the painful induftry and Ikilful huffiandry of its inha¬
bitants, copious crops of good wheat as well as bar¬
ley*
Kent,
KEN [ 443 1 KEN
Kent. ley. Horfes, black cattle, and fheep, they have in great
u—-y—numbers, and remarkable in point of lize $ and hop
grounds in all parts of the county, which turn to very
confiderable account. To which we may add weld,
or as fome call it dyers weed, which is a very pro-
fitable commodity, and of which there grows much in
the neighbourhood of Canterbury ; alfo madder, which
is, or has been, occaiionally cultivated. The rivers
and fea coafts abound with fiflr of different kinds. The
excellency of its oyfters on the eaftern flrores is cele¬
brated by the Roman poets. Thofe of Feveriham and
Milton are not only in great efteem at the London
market, but are likewife fent in great quantities to
Holland.
The many rich commodities produced in this coun¬
ty, is the reafon why mod of our writers have repre-
fented it as in a manner void of manufactures •, which,
however, as appears upon a ftri£t and impartial exami¬
nation, is very far from being the cafe. Of iron works
there w'ere anciently many ; and there are dill fome,
where kettles, bombs, bullets, cannon, and fuch like,
are made. At Deptford, Sir Nicholas Crifpe had in
his lifetime a very famous copperas work ; as, indeed,
there that ingenious gentleman, one of the greateft im¬
provers and one of the mod public fpirited perfons this
nation ever bred, introduced feveral other inventions.
Copperas was alfo formerly made, together with brim-
jPhilofoph. done, in the ifle of Sheppeyf. But the original and
Tranjatt. for many ages the principal manufadture of this county
N° xhi. was broa(} doth of different colours, edablifhed chiefly
t’ at Cranbrook by King Edward III. who brought over
Flemings to improve and perfedl (the trade being in¬
troduced long before) his fubjefts in that important art.
At this and other places it flouriftied fo much, that even
at the clofe of Queen Elizabeth’s reign, and according
to fome accounts much later, the bed for home con-
fumption, and the larged quantities for exportation,
were wrought here •, many fulling mills being eredled
upon almod every river, and the greated plenty of ex¬
cellent fullers earth affording them Angular aflidance j
infomuch that it is dill a tradition, that the yeomanry
of this county, for which it has been ever famous, w'ere
modly the defcendants of rich clothiers, who laid out
the money acquired by their indudry in the purchafe
of lands, which they tranfmitted, with their free and
Independent fpirit, to their poderity. Tire duke of
Alva’s perfecution of the Protedants in the Low Coun¬
tries drove a multitude of Walloons over hither, who
brought with them that ingenuity and application for
which they had been always didinguifhed. Thefe di¬
ligent and aflive people fettled a manufactory of flan¬
nel or baize at Sandwich. By them the filk looms were
fet up at Canterbury, where they dill fubfid ; and they
alfo introduced the making of thread at Maiddone,
where it yet remains, and merits more notice and en¬
couragement than hitherto it has met with.
UP on the river Dart, at the confluence of which
with the Thames dands the town of Dartford, was
fet up, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the fird mill
for making white paper by Mr John Spilman, a Ger¬
man, upon whom, long after, King James conferred
the honour of knighthood •, but King Charles more
fendbly bedowed upon this Sir John Spilman a patent
and a penfion of 200I. a-year, as a reward of his in¬
vention, and for the fupport of the manufaCIure. A-
bout the year 1590, Godfrey Box, a German, erecteu Lent
upon the fame river the fird flitting mill which was ^
ever ufed for making iron wire 5 and alfo the fivfl bat- C
tory mill for making copper plates. Other new in¬
ventions, requiring the aflidance of water, have been
fet up on other dreams; and a great variety of ma¬
chines of this fort dill fubfid in different parts of this
county. But thefe things are now fo common, that
it would be both tedious and uielefs to infid upon
them. Amongd thefe, we may reckon the making
gunpowder in feveral places. That manufacture, how¬
ever, which is nowr the glory of this county, and in¬
deed of Britain, is {hip-building 5 more efpecially at
the royal yards j as at Woolwich, which was fettled
by Henry VIII. and fome confiderable fhips built
there. At prefent, there is not only a mod complete,
edablidiment for the building and equipping men of
war, a rope w'alk, foundery, and magazines j but alfo
many private docks, in which prodigious bufmefs is car¬
ried on, and multitudes of people are-employed. The
population of this county in 1801 was more than
307,000.
The Goodwin or Godwin Sands, of which the ac¬
count and the reference were omitted under the word,
are remarkable land banks off the coad of Kent, fitu-
ated between the North and South Foreland. As they
run parallel with the coad for nine miles together,
about feven miles and a half from it, they give fecurity
to that extenfive coad, the Downs j for while the land
flickers (hips with the wind from fouth-wed to north-
wed only, the force of the fea is broken by thefe fands
when the wind is at ead-fouth-ead. The mod dan¬
gerous wind when blowing hard in the Downs, is the
fouth-fouth-wed. The fpace they occupy was formerly
a large tra£l of low ground, belonging to Godwyn earl
of Kent, father of Harold II. ; and being afterwards
enjoyed by the monadery of St Augudine at Canter¬
bury, the whole traft was drowned by the abbot’s ne~
gleft to repair the wall which defended it from the fea.
This happened in the year 1100. Many veffels have
been wrecked upon them. They lie ead from the
Downs, four miles and a half from South Foreland.
KENTIGERN, St, or St Muisgo, a famous faint
of the Popifli church, who flouridied in Scotland in the
fixth century, faid to have been of the royal blood of
both Scots and Pifts, being the fon of Thametis, the
daughter of Loth king of the Piets, by Eugene III.
king of Scotland. The bifhoprics of Glafgow and St
Afaph were founded by him in 560. He obtained the
appellation of Mungo from the affection of his tutor St
Serf or Servanus, bifhop of Orkney, who called him
Mongah, which in the Norwegian language, fignifies
dear friend.
KENTISH TOWN, a village of Middlefex, three
miles north of London, near Hampdead, much impro¬
ved of late by feveral handfome houfes belonging to the
citizens of London, &c. A new chapel has lately
been eredted here.
KENTUCKY, a province of North America, be¬
longing at prefent to the date of Virginia, but propofed
foon to be admitted into the union as an independent
date. It is fltuated between 36° 30' and 390 30' north
latitude, and 8° and 150 wed longitude j being 250
miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It is bounded
north-weft by the river Ohio j weft, by Cumberland
3 K 2 river 5
KEN [ 444 ] KEN
Kentucky, river j fouth, by North Carolina ; eaft, by Sandy ri-
Vj""' v ~'"u ver, and a line drawn due fouth from its fource till it
ftrik.es the northern boundary of North Carolina.
Kentucky was originally divided into two counties,
Lincoln and Jefferlon. It has fince been fubdivided in¬
to feven, viz. Jefferfon, Fayette, Bourbon, Mercer,
Nelfon, Maddifon, and Lincoln. Lexington is the
chief town.
Th e river Ohio wafties the north weftern fide of Ken¬
tucky, in its whole extent. Its principal branches
which water this fertile trad! of country, are Sandy,
Licking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, and Cumberland
rivers. Thefe again branch, in various direftions, into
rivulets of different magnitudes, fertilizing the country
in all its parts.—Ihere are five noted fait fprings or
licks in thb country, viz. the higher and lower Blue
Springs on Licking river, from feme of which, it is
faid, iffue ftreams of brinifh water ; the Big Bene lick,
Drennon’s licki, and Bullet’s lick at Saltfburg. The
laft of thefe licks, though in low order, has fupplied
this county and Cumberland with fait at twenty (hil¬
lings the bufhel, Virginia currency ; and fome is ex¬
ploited to the Illinois country. The method of procur¬
ing water from thefe licks is by finking wells from 30
to 40 feet deep. The water drawn from thefe wells is
more ftrongly impregnated with fait than the water from
the fea.
This whole country, as far as has yet been difeover-
ed, lies upon a bed of limeftone, which in general is
about fix feet below the furface, except in the valleys,
where the foil is much thinner. A trad! of about 20
miles wide along the banks of the Ohio is hilly broken
land, interfperfed with many fertile fpots. The reft of
the country is agreeably uneven, gently afcending and
defeending at no great diftances. This country in ge¬
neral is well timbered ; and fuch is the variety and
beauty of the flowering ftirubs and plants which grow
fpontaneoufly in it, that in the proper feafon the wilder-
nefs appears in bloffom. The accounts of the fertility
of the foil in this country have in fome inftances ex¬
ceeded belief, and probably have been exaggerated.
That fome parts of Kentucky, particularly "the high
grounds, are remarkably good, all accounts agree.
The lands of the firft rate are too rich for wheat, and
will produce 50 and 60, and in fome inftances it is af¬
firmed 100 bufltels of good corn an acre. In common
the land will produce 30 bufhels of wheat or rye an
acre. Barley, oats, cotton, flax, hemp, and vegeta¬
bles of all kind- common in this climate, yield abund¬
antly. The old Virginia planters fay, that, if the cli¬
mate does not prove too moift, few foils known will
yield more and better tobacco. The climate is healthy
and delightful, fome few p aces in the neighbourhood
of ponds and low' grounds excepted. The inhabitan's
do not experience the extremes of heat and cold. Snow
feldom falls deep or lies long. The winter, which be¬
gins about Ch rift mas, is never longer than three months,
and is commonly but two, and is fo mild as that cattle
can ftibfift without fodder.
It is impoffible to afcertain wuth any degree of accu¬
racy the prefent number of inhabitants, owing to the
nume 1 ous acceffions which are made almoft every
month. In 1783, in the county of Lincoln only, there
were on the militia rolls 3370 men, chiefly emigrants
fjrom the lower parts of Virginia. In 1784, the num¬
ber of inhabitants was reckoned at upwards of 30,000.Kentucky.
I*rom the accounts of their aftoniftung increafe fince, v—1
we may nowr fafely eftimate them at 100,000. It is
afferted that at leaft 20,000 migrated here in the year
1787. 1 hefe people, colledled from different ftates, of
different manners, cuftoms, religions, and political fen,
timents, have not been long enough together to form a
uniform and diftinguiihing charadter. Among the let-
tiers there are many gentlemen of abilities, and many
genteel families from feveral of the ftates, who give dig¬
nity and refpt (Stability to the fettlement. They are in
general more orderly perhaps than any people who have
fettled a new country.
As to religion, the Baptifts are the moft numerous
fedl in Kentucky. In 1789 they had 16 churches
eftablifhed, befides feveral congregations w here churches
were not conftituted. Thefe were fupplied with up¬
ward-. of 30 minifters or teachers. There are feveral
large congregations of Prefbyterians, and fome few of
other denominations.
j he legiflature of Virginia have made provifion fur
a college in Kentucky, and have endowed it with very
confiderable landed funds. Schools are eftablifhed in
the fevernl towns, and in general regularly and hand-
fomely fupported. They have a printing office, and
publiffi a weekly gazette. They have ere died a paper-
mill, an oil-mill, fulling-mills, faw-mills, and a great
number of valuable grift-mills. Their fait works are
more than fufficient to fupply all the inhabitants at a
low price. 1 hey make confiderable quantities of fugar
from the fugar trees. Labourers, particularly tradef-
men, are exceeedingly w anted here.
I he firft w hite man who difeovered this province
was one .Tames Macbride, in the year 1754. From
this period it remained unexplored till about the. year
1767, when one John Finley and fome others, trading
with the Indians, fortunately travelled ever the fertile
region now called Kentucky, then but known to the
Indians by the name of the Dark and Bloody Grounds,
and fometimes the Middle Ground. This country
greatly engaged Mr Finley’s attention, and he commu¬
nicated his difeovery to Colonel Daniel Boon, and a
few' more, w ho conceiving it to be an interefting objeft,
agreed in the year 1769 to undertake a journey in or¬
der to explore it. After a long fatiguing march over a
mountainous wildernefs, in a weftward direction, they
at length arrived upon its borders ; and from the top of
an eminence, with joy and wonder deferied the beauti¬
ful landfcape of Kentucky. Flere they encamped, and
fome went to hunt provifions, which were readily pro¬
cured, there being plenty of game, while Colonel Boon
and John Finley made a tour through the country,
which they found far exceeding their expectations ;
and returning to camp, informed their companions of
thtir difeoveries. But in fpite of this promifing be¬
ginning, this company meeting with nothing but hard-
fti ps and adverfity, grew exceedingly diffieartened,
and was plundered, difperfed, and killed by the In¬
dians, except Colonel Boon, who continued an inhabi¬
tant of the wildernefs until the year 1771, when he re¬
turned home.
Colonel Henderfon of North Carolina being in¬
formed of this country by Colonel Boon, he and fome
other gentlemen held a treaty with the Cherokee In¬
dians at Vvataga in March 1775, and then purchafed
frotu.
K E P T 44
Kentucky, from them tlie lands lying on the fouth fide of Ken-
Kepler. tucky river for goods at valuable rates, to the amount
U—^ of 6000L fpeeie.
Soon after this purchafe, the ftate of Virginia took
the alarm, agreed to pay the money Colonel Donald-
fon had contratted for, and then dilputed Colonel
Henderfon’s right of purchafe, as a private gentleman
of another ftate in behalf of himfelf. However, for
his eminent fervices to the country, and for having
been indrumental in making fo valuable an acquifition
to Virginia, that ftate was pleafed to reward him with
a traft of land at the mouth of Green river, to the
amount of 200,000 acres : and the ftate of North Ca¬
rolina gave him the like quantity in Powel’s \ alley.
This region was formerly claimed by various tribes of
Indians ; whofe title, if they had any, originated in
fuch a manner as to render it doubtful which ought to
poffefs it. Hence this fertile fpot became an objeft of
contention, a theatre of war, from which it was pro¬
perly denominated the Bloody Grounds. Iheir con¬
tentions not being likely to decide the right to any par¬
ticular tribe, as loon as Mr Henderfon and his friends
propofed to purchafe, the Indians agreed to fell j and
notwithftanding the valuable confideration they receiv¬
ed, have continued ever fince troublefome neighbours
to the new fettlers.
The progrefs in improvements and cultivation which
has been made in this country, almoft exceeds belief.
In the period of eleven years from the time that Ken¬
tucky was covered with forefts, and inhabited only by
wild beafts, and notwithftanding the oppolition of the
weftern Indians, (he exhibits an extenftve fettlement,
divided into feven large and populous counties, in w hich
are a number of flourilhing little towns, containing
more inhabitants than are in Georgia, Delaware, or
Rhode 111 and ftates ; and nearly as many as in New
Hamplhire.
KEPLER, Johnt, one of the moft eminent aftrono-
mers who have appeared in any age, was born at Wit 1
on the 27th of December 1571. His father’s name
was Henry Kepler, an officer of diftin&ion among the
troops of Wirtemberg, but reduced to poverty by nu¬
merous misfortunes. This expofed young Kepler to
many difficulties and interruptions while acquiring the
rudiments of his education j but fuch was his genius,
and fuch his avidity for knowledge, that he furmounted
every difficulty, and his proficiency w;as aftonifhing.
He ftudied at the univerfity of Tubingen, where he ob¬
tained the degree of bachelor in the year 1588, and
that of mailer of philofophy in 1591. In the year
1592 he applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity •, and
the fermons he produced were fufficient indications that
he would have excelled as a preacher, had he continued
in the clerical profeffion. The mathematics, however,
became his favourite ftudy, for his knowledge of which
he acquired fuch diftinguilhed reputation, that he was
invited to Gratz in Styria in the year 1594, to fill the
mathematical chair in the univerfity of that city. After
this period his chief attention was dire&ed to the ftudy
of aftronomy, and he made many interefting difcoveries
refpe&ing the laws of planetary motions.
Two years after his marriage with a lady defcended
from a noble family, perfecution on account of his reli¬
gion compelled him to quit Gratz, to which he was af¬
terwards recalled by the ftates of Styria. The calatni-
3
5 1 K E P
ties of war, however, induced him to look for a refi- Kepler,
dence where he might enjoy greater fafety and tranquil- v “
lity. During this uncomfortable fituation of affairs, the
celebrated Tycho Brahe ftrongly urged him to fettle in
Bohemia as his affiftant, where he himfelf had every ne-
ceffary requifite furniffied to him by the emperor Ro-
dolph for the profecution of his aftronomical Rudies.
The numerous and urgent letters which Kepler receiv¬
ed upon this fubjedl, and folemn affuvances that he
fliould be introduced to the emperor, at length prevail¬
ed with him to leave the univerfity, and iettle in Bohe¬
mia with his family in the year 1600. On his way to
that country he was feized w ith a quartan ague, which
afflicted him for feven or eight months, and rendered
him incapable of contributing that aid to Tycho which
he would otherwife have done. He was likewife dif-
pleafed with the conduct: of this aftronomer towards
him, and thought that he behaved in an unfriendly
manner, by ntglefting to do a material fervice to his
family when he had it in his power. Kepler alfo con-
fidered him as by far too referved, in not communicating
to him the whole of his difcoveries and improvements.
The death of Tycho happened in 1601 j and thus the
intercourfe between thefe two eminent men beingof fuch
fhort duration, precluded Kepler either from being very
ferviceable to, or deriving much advantage from, the
inveftigations and refearches of the Daniih aftronomer.
Kepler, however, was introduced to the emperor by
Tycho, in conformity to his promife, and appointed
mathematician to his imperial majefty, with inftruftions
to complete the Rodulphine TL ables which that great
man had begun. Theie were not publiffied till the
year 1627, owing to a variety of obftruftions and diffi¬
culties which were thrown in his wray. iwo years af¬
ter the publication of this work, he went to Ratifbon,
by permiffion of the emperor, to claim payment of the
arrears of his penfton, where he was feized with a vio¬
lent fever, fuppofed to have been brought upon him
by too hard riding •, and to this he fell a v.ftim in
the month of November 1630, in the 59th year of
his age.
The learned world is indebted to this fagacious and
able aftronomer and mathematician for the difcovery of
the true figure of the planetary orbits, and the propor¬
tions of the motions of the folar fyftem. Like the dif-
ciples of Pythagoras and Plato, Kepler was feized w ith
a peculiar paffion for finding analogies and harmonies
in nature ; and although this led him to the adoption
of very ftrange and ridiculous conceits, we ftiall readily
be difpofed to overlook thefe, when we reflect that they
were the means of leading him to the moft interefting
difeoveries. Pie was for feme time lo charmed with the
whimfical notions contained in his Mystenum Cofmo-
graphicum, publiftied in 159^5 that he declared he w ould %
not give up the honour of having invented what was
contained in that book for the deflorate of Saxony ;—■
fo eafy is it for the greateft of men to be deceived by
a darling hypothefis.
He was the firft who difcovered that aftronomers had
been invariably miftaken in always afcribing circular
orbits and uniform motions to the planets, ftnce each of
them moves in an ellipfis, having one of its foci in the
fun ; and, after a variety of fruitlefs efforts, he, on the
15th of May 1618, made his Iplendid dtfc every “ that
the fquares of the periodic times of the planets were al¬
ways
K E R [ 4,
ICepier ways in the fame proportion as the cubes of their mean
,Ferckr n ^^ances from fun.” As it was long a favourite
» '' ~ opinion of Kepler’s, that there are only lix primary pla¬
nets, he feems to have been alarmed at the difcovery
made by Galileo, of four new planets, or fatellites of
Jupiter, which gave a deathblow to the doctrines con¬
tained in his Mysterium Cofmographicum. T he fagacity
of this wonderful man, and his incefl’ant application to
the ftudy of the planetary motions, pointed out to him
fome of the genuine principles from, which thefe motions
originate. He confidered gravity as a power that is
mutual between bodies \ that the earth and moon tend
towards each other, and would meet in a point, fo many
times nearer to the earth than to the moon, as the
earth is greater than the moon, if their motions did not
prevent it. His opinion of the tides was, that they arife
from the gravitation of the waters towards the moon j
but his notions of the laws of motion not being accu¬
rate, he could not turn his thoughts to the befl advan¬
tage. The predidtion he uttered at the end of his epi¬
tome of aftronomy, has been long fince verified by the
difcoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton, that the difcovery of
fueh things (the true laws of gravity) was referved for
the fucceeding age, when the Author of nature would
be pleafed to reveal thofe myfteries.
To this concife account of the celebrated Kepler, we
ftiall now' add a lift of his principal publications. My-
Jlerium Cofmographicum, already mentioned, 410 ; Pa-
ralipomena ad Vitelhonem, quibus AJlrotiomicz Pars Op¬
tica traditur, 1604, 410 j De Stella Nova in Pede Ser-
pentarii, 1606, 4to j AJlronomia Nova, feu Physica Cce-
lefis, tradita Cotnmentariis de Motibus Stellce Mortis, ex
Obfervationibus Tyconis Brahei, 1609, folio ; Differta-
tiones cum Nuncio Sidereo Galilei, 1610; De Cometis,
Ubn tres, 1611, 4^° j Ephemerides Novce, from i6iy
to 16205 Epitome Afronomice Copernicance, in two vo¬
lumes 8vo, the firft publilhed in 1618, and the fecond
in 16225 PI or monk cs Mundi, lib. v. 1619, 4105 Chi-
has Logarithmorum in totidem numeros rotundas,
1624, 4to> Supplementum Chiliadis, &c. 1625, 4^5
Tabulce Rodolphince, 1627, folio 5 De Jefu Chrfli Ser-
vatoris anno natalitio, &c. He was alfo the author of
feveral other pieces connected with chronology, the
menfuration of folids, and trigonometry, with a treatife
on dioptrics, an excellent performance for the period
in which he flourilhed.
KERATOPHYTUM, in NaturalHifory, a fpecies
of Gorgonia.—The keratophyta have been called the
frutices coralloides, or fea Ihrubs 5 and are generally
known among naturalifts by the different appellations
of lithophyta, litlioxyla, and keratophyta.—See Gorgo-
nia, Helminthology Index.
^ KERCKRING, Theodore, a famous phyfician of
the 17th century, was born at Amfterdam, and acquired
a great reputation by his difcoveries and his works. He
found out the fecret of foftening amber without depriv¬
ing it of its tranfparency 5 and made ufe of it in cover¬
ing the bodies of curious infers in order to preferve
them. He was a member of the Royal Society of Lon¬
don, and died in 1693 at Hamburgh, where he had
fpent the greateft part of his life, with the title of reft-
dent of the grand duke of Tufcany. His principal works
are, 1. Spicilegmtn anatomicum. 2. Anthropogenic^ ich-
nographia. There is alfo attributed to him an anato¬
mical work, printed in 1671 in folio.
4.6 ] -K E Ft
KERI Cetib, are various readings in the Hebrew Ken
Bible 5 ken fignifies that which is read 5 and cetib that li
which is written. For where any fuch various readings ^eu-'‘
occur, the wrong reading is written in the text, and
that is called the cetib ; and the true reading is written
in the margin, with p under it, and called the keri. It
is generally faid by the Jewifh writers, that thefe cor-
redions were introduced by Ezra 5 but it is moft pro¬
bable, that they had their original from the miftakes
of the tranfcribers after the time of Ezra, and the ob-
fervations and corredions of the Maforites. Thofe Keri
cetibs, which are in the facred books written by Ezra
himfelf, or which were taken into the canon after his
time, could not have been noticed by Ezra himfelf 5
and this affords a prefumption, that the others are of
late date. Thofe words amount to about 1000 5 and
Hr Kennicott, in his Dffertatio Generalis, remarks,
that all of them, excepting 14, have been found in the
text of manufcripts.
KERMAN, the capital city of a province of that
name in Perfia, feated in E. Long. 56. 30. N. Lat.
30. o. The province lies in the fouth part of Perfia,
on the Perfian gulf. The fheep of this country, to¬
wards the latter end of the fpring, fired their wool, and
become as naked as fucking pigs. The principal re¬
venue of the province confifts in thefe fleeces.
KERMES, in Zoology, the name of an infed pro¬
duced in the excrefcences of a fpecies of the oak. See
Coccus.
KERMES Mineral, fo called from its colour, which
refembles that of vegetable kermes, is one of the anti-
monial preparations. See Chemistry and Materia
Medica Index.
_ KERN, or Kerne, a term in the ancient Irilh mili¬
tia, fignifying afoot foldier. Camden tells us, the ar¬
mies of Ireland confifted of cavalry, called galloglajfes;
and infantry, lightly armed, called kernes.—The kernes
bore fwords and darts 5 to the laft were fitted cords, by
which they could recover them after they had been
launched out.
Kernes, in our laws, fignify idle perfons or vaga¬
bonds.
KERRY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Munfter, anciently called Corrigia, or “ the rocky
country,” from Cerrig or Carrie, “ a rock.” It is
bounded by the Shannon, which divides it from Clare
on the north, by Limerick and Cork on the eaft, by
another part of Cork on the fouth, and by the Atlan¬
tic ocean on the weft. The beft town in it is Dingle,
fituated in a bay of the fame name. It comprehends a
great part of the territory formerly called Defmond,
and confifts of very different kinds of foil. The fouth
parts are plain and fertile, but the north full of high
mountains, which, though remarkably wild, produce
a great number of natural euriofities. It contains
636,9°5 Irilh plantation acres, 84 parilhes, 19,400
houfes, and about 107,000 inhabitants. It is about
57 miles long, and from 18 to 40 in breadth, and
lies within N. Lat. 51. 30. and 52. 24. 5 the lon¬
gitude at the mouth of Kenmare river being io° 33^
weft, or 42' 20,/ difference of time with London.
It is the fourth county as to extent in Ireland,
and the fecond in this province 5 but in refpedl to
inhabitants and culture doth not equal many fmaller
counties. In it there are two epifeopa! fees, which
have
K E S
r 447 1
K E W
have been annexed to the bHhopric of Limerick fince
the year 1660, viz. Ardfert and Aghadoe. J he fee
of Ardfert was anciently called the diocefe of Kernj,
and its bilhops were named bilhops of Kernj. Few
mountains in Ireland can vie with thofe in this county
for height j during the greater part of the year their
fides are obfcured by fogs, and it muft be a very fe-
rene day when their tops appear. Iron ore is .to be had
in great plenty in moft of the fouthern baronies. The
principal rivers are the Blackwater, Feale, Gale, and
Brick, Cafhin, Mang, Lea, Fleik, Laun, Carrin, Far-
tin, Inry, and Roughly ; and the principal lake is
Killarney. There are feme good medicinal waters
difeovered in this county 5 particularly Killarney wa¬
ter, Iveragh Spa, Fellofwell, Dingle, Caitlemain, and
Trallee Spas, as alfo a faline fpri.ng at Maherybeg.
Some rare and ufeful plants grow in Kerry, of which
Dr Smith gives a particular account in his hiitory of
that county.
KERSEY, a kind of coarfe woollen cloth, made
chietly in Kent and Devonlhire.
KESITAH. This word is to be met with in Gene-
fis and in Job, and is tranllated in the Septuagint and
Vulgate “ (heep or lambs But the Rabbins and mo¬
dern interpreters are generally of opinion, that kefitah
lignifies rather a piece of money. Bochart and Eugu-
binus are of opinion the Septuagint meant mina-, and
not lambs : in Greek hecatom’ion, Umro^vav, inltead of
bcetrav ap'/nv. Now a mina was worth 60 Hebrew Ihe-
kels, and confequently 61. 16s. lo-t-d. fterling. M. rie
Pelletier of Rouen is of opinion, that kefitah was a
Perfian coin, ftamped on one fide with an archer (Keji~
tah, or Ke/eth, in Hebrew fignifying “ a bow”), and on
the other with a lamb; that this was a gold coin known
in the eaft by the name of a da''ic. Several learned
men, without mentioning the value of the ktfilah, fay
it was a filver coin, the impreffion whereof was a {heep,
for which reafon the Septuagint and Vulgate tranflate
it by this name. Calmet is of opinion, that kefitah was
a purfe of gold or filver. In the eaft they reckon at
prefent by purfes. The word kijla in Chaldee fignifies
“ a rneafure, a veffel.” And Euftathius fays, that
kifta is a Perfian meafure. Jonathan and the Targum
of Jerufalem tranflate kefitah “ a pearl.” (Gen. xxxiii.
19. Job xlii. II ). Or 9I. Englilh, fuppofing, as Dr
Prideaux does, that a fhekel is worth 3s. A daric is
a piece of gold, worth, as Dr Prideaux fays, 25s. Eng-
liih.
KESSEL, a town of Upper Guelderland, in the
Netherlands, with a handfome caflle. It is the chief
town in the territory of the fame name, and feated on
the river Meufe, between Ruremond and Venlo, it be¬
ing about five miles from each. It wa* ceded to the
king of Pruflia by the treaty of Utrecht. E. Long.
6. 13. N. Lat. 4 f. 22.
KESSELDORF, a village of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Upper Saxony, three miles below DrefJen, re¬
markable for the battle gained by the king of Pruflia
over the Saxons, on the 15th of December 1745*
KESTREL, the Engiifti name of a hawk, called
alfo the fiannel and the vo ndhover, and by authors the
tinninculus and chenens. It builds with us in hollow
oaks, and feeds on partridges and other birds. See
Falco, Ornithology Index.
KESWICK, a town of Cumberland, fituated on the
fide of a lake in a fruitful plain, almoft encompafled Kefwick
with mountains, called the Derwent Fells. It was for-
merly a town of good note, but now is much decayed,
However, it is ftill noted for its mines and miners, who
have a convenient fmelting-houfe on the fide of the ri¬
ver Derwent, the ftream of which is fo managed as
to make it work the bellows, hammers, and forge, as
alfo to law boards. There is a workhoufe here for
employing the poor of this parifti and that of Crofs-
thwait. W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 54. 30.
KETCH, a veffel equipped with two mails, viz.
the main-maft and mizen-maft, and ufually from 100
to 250 tons burden.— Ketches are principally ufed as
yachts or as bomb veffels j the former of which are
employed to convey princes of the blood, ambaffadors,
or other great perfonages, from one part to another j
and the latter are ufed to bombard citadels, towns,
or other fortreffes. The bomb ketches are therefore
furnilhed with all the apparatus neceffary for a vigor¬
ous bombardment; they are built remarkably ftrong,
as being fitted with a greater number of riders than
any other veffel of war j and indeed this reinforce¬
ment is abfolutely neceffary to fuftain the violent ftiock
produced by the difeharge of their mortars, which
would otherwife in a very ftrort time fliatter them to
pieces.
KETTLE, in the art of war, a term the Dutch
give to a battery of mortars, becaufe it is iunk under
ground.
Kettle D’-ums, are formed of two large bafins of
copper or brafs rounded at the bottom, and covered
over with vellum or goat fkin, which is kept fall by a
circle of iron, and by feveral holes faftened to the
body of the drum, and a like number of ferews to ferew
up and down, and a key for the purpofe. 1 he twro
bafins are kept faft together by two ftraps of leather
which go through two rings, and a e faftened the
one before and the other behind the pommel of the
kettle drum’s faddle. They have each a banner of filk
or damafk, richly embroidered with the fovereign’s
arms or with thofe of the colonel, and are fringed with
filver or gold ; and, to preferve them in bad weather,
they have each a cover of leather. 1 he drumfth ks
are of crab-tree or of any other hard wood, of eight or
nine inches long, with two knobs fin the ends, which
beat the drum head and caufe the found. 1 he kettle¬
drum with trumpets is the moft martial found of any.
Each regiment of horfe has a pair.
KETTLE Drummer, a man onhorfeback appointed to !
beat the kettle drums, from which he takes his name.
He marches always at the head of the iquadron,
and his poft is oh the right when the fquadron is
drawn up.
KEVELS, in Sh fx building, a frame composed of
two pieces of timber, whole lo - er ends reft in a fort
of ftep or foot, nailed to the (hip’s fide, from whence
the upper ends branch outward into arms or horns, fer-
ving to belay the gnat ropes by which the bottoms of
the main-fail and fore-fail are extended.
KEW, a village of Surry, in England, oppofite to-
Old Brentford, 10 miles weft from London. Here is-
a chapel of eafe er<: (Red at the expence of leveral of the
nobility and gentry in the neighbourhood, on a piece
of ground that was given for that purpofe by the late
Queen Anne. Here the late Mr Molineaux, lecretary
t»
Kew
II
Kev.
KEY [ 448
to the late king, when prince of Wales, had a fine feat
on the Green, which became the refidence of the late
^ prince and princefs of Wales, who greatly improved
both the houfe and gardens j now occupied by his pre-
fent majeity, who has greatly enlarged the gardens,
and formed a junction with them and Richmond gar¬
dens. The gardens of Kew are not very large, nor is
their fituation by any means advantageous, as it is low
and commands no profpefts. Originally the ground
was one continued dead fiat ; the foil was in general
barren, and without either wood or water. With fo
many difad vantages it was not eafy to produce any
thing even tolerable in gardenings but princely muni¬
ficence, guided by a dire&or equally {killed in culti¬
vating the earth and in the politer arts, overcame all
difficulties. What was once a defert is now an Eden.
In 1758, an aft pafled for building a bridge acrofs the
I hames to Kew Green, dnd a bridge was built of
eleven arches; the two piers and their dependant arches
on each fide next the fhore, built of brick and Rone ;
the intermediate arches entirely wood 5 the centre
arch 50 feet wide, and the road over the bridge 30. 
But this bridge was taken down, and in its place a
very elegant one was eredted and completed about the
year 1791.
KEXHOLM, that part of Finland which borders
upon Ruffia. I he lake Ladoga crolfes it, and divides
it into two parts. By the treaty between Ruflia and
Sweden in 1721, the Swedes were obliged to abandon
the belt part to the Ruffians. The country in general
is full of lakes and marffies, thinly inhabited, and bad¬
ly cultivated. Ihe lake above mentioned is 120 miles
in length, and full of fiffi.
Kexholm, or Care/gorod, a town of Ruffia in a
territory of the fame name, not verv large, but well
fortified, and has a ftrong caftle. The houfes are
built with wood. It formerly belonged to the Ruf¬
fians, after which the Swedes had poffeffion of it for a
whole century ; but it was retaken by the Ruffians in
1710. Near it is a confiderable falmon fithery. It is
feated on two ifiands on the north-weft fide of the lake
Ladoga, in E. Long. 30. 25. N. Lat. 61. 12. Near
it is another town called New Kexholm.
KEY, an inftrument for the opening of locks. See
Lock.
L. Molinus has a treatife of keys, Be c/avibus vetc-
rum, printed at Upfal : he derives the Latin name da-
visy from the Greek xAsny, claudo, “ I {hut,” or from
the adverb clam, “ privately j” and adds, that the ufe
of keys is yet unknown in fome parts of Sweden.
The invention'of keys is owing to one Theodore of
Samos, according to Pliny and Polydore Virgil : but
this muft be a miftake, the ufe of keys having been
known before the fiege of Troy •, mention even feems
made of them in the 19th chapter of Genefis.
Molinus is of opinion, that keys at firft only ferved
for the untying certain knots, wherewith they anciently
fecured their doors : but the Laconic keys, he main¬
tains, were nearly akin in ufe to our own j they confift-
ed of three Angle teeth, and made the figure of an E ;
of which form there are ftill fome to be feen in the ca¬
binets of the curious.
I here was another key called SacAavasygat made in the
manner of a male ferew j which had its correfponding
female in a bolt affixed to the door. Key is hence
]
K E Y
become a general name for feveral things ferving to ihut
up or clofe others. See the article Lock.
Key, or Key-fione, of an Arch or Vault, is the laft
ftone placed a-top thereof • which being wider and
luller at the top than bottom, wedges, as it were, and
binds all the reft. Ihe key is different in the differ¬
ent orders: in the Tufcan and Doric it is a plain ftore
only projecting j in the Ionic it is cut and waved
fomewhat after the manner of confoles ; in the Corin¬
thian and Compofite it is a confole enriched with fculp-
ture, foliages, &c. '
^ Key is aifo ufed for ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion j par¬
ticularly for the power of excommunicating and ab-
folving. The Romanifts fay, the pope has the power
of the keys, and can open and ihut paradife a- he
• pleafes j grounding their opinion on that exprt ffion of
Jefus Chriil to Peter, “ I will give thee the keys of the
kingdom of heaven.” In St Gregory we read that
is was the cuftom heretofore for the popes to fend a
golden key to princes, wherein they inclofed a little
of the filings of St Peter’s chains kept with a world of
devotion at Rome j and that thefe keys were worn in
the bolom, as being fuppofed to contain fome wonder¬
ful virtues.
Key is aifo ufed for an index or explanation of a ci¬
pher. See Cipher.
Kei a of an Organ, Harp/ichord, &c. thofe little pieces
in the fore part of thofe inftruments, by means whereof
the jacks play fo as to ftrike the ftrings. Thefe are
in number 28 or 29. In large organs there are feveral
fets of the keys, lome to play the fecondary organ,
fome for the main body, feme for the trumpet, and
fome for the echoing trumpet, &c. : in fome there are
but a pai t that play, and the reft are only for orna¬
ment. There are 20 flits in the large keys which make
half notes. See the article Organ, &c.
Key, in Mufic, a certain fundamental note or tone,
to which the whole piece, be it in cantata, fonata, con¬
certo, &c. is accommodated, and with which it ufually
begins but always ends.
Key, or %uay, a long wharf, ufually built of ftone,
by the fide of a harbour or river, and having feveral
ftorehoufes for the convenience of lading and dif-
charging merchant fliips. It is accordingly furniflied
with pofts and rings, whereby they are fecured j to¬
gether with cranes, capfterns, and other engines, to
lift the goods into or out of the veffels which lie along-
fide. °
The verb ccjare, in old writers, according to Scali-
ger, fignifies to keep in or refrain; and hence came
our term key or quay, the ground where they are made
being bound in with planks and pofts.
Keys are aifo certain funken rocks lying near the
furface of the water, particularly in the Weft Indies.
KEYNSHAM, a town of Somerfetffiire, 116 miles
from London. It is a great thoroughfare in the lower
road between Batn and Briftol, I hey call it prover-
bially frnohy Keynfham, and with equal reafon they
might call ^foggy. It has a fine large church, a ftone
bridge of 13 arches over the Avon to Gloucefterfliire,
and another over the river Chew. Its chief trade is
malting. It has a charity fcliool, a weekly market,
and three fairs.
KEYSER’s Pills, a celebrated mercurial medicine,
the method of preparing which was purchafed by the
French
Key
il
Key fees
phis.
K I A
[ 449 ]
K I D
K-iang-nan.
Keyfer’s Frencli government, and was afterwards publifhed by
Pills Richard. It is the acetate of mercury. See CHE¬
MISTRY and Materia Medica Index.
KEYSLER, John George, a learned German
antiquarian, was born at Thournex in 1689. After
ftudying at the univerfity of Halie, he was appointed
preceptor to Charles Maximilian and Chriltian Charles,
the young counts of Giech Buchau $ with whom he
travelled through the chief cities of Germany, France,
and the Netherlands, gaining great reputation among
the learned as he went along, by illultrating feveral
monuments of antiquity, particularly fome fragments
ef Celtic idols lately difcovered in the cathedral of
Paris. Having acquitted himfelf of this charge with
great honour, he procured in 17*6 the education of
two grandfons of Baron Bernltorff, firft minifter ef Rate
to his Britannic majefty as eleftor of Brunfwick Lu¬
nenburg. However, obtaining leave in 1718, to vifit
England, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
for a learned effay De Dea Nehelennia, numine vet (rum
Walachorum topico; he gave alfo an explanation of the
ancient monument on Salilbury plain called Stonehenge,
with a diflertation on the Confecrated Mifletoe of the
Druids. Which detached effays, with others of the
fame kind, he publithed on his return to Hanover, un¬
der the title of Antiquitatesfcleftce Scptcntnonales et Cel-
ticce, &c. He afterwards made the grand tour with
the young barons, and to this tour we owe the publi¬
cation of his travels *, which were tranflated into Eng-
lifli, and publifhed in 1756, in 4 volumes, qto. Mr
Keyiler on his return fpent the remainder of his life
under the patronage of his noble pupils, who committed
their fine library and mufeum to his care, with a hand-
fome income. He died in 1743*
KIAM, a great river of China, which takes its rife
near the weftern frontier, crofles the whole kingdom
eaftward, and falls into the bay or gulf of Nanking, a
little below that city.
KIANG-si, a province of China, bounded on the
north by that of Kiang-nan, on the weft by Hou-
quang, on the fouth by Quang-tong, and on the eaft
by Fo-kien and Tche-kiang. The country is extreme¬
ly fertile ; but it is fo populous that it can fcarcely
fupply the wants of its inhabitants : on this account
they are very economical ; which expofes them to the
farcafms and raillery of the Chinefe ©f the other pro¬
vinces : however, they are people of great folidity and
acutenefs, and have the talent of rifmg rapidly to the
dignities of the ftate. The mountains are covered
with fimples j and contain in their bowels mines of
gold, filver, lead, iron, and tin •, the rice it produces is
very delicate, and feveral barks are loaded with it
every year for the court. The porcelain made here is
the fineft and moft valuable of the empire. This pro¬
vince contains 13 cities of the firft clafs, and 78 of the
fecond and third.
KlANG-nan, a province of China, and one of the
moft fertile, commercial, and confequently one of the
richeft in the empire. It is bounded on the weft by
the provinces of Ho-nan and Hou-quang •, on the fouth
by Tche-kiang and Kiang-fi •, and on the eaft by the
gulf of Nan-king : the reft borders on the province
of Chang-tong. The emperors long kept their court
in this province j but reafons of ftate having obliged
them to move nearer to Tartary, they made choice of
VOL. XI. Part II.
Kiddermin-
fter.
Pe-king for the place of their refidence. This pro- Kiang-nan
vince is of vaft extent j it contains fourteen cities of the
firft clafs, and ninety-three of the fecond and third.
Thefe cities are very populous, and there is fcarcely -
one of them which may not be called a place of trade.
Large barks can go to them from all parts j becaufe
the whole country is interfered by lakes, rivers, and
canals, which have a communication with the great
river Yang-tfe-kiang, which runs through the middle
of the province. Silk fluffs, lacquer ware, ink, paper,
and in general every thing that comes from Nanking,
as well as from the other cities of the province, arer
much more eftcemed, and fetch a higher price, than
thofe brought from the neighbouring provinces. In
the village of Chang-hai alone, and the villages de¬
pendent on it, there are reckoned to be more than
200,000 weavers of common cotton cloths. The ma-
nufadturing of thefe cloths gives employment to the
greater part of the women.—In feveral places on the
fea coaft there are found many fait pits, the fait of
which is diftributed all over the empire. In ihort, this
province is fo abundant and opulent, that it brings e-
very year into the emperor’s treafury about 32,000,000
taels (or ounces of filver), exclufive of the duties upon
every thing exported or imported. The people of thia
country are civil and ingenious, and acquire the fciences
with great facility : hence many of them become emi¬
nent in literature, and rife to offices of importance by
their abilities alone. This province is divided into
two parts, each of which has a diftirift governor. The
governor of the eaftern part refides at Sou-tcheou-fou,
that of the weftern at Ngan-king-fou. Each of thefe
governors has under his jurifdiftion feven fou, or cities
of the firft clafs.
KIBURG, a town of the canton of Zurich in Swit¬
zerland, with a caftle 5 feated on the river Theoff, in
E. Long. 8. 50. N. Lat. 47. 20.
KID, in Zoologij, the name by which young goat?
are called. See Goat and Capra, Mammalia
Index.
KIDDER, Dr Richard, a learned Engliffi biffiop,
was born in Suffex, and bred at Cambridge. In 1689,
he was inftalled dean of Peterborough j and, in 1691,
was nominated to the biffiopric of Bath and Wells, in
the room of Dr Thomas Ken, who had been deprived
for not taking the oaths to King William and Queen
Mary. He publiffied, 1. The young man’s duty. 2. A
demonftration of the Meffiah, 3 Vols 8vo. 3. A com¬
mentary on the five books of Mofes, 2 vols 8vo $ and
feveral other pious and valuable tradts. He was kill¬
ed with his lady in his bed by the fall of a ftack of
chimneys, at his houfe in Wells, during the great florin
in 1703. The bilhop, in the differtation prefixed to
his commentary on the five books of Mofes, having
refiedted upon Monfieur Le Clerc, fome letters paffed
between them in Latin, which are publilhed by Le
Clerc in his Bibhotheque Choifte.
KIDDERMINSTER, orKEDDERMiNSTER, a town
of Worcefterffiire, feated under a hill on the river Stour,
not far from the Severn, 128 miles from London. It
is a large town of 1180 houfes, with about 6000 inha¬
bitants, who carry on an extenfive trade in weaving in
various branches. In 1735 a carpet manufadlory was
eftablifhed with fuccefs, fo as to employ in 1772 above
230 looms j and there are upwards of 700 looms em-
3 E ployed
KID [ 450 ] K I L
Kidtlcrmin-ployed j’n the filk and woriled. Above 1600 hands
are employed as fpinners, &c. in the carpet looms only
Kidnap- in the town and neighbourhood 5 upwards of 1400 are
ping. employed in preparing yarn, which is ufed in different
v *,' parts of England in carpeting ; and it is fuppofed not
lefs than 2000 are employed in the 111k and worded
looms in the town and neighbourhood. The lilk manu-
fafture was eftablifhed in 1755. The town is remark¬
ably healthy, and has alfo an extenfive manufacture of
quilting in the loom in imitation of Marfeiiles quilting.
Here is a Prelbyterian meeting houfe ; and they have
a handfome church, two good free fchools, a charity
fchool, and two alms houfes, &c. The town is go¬
verned by a bailiff, 12 capital burgeffes, 25 common
couneilmen, &c. who have a towm hall. The population
in 1801 amounted to 6110. By the late inland na¬
vigation, it has communication by the junCtion of the
Severn canal with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Kibble,
Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames,
Avon, &c. 5 which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln,
Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chef-
ter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcef-
ter, &c. This parifh extends to Bewdley bridge, has
a weekly market, and three fairs. W. Long. 2. 1 c.
N. Lat. 52. 28.
KIDDERS, thofe that badge or carry corn, dead
victuals, or other merchandife, up and down to fell:
every perfon being a common badger, kidder, lader,
or carrier, &c. fays the flat. 5 Eliz. cap. 12. And
they are called kiddiers, 13 Eliz. cap. 25.
KIDDLE, or Kid EL, (Kide/lus), a dam or wear in
a river with a narrow' cut in it, for the laying of pots
or other engines to catch fifh.
The v'ord is ancient j for in Magna Charta, cap. 24.
we read, Omnes kidcilideponantur per Thamejiam et Med-
'ivetjam, et per totam /Ingliam, niji per cojleram rnaris.
And by King John’s charter, power ivas granted to
the city of London, de kideltis amovendis per Thamejiam
et Medweyam. A furvey was ordered to be made of
the wears, mills, flanks, and kiddels, in the great rivers
°f England, 1 Hen. IV. Fifhermen of late corrupt¬
ly call thefe dams kettles ; and they are much ufed in
Wales and on the fea coafts of Kent.
KIDDINGTON, a town of Oxfordfhire, four
miles from Woodftock, and 12 from Oxford. It is
fituated on the Glym river, which divides the parifh in
two parts, viz. Over and Nether Kiddington, in the
latter of which Hands the church. This parifh was
given by King Offa in 780 to Worcefter priory. Here
King Ethelred had a palace ; in the garden of the
manor houfe is an antique font brought from Edward
the Confeffor’s chapel at Idip, wherein he received
baptifm. In Hill wood near this place is a Roman
encampment in extraordinary prefervation, but little
noticed.
KIDNAPPING, the forcible abdu6tion or Healing
away of man, woman, or child, from their own coun-
try, and fending them into another. This crime was
capital by the Jewifh law : “ He that ftealeth a man
and felleth him, or if he be found in his hand, fhall
* Toro*?. xxi.^urety k® Put to death So likewife in the civil law,
16. the offence of fpiriting away and ftealing men and
children, which was called plagium^ and the offenders
plagiarii^ was punifhed with death. This is unquef-
I
tionably a very heinous crime, as it robs the king of Kitlnap-
his fubje£ts, banifhes a man from his country, and may Ping
in its confequence be productive of the moft cruel and KiVn
difagreeable hardihips •, and therefore the common law .
of England has punifhed it with fine, imprifonment,
and pillory. And alfo the ftatute 1 1 and 12 W. III.
c. 7. though principally intended againit pirates, has
a claufe that extends to prevent the leaving of fuch
perfons abroad as are thus kidnapped or fpirited away ^
by ena£ting, that if any captain of a merchant Veffel
fhall (during his being abroad) force any perfon on
fhore, or wilfully leave him behind, or refufe to bring
home all fuch men as he carried out, if able and defi-
rous to return, he fhall fuffer three months imprifon¬
ment.
KIDNEYS, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, N° ioi.
KidneT-Bean. See Phaseolus, Botany Index.
KIEL, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Hol-
ftein, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and the refi-
dence of the duke of Holrtein Gottorp. It has a eaflle,
and a univerfity founded in 1665 ■*, and there is a very
celebrated fair held here. It is feated at the bottom
of a bay of the Baltic fea called Kil/erwick, at the
mouth of the river Schwentin, in E. Long. 10. 17.
N. Lat. 54. 26.
KIGGELARIA, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the dioecia clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 37th order, Co/umniferce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
KIGHLEY, a town in the w'dl riding of York-
fhire, fix miles to the fouth-eaft of Skipton in Craven.
It Hands in a valley furrounded with hills, at the meet¬
ing of two brooks, which fall into the river Are one
mile below it. Every family is fupplied with water
brought to or near their doors in Hone troughs from
a never-failing fpring on the w'efl fide of it. The pa¬
rifh is fix miles long and two broad, and is 60 miles
from the eafl and wefi feas ; yet at the wefi end of itr
near Camel Crofs, is a riling ground, from which the
fprings on the eafi fide of it run to the eafi fea, and
thofe on the weff to the wefi fea. By means of inland
navigation, this towrn has a communication w ith the ri¬
vers Merfey, Dee, Kibble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Se¬
vern, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c.; which navigation,
including its windings, extends above 500 miles, in
the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Lancafler, Weff-
moreland, Chefier, Stafford, Warwick, Leieefler, Ox¬
ford, Worceffer, &c.
KILARNEY. See Killarney.
KILBEGGAN, a poft, fair, and borough town
of Ireland, in the county of Wefimeath and province
of Lender, 44 miles from Dublin. It formerly re¬
turned two members to parliament j patronage in the
Lambert family. It is feated on the river Brofna, over
which there is a bridge. There was here a monafiery
founded in 1 200, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
a*nd inhabited by monks from the Cifiertian abbey of
Melefont. The fairs are tw'o.
KILD A, St, one of the Hebrides or Weftern iflands
of Scotland. It lies in the Atlantic ocean, about 58° 30'
north latitude j and is about three Englifh miles in
length from eafl to weft, and its breadth from fouth
to north not lefs than two. The ground of St Kilda,
like much the greateft part of that over all the High¬
lands, is much better calculated for pafture than til¬
lage.—
K I L [ 451 ] K I L
lage.—Rcilrained by idlenefs, a fault or vice much
more pardonable here than in any other part of Great
Britain, or difcouraged by the form of government
under which they live, the people of the ifland iludy
to rear up flieep, and to kill wild-fowl, much more
than to engage deeply in the more toilfome bufinefs
of hufbandry.—All the ground hitherto cultivated in
thi* ifland lies round the village. The foil is thin, full
of gravel, and of confequence very (harp. This, though
naturally poor, is, however, rendered extremely fer¬
tile, by the Angular induftry of very judicious huf-
bandmen : thefe prepare and manure every inch of
their ground, fo as to convert it into a kind of gar¬
den. All the inftruments of agriculture they ufe, or
indeed require, according to their fyftem, are a fpade,
a mall, and a rake or harrow. After turning up the
ground with a fpade, they rake or harrow it very care¬
fully, removing every fmall ftone, every noxious root
or growing weed that falls in their way, and pound
down every ftiff clod into dull. It is certain that a
fmall number of acres well prepared in St Kilda, in
this manner, will yield more profit to the hufbandman
than a much greater number when roughly handled in
a hurry, as is the cafe in the other Weftern ifles. The
people of St Kilda fow and reap much earlier than any
of their neighbours on the weftern coaft of Scotland.
The heat of the fun, reflefted from the hills and rocks
into a low valley facing the fouth-eaft, muft in the
fummer time be quite intenfe j and however rainy the
climate is, the corn muft for thefe reafons grow very
faft and ripen early.
The harveft is commonly over at this place before
the beginning of September : and fhould it fall out
otherwife, the whole crop would be almoft deftroyed
by the equinodftial ftorms. All the iflanders on the
weftern coaft have great reafon to dread the fury of
autumnal tempefts : thefe, together with the exceffive
quantities of rain they have generally throughout feven
or eight months of the year, are undoubtedly the
moft difadvantageous and unhappy circumftances of
their lives.
Barley and oats are the only forts of grain known
at St Kilda ; nor does it feem calculated for any other.
Fifty bolls of the former, old Highland meafure, are
every year brought from thence to Harris j and all the
'Weftern iilands hardly produce any thing fo good of
the kind. Potatoes have been introduced among that
people only of late, and hitherto they have raifed but
fmall quantities of them. The only appearance of a
garden in this whole land, fo the natives call their
principal ifland in their own language, is no more
than a very inconfiderable piece of ground, w'hich is
enclofed and planted with fome cabbages. On the
eaft fide of the ifland, at a fliort diftance from the bay,
lies the village, where the whole body of this little peo¬
ple (the number amounting in 1764 to 88, and in
1799 to about 120) live together like the inhabi¬
tants of a town or city. It is certain that the inha¬
bitants were much more numerous formerly than at
prefent ; and the ifland, if under proper regulations,
might eafily fupport 300 fouls. Martin, who vifited
it about the end of the 1 7th century, found 180 per-
fons there 5 but about the year 1 730, one of the peo¬
ple coming to the ifland of Harris, was feized with
the fmallpox and died, Unluckily his clothes were
carried away by one of his relations next year ; and thus
was the infe&ion communicated, which made fuch ha-
vock, that only four grown perfons were left alive. The
houfes are built in two rows, regular, and facing one
another j with a tolerable caufeway in the middle, which
they call theJlreet. Thefe habitations are made and
contrived in a very uncommon manner. Every one of
them is flat in the roof, or nearly fo, much like the
houfes of fome oriental nations. That from any one
of thefe the St Kildans have borrowed their manner
of building, no man of fenfe will entertain a fufpicion.
They have been taught this leffon by their ow n reafon,
improved by experience. The place in which their
lot has fallen is peculiarly fubjeift to violent fqualls
and furious hurricanes : were their houfes raifed higher
than at prefent, they believe the firit winter ftorm
would bring them down about their ears. For this
reafon the precaution they take in giving them roofs
much flatter than ordinary feems to be not altogether
unneceffary. The walls of thefe habitations are made
of a rough gritty kind of ftones, huddled up together
in hafte, without either lime or mortar, from eight
to nine feet high. In the heart of the walls are the
beds, which are overlaid with flags, and large enough
to contain three perfons. In the fide of every bed is
an opening, by way of door, which is much too nar¬
row and low' to anfwer that purpofe. All their dwell¬
ing houfes are divided into two apartments by parti¬
tion walls. In the divifion next the door, which is
much the largeft, they have their cattle flailed during
the whole winter feafon j the other ferves for kitchen,
hall, and bedroom.
It will be readily expelled, that a race of men and
w'omen bred in St Kilda muft be a very flovenly ge¬
neration, and every way inelegant. It is indeed im-
poflible to defend them from this imputation. Their
method of preparing a fort of manure, to them indeed
of vaft ufe, proves that they are very indelicate. Af¬
ter having burnt a confiderable quantity of dried turf,
they fpread the allies with the niceft care over the floor
of that apartment in which they eat and fleep. Thefe
alhes, fo exadtly laid out, they cover with a rich
friable fort of earth j over this bed of earth they fcat-
ter a proportionable heap of that dull into which peats
are apt to crumble away : this done, they water, tread,
and beat the whole compoft into a hard floor, on which
they immediately make new fires very large, and ne¬
ver extinguilhed till they have a fufficient flock of new
allies on hand. The fame operations are repeated with
a never-failing punftuality, till they are juft ready to
fow their barley $ by that time the walls of their
houfes are funk down, or, to fpeak more properly, the
floors rifen about four or five feet high.
To have room enough for accumulating heaps of
this compoft one above another, the ancient St Kil¬
dans had ingenuity enough to contrive their beds
within the linings of their walls \ and it was for the
fame reafon they took care to raife thefe walls to a
height far from being common in the other Weftern
iflands.
It is certain that eleanlinefs muft contribute greatly
to health, and of courfe longevity ; but in fpite of that
inftance of indelicacy now given, and many more which
might have been added, the people of this ifland are
not more fhort lived than other men, Their total want
3 L 2 of
K I L [ 452 ] K I L
Kilda.
N
of thofe articles of luxury, which have fo natural a ten¬
dency to deftroy the conftitution of the human body,
and their moderate exercifes, will, together with fome
other circumttances, keep the balance of life equal
enough between them and thofe who are abfolute
ftrangers to flovenlinels.
JBelides the dwelling houfes already defcribed, there
are a prodigious number of little cells difperfed over
all the ifland j which conlift entirely of {tones, without
any the fmalleft help of timber. Thefe cells are from
12 to x 8 feet in length, and a little more than feven
in height. Their breadth- at the foundation is nearly
equal to the height. Every {tone hangs above that
immediately below, not perpendicularly, but inclines
forward, fo as to be nearer the oppofite fide of the
grotto, and thus by imperceptible degrees till the
two higheft courfes are near enough to be covered
by a {ingle flag at the top. To hinder the rain from
falling down between the interdices above, the upper
part of the building is overlaid with turf which looks
like a fine green {ward while new. The inhabitants
fecure their peats, eggs, and wild fowl, within thefe
Imall repofitories •, every St Kildan has his {hare, of
them, in proportion to the extent of land he pof-
fefies, or the rent he pays to the fteward. From the
conftru&ion of thefe cells, and the toil they muft have
coll before they could have been finilhed, it feems
plain, that thofe who put them together, were, if not
more ingenious than their neighbours in the adjacent
ifiands, at leaft more induftrious than their own fuc-
ceffors.
I he St Kilda method of catching wild fowl is very
entertaining. 1 he men are divided into fowling par¬
ties, each of which confifts generally of four perfons
dillinguilhed by their agility and {kill. Each party
muft have at leaft one rope about 30 fathoms long ■,
this rope is made out of a ftrong raw cow hide, faked
for that very purpofe, and cut circularly into three
thongs all of equal length j thefe thongs being clofe-
ly twilled together, form a three-fold cord, able to
fuftain a great weight, and durable enough to laft for
about two generations : to prevent the injuries it would
otherwife receive from the {harp edges of the rocks,
againft which they muft frequently ftrike, the cord is
lined with {heep Ikins, dreffed in much the fame man¬
ner.
I his rope is a piece of furniture indifpenfably ne-
ceffary, and the raoft valuable implement a man of
fubftance can be poffelTed of in St Kilda. In the tef-
tament of a father, it makes the very firft article in
favour of his eldeft fon : ftiould it happen to fall to a
daughter’s {hare, in default of male heirs, it is reckon¬
ed equal in value to the bell two cows in the ifland.
By the help of fuch ropes, the people of the great-
eft prowefs and experience here traverfe and examine
rocks prodigioufly high. Linked together in couples,
each having either end of the cord fattened about his
’wa^> tbey go frequently through the moft dreadful
precipices : when one of the two defcends, his col¬
league plants himfelf on a ftrong Ihelf, and takes care
to have fuch fure footing there, that if his fellow ad¬
venturer makes a falfe ftep, and tumbles over, he may
be able to fave him.
The following afiecdote of a fteward of St Kilda’s
deputy will give the reader a fpecimen of the dangers
v 4
they undergo, and at the fame time of the uncom¬
mon ftrength of the St Kildans. This man, obferving
his colleague lofe his hold, and tumbling down from
above, placed himfelf fo firmly upon the {helf where
he Hood, that he fuftained the weight of his friend,
after- falling the whole length of the rope. Undoubt¬
edly thefe are ftupendous adventures, and equal to any
thing in the feats of chivalry. Mr Macaulay gives an
inftance of the dexterity of the inhabitants of St Kil¬
da in catching wild fowl, to which he was an eye wit-
nefs. Two noted heroes were drawn out from among
all the ableft men of the community : one of them
fixed himfelf on a craggy ihelf j his companion went
down 60 fathoms below him ; and after having darted
himfelf away from the face of a moft alarming preci¬
pice hanging over the ocean, he began to play his
gambols j he fung merrily, and laughed very heartily;
after having performed feveral antic tricks, and given
all the entertainment his art could afford, he returned
in triumph, and full of his own merit, with a large
ftriug of fowls about his neck, and a number of eggs
in his bofom. This method of fowling refembles that
of the Norwegians, asdelcribed by Biftiop Pontoppidan.
KILDARE, a town of Ireland, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is fituated 28 miles louth-
weft of Dublin. It is governed by a fovereign, record¬
er, and two portrieves. The church of Kildare was
very early eredled into a cathedral with epifcopal jurif-
diblion, which dignity it retains to this day j the cathe¬
dral, however, has been for feveral years negle&ed, and
at prefen t is almoft in ruins. St Brigid founded a nun¬
nery at Kildare, which afterwards came into the poffef-
fion of the regular canons of St Auguftin 5 this faint
died ill February 523, and was interred here; but her
remains were afterwards removed to the cathedral church
of Down. In the year 638, Aod Dubh or B/ack Hugh
king of Leinfter abdicated his throne, and took on him
the Auguftinian habit in this abbey; he was afterwards
chofen abbot and biftiop of Kildare, and died on the
10th May. In 756, Eiglitigin the abbot, who was alfo
biftiop of Kildare, was killed by a prieil as he was cele¬
brating mafs at the altar of St Brigid ; fince which
time no prieft whatfoever was allowed to celebrate mafs
in that church in the prefence of a biftiop. In 1220
Henry de Loundres archbilhop of Dublin put out the
fire called inextinguijhable, which had been preferved
from a very early time by the nuns of St Brigid. This
fire was however lighted, and continued to burn till the
total fuppreflion of monafteries. Here was alfo a Gray
abbey on the fouth fide of the town, erefted for friars of
the Franciican order, or, as they were more generally
called, Gray friars, in the year 1260, by Lord William
de Vtfey ; but the building was completed by Gerald
Fitzmaurice, Lord Offaley. A eonfiderable part of this
building yet remains, which appears not to have been of
very great extent. A houfe for White friars was like-
wife founded in this town by William de Vefey in 1290;
the round tower here is 130 feet high, built of white
granite to about 1 2 feet above the ground, and the reft
of common blue ftone. The pedeftal of an oldcrofs is ftill
to be feen here ; and the upper part of a crofs lies near
it on the ground. 'I he number of inhabitants is ftated
at 36,000.
Kildare, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinftet, which is 37 miles in length and 20 in
breadth ;
Kilda,
Kildare,
K I L
[ 453 3
K I L
Kilkenny.
Kildare breadth ; and is bounded on the eaft by Dublin and
Wicklow, on the Weft by King’s and Queen’s counties,
on the north by Eaft Meath, and on the fouth by Car-
low. It is a fine arable country, well watered by
the Barrow, Liffey, and other rivers, and well inhabit¬
ed and cultivated, containing 228,590 Iriih plantation
acres, 100 parilhes, 10 baronies, and 4 boroughs. The
chief town is of the fame name, and gave title of earl
to the noble family of Fitzgerald. It was anciently
called ChiUedair, i. e. “ the wood of oaks,” from a
large foreft which comprehended the middle part of
this county } in the centre of this wood was a large
plain, facred to heathen fuperftition, and at prefent
called the Curragh of Kildare; at the extremity of
this plain, about the commencement of the 6th cen¬
tury, St Brigid, one of the heathen veftals, on her
converfion to the Chriftian faith, founded, with the af-
fiftancemf St Conlasth, a church and monaftery 5 near
which, after the manner of the Pagans, St Brigid kept
the facred fire in a cell, the ruins of which are ft ill
vifible.
KILDERKIN, a liquid meafure, containing two
firkins.
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter, bounded on the fouth by the county of
Waterford, on the north by the Queen’s county, on
the weft by the county of Tipperary, on the eaft by
the counties of Wexford and Carlow, and on the north-
weft by Upper OlTory. The greateft length of this
county from north to fouth is 38 miles, the breadth
from eaft to weft 18 } and it contains 10 baronies. It
is one of the moft healthful, pleatant, and populous
counties of Ireland. It contains 287,650 Irifh plan¬
tation acres, 96 parifhes, and 95,000 inhabitants.
Gilbert Clare, earl of Gloucefter and Hereford, mar¬
rying Ifabella, one of the daughters and co-heireffes of
William earl Marftial, received as her dower the county
of Kilkenny.
Kilkenny, the capital of a county of the fame
name in Ireland, fituated in the province of Leinfter,
57 miles fouth-weft of Dublin. It takes its name
from the cell or church of Canic, who was an eminent
hermit in this country ; and is one of the moft elegant
cities in the kingdom. It is the feat of the bifhop of
Oflbry, which was tranflated from Agabo in Ofibry,
about the end of Henry Il’s reign, by Bifhop O’Dul-
lany. The city is pleafantly fituated on the Neor, a
navigable river that difcharges itfelf into the harbour
of Waterford. It is faid of Kilkenny, that its air is
without fog, its water without mqd, its fire without
fmoke, and its ftreets paved with marble. The two
latter are indeed matter of fa£I j for they have in
the neighbourhood, a kind of coal that burns from
firft to laft without fmoke, and pretty much refembles
the Welfh coal. Moft of the ftreets alfo are paved
with a ftone called black marble ; of which there are
large quarries near the town. This ftone takes a
fine polifh, and is beautifully intermixed with white
granite. The air too is good and healthy, though
not remarkably clearer than in many other parts of
the kingdom. The city is governed by a mayor, re¬
corder, aldermen, and fheriffs. It comprifes two towns,
viz, Kilkenny fo called, and Irifh town, each of which
formerly fent two members to parliament, and both
together are computed to contain about 20,000 inhabi- Kilkenny,
tants. This city was once of great confequence, as
may be feen by the venerable ruins yet remaining of
churches, monafteries, and abbeys, which even now
in their dilapidated ftate exhibit fuch fpecimens of ex-
quifite tafte in archite&ure as may vie with any mo¬
dern improvements; and the remains of its gates,
towers, and walls, (how it to have been a place of great
ftrength. Here too at different times parliaments
were held, in which fome remarkable ftatutes were
pafled. It has twro churches, and feveral Catholic
chapels 5 barracks for a troop of horfe and four com¬
panies of foot : a market is held twice in the week,,
and there are feven fairs in the year.—Iriih town is
more properly called the borough of St Canice, vulgar¬
ly Kenny; the patronage of which is in the bifhop of
Offory. The cathedral, which ftands in a fequeftered
fituation, is a venerable Gothic pile built about 500 years
ago ; and clofe to it is one of thofe remarkable round
towers which have fo much engaged the attention of
travellers. The bifhop’s palace is a handfome building,
and communicates by a covered paffage with the church.
The caftle was firft built in 1 195, on the fite of one
deftroyed by the Iriih in 1173. The fituation in a
military view was moft eligible : the ground was ori¬
ginally a conoid, the elliptical fide abrupt and precipi¬
tous, with the river running rapidly at its bafe ; here
the natural rampart was faced with a wall of folid ma-
fonry 40 feet high ; the other parts were defended by
baftions, curtains, towers, and outworks j and on the
fummit the caftle was eretted. This place, as it now
ftands, was built by the anceftors of the dukes of Or¬
mond : here the Ormond family refided j and it is now
in the poffeffion of Mr Butler, a defcendant of that
illuftrious race. The college originally founded by the
Ormond family is rebuilt in a ftyle of elegance and
convenience. The tholfel and market home are both
good buildings : and over the latter is a fuite of rooms,
in which during the winter and at races and affizes
times, affemblies are held. There are two very fine
bridges of cut marble over the Neor y John’s”' bridge
particularly is light and elegant. The Ormond family
built and endowed a free fchool in this city. Here are
the ruins of three old monafteries, called St John's,
St Francis's, and the Black abbey : belonging to the
latter are the remains of feveral ojd monuments, al-
moft buried in the ruins ; and the courts of the others
are converted into barracks. The manufadfures chiefly
carried on here are, coarfe woollen cloths, blankets of
extraordinary fine quality, and confiderable. quantities
of ftarch. In the neighbourhood alfo are made very
beautiful chimney-pieces of that fpecies of ftone al¬
ready mentioned, called Kilkenny marble : they are cut
and polifhed by the power of water, a mill for that pur-
pofe being invented by a Mr Colies. The Kilkenny coal
pits are within nine miles of the town. This city came
by marriage into the ancjent family of Le Dcfpencer.
It was incorporated by charter from King James 1. in
1609. The market crofs of Kilkenny continued an
ornament to the city until 1771, when it was taken
down -y the date on it was MCCC. Sir James Ware
mentions Bilhop Cantwell’s rebuilding i.he great bridge
of Kilkenny, thrown down by an inundai pn about
the year 1447* ^ aPPears a^° that St John’s bridge
Iv I 4-d 4-
Kilkenny fell down by a great flood in 1564; and on 2d Octo-
,KiHarney. ^er ^7 another like circumftance, Green’s bridge
near the cathedral fell.—The borough of St Canice,
or Irifh town, always enjoyed very ancient prefcriptive
rights. A clofe roll of 5 Edward III. A. D. 1376,
forbids the magiftrates of Kilkenny to obflrudl the fale
of vi&uals in the market of Irifli town, or within the
crofs, under the pretence of cuftom for murage :
and left the ample grants made to Kilkenny might be
interpreted fo as to include Irifh town, the corporation
of the latter fecured their ancient rights by letters*
patent, 15 Edward IV. A. D. 1474. Thefe renew
their former privileges, and appoint a portrieve to be
chofen every 21ft September, and fworn into office on
the nth Oflober. The portrieve’s prifon was at
Troy-gate. Whenever the mayor of Kilkenny came
within Water-gate, he dropt down the point of the city
fword, to fhow he claimed no pre-eminence within the
borough.
KILLALOE, a bifhop’s fee in the county of
Clare and province of.Munfter, in Ireland, 86 miles
from Dublin, otherwife Lounia. It was anciently
written Kill-da-Lit a, i. e. “ the church of Lua,” from
Lua or Molua^ wEo about the beginning of the 6th
century founded an abbey near this place. St Molua
appears to have derived his name from Lounia, the
place of his refidence, as was cuftomary amongft the
ancient Irifh. On the death of St Molua, St Flannan
his difciple, and fon of the chief of the diftrift, was
eonfecrated bifhop of this place at Rome about the
year 639, and the church endowed with confiderable
* Hates by his father Theodorick. Towards the clofe
of the 1 2th century, the ancient fee of Rofcrea was
united to that of Killaloe j from which period thefe
united bifhoprics have been governed by the fame bi¬
shops. At Killaloe is a bridge over the Shannon of
.. 7 arches j and here is a confiderable falmon and eel
ftfhery. . There are many ancient buildings in and
about this town. The cathedral is a Gothic edifice in
form of a crofs, with the fteeple in the centre, fup-
ported by four arches 5 it was built by Donald king of
Limerick in 1160. There is a building near it, once
the oratory of St Molua ; and there is another of the
lame kind in an ifland on the Shannon, having marks
. higher antiquity. The fee houfe of the bifhop
is at Clarisford, near to Killaloe. Adjoining to the
cathedral are yet fome remains of the maufoleum of
.Brien Boru.
KILLARNEY, a poft town of Ireland in the
county of Kerry and province of Munfter, feated near
a fine lake called Lough Ze<7/7, or lake of Killarney. It
is diftant 143 miles from Dublin, and has two fairs.
ithin a mile and a half of this place are the ruins of
(.he cathedral of Aghadoe, an ancient biflioprick unit¬
ed to Ardfert 5 and within four miles the ruins of Ag-
hfh church. At this town is the feat and gardens of
JLord Kenmore.
. beautiful lake of Killarney is divided properly
into three parts, called the lower, middle, and upper
3 je’r ^ nor^hern or lower lake is fix miles in length
and from three to four in breadth, and the town is ft-
tuated on its northern fhore. The country on this and
the eaftern boundary is rather of a tame chara&er : but
is here and there diverfified with gentle fwells, many
^ v’hlch afford delightful profipefts of the lake, the
K I L
iflands, and furrounding fcenery. The fouthern fliore
is compofed of immenfe mountains, rifing abruptly
from the water, and covered with woods of the fineft
timber. From the centre of the lake the view of this
range is aftonifliingly fublime, prefenting to the eye an
extent of foreft fix miles in length, and from half a
mile to a mile and a half in breadth, hanging in a robe
of rich luxuriance on the fides of two mountains
whofe bare tops rifing above the whole form a per¬
fect eontraft to the verdure of the lower region. On
the fide of one of thefe mountains is O’Sullivan’s caf-
cade, which falls into the lake with a roar that ftrikes
the timid with awe on approaching it. The view of
this ftieet of water is uncommonly fine, appearing as if
it were defcending from an arch of wood, which°over¬
hangs it about 70 feet in height from the point of
view. Coafting along this ftiore affords an almoft end-
lefs entertainment, every change of pofition prefenting
a new fcene 5 and rocks hollowed and worn into a va¬
riety of forms by the waves, and the trees and ftirubs
burfting from the pores of the faplefs ftone, forced to
a flume the moft uncouth ftiapes to adapt themfelves to
their fantaftic fituations. The iflands are not fo nu¬
merous m this as in the upper lake j but there is one
of uncommon beauty, viz'. Innisfallen, nearly oppofite
to O’Sullivan’s cafcade : It contains 18 Irilh acres.
The coaft. is formed into a variety of bays and promon¬
tories, fkirted and crowned with arbutus, holly, and
other flirubs and trees ; the interior parts are diverfified
with hills, and dales, and gentle declivities, on which
every tree and fhrub appears to advantage : the foil is
rich even to exuberance j and trees of the largeft fize
incline acrofs the vales, forming natural arches, with
ivy entwining in the branches, and hanging in feftoons
of foliage. The promontory of Mucrufs, which di¬
vides the upper from the lower lake, is a perfeft land
of enchantment j there is a road carried through the
centre of the promontory, which unfolds all the inte¬
rior beauties of the place. Amongft the diftant moun¬
tains, Turk appears an objeft of magnificence ; and
Mangerton’s loftiej:, though lefs interefting fummit,
rears itfelf above the whole. The paffage to the up¬
per lake is round the extremity of Mueruls, which con¬
fines it on one fide, and the approaching mountains on
the other. Here is the celebrated rock called the
eagle's nejl, which produces wonderful echoes. A French
horn founded here, raifes a concert fuperior to 100 in-
ftruments ; and the report of a fingle cannon is anfwer-
ed by a fucceflion of peals refembling the loudeft thun¬
der, which feems to travel the furrounding fcenery,
and die away among the diftant mountains. The up¬
per lake is four miles in length, and from two to three
in breadth 5 and is almoft furrounded by mountains, from
which defcend a number of beautiful cafcades. The
iflands in this lake are numerous, and afford an ama¬
zing variety of pi&urefque views.—The centre lake,
which communicates with the upper, is but fmall in
comparifim with the other two, and cannot boaft of
equal variety. The Ihores, however, are in many places
indented with beautiful bays, furrounded with dark
groves of trees, fome of which have a moft pi&urefque
appearance when viewed from the water. The eaftern
boundary is formed by the bale of Mangerton, down
the fteep fide of which defcends a cafcade vifible for
2 jo yards: this fall of water is fupplied by a circular
lake
K I L [ 455 3 K 1 L
Ji. lar-v'y lake near the fummit of the mountain, called the
il Devil's Funch Bowl; which on account of its immenfe
Killcran- 3nj con[inUal overflow of water, is confider-
■ , ‘   ed as one of the greateil curiofities in Killarney.—Mr
Smith feems to think, that one of the bell profpe&s
this admired lake affords, is from a rifing ground near
the ruined cathedral of Aghadoe.
The lake of Killarney is otherwife called Lough
Lane, or Loch Lean, from its being furrounded by high
mountains. Nennius fays, that thefe lakes were en-
compalfed by four circles of mines j the firft; of tin, the
fecond of lead, the third of iron, and the fourth of
copper. In the feveral mountains adjacent to the
lakes are ftill to be feen the vefliges of the ancient
mines of iron, lead, and copper j but tin has not been
difcovered. Silver and gold are faid by the Irifli an¬
tiquaries to have been found in the early ages : but
this is fomewhat doubtful, efpecially in any confider-
able quantity, though fome fllver probably was extraft-
ed from the lead ore, and fmall quantities of gold
might have been obtained from the yellow copper
ore of Mucrufs. However, in the neighbourhood of
thefe lakes were found in the early ages, as well as at
prefent, pebbles of feveral colours, which taking a
beautiful polilh, the ancient Irilh wore in their ears,
girdles, and different articles of their drefs and furni¬
ture.
KILLAS, a genus of ftones belonging to the ar¬
gillaceous clafs, found chiefly in Cornwall in England.
Its texture is either lamellar or coarfely granular ; the
fpecific gravity from 2630 to 2666. It contains 60
parts of liliceous earth, 25 of argillaceous, 9 of mag-
nefia, and 6 of iron. The greenilh kind contains
more iron, and gives a green tindture to the nitrous
acid.
KILLICRANKIE, a noted pafs of Perthfliire in
Scotland. It is formed by the lofty mountains im¬
pending over the river Garie, which rulhes through
in a deep, darkfome, and horrid channel, beneath.
In the laff century this was a pafs of much danger
and difficulty ; a path hanging over a tremendous
precipice threatened deftrudlion to the leaft falfe ftep
of the traveller : at prefent a fine road formed by the
foldiery lent by government, and encouraged by an
additional 6d. per day, gives an eafy accefs to the
remote Highlands j and the two fides are joined by a
fine arch. 5 •
Near the north end of this pafs, in its open and un¬
improved flate, was fought in the year 1689 the battle
of Killicrankie, between the adherents of James II. un¬
der Vifcount Dundee, and of William III. under Ge¬
neral Mackay. Dundee’s army was very much infe¬
rior to that of Mackay. When he came in fight of
the latter, he found them formed in eight battalions
ready for aftion. They confifted of 45c0 b>ot, and
two troops of horfe. The Highlanders under Dun¬
dee amounted to little more than half that number.
Thefe he ranged inftantly in order of battle. Maclean,
with his tribe, formed the right wing. The Macdo¬
nalds of Sky, under the chieftain’s eldeft fon, formed
the left. The Camerons, the Macdonalds of Glengary,
the followers of Clanronald, and a few Irilh auxiliaries,
were in the centre. A troop of horfe was placed be¬
hind under Sir William Wallace. The officers fent
by James from Ireland were diftributed through all the
line. This whole army Hood in fight of the enemy for Killicrart-
feveral hours on the fteep fide of a hill, which faced jr-iv16’
the narrow plain where Mackay had formed his line., * 1^reWj,
Dundee wilhed for the approach of night $ a feafon
fuited for either vidlory or flight.
At five of the clock in the afternoon, a kind of flight
Ikirmilh began between the right wing of the High¬
landers and the left of the enemy. But neither army
wilhing to change their ground, the firing was difcon-
tinued for three hours. Dundee in the mean time
flew from tribe to tribe, and animated them to a£tion.
At eight of the clock he gave the fignal for battle, and
charged the enemy in perfon at the head of the horfe.
The Highlanders in deep columns rulhed fuddenly
down the hill. They kept their (hot till they were
within a pike’s length of the enemy •, and having fired
their muflcets, fell upon them fword in hand. Mae-
kay’s left wing could not for a moment fuftain the
ffiock. They were driven by the Macleans tvith great
flaughter from the field. The Macdonalds on the left
of the Highlanders, were not equally fuccefsful. Colo¬
nel Haftings’s regiment of foot flood their ground.
They even forced the Macdonalds to retreat. Mac-
lean, with a few of his tribe, and Sir Evan Cameron
at the head of his clan, fell fuddenly on the flank of
this gallant regiment, and forced them to give way.
The flaughter ended not with the battle. Two thou-
fand fell in the field and the flight. The tents, bag¬
gage, artillery, and provifions of the enemy, and even
King William’s Dutch ftandard, w hich was carried by
Mackay’s regiment, fell into the hands of the High¬
landers. The victory was now complete. But the
Highlanders loft their gallant leader. Perceiving the
unexpe&ed refiftance of Colonel Haftings’s regiment,
and the confufion of the Macdonalds, Dundee rode
rapidly to the left wing. As he was raifing his arm,
and pointing to the Camerons to advance, he received
a ball in his fide. The wound proved mortal ; and
with Dundee fell all the hopes of King James at that
time.
KILLIGREW, William, eldeft fon of Sir Robert
Killigrew, knight, was born in 1605. He was gentle-
man-ulher of the privy-chamber to King Charles I.}
and on the Reftoration of Charles II. when the lat¬
ter married the Princefs Catharine of Portugal, he was
created vice-chamberlain j in which ftation he conti¬
nued 22 years, and died in 1693. He was the author
of four plays, which, though now thrown afide, were
much applauded by the poets of that time, particular¬
ly by Waller.
Killigrew, Thomas, brother of the former, was
born in 1611 y and was much diftinguiftied in his time
for wit. He was page of honour to King Charles I. and
groom of the bedchamber to Charles II. with whom
he fuffered many years exile ; during which he applied
his leifure hours to the ftudy of poetry, and to the comr
pofition of feveral plays. After the Reftoration he con¬
tinued in high favour with the king, and had frequently
accefs to him when he was denied to the firft peers in the
realm y and being a man of great wit and livelinefs of
parts, and having from his long intimacy with that
monarch, and being continually about his perfon du¬
ring his troubles, acquired a freedom and familiarity
with him, which even the pomp pf majefty afterwards
could not check in him 3 he foinctimes, by way of jeft,
which
K I L [ 456 1 ' K I L
Killigrew. ■uhicli King Charles was ever fond of, if genuine, even
though himfelf w'as the obje£l of the fatire, would ad¬
venture bold truths which fcarcely any one befides
would have dared even to hint at. One Jftory in par¬
ticular is related of him, which if true is a ftrong
proof of the great lengths he would fometimes proceed
in his freedoms of this kind, which is as follows:—■
When the king’s unbounded paffion for women had'
given his miftrefs fuch an afcendant over him, that, like
the effeminate Perfian monarch, he was much fitter to
have handled a diftaff than to wield a fceptre, and for
the converfation of his concubines utterly neglefted
the moft important affairs of date, Mr Killigrew went
to pay his majefty a vifit in his private apartments,
habited like a pilgrim who was bent on a long journey.
The king, furprifed at the oddity of his appearance,
immediately afked him vdiat was the meaning of it,
and whither he was going ? “ To hell,” bluntly re¬
plied the wag. “ Prithee (faid the king), what can
your errand be to that place?” To fetch back Oliver
Cromwell (rejoined he), that he may take fome care
of the affairs of England, for his fucceffor takes none at
„ alb—One more dory is related of him, which is not
barren of humour. King Charles’s fondnefs for plea-
fure, to which he almod always made bufinefsgive way,
-ufed frequently to delay affairs of confequence, from his
majedy’s ditappointing the council of his prefence when
met for the difpatch of bufmefs, which negleft gave
great difgud and offence to many of thofe w^ho were
treated with this feeming difrefped. On one of thefe
occafions the duke of Lauderdale, who was naturally
impetuous and turbulent, quitted the council chamber
in a violent paffion 5 and meeting Mr Killigrew pre-
fently after, expreffed himfelf on the occafion in very
difrefpe&ful terms of his majedy. Killigrew begged
his grace to moderate his paflion, and offered to lay
him a wager of 100I. that he himfelf would prevail on
his majedy to come to council in half an hour. The
duke, furprifed at the boldnefs of the affertion, and
warmed by his refentment againd the king, accepted
the wager ; on which Killigrew immediately went to
the king, and w-ithout ceremony told him what had
happened ; adding thefe words, “ I know that your
.majedy hates Lauderdale, though the necedity of your
-affairs compels you to carry an outward appearance of
civility : now, if you choofe to get rid of a man who
is thus difagreeable to you, you need only go this once
to council •, for 1 know his covetous difpofition fo per-
feflly, that I am well perfuaded, rather than pay this
100L he would hang himfelf out of the way, and ne¬
ver plague you more.” The king was fo pleafed with
the archnefs of this obfervation, that he immediately
replied, “ Well then, Killigrew, I pofitively will go^”
and kept his word accordingly.—Killigrew died in
1682, and was buried in Weilminder abbey.
Killigrew, /Untie, “ a Grace for beauty, and a
Mufe for wit,” as Mr Wood fays, was the daughter
of Dr Henry Killigrew, brother of the two foregoing,
and was born a little before the Reftoration. She
gave early indications of genius, and became eminent
in the arts both of poetry and painting. She drew
the duke of York and his duchefs to whom fhe was
maid of honour, as well as feveral other portraits and
hi (lory pieces j and crowned all her other accomplifh-
ments with unblemifhed virtue and exemplary piety.
Mr Dryden feems quite lavifh in her praife, though Killigrew
Wood allures us he has faid no more of her than i!3
fire was equal if not fuperior to. This amiable young KlIlougl1’
woman died of the fmallpox in 1685 *, and the year -"““v"-—*
after her poems were publifhed in a thin quarto vo¬
lume. V
KILLILEAGH, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Down and province of Ulller, 8c miles from Dub¬
lin j otherwife written Kitlyleagk. It is the principal
town in the barony of Duftrin ; and feated on an arm
of the lake of Strangford, from which it is fupplied
with a great variety of fi(h. The family of the Ha-
miltons created firft Lords Clanbois, and afterwards
earls of Clanbraffil, had their feat and relidence here
in a caflle Handing at the upper end of the great ftreet j •
at the lower end of the ftreet is a little fafe bay, where
fliips lie flieltered from all winds; in the town are fome
good houfes, a decent market-houfe, a horie barrack,
and a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe. On an eminence a
fmall diftance from the town is a handfome church
built in the form of a crofs. This place fuffered much
in the calamitous year 1641. It is now thriving, and
the' linen manufafture carried on in it, and fine thread
made, for which it has a great demand. It formerly
returned two members to parliament. The etdebrated
naturalift and eminent phyfician Sir Hans Sloane was
born here 16th April 1660, and his father Alexander
Sloane was at the head of that colony of Scots which
King James I. fettled in the place. This town was in¬
corporated by that king at the inftance of the firft earl
of Clanbois.
KILLOUGH (otherwife Port St Arne), a port
town of Ireland, fituated in the county of Down and
province of Ulfter, 76 miles from Dublin. It lies
north of St John’s Point, and has a good quay, where
ftiips lie very fafe. The town is agreeably fituated; the
lea flowing all along the backs of the houfes, where
ftiips ride in full view of the inhabitants. There is
here a good church, and a horfe barrack. They have'
good fifiling in the bay ; but the principal trade of
the place confifts in the exportation of barley, and the
importation of fuch commodities as are confumed in
the adjacent cofintry. A manufadhire of fait is alfo
carried on with great advantage. The fairs held here
are five. At a fmall diftance from the town is a char¬
ter working fchool for the reception of 20 children,
which was let on foot by the late Mr Juifice Ward.
There is a remarkable well here called St Scordin's
well, and highly efteemed for the extraordinary light-
nefs of its water. It gullies out of a high rocky bank,
clofe upon the fliore, and is obferved never to diminifli
its quantity in the drieft feafon. I here is alfo a mine¬
ral fpring near the fchool, the waters of which the in¬
habitants affirm to be both purgative and emetic. At
a fmall diftance from the town near the fea is a rock in
which there is an oblong hole, from whence at the
ebbing and flowing of the tide a ftrange noife is heard
fomewhat reiembling the found of a huntfman’s horn.
In an open field about a quarter of a mile from the
town towards St John’s point there is a very curious
cave, which has a winding paffage two feet and a half
broad, with three doors in it befides the entrance, and
leading to a circular chamber three yards in diameter,
where there is a fine limpid well. Xhe cave is about
27 yards long.
Killough
K I L [ 457 ] KIM
Ki'llough KlLLOUGH Harbour is tolerably fafe and comraodi-
Harbour ous . a fmau degree of caution, however, is neceffary in
K-ilma! filing int-0 it J for a rock (lands in the. middle of the
lock. entrance, covered at half flood, commonly called the
——V -■■■■w1 water rock. Either to the eaft or weft of this rock is
a fecure paffage, the inlet lying fouth by eaft and
north by weft. On the weft fide of the rock open to
Coney ifland is a ftrong quay, and a bafon for (hips,
where they are defended from all winds, within which
the harbour on both fides affords good anchorage for
veflels of i 50 tons. At the end of the quay the chan¬
nel is 400 yards wide. The bay of Kiilough is form¬
ed by Rin-fad and the Long point to the eaft, and St
John’s point to the weft, as the inner harbour is by a
peninfula called Coney ijle from the number of rabbits
thereon, and not Cane ijle as Sir William Petty fuppofes.
An impetuous fea runs on all this coaft in ftorms and
fpring tides.
KILLYBEGS, a borough and fair town in the
county of Donegal and province of Ulfter, 1 23 miles
from Dublin. It is fttuated on the north fide of Do¬
negal bay ) but is a place of no great trade, though
it has a harbour fpacious enough to contain a large
fleet : it has a bold and ample opening to the fea on
the fouth, and is fecured within by the fhelter of high
lands furrounding it; fo that veffels may enter at any
time of the tide, there being from five to eight fathoms
water. The herring fifhery is the moft confiderable of
any carried on here •, but the town is likely to increafe
in trade and confequence.
KILMAINHAM, a town of Ireland, fituated about
half a mile from Dublin. It has a feffion houfe and
handfome gaol ; and here the quarter feflions are held
for the county of Dublin, and knights of the (hire
defied for that county. This place w^as fometimes
the feat of government before Dublin caftle was con¬
verted to that purpofe; and though now much decayed,
it gives title of baron to the family of Wenman. An
ancient priory w^as founded here, and a houfe for knights
hofpitalers of St John of Jerufalem.
KILMALLOCK, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Limerick and province of Munfter, 16 miles from
the city of Limerick, and 107 from Dublin.—This
towm makes a confpicuous figure in the military hiftory
of Ireland. In the 16th century it was a populous
place; and the remains of the wrall which entirely fur-
rounded the town, and of feveral large houfes, are ftill
to be feen. Edward VI. granted a charter to it with
many privileges, as did Queen Elizabeth another, dated
24th April 1584. In 1598, it was inverted by the Irilh
forces, when the earl of Ormond haftened to its relief,
and arrived in time to raife the fiege: here was alfo
fome conteft during the grand rebellion in 1641 and
1642. By an inquifition 11 Aug. 29 Eliz. it appears
that there had been an abbey in Kilmallock called
F/acfpague; on which a ftone houfe was eredled. In
the cathedral church are the remains of a monument
erefled over the Verdon family, one of whom repre-
fented this town in parliament in 1613. This place
once gave title of vifeount to one of the Sarsfield fa¬
mily. Sir James Ware informs us, that an abbey of
Dominicans or Black friars was built here in the 13th
century by the fovereign, brethren, and commonalty.
From the many ruins here of caftles and ancient build¬
ings, it has acquired the name of the Irifh Balbcch.
Vol, XI. Part II.
The parifti church was formerly an abbey for regu¬
lar canons founded by St Mochoallog, who died
between the years 639 and 656; and fome writers
fay, that the Dominican abbey juft mentioned was <,
founded in 1291, by Gilbert the fecond fon of John of
Calleen.
KILMARNOCK, a populous and flouriftiing town
of Ayrftiire in Scotland, noted for its manufacture of
carpets, milled hofiery, and Scotch bonnets. It gave
the title of earl to the noble family of Boyd, refiding
in this neighbourhood. This title was forfeited by
the laft earl, who, by engaging in the rebellion of 1745,
was deprived of his honours, and loft his life on the
fcaffold. His fon, however, who ferved in the king’s
army, afterwards fucceeded to the earldom of Errol.
The population in 1801 exceeded 8oco.
KILMORE, a biftiop’s fee in the county of Cavan
and province of Ulfter in Ireland. It was called in
former ages C/unes, or Clunis, i. e. the “ fequeftered
place and is fituated near Lough Earn. St Fedlimid
founded this bifhopric in the fixth century; it was af¬
terwards removed to an obfeure village called Tri-
burna ; where it continued until the year 1454, when
Andrew Macbrady biihop of Triburna ere6led a
church on the file of that founded by St Fedlimid, to
whofe memory it W'as dedicated, and denominated
Kdmore, or “ the great church.” At prefent there
is neither cathedral, chapter, nor canons, belonging
to this fee ; the fmall parifti church contiguous to
the epifcopal houfe ferving the purpofe of a cathe¬
dral.
KILN, a ftove ufed in the manufacture of vatious
articles. A fabric formed for admitting heat, in or¬
der to dry or burn materials placed in it to undergo
fuch operations.
KILWORTH, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Munfter, 108 miles
from Dublin. It is a thriving place, with a good
church, at the foot of a large ridge of mountains call¬
ed Kilworth mountains, through which a good turnpike
road is carried from Dublin to Cork : below the town
runs the river Funcheon, which is well ftored with fal-
mon and trout, and difeharges itfelf a mile fouth of
this into the Blackwater. Near Kilworth is a good
glebe and vicarage houfe. At this place is Moor¬
park, the fuperb feat of Lord Mountcafhel; and ad¬
joining to his lordftiip’s improvements ftands the caftle
of Clough-leagh, boldly filuated on the river Funcheon,
which has flood feveral lieges.
KIMBQLTON, a town of Huntingdonlhire, feated
in a bottom ; and noted for the caftle of Kimbolton,
the feat of the duke of Manchefter. W. Long. o. 15.
N. Lat. 52. 18.
KIMCHI, David, a Jewifh rabbi, famous as a
commentator on the Old Teftament, lived at the clofe
of the 1 2th and beginning of the 13th centuries. He
was a Spaniard by birth, fon of Rabbi Joleph Kimchi,
and brother of Rabbi Mofes Kimchi, both men of emi¬
nent learning among the Jews : but he exceeded them
both, being the bell Hebrew grammarian the Jews ever
had. He wrote a Grammar and Dictionary of that
language ; out of the former of which Buxtorf made
his Thefaurus Ling lies Hebrece, and his Lexicon Lingua
Hebrece out of the latter. His writings have been held
in fuch eftimation among the Jews, that no one can
3 M arrive
Kilmal-
lock
•Jl .
Kimchi.
■mi w-
KIN
[ 458 3
K I N
Kincar-
dineftiire
Kimchi arrive at any reputation in letters and theology without
ftudying them.
KINCARDINE, a town in Perthlhire, fituated up-
, on the banks of the Forth, four miles eaft from Alloa,
and 22 fouth from Perth. The houfes are well built,
and the ftreets regular, with a dry and healthy fitua-
tion. The harbour is commodious, with an excellent
roadftead oppofite to the town, where 100 veflels of
all dimenfions may ride in perfedd fafety. Shipbuild¬
ing is extenfively carried on at this place, and nine or
ten have fometimes been upon the flocks at once, fome
of them 200 and 300 tons burden. In 1792 there were
75 veffels belonging to the town, furniihing employ¬
ment for 300 failors. Thefe import wood, iron, flax, &c.
from the Baltic, barley from England and other placts 5
and export coals to different parts of Europe. It con¬
tains at prefent about 2100 inhabitants.
KINCARDINESHIRE, or Mearns-shire, a
county of Scotland, bounded on the north by Aber-
deenihire, on the tail by the German ocean, and on
the fouth weft by Angus or Forfarthire. In form it
refernr,!es a harp, having the lower point towards the
fouih. Its lengih along the coaft is about 30 miles j
its greateft breadth about 20. Various opinions have
been held concerning the derivation of the word Mearns $
but the other name is taken from its ancient capital,
Kincardine, now an inconfiderable village. The traft
of country through which the Dee paif s, and the plain
along the fea coaft, are well cultivated, and produce
much corn aud flax. The fields are in many places
Screened by woods \ and the heaths afford flieep walks
and much good pafiure for cattle. But the moil ex-
tenfive tract under cultivation, is what is called the
how or hollow of the Mearns. This traff forms part
of Strathmore, or the great vale whic h runs from Stone¬
haven in the north eat! to Argylelhire in the fuuth-wi fl,
nearly acrofs the kingdom. Near Stonehaven, to the
fouth, are the ruins of Dunnotar cable, the ansientf at
of the earls marifchal of Scotland, fituated on a high
perpendicular rock, almoft furrounded by the ft a. Jn
this neighbourhood is a precipitous cliff overhanging
the fea, called Fowls Ciev^li; noted as the refort of
kittiw'akes, the young of which are much fought af¬
ter in the hatching feafon, being efteemed a great
delicacy.— At a little diftance from Stonehaven, up
the river, Hands Urie, the birth place of Barclay the
famous apolwgift for the Quakers. The Quakers have
here a burying-ground ; and in the vicinity are feen
the traces of a Roman flat ion. There are/other fine
manfion houfes in this county, as Birn, the feat of the
late Lord Adam Gordon; Arbuthnet, the feat of Vif-
co- nt Arbuthnot ; C iggie, Brnho/m CoJUe, &c.—The
village of Fordun, a little fouth from the centre of the
county, is fuppofed to be the birth place of the cele¬
brated author of the Scotichronicon. In the church¬
yard. of Fordun is fhewn what is laid to be the tomb of
St Palladios, a fmall plain building, which from its ap¬
pearance is.comparatively of a modern date. Near the
village, and along the river Bervie, the country is flat
and well cultivated. I he fmall town of Inverbervie
was made a royal borough by David Bruce, who land¬
ed with his queen at Craig David i cir this after his
long retreat :nto France. Near the village of Fetter-
cairn are ftill teen fome veftiges of a caftle faid to have
keen the rdidence of Fmella, daughter of a nobleman,
of large poflefiions in this county, or, as Major calls Kinear-
her, Countefs of Angus, who was acceiTory to the mur- dinefhire
der of Kenneth II. About two miles from this place,
on the road fide, is a cairn of a ftupendous fize and
uncommon form, which probably might give name to
the pariflr. About fix miles weft from Bervie, is fitu¬
ated Laurencekirk, which, formerly an irfignificant
village, by the judicious and liberal exertiens of Lord
Gardenftone, has become a handfome little town, with
a right to ele£l magiftrates, and to hold an annual
fair and a weekly market. He eftabliflied here ma¬
nufactures of lawn, cambric, linen, and various other
articles. He has aifo freely renounced all the oppref-
five fervices due by his tenants ; fervices which have
been fo long and fo juftly complained of as a check to
agriculture in many parts of Scotland.—The north-
W'eft part of the (hire, being mountainous, is more em¬
ployed in pallure than in cultivation. The principal
mountains are Montbattock, and Cioch-na bean : the
former is the higheit in the county ; the latter is remark¬
able, as the name imports, for a huge detached rock
near its fummit. The population of this county, ac¬
cording to its panlhes, is the following.
Pooulation
Pnrifes. in l?,5.
1 Arbuthnot 997
Banchory Devenich *495
Banchory Ternan f 73^
Benholm 1367
5 Bervie 655
Conveth 757
Dunnotar *57°
Durris §89
Fettercairn 3950
10 Fettereffoe 3°^2
Fordun 1890
Garvock 755
Glenbervie 95^
Kinmff 858
13 Maryculter 74^
Marykirk 1285
Nigg 1289
St Cyrus J271
19 Strachaa 79^
24>346
Population is
175c-—1798.-
1041
1700
1340
*557
1200
1200
1962
651
2000
3370
2258
460
1000
719
1481
1090
1763
700
26,799
24,346
Increafe, 2453 *
KINDRED, in Lciv, perfons related to one ano¬
ther, whereof the law reckons three degrees or lines,
viz. the defeending, amending, and collateral line.
See Consanguinity and Descent.
On their being-no kindred in the defeending line,
the inheritance paffes in the collateral one.
KING, a monarch or potentate who rules fingly and
fove-reignly over a people.—Camden derives the word
from the Saxon cyning, which fign fits the fame ; and
that from can, 4' power,” or ken, “ knowledge,” where¬
with every monarch is fuppoied to be invefled. The
Latin rex, the Scythian reix, the Punic refih, the Spa.
nilh rey, and French roy, come all, according to Pof-
tel, from the Hebrew v'A'n, rojeh, “ chief, head.”
Kings were not kuov\n amongjl the Ilraeiitts ti'l
, th*
Hi/l,
KIM [ 459 1 KIN
King, the reign of Saul. Before him they were, governed
at fir ft by elders as in Egypt $ then by princes of God’s
appointment, as Mofes and Joftnia j then by judges
till the time of Samuel j and laft of all by kings. See
Judges.
Moft of the Grecian ftates were governed at firft by
kings, who were chofen by the people to decide differ¬
ences and execute a power which was limited by laws.
They commanded armies, prefided over the worfhip of
the gods, &c. This royalty was generally hereditary j
but if the vices of the heir to the crown were odious to
the people, or if the oracle had fo commanded, he was
cut off from the right of fucceffion ; yet the kings
were fuppofed to hold their ibvereignty by the ap¬
pointment of Jupiter. The enfign of majefty was the
fceptre, which was made of wood adorned with ftuds
of gold, and ornamented at the top with fome fi¬
gure 5 commonly that of an eagle, as being the bird of
Jove.
Rome alfo was governed at firft by kings, who were
elecled by the people, with the approbation of the
fenate and concurrence of the augurs. Their pow-er
extended to religion, the revenues, the army, and the
adminiftration of juftice. The monarchical form of
government fubfifted 244 years in Home, under feven
kings, the laft of whom was Tarquinius Superbus. See
Rome.
Among the Greeks the king of Perfia had anciently
the appellation of the grtal king; the king of France
novr has that of the tnoft Chrijlian king; and the king
of Spain has that of Catholic king. The king of the Ro¬
mans is a prince chofen by the emperor, as a coadjutor
in the government of the empire.
The kings of England, by the Lateran council, un¬
der Pope Julius II. had the title of Chrijlianiffimus con¬
ferred on them ; and that of defender of the faith was
added by Pope Leo X. though it had been ufed by
them fome time before. The title of grace was firft
given to our kings about the time of Henry IV. and
that of mnjefly firft to Henry VIII. before which time
©ur kings were called grace, highnefs, &c.—In all pub¬
lic inftruments and letters, the king ftyles himfelf nor,
4i we $” though till the time of King John he fpoke in
the fingular number.
The definition of king above given, is according to
the general acceptation of the term. It will not there¬
fore ftridlly apply to the fovereign of Britain j and ftill
lefs of late to that of France, formerly one of the moft
abfolute, now the moft degraded, of princes, without
power and without conftquence. In Britain, a happy
mean prevails. The power of the king is indeed lub-
jeft to great limitations: but they are the limitations of
wifdom, and the fources of dignity $ being fo far from
diminilhing his honour, that they add a glory to his
crown: For w’hile other kings are abfolute monarchs
over innumerable multitudes of flaves, the king of Bri¬
tain has the diftinguifhed glory of governing a free peo¬
ple, the leaft of whom is protefled by the law's : he
has great prerogatives, and a boundlefs power in doing
good •, and is at the fame time only reftrained from aid¬
ing inf onfiftently with his own happinefs, and that of
his people.
To underftand the royal rights and authority in Bri¬
tain, we muft eonfider the king under fix diftindt views.
I. With regard to his title. 2. His royal family.
3. His councils, 4. His duties. 5. His prerogative,
6. His revenue.
I. His title. For this, fee HerEDITABT Right, and
Succession.
II. His royal family. See ROTAL Family.
III. His councils. See Council.
IV. His duties. By our conftitution, there are cer¬
tain duties incumbent on the king ^ in confideration of
which, his dignity and prerogative are eftablilhed by
the laws of the land: it being a maxim in the lawr, that
protection and fubjedtion are reciprocal. And thefe re¬
ciprocal duties are what Sir William Blackftone appre¬
hends were meant by the convention in 1688, when
they declared that King James had broken the original
contradt between king and people. But, however, as
the terms of that original contradt were in fome mea-
furedifputed, being alleged to exift principally in theo¬
ry, and to be only deducible by reafon and the rules of
natural law’, in which dedudtion different underftand-
ings might very conliderably differ j it was, after the
Revolution, judged proper to declare thefe duties ex-
prefsly, and to reduce that contradt to a plain certain¬
ty. So that, whatever doubts might be formerly raifed
by weak and fcrupulous minds about the exiftence of
fuch an original contradt, they muft now entirely ceafej
efpecially with regard to every prince who hath reign¬
ed fince the year 1688.
The principal duty of the king is, To govern his
people according to law, Flee regibus inf nit a aut libera
potefas, was the conftitution of our German anceftors
on the continent. And this is not only confonant to
the principles of nature, of liberty, of reafon, and of
fociety ; but has always been efteemed an exprefs part
of the common law' of England, even when prerogative
was at the higheft. “ The king (faith Bradlon, who
wrote under Henry III.) ought not to be fubjedft to
man •, but to God, and to the law : for the law maketh
the king. Let the king therefore render to the law,
what the law has invefted in him w ith regard to others j
dominion, and power : for he is not truly king, where
will and pleafure rules, and not the law.” And again :
“ The king hath a fuperior, namely God •, and alio the
law, by which he was made a king.” Thus Bradlon j
and Fortefcue alfo, having firft well diftinguiftied be¬
tween a monarchy abfolutely and defpotically regal,
which is introduced by conqueft and violence, and a
political or civil monarchy, which arifes from mutual
confent (of which laft fpecies he afferts the government
of England to be), immediately lay^ it down as a prin¬
ciple, that ‘‘ the king of England muft rule his people
according to the decrees of the laws thereof; infomuch
that he is bound by an oath at his coronation to the ob-
fervance and keeping of his own laws.” But to ob¬
viate all doubts and difficulties concerning this matter,
it is exprefsly declared by ftatute 12 and 13 W. III.
c. 2. “ that the laws of England are the birthright of
the people thereof; and all the kings and queens who
(hall afeend the throne of this realm ought toadminifter
the government of the fame according to the faid law’s,
and all their officers and minifters ought to ferve them
refpeflively according to the fame : and therefore all
the other laws and ftatutes of this realm, for fecuring
the eftablifhed religion, and the rights and liberties of
the people thereof, and all other laws and ftatutes of
the fame now in force, are by his majefty, by and with
3 M 2 th«
KIN [ 460 ] KIN
the advice and confent of the lords fpiritual and tempo¬
ral, and commons, and by authority of the fame, rati¬
fied and confirmed accordingly.”
And as to the terms of the original contraf! be¬
tween king and people, thefe, it is apprehended, are
now couched in the coronation oath, which by the 11a-
tute 1 W. and M. fiat. 1. c. 6. is to be adminiftered to
every king and queen who ihall fucceed to the imperial
crown of thefe realms, by one of the archbifliops or
bit'hops of the realm, in the prefence of all the people;
who on their parts do reciprocally take the oath of al¬
legiance to the crown. This coronation oath is concei¬
ved in the following terms :
“ The archbifhop or bijhop /ballfay, Will you fo-
lemnly promife and fwear to govern the people of this
kingdom of Britain, and the dominions thereto be-
longing, according to the ftatutes in parliament a-
greed, and the law’s and cufioms of the fame ?—
1 he king or queen Jhallfay, I folemnly promife fo to
do.
Archbifhop or bifhop. Will you to your power
caufe law and juftice, in mercy, to be executed in all
your judgments ?—King or queen. I will.
“ Archbifhop' or bifhop. Will you to the utmoft of
your power maintain the laws of God, the true profef-
fion of the gofpel, and the Proteftant reformed religion
eftabhthed by the law ? And will you preferve unto
the bifhops and clergy of this realm, and to the church¬
es committed to their charge, all fuch rights and privi¬
leges as by law do or (hall appertain unto them, or
any of them >~~King or queen. All this I promife to
do.
“ After this the king or queen, laying his or her hand
upon the holy gofpel, fmil fay. The things which I have
here before promifed, I will perform and keep : fo help
me God. And then [hall kfs the bookA
This is the form of the coronation oath, as it is now
preferibed by our law ; the principal articles of which
appear to be at leaft as ancient as the Mirror of Jufti-
ces, and even as the time of Brafton : but the wording
of it was changed at the Revolution, becaufe (as the
fiatute alleges) the oath itfelf had been framed in
doubtful words and exprefiions, with relation to an¬
cient laws and conftitutions at this time unknown.
However, in what form foever it be conceived, this is
moft indifputably a fundamental and original exprefs
contrafl j though, doubtlefs, the duty of proteftion is
impliedly as much incumbent on the fovereign before
coronation as after : in the fame manner as allegiance
to the king becomes the duty of the fubjeft immediate¬
ly on the defeent of the crown, before he has taken the
oath of allegiance, or whether he ever takes it at all.
This reciprocal duty of the fubjeft will be confidered
in its. proper place. At prefent we are only to obferve,
that in the king’s part of this original contraft are ex-
prelfed all the duties which a monarch can owe to his
people, viz. to govern according to law; to execute
judgment in mercy; and to maintain the eftablifiied
religion. And with refpedl to the latter of thefe three
branches, we may farther remark, that by the aft of
union, 5 Ann. c. 8. two preceding ftatutes are recited
and confirmed ; the one of the parliament of Scotland,
the other of the parliament of England : which enaft ;
the former, that every king at his acceffion (hall take
and fubferibe an oath, to preferve the Proteftant reli-
3
gion, and Prefbyterian church-government in Scotland ;
the latter, that at his coronation he (hall take and
fubferibe a fimilar oath, to preferve the fettlement of
the church of England within England, Ireland,
W ales, and Berwick, and the territories thereunto be¬
longing.
V. His prerogative. See Prerogative.
VI. His revenue. See Revenue.
.Having in the preceding articles chalked out all the
principal outlines of this vaft title of the law, the fu-
pieme executive magiftrate, or the king’s majefty, con¬
fidered in his feveral capacities and points of view ; it
may not be improper to take a (hort comparative review
of the power of the executive magiftrate, or preroga¬
tive of the crown, as it ftood in former days, and as" it
(lands at prefent. And we cannot but obferve, that
moft of the laws for afeertaining, limiting, and re-
ftraining this, prerogative, have been made within the
compafs of little more than a century paft ; from the
petition of right in 3 Car. I. to the prefent time. So
that the powers of the crown are now to all appearance
greatly cui tailed and diminifhed fince the reign of
King James I. particularly by the abolition of the ftar-
chamber and high-commiflion courts in the reign of
Charles I. and by the difclaiming of martial law, and
the power of levying taxes on the fubjefl, by the fame
prince : by the difufe of foreft laws for a century paft :
and by the many excellent provifions enadled under
Charles II. ; efpecially the abolition of military tenures,
purveyance, and pre-emption ; the habeas corpus aft ;
and the aft to prevent the difcontinuance of parliaments
for above three years ; and fince the Revolution, by
the ftrong and emphatical words in which our liberties
are afferted in the bill of rights, and aft of fettlement;
by the aft for triennial, fince turned into feptennial
eleftions ; by the exclufion of certain officers from the
houfe of commons ; by rendering the feats of the judges
permanent, and their falaries independent; and by re-
ftraining the king’s pardon from obftrufting parliamen¬
tary impeachments. Befides all this, if we confider
how the crown is impoveriihed and (tripped of all its
ancient revenues, fo that it greatly depends on the libe¬
rality of parliament for its neceflary fupport and mainte¬
nance,. we may perhaps be led to think that the ba-
lance is inclined pretty ftrongly to the popular fcale,
and that the executive magiftrate has neither indepen¬
dence nor power enough left, to form that check upon
the lords and commons which the founders of our con-
ftitution intended.
But, on the other hand, it is to be confidered, that
every prince, in the firft parliament after his acceflion,
has by long ufage a-truly royal addition to his heredi¬
tary revenue fettled upon him for his life ; and has ne¬
ver any occafion to apply to parliament for fupplies,
but. upon fome public neceffity of the whole realm.
1 his reftores to him that conftitutional independence,
which at his firft acceffion feems, it muft be owned, to
be wanting. And then with regard to power, we
may find perhaps that the hands of government are
at leaft fufficiently ftrengthened ; and that a Britifh
monarch is now’ in no danger of being overborne by
either the nobility or the people. The inftruments of
power are not perhaps fo open and avowed as they for¬
merly \vere, and therefore are the lefs liable to jealous
and invidious refleftions; but they are not the weaker
upon
KIN [ 461 ] KIN
King, upon that account. In fhort, our national debt and
—Y-—' taxes (befides the inconveniences before mentioned)
have alfo in their natural confequences thrown Inch a
weight of power into the executive Icale of govern¬
ment, as we cannot think was intended by our pa¬
triot anceftors ; who glorioufly ftruggled for the aboli¬
tion of the then formidable parts of the prerogative,
and by an unaccountable want of forefight eftablithed
this fyftem in their dead. The entire collection and
management of fo vail a revenue, being placed in the
hands of the crown, have given rife to fuch a number
of new officers, created by and removable at the royal
pleafure, that they have extended the influence of go¬
vernment to every corner of the nation. Witnefs the
commiffioners and the multitude of dependents on the
cuftoms, in every port of the kingdom •, the commiffion¬
ers of excife, and their numerous fubalterns, in every
inland diflriCt ; the poftmallers and their fervants
planted in every town, and upon every public road j
the commiffioners of the flamps, and their diftributors,
which are fully as fcattered and fully as numerous j the
officers of the fait duty, which, though a fpecies of ex¬
cife, and conduced in the. fame manner, are yet made
a ditlindl corps from the ordinary managers of that re¬
venue j the furveyors of houfes and windows } the re¬
ceivers of the land tax j the managers of lotteries; and
the commiffioners of hackney coaches ; all which are
either mediately or immediately appointed by the
crown, and removable at pleafure without any reafon
affigned : thefe, it requires but little penetration to
fee, muft give that power on which they depend for
fubfiftence, an influence moft amazingly extenfive. To
this may be added the frequent opportunities of confer¬
ring particular obligations, by preference in loans, iub-
fcriptions, tickets, remittances, and other money tranf-
aftions, which will greatly increafe this influence j and
that over thofe perfons whofe attachment on account of
their wealth, is frequently the moil defirable. All this
is the natural, though perhaps the nnforefeen, confe-
quence of erecting our funds of credit, and, to fupport
them, eftablifhing our perpetual taxes : the whole of
which is entirely new fince the Reftoration in 16605
and by far the greateft part fince the Revolution in
1688. And the fame may be faid with regard to the
officers in our numerous army, and the places which the
army has created. All which put together give the
executive power fo perfuafive an energy with refpedl to
the perfons themfelves, and fo prevailing an intereft
with their friends and families, as will amply make
amends for the lofs of external prerogative.
But though this profufion of offices {hould have no
effedl on individuals, there is ftill another newly ac¬
quired branch of power 5 and that is, not the influ¬
ence only, but the force of a difciplined army 5 paid
indeed ultimately by the people, but immediately by
the crown-, raifed by the crown, officered by the crown,
commanded by the crown. I hey are kept on foot,
it is true, only from year to year, and that by the
power of parliament: but during that year they muft,
by the nature of our conftitution, if raifed at all, be at
the abfolute difpofal of the crown. And there need
but few words to demonftratehow great a truft is there¬
by repofed in the prince by his people : A. trull that is
more than equivalent to a thouiand little troublefome
prerogatives.
Add to all this, that befides the civil lift, the im- King,
menfe revenue of almoft feven millions fterling, which "" ‘Y~*
is annually paid to the creditors of the public, or
carried to the finking fund, is.firft depofited in the
royal exchequer, and thence iffued out to the refpec-
tive offices of payment. This revenue the people can
never refufe to raife, becaufe it is made perpetual by
act of parliament 5 which alfo, when well confidered,
will appear to be a truft of great delicacy and high
importance.
Upon the whole, therefore, it feems clear, that what¬
ever may have become of the nominal, the real power
of the crown has not been too far weakened by any
tranfadlions in the laft century. Much is indeed given
up 5 but much is alfo acquired. The ftern commands
of prerogative have yielded to the milder voice of in¬
fluence : the flavifli and exploded dodlrine of non-
refiftance has given way to a military eftabliffiment by
law ; and to the difufe of parliaments has fucceeded a
parliamentary trufl of an immenfe perpetual revenue.
Winn, indeed, by the free operation of the finking
fund, our national debts (hall be leflened ; when the
pofture of foreign affairs, and the univerfal introduc¬
tion of a well planned and national militia, will fuffer
our formidable army to be thinned and regulated 5 and
when (in confequence of all) our taxes ftiall be gra¬
dually reduced 5 this adventitious power of the crown
will flowly and imperceptibly diminifli, as it flowly and
imperceptibly rofe. But till that fhall happen, it will
be our efpecial duty, as good fubjefts and good Eng-
lifhmen, to reverence the crown, and yet guard againft
corrupt and fervile influences from thofe who are in¬
truded with its authority 5 to be loyal yet free ; obe¬
dient, and yet independent 5 and, above every thing,
to hope that we may long, very long, continue to be
governed by a fovereign, who in all thofe public a£ts
that have perfonally proceeded from himfelf, hath ma-
nifefted the higheft veneration for the free conftitution
of Britain, hath already in more than one inftance
remarkably ftrengthened its outworks 5 and will there¬
fore never harbour a thought or adopt a perfuafion,
in any the remoteft degree detrimental to public li¬
berty.
KING at Arms, or of Arms, is an officer of great an¬
tiquity, and anciently of great authority, whofe bufi-
nefs is to direft the heraMs, prefide at their chapters,
and have the jurifdiftion of armoury.
In England there are three kings of arms, viz. gar¬
ter, clarencieux, and norroy.
Garter, principal KING of Arms, was inftituted by
Henry V. His bufinefs is to attend the knights of the
Garter at their affemblies, to marfhal the folemnities at
the funerals of the higheft nobility, and to carry the
garter to kings and princes beyond the fea 5 on which
occafion he ufed to be joined in commiffion with fome
principal peer of the kingdom. See Garter.
Clarencieux KING at Arms, is fo called from the
duke of Clarence, to whom he firft belonged. His
office is to marflial and difpofe the funerals of all the
** inferior nobility, as baronets, knights, efquires, and
gentlemen, on the fouth fide of the Trent, See Cla¬
rencieux.
Nor' oy King at Arms, is to do the fame on the
north fide of the river Trent.
Thefe two laft are alfo called provincial heralds, in
regard
K I N
regard they divide the kingdom between them into
provinces. By charter, they have power to vifit noble¬
men’s families, to fet down their pedigrees, diflinguilh
their arms, appoint perfons their arms, and with garter
to direft the other heralds.
Anciently the kings at arms were created and fo-
leranly crowned by the kings of England themfelves $
but in later times the earl marfhal has a fpecial com-
miflion at every creation to perfonate the king.
Lyon KING at Arms, for Scotland, is the fecond
king at arms for Great Britain $ he is invefted and
crowned with great folemnity. To him belong the
publilhing king’s proclamations, marfhalling funerals,
reverfing arms, &c. See Lyon.
King, Dr John, a learned Englifh bifliop in the
17th century, was educated at Weftminfter fchool, and
at Oxford, and was appointed chaplain to Queen Eli¬
zabeth. In 1605 he was made dean of Chrift church,
was for feveral years vice-chancellor of Oxford, and in
1611 he was advanced to the bifhopric of London. Be-
fides his LeBures upon Jonah, delivered at York, he
publifhed feveral fermons. King James I. ufed to ftyle
him the king of preachers; and Lord Chief Juftice Coke
often declared, that he was the bej} fpeaher in the Star-
chamber in his time. He was fo constant in preaching
after he was a bifhop, that, unlefs he was prevented by
want of health, he omitted no Sunday in vifiting fome
pulpit in or near London. Soon after his death, it was
reported, that he died a member of the Romifti church.
But the faliity of this (lory was fufficiently expofed by
his fon Dr Henry King, who was bifhop of Chichefter,
in a fermon at St Paul’s crofs foon after; by Bifhop
Godwin in the appendix to his Commcntarius dep^afu-
hbuS' Anglice, printed in 1622; and by Mr John Gee,
in his book, entitled, 'l he Toot out of the Snare.
King, Dr William, a facetious Englifh writer in
the beginning of the 18th century, w^as allied to the
noble families of Clarendon and Rochefler. He w as
elected a ftudent of Chriil church from Weftminfter
fchool in 1681, aged 18. He afterward entered upon
the ftudy of law, and took the* degree of dodfor of civil
law, foon acquired a confiderable reputation as a civi¬
lian, and was in great practice. He attended the earl
of Pembroke, lord lieutenant of Ireland, into that
kingdom, where he was appointed judge advocate, foie
commiftioner of the prizes, keeper of the records, vicar
geneial to the lord primate of Ireland \ was countenan¬
ced by perfons of the higheft rank, and might have
made a fortune. But fo far was he from heaping up
riches, that he returned to England with no other^rea-
fure.than a few merry poems and humorous effays, and
returned to his ftudent’s place at Chrift church. He
died on Chriftmas day in 1712, and was interred in
the cloifters of Weftminfter abbey. His writings are
pretty numerous, J he prirtcipal are, 1. Animadver-
ftons on a pretended Account of Denmark, wrote by
Mr Molefworth, afterwards Lord Molefworth. The
writing of thefe procured Dr King the place of fecre-
tary to Princefs Anne of Denmark. 2. Dialogues of
the dead. 3. ! he art of love, in imitation of Ovid
De arte amnndi. 4. A volume of poems. Ufeful
tranfa&ions. 6. An hiftorical account of the heathen
god^ and heroes 7. Several tranfta'ion*.
^KiNG Dr William, archbiftiop of Dublin in the
2 ‘jth century, was dt-fcended from an ancient family in
[ 462 ]
K I N
the north of Scotland, but born in the county of An¬
trim in the north of Ireland. In 1674 he took
priefts orders, and in 1679 'vas promoted by his pa¬
tron, Dr Parker, archbiftiop of Dublin, to the chan-
cellorfhip of St Patrick. In 1687 Peter Manby, dean
of Londonderry, having publiftied at London, in 4to,
a pamphlet entitled Confiderations which obliged Peter
Manby dean of Londonderry to embrace the Catholic
Religion, our author immediately wrote an anfvver. Mr
Manby, encouraged by the court, and afiifted by the
moft learned champions of the church of Rome, pub-
lilhed a reply under this title, A reformed Catechifm, in
two Dialogues, concerning the Engliftr Reformation,
&c. in reply to Mr King’s Anfwer, &c. Our author
foon rejoined, in a Vindication of the Anfwer. Mr
Manby dropped the controverfy j but difperfed a loofe
flreet of paper, artfully written, w ith this title, A Letter
to a Friend, (howing the Vanity of this Opinion, that
every Man’s Senfe and Reafon are to guide him in Mat¬
ters of Faith. This Dr King refuted in a Vindication
of the Chriftian Religion and Reformation againft tha
Attempts of a Letter, See. In 1689 he was twice con¬
fined in the Tower by order of King James II. and the
fame year commenced doctor of divinity. In 1690, up¬
on King James’s retreat to France after the battle at
the Boyne, he was advanced to the fee of Derry. In
1692 he publiftied at London, in 410, The State of the
Proteftants of Ireland under the late King James’s Go¬
vernment, &c. “ A hiftory (fays Biftiop Burnet), as
truly as it is finely written.” He had by him at his death
attefted vouchers of every particular fad alleged in this
book, which are now in the hands of his relations.
However, it was foon attacked by Mr Charles Lefly.
In 1693 our author finding the great number of Prote-
ftant d/ifenters, in his diocefe of Derry, increafed by
a vaft addition of colonifts from Scotland, in order to
perfuade them to conformity to the eftabliftied church,
publiflied A Difeourfe concerning the Inventions of
Men in the Worftiip of God. Mr Jofeph Boyfe, a
difienting minifter, wrote an anfw er. The bilhop an-
fwered Mr Boyfe. The latter replied. The biftiop re¬
joined. In 1702 he publiftied at Dublin, in 410, his ce¬
lebrated treatife De Origme Mali. Mr Edmund Law,
M. A. fellow of Chrift’s college in Cambridge after¬
wards publiftied a complete tranflation of this, with very
valuable notes, in 410. In the fecond edition he has
inferted, by way of notes, a large colle&ion of the au¬
thor’s papers on the fame fubjeft, which he had re¬
ceived from his relations after the publication of the
former edition. Our author in this excellent treatife
has many curious obfervations He aflerts and proves
that there is more moral good in the earth than raoral
evil. A fermon by our author, preached at Dublin
in 1709, was publiflied under the title of Divine Pre-
deftination and Foreknowledge confiftent with the Free*
dom of Man’s Will. This was attacked by Anthony
Collins, E'q. in a pamphlet entitled, A Vindication
of the Divine Attributes j in fume remarks on the arch¬
biftiop of Dublin’s fermon, entitled, Divine Predetiina-
tion, &e. He publiftied Hkewife, A Difeourfe con¬
cerning the Confeeration of Churches ; (hewing what
is meant by dedicating them, with the Grounds of that
Office. He died in 1720.
King, Dr Wl/t nr, princ ipal of St Mary’s hall,
Oxford, fon of the reverend Peregrine King, was barn
at
King.
KIN [ 463 ] KIN
Ring- at Stepney in Middlefex, in the year 16S5. He was
■ t ' made doctor of laws in 1715, was fecretary to the
duke of Ormond, and earl of Arran, as chancellors of
the univerfity $ and was made principal of St Mary’s
hall on the death of Dr Hudfon in 1719. When he
flood candidate for member of parliament for the uni¬
verfity, he refigned his office of fecretary, but enjoyed
his other preferment, and it was all he did enjoy to
the time of his death. Dr Clark, who oppofed him,
carried the ele&ion j and after this difappointment, he
in the year 1727 went over to Ireland, where he is
laid to have written an epic poem, called The Toq/l,
which was a political fatire, printed and given away
to his friends, but never fold. On the dedication of
Dr RadclifTs library in 1749, he fpoke a Latin ora¬
tion in the theatre of Oxford, which was received with
the higheft acclamations; but it was otherwife when
printed,.for he was attacked in feveral pamphlets on ac¬
count of it. Again, at the memorable contefted elec¬
tion in Oxfordlhire 1755, his attachment to the old
intereft drew on him the refentment of the new, and
he was libelled in newfpapers and pamphlets, againft
which he defended himlelf in an Apology, and wartuly
retaliated on his adverfaries. He wrote feveral other
things, and died in 1762. He was a polite fcholar,
an excellent orator, an elegant and eafy writer, and
eiteemed by the firft men of his time for his learning
and wit.
King, Peter, lord high chancellor of Great Britain,
was the fon of an eminent grocer and falter, and was
born at Exeter in 1669, and bred up for fome years to
his father’s bufinefs j but his inclination to learning was
fo ftrong, that he laid out all the money he could fpare
in books, and devoted every moment of his leifure
hours to ftudy : fo that he became an excellent fcholar
before the world fufpefted any fuch thing j and gave
the public a proof of his Ikill in church hiftory, in his
Inquiry into the Conftitution, Difcipline, Unity, and
Worfhip of the primitive Church, that flourilhed with¬
in the firft 300 Years after Chrift. * London, 1691, in
8 vo. This was written with a view to promote the
fcheme of a comprehenfion of the diffentefs. He af¬
terwards publifhed the fecond part of the Inquiry into
the Conftitution, &c. ; and having defired, in his pre¬
face, to be fhown, either publicly or privately, any mif-
takes he might have made, that requeft was firft com¬
plied with by Mr Edmund Elys } between whom and
our author there paffed feveral letters upon the fubjeft,
in 1692, which were publiftied by Mr Elys in 1694,
8vo, under the title of Letters on feveral Subje&s. But
the moft formal and elaborate anfwertothe Inquiry ap¬
peared afterwards, in a work entitled, Original Draught
of the Primitive Church.
His acquaintance wrih Mr Locke, to whom he was
related, and who left him half his library at his death,
was of great advantage to him ; by his advice, after
he had ftudied fome time in Hollanl, he applied him-
fe!f to the ftudy of the law 5 in which profefTnn this
learning and diligence made him foon taken notice of.
In the two laft parliaments during the reign of King
William, and in five parliaments during the reign of
Queen Anne, he ferved as burgefs for Beer-Alfton in
Devonftiire. In IJ02, be publiflied at London, in
8vo, without his name, his Hiftory of the A pollles Creed,
vith critical obfervations on its feverai articles $ which
is highly efteemed. In 1708, he was chofen recorder King
of the city of London, and in 1710, was one of the ^
members of the houfe of commons at the trial of Dr t(T-
Sacheverel. In 1714, he was appointed lord chief
juftice of the common pleas j and the April follovr-
ing, w as made one of the privy council. In 1715, he
was created a peer, by the title of Lord King, baron of
Ockham in Surry, and appointed lord high chancellor
of Great Britain j in which fituation he continued till
1733» when he rdigned ; and in 1734 died at Ockhanv -
in Surry.
King's Bench. See Bench, King's.
King Bird. See Paradisea, Ornithology In¬
dex.
King's Fijher. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index,
Books of Kings, two canonical books of the Old
Teftament, fo called, becaufe they contain the hiftory
of the kings of Ifrael and Judah from the beginning
of the reign of Solomon down to the Babylomlh cap¬
tivity for the fpace of near 600 years. The firft book
of Kings contains the latter part of the life of David, •
and his death ; the flouriftiing ftate of the Ifraelites
under Solomon, his building and dedicating the temple
of Jerufalem, his ftiameful defection from the true re¬
ligion, and the fudden decay of the Jewjftr nation af¬
ter his death, when it was divided into two kingdoms:
the reft of the book is taken up pi relating the a£ls of
four kings of Judah and eight of Ifrael. The fe¬
cond book, which is a continuation of the fame hiftory,
is a relation of the memorable a<fts of 16 kings of Ju¬
dah, and I 2 of Ifrael, and the end of both kingdoms,
by the carrying of the 10 tribes captive into Affyria
by Shalmanefer, and the other two into Babylon by
Nebuchadnezzar.
It is probable that thefe books were compofed by
Ezra, who extracted them out of the public records,
which were kept of what pafled in that nation.
King's County, a county of the province of Lein-
fter in Ireland, taking its name from King Philip of
Spain, hufband to Queen Mary It is bounded on the
north by Weft Meath ; on the fouth by Tipperary and
Queen’s county, from which it is divided by the Bar-
row ; and by part of Tipperary and Galway on the welt,
from, which it is feparated by the Shannon. It is a
fine fruitful country, containing 257,510 Irifh planta¬
tion acres, 56 panfhes, II baronies, and two boroughs.
It is about 38 miles long and 30 broad, and the chief
town is Phihpftuwn.
King's Evil, or Scrophula. See Medicine IndfX.
KING-TE-TCHING, a famous village belonging
to the diitri6t of Jao-tcheou-fou, a city of China, in the
province of Kiang-fi. This village, in which are col¬
lected the belt workmen in porcelain, is as populous as
the largelt cities of China. It is reckoned to contain
a million of inhabitants, who confume every day more
than ten thoufand loads of rice. It extends a league
and a half along the banks of a beautiful river, and is
not a colle&ion of draggling houfes intermixed with
fpots of ground : on the contrary, the people com¬
plain that the buildings are too crowded, and that the
long flreets which they form are too narrow 5 thofe
who pafs through them imagine therr felves tranfport-
ed into the midfl of a fair, where nothing i> heard
around but the noife of porters calling out to make way.
Provifions are dear here, beeaufe every thing cunfumed
K I N
'K. ing-te-
tchtng
. II
Kmgfton.
is brought from remote placed ; even wood, fo necef-
fary for their furnaces, is aftually tranfported from the
diftance of an hundred leagues. This village, not-
withftanding the high price of provifions, is an afylum
for a great number of poor families, who could not fub~
flit anywhere elfe. Children and invalids find employ¬
ment here, and even the blind gain a livelihood by
pounding colours. The river in this place forms a
kind of harbour about a league in circumference : two
or three rows of barks placed in a line fometimes bor¬
der the whole extent of this vaft bafon.
KINGDOM, the territories or extent of country
fubjedl to a king.
KINGDOMS of Nature. Molt naturalilts following
Linnaeus, have divided all natural bodies into three
great claffes, called kingdoms. Thefe are the mineral,
the vegetable, and the kingdoms. See Natural
History.
KINGHORN, a borough town in the county of
Fife in Scotland, on the frith of Forth, diredtly oppo-
fite to Leith. I he manufadture of thread Itockings
has been long eltablilhed j and machinery has been in¬
troduced for fpinning cotton and flax. Many of the
men are employed in ceafting (hips, in the filhery, or
the paffage boats from hence to Leith, from which the
town of Kinghorn derives confiderable advantage. This
place gives a fecond title to the earl of Strathmore.
The population in i8ci exceeded 2C00.
KINGSBRIDGE, a town of Devonlhire, 217 miles
weft-fouth-weft from London, which has a harbour for
boats, and it is a chapel of eafe to Chefton. The po¬
pulation in 1801 amounted to 1117.
KINGSCLERE, a town of Hamplhire, is 56 miles
i.rom London, was once the feat of the Saxon kings,
and contains nearly 2coo inhabitants.
^ KINGSFERRY, in Kent, the common way from
the main land into the iile of Sheppey •, where a cable
of about 140 fathoms in length, fattened at each end
acrofs the water, ferves to get the boat over by band.
For the maintenance of this ferry and keeping up the
highway leading to it through the marfhes for above
one mile in length, and for fupporting a wall againfl;
the fea, the land occupiers tax themfelves yearly one
penny per acre for frefli marlh land, and one penny for
every 10 acres of fait marlh land. Here is a houfe for
the feriy deeper, who is obliged to tow all travellers
over free, except on thefe four days, viz. Palm Mon-
day, vV hit-Monday, St James’s day, and Michaelmas
day, when a horfeman pays two pence, and a footman
one penny. But on Sunday, or after eight o’clock at
night, the ferry-keeper demands lixpence of every horfe-
man, and two pence of every footman, whether ftran-
gers or the land occupiers.
KINGSTON upon Thames, a town of Surry
in England, fituated 13 miles from London. It takes
its name from having been the relidence of many of
our Saxon kings, fome of whom were crowned here
on a ftage in the market place. It has a wooden bridge
of 20 arches over the Thames, which is navigable heve
by barges. There is another bridge here of brick,
over a llream that comes from a fpring in a cellar four
miles above the town, and forms iuch a brook as to
drive two mills not above a bowlhot from it and from
r 46+ ]
K I N
the reigns of King Edward II. and III. fent members Kingftoa.
to parliament. The number of inhabitants in 1801
was 3793’ has a free fchool 5 an alms houfe built
in 1670, for fix men and fix women, and endowed with
lands to the value of 80I. a-year : and a charity fchool
for 30 boys, w'ho are all clothed. Here is a fpacious
church with eight bells, adjoining to which, on the
north fide was formerly a chapel dedicated to St Mary,
in which were, the pictures of three of the Saxon kings
that were crowned here, and alfo that of King John,
who gave the inhabitants of this town their nrit char¬
ter of incorporation. But thefe were all deftroyed by
the fall of this chapel in 1730. Here is a good market
for corn.
Kingston Upon Hull, a town in the eaft riding of
Yorkfliire, 173 miles from London. Its common name
is fimply Hull, and it is fituated at the conflux of the
rivers Hull and Humber, and near the place where
the latter opens into the German ocean. It lies fo
low, that by cutting the banks of the Humber the
country may be laid under water for five miles round.
Towards the land it is defended by a wall and a ditch,
with the farther fortification of a caftle, a citadel, and
blockhoufe. Hull has convenient docks for the Ihip-
ping that frequent this port. The firft dock was com¬
pleted fome years ago. 1 he town is large and po¬
pulous, containing two churches, feveral meeting
houfes, a free fchool, a charity fchool, and forsie
hofpitals. Among the latter is one called Trinity
houfe, in which are maintained many diftreffed feamen,
both of Hull and other places, that are members of
its port. It is governed by 12 elder brethren and fix
affifiants ; out of the former are chofen annually two
wardens, and out of the younger brethren two ftew-
ards ; they determine quefiions between matters and
feamen, and other fea matters. A handfome infirmary
has lately been eredted without the town to the north.
Here are alfo an exchange and a cuftomhoufe, and
over the Hull a wooden draw-bridge. A good harbour
was made here b^ Richard II. This town has not
only the molt confiderable inland traffic of any port in
the north of England, but a foreign trade fuperior to
any in the kingdom, excepting the ports of London,
Briftol, Liverpool, and Yarmouth. By means of the
many large rivers that fall into the Humber, it trades
to almoft every part of Yorkfliire, as well as to Lin-
colnffiire, Nottinghamflilre, Staffordfliire, Derbyfhire,
and Chefliire : the commodities of which counties are
brought hither, and exported to Holland, Hamburgh,
France, Spain, the Baltic, and other parts of Europe.
In return for thofe, are imported iron, copper, hemp,
flax, canvas, Ruffia linen and yarn, befides wine, oil,
fruit, and other articles. Such quantities of corn are
alfo brought hither by the navigable rivers, that Hull
exports more of this commodity than London. The
trade of Hull with London, particularly for corn, lead,
and butter, and with Holland and France, in times of
peace, for thofe commodities, as well as for cloth, ker-
feys, and other manufadlures of Yorkfliire, is very confi¬
derable. In 1803 the number of (hips belonging to Hull,
employed in the Greenland and Davis’s ffrails vhale
fifliery, amounted to 40. The mayor of Hull has two
fwords, one given by King Richard II. the other by
, 1 TY # JUGUcUU XI* lliC ULIlCr UV
e^ U S 8( neia\ly the place for the lummer Henry VIII. but only one is borne before him at a
guizes oi this .county. It is a well built tow n, and in time,; alfo a can of maintenanne. and an oar of liernnm
alfo a cap of maintenance; and an oar of lignum
vitae
Kinfale.
KIN l 465 1
Kin»fton vlt£e as a badge of his admiralty jurifdiftion within the point of trade-
limits of the Humber. This town gave title of earl to
Robert Pierpont of Holme Pierpont, Vifcount Newark,
created in the 4th of Charles I. and afterwards that of
duke in the fame family. The laid duke of Kingfton
died in 1773, and the title became extindL In 1801
the population was 27,609.
Kingston, a town of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, and capital of King’s county. W. Long. 7.
20. N. Lat. 53. 15. It is otherwife called Philips-
Town.
Kingston, a town of Jamaica, feated on the north
fide of the bay of Port Royal. It was founded in the
year 1693, when the repeated defolations by earth¬
quake and fire had driven the inhabitants from Port
Royal. It extends a mile from north to fouth, and
about as much from eaft to weft, on the harbour. It
contains about 3000 houfes, befides negro houfes, and
warehoufes. The number of white inhabitants in 1788
was about 7000 ; of free people of colour 3000 5 and
of flaves, about 16,000. It is the county town, where
the aftizes are held, in January, April, July, and Oc¬
tober, and laft about a fortnight. It is a place of great
trade. W. Long. 76. 52. N. Lat. 17. 5°'
KINGTON, or Kyneton, a pretty large.town in
Herefordthire, 146 miles from London. It is fituat-
ed on the river Arrow, and is inhabited chiefly by
clothiers, who drive a confiderable trade in narrow
cloth. It has a confiderable market for corn, cattle,
leather, home made linen and woollen cloth, and all
forts of provifions.
KINNOR, or Chinnor. See Chinnor.
KINO, a gum refin. See Materia Medica Index.
KINROSS, the county town of Kinrofsfliire in ScoU
land, fituated in W. Long. 3* Lat. 56. 15. on
the weft fide of Lochleven, a frefh water lake about 10
miles in compafs, abounding with pike, trout, perch,
and water fowl. The manufa&ures are linen and fome
cutlery ware. The houfe of Kinrofs, an elegant an¬
cient ftrufture, ftands on the north fide of the town.
Kinrofs fends a member to parliament by turns with
Clackmannan. In the lake are two iflands ; on one
of which appear the ruins of a priory, heretofore pol-
fefled by the Culdees •, the other is famous for the
eaftle in which Queen Mary was imprifoned by her re¬
bellious fubjefts.
The following is the population of this county ac¬
cording to its parilhes *.
* 'itatijl.
Hijl.
'es.
Parifh,
Cleifh
Kinrofs
Orwell
Portmoak
Population in
17^0—1798.
653
1839
1705
IIO5
4889
Increafe 413
KINSALE, a town of the county of Cork in Ire¬
land, fituated at the mouth of the river Ban or Ban-
don, 136 miles from Dublin. It is reckoned the third
town in the kingdom, and inferior only to Cork in
Vov XL Part II.
K I V
    It is neat, well built, and wealthy ;
and is governed by a fovereign and recorder. It is de¬
fended by a ftrong fort built by King Charles II. call- ,
ed Charles''s fort ; and on the oppofite Ihore there are
two well built villages, called Cove and Scilly. In the
town and liberties are 6 parilhes, 30 plough lands, and
therein 6846 acres, and the population amounts to
10,000. The barracks hold 12 companies of foot, be¬
fides a regiment at Charles’s fort. In the centre of the
town is a good market-houfe, and near it a ftrong built
prifon ; and there are fcattered up and down the ruins
of feverai monafteries and religious houfes. In time of
war Kinfale is a place of much bufinefs, being then fre¬
quented by rich homeward bound fleets and {hips of
war, for which reafon moft of the houles are then let
at double rents. The harbour is very commodious,
and perfeftly fecure ; fo large that the Englifh and
Dutch Smyrna fleets have anchored in it at the iame
time. There is a dock and yard for repairing {hips of
war, and a crane and gun wharf for landing and {hip¬
ping heavy artillery. Ships may lail into or out of this
harbour, keeping in the middle of the channel, with
the utmoft fafety. Within the haven on the weft fide
lies a great ihelf, which {hoots a great way off from
the land j but leaves an ample paffage by the fide of it,
in which, as in all the reft of the harbour, it is many
fathoms deep. Lord Kinfale has the ancient privilege
of keeping his hat on in the king’s prefence. Kmlale
gives the title of baron to the very ancient family of
Courcy, lineally defeended from John de Courcy, earl
of Ulfter, who from him have the privilege to be co¬
vered in the prefence of the king of England.
KINTORE, a royal borough of Aberdeenihire in
Scotland, fituated on the river Don, in W. Long. 2. 6.
N. Lat. 57. 10. It gives the title of earl to a branch
of the noble family of Keith. The population in 1801
was 846.
KINTYRE. See Cantire.
KIOF, or KlOW, a confiderable towm of Poland,
and capital of the Ukrain, in the palatinate of the iame
name, with an archbilhop’s fee and caftle. It be¬
longs to Ruflia, and carries on a confiderable trade.
It is divided into the Old and New lown, and feated
on the river Nieper, in E. Long. 31. 51. N. Lat. 50.
12.
KIPPIS, ANDREW, a learned and eminent Englifh
non-conformift divine and biographer, w'as born at
Nottingham, on the 28th of March 1725. On the
death of his father, he was removed to Sleaford in Lin-
colnfhire at five years of age, where he received his
grammar education, and gave fuch early proofs of ta¬
lents and progrefs, as attracted the notice of Mr Mer-
rivale, the paftor of a congregation of diffenters at that
place. To this excellent man it was probably owing
that young Kippis diredled his views to the profelfion
of a diffenting minifter, and to thofe ftudies in which
he afterwards fo much excelled. In 1741 he was
placed in the academy at Northampton, under the tui¬
tion of the celebrated Dr Doddridge, a feminary at
that time in high reputation. Of the advantages which
this inftitution afforded him, Mr Kippis knew how to
make the beft improvement, and his regular condudl
and proficiency fecured him the efteem of his worthy
tutor. Having completed his courfe of ftudies in five
years, he was invited to a diffenting congregation at
J 3 AJ Dorchefter,
Kinfale
KIP r 466 ] KIR
Kinpis. Dorchefter, but he gave the preference to a finiilar call
from Bofton in Lincolnftiire in 1746, where he remain¬
ed till 1750, removing from thence to Dorking in
Surrey, and two years after to Long Ditch, Weftmin-
ifer, in the room of Dr Hughes deceafed. This was in
O&ober 1753? and in the preceding month he married
Mifs Elizabeth Bott, the daughter of a merchant at
Bofton.
The fituation, for which Mr Kippis was eminently
qualified by his extenfive abilities, being now re-
fpeflable, introduced him to ufeful and honourable
connections. He became a manager of the prefbyteri-
an fund for the afliftance of poor congregations in the
country in fupporting their minifters, and in 1762 he
was chofen a member of Dr Williams’s truft, nearly
for fimilar purpofes, together with thedoftor’s valuable
library, which afforded him opportunities of very ex¬
tenfive ufefulnefs. In 1762, he fignified among his
friends his defign of taking private pupils, and was on
the eve of entering into engagements with the parents
of two or three young gentlemen, when a more honour¬
able although a lefs lucrative employment was offered
him. He was appointed claflical and philological tutor
in Coward’s academy, an office which he filled for up¬
ward* of 25 years with uncommon reputation to him-
felf, and unfpeakable advantage to his ftudents. He
received the degree of D. D. from the univerfity of
Edinburgh, by the unfolicited recommendation of the
learned Profeffor Robertfon in 1767 ; in 1778 he was
made a member of the Antiquarian, and in 1779 a
fellow of the Royal Society.
His literary engagements growing extremely numer¬
ous, in 1784 he was obliged to refign his appointment
in Coward’s academy, which was difcontinued in the
fubfequent year. In 1786, attempts were made to
eftablifh a new academy in the vicinity of London ; a
defign which Dr Kippis exerted all his influence to ac-
complifh ; and although his numerous engagements
made it extremely difficult for him to fill any depart¬
ment in it, hs relu&antly yielded to the wiffies of the
fubfcribers, and became a tutor. But the inconveni¬
ence arifing from the diftance of Hackney from his
place of refidence, made him refign that office in a
few years. His profeffional duties and private ftudies
occupied his time after this period ; and as he enjoy¬
ed an uninterrupted ftate of good health and conftitu-
tional vigour, made his friends hope that his life and
ufefulnefs would be long continued; but in confequence
of a cold which he caught on a journey, he was feized
with a fever which no medical knowledge could fub-
due, and he died on the 5th of October 1795, in the
71ft year of his age.
Dr Kippis was diftinguithed in a high degree for
thofe virtues and accompliffiments which are univerfal-
ly allowed to be the chief ornaments of human nature.
His temper was mild and gentle, benevolent and can¬
did ; his manners and addrefs were eafy, poliffied and
conciliating. Notwithftanding his great reputation, he
was void of pride, vanity, and felf-conceit; he was
humble, modeft, affable and engaging. The powers
and vigour of his mind were far above mediocrity; he
had a found judgment, a comprehenfive underftand-
correct imagination, retentive memory, a refined'
tafte, and he could exert his faculties on any fubiea
with the utmoft facility. He was an early rifer from Kippis
his youth, to which in a great meafure his good health . . li
may be aferibed. He excelled in his acquaintanceKinathain^
with the claffics, belles-lettres, hiitory, and biography.
He was the itcady friend and advocate of genuine civil
and religious liberty ; and as a divine, he was well ac¬
quainted with the different branches of theology, and
with thofe fubje£ts which are fubfervient to the critical
ftudy of the icriptures. He very feldom introduced
controverted topics into the pulpit, but confined himfelf
to fuch doctrines and duties as have an immediate in¬
fluence on the temper and pradtice.
His works are numerous and valuable, of which we
give the following as a fpecimen : Review of the Tranf-
a&ions of the prefent Reign •, The Hiftory of Learn¬
ing, Knowledge, and Tafte in Great Britain ; A Vin¬
dication of the Proteftant Diflenting Minifters, with
regard to their late application to Parliament; Con-
fiderations on the Provifional Treaty with America,
and the Preliminary Articles of Peace with France and
Spain j the Life of Sir John Pringle j Six Difcourfes
delivered at the Royal Society, onaffigning the Copley
Medal ; the Life of Captain James Cook, of Dr
Lardner, and Dr Doddridge j Sermons pleached on
public occafions j Biographia Britannica, &c. &c. This
laft great work, which he did not live to finifti, has af-
figned him a high rank among the learned of his coun¬
try, and will tranfmit his name to pofterity with diftin-
guifhed reputation.
KIRCH, Christian-Frederic, of Berlin, a cele¬
brated aftronomer, was born at Guben in 1694, and
acquired great reputation in the obfervatories of Dant-
zic and Berlin. Godfrey Kirch his father, and Mary
his mother, acquired confiderable reputation by their
aftronomical obfervations. This family correfponded
with all the learned focieties of Europe, and their aftro-
nomical works are in fome repute.
KIRCHER, Athanasius, a famous philofopher
and mathematician, was born at Fulde in 1601. In
1618, he entered into the fociety of the Jefuits, and
taught philofophy, mathematics, the Hebrew and
Syriac languages, in the univerfity of Witzburg, with
great applaufe, till the year 1631. He went to France
on account of the ravages committed by the Swedes
in Franconia, and lived fome time at Avignon. He
was afterwards called to Rome, where he taught ma¬
thematics in the Roman College, colledted a rich ca¬
binet of machines and antiquities, and died in 1680.-—«
The quantity of his works is immenfe, amounting to
2 2 vols in folio, 11 in quarto, and 3 in 8vo *, enough
to employ a man for a great part of his life even to
tranferibe them. Moft of them are rather curious than
ufeful; many of them vifionary and fanciful ; and if
they are not always accompanied with the grealeft ex-
a&nefs and precifion, the reader, it is prefumed, will
not be aftoniffied. The principal of his works are, r,
Prcehtjiones magneticce. 2. Primitive gnomonicce catop¬
trics. 3. Ars tfiagna lucis et umbree. 4. Mi.furgia
vniverfalis. 5. Obelifcus Pamphilius. 6. Oedipus JEi-
gyptiacus, four volumes, folio. 7. Itinerarium extati-
cum, 8. Obelifcus JE.gijptianus, in four volumes folio.
9. Mundus fubterraneus. \o. Ch na illujlrata.
KIRIATHAIM, in Ancient Geography, one of
the towns built by the Reubenites; reckoned to the
$ ' tribe
4
K I Pv
[ 4-67 ]
K I Px
Kirkby-
Thore.
KLiriatkaim tribe of Reuben (Jo(h. xiii.), 1 2 miles to tbe weft of Mi-
daba. The ancient refidence of the giants called
Emim.
t KIRIATH-arba. See Hebron.
KlRlATH-Baa/, or Canath-Baal, called alfo Kinath-
jeanm, “ the city of the woods 5” one of the cities of
the Gibeonites, belonging to the tribe of Judah, nine
miles from YElia, in the road to Diofpolis. It was
alfo called Baa/a (Jotbua). The ark of the covenant,
after its recovery from the Philiftines, flood for fome
time in this city (1 Sam. vii.).
KIRK, a Saxon term, fignifying the fame with
church.
KlRK-Sej/ions, the name of a petty ecclefiaftical ju¬
dicatory in Scotland. Each pariih, according to its ex¬
tent, is divided into feveral particular diftrifts j every
one of which has its own elder and deacon to overfee it.
A conflftory of the minifters, elders, and deacons of a
pariih, forms a kirk-feilion.— I hefe meet once a-week,
the minifter being their moderator, but without a ne¬
gative voice. It regulates matters relating to public
worihip, catechifing, vifitations, &c. It judges in lef-
fer matters of fcandal; but greater, as adultery, are
left to the preibytery 5 and in all cafes an appeal lies
from it to the preibytery. Kirk-feflions have likewife
the care of the poor and poor’s funds.
KIRKALDY, a town of the county of Eife in
Scotland, two miles to the north-eaft of Kinghorn.
It is a royal borough, the feat of a preibytery, and
gives the title of baron to the earl of Melville. Ehe
town is populous, well built, and extends a mile in
length from eaft to weft, enjoying a confiderable trade
by exporting its own produce and manufactures of
corn, coal, linen, and fait. The population in 1801
exceeded 3000. W. Long. 3. 9. N. Lat. 56. 8.
KIRKBY-Lonsdale, a town of Weftmoreland,
253 miles from London. It has a woollen manufactory,
and a market on Tuefday. It has a free fchool well
endowed w'ith three prefentations to Chrift’s college,
Cambridge. It has a large church, and a good ftone
bridge of three arches over the Lon. From its church¬
yard and the banks of the river, there is a very fine
proipeCt of the mountains at a vaft diitance, as well as
of the courfe of the river, which abounds with falmon,
trout, &.c. $ and proviiions of all forts are very cheap
here. The number of inhabitants in 1801 was
1283.
KlRKB T-Steven, or Stephen's Church, a town of
Weftmoreland, 257 miles from London, ftands on the
river Eden near Sedbergh and Afgarth. The church
is a large building with a lofty tower j in it are feveral
old monuments. Here is a good free fchool that has
two exhibitions. The town is noted for the manufac¬
tory of yarn ftockings j and it contains above IOOO in¬
habitants.
KlR KB Y-Thore, a town of Weftmoreland, ftands al¬
fo on the river Eden, north-W’eft of Appleby, 267 miles
from London. A horn of a moofe deer was found
here a few years fince, at the depth of four feet from
the furface of the earth : and feveral other antiquities
have been dug up or taken out of a well, difcovered
at the end of the town near the bridge. Below it are
the vaft ruins of an ancient town, where Roman coins
and urns are frequently dug up. The people call it
Kirkby-
Thore,
Kirkcud¬
bright.
Whely cajUe, 300 yards in length, and 150 in breadth,
with three entrances on each fide, with bulwarks be¬
fore them. At a little diftance from thence Roman
urns are found, containing bones and allies. The old <
military way runs through it, called the Maiden way,
becaufe it began at Maiden-caftle in Stainmore in
Yorklhire, north riding.
KIRKCUDBRIGHT, county or ftewartry of, makes
a confiderable part of Galloway, and of w hich the earls
of Nithifdale were hereditary ftewards. It it 45 miles
long, and 30 broad, and with Wigtonlhire formed the
ancient province of Galloway. The face of the coun¬
try exhibits the appearance of one continued heath,
producing nothing but pafture for Iheep and fmall black
cattle, which are generally fold in England j yet thefe
dulky moors are interfefted with pleafant valleys, and
adorned with a great number of caftles belonging to
private gentlemen, every houfe being furrounded with
an agreeable plantation. It is watered by the river
Dee j which taking its rife from the mountains near
Carrick, runs through a tra£l of land about 70 miles
in length, and, entering the Irilh fea, forms the har¬
bour of Kirkcudbright, a borough town, well fituated
for the filhery and other branches of commerce. There
is no other town of any confequence in this ftewartry.
Kirkcudbright gives title of baron to the Maclellans,
formerly a powerful family in the county. The po¬
pulation of this county, according to its parilhes, is
the following. *
1 • • Hift'
Population in '
1790—1798.
Varijhes.
I Anwoth
Balmaclellan
Balmacghie
Borg ,
5 Buittle
Carfefairn
Colvend
Crofsmichael
Dairy
10 Girthon
Irongray
Kells
Kelton
Kirkbean
15 Kirkcudbright
Kirkgunion
Kirkmabreck
Kirkpatrick Durham
Lochrutton
20 Minigaff
Newabbey
Orr
Parton *
Rerwick
25 Terregles
Troqueer
Tungiand
28 Twynhame
Population
«« 1755-
531
534
697
697
899
609
898
613
891
,
895
784
Six
529
*513
489
858
699
564
1209
634
1193
396
ioci
397
l39I
537
5*9
21,205
495
495
86a
771
855
461
964
772
1100
1730
762
869
1600
669
2295
1 520
1088
1000
528
1420
649
1354
4C9
1050
510
2600
-'520
620
26,959
21,205
Increafe
3N2
5754
KIRKHAM,
KIR [ 468 ] K I S
Krkharn KIRKHAM, a town of Lancafhire, 221 miles
Kirftinfius ^rom ■^,on<^on> Rands near the Ribble, fix miles from
the Irilh fea, in that part of the county called the
Tteid lands. It has a market and three fairs, and a
free fchool well endowed. By means of inland naviga¬
tion, it has a communication with the rivers Merfey,
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum¬
ber, Thames, Avon, &c. ; which navigation, including
its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Weftmoreland, Chef-
ter, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
KIRKOSWALD, a town of Cumberland on the
Eden, 291 miles from London. It had formerly a
caftle, which was demolilhed above 100 years ago. It
has a market and two fairs. Its church is a very irre¬
gular old building ; and the belfry is placed diftant
from the church on the top of a hill, that the found
of the bells might be more eafily heard by the circum¬
jacent villages.
KIRKWALL, the capital of the Orkneys, fituat-
ed in the ifland of Pomona, in W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat.
58. 33. It is built upon an inlet of the fea near the
middle of the ifiand, having a very fafe road and har¬
bour for fhipping. It is a royal borough, governed
by a proved, bailies, and common council. It
was formerly poffefled by the Norwegians, who be¬
llowed upon it the name of Crucoviaca. From King
James III. of Scotland they obtained a new charter,
empowering them to eledt their own magiftrates year¬
ly, to hold borough courts, arreft, imprifon, make
laws and ordinances for the right government of the
town ; to have a weekly market, and three fairs an¬
nually at certain fixed terms : he moreover granted
to them fome lands adjoining to the town, wdth
the cuftoms and Ihore dues, the power of pit and
gallows, and exempted them from the expence of
fending commiflioners to parliament. This charter
has been confirmed by fucceeding monarchs. At pre-
fent Kirkwall is the feat of juftice, where the lleward,
fherifif, and commiflary, hold their feveral courts of ju-
rifdidtion : Here is likewife a public grammar fchool,
endowed with a competent falary for the mailer. The
town confifts of one narrow fireet about a mile in
length j the houfes are chiefly covered with Hate,
though not at all remarkable for neatnefs and con¬
venience.—The principal edifices are the cathedral
church and the bifhop’s palace. The former, called
St Magnus, from Magnus king of Norway, the fup-
pofed founder of the town, is a large Gothic llruc-
ture : the rocr is fupported by 24 pillars on each
fide, and the fpire is built upon four large columns.
The gates are decorated with a kind of mofaic work,
of red and white Hones elegantly carved and flowered.
By the ruins of the king’s caftle or citadel, it ap¬
pears to have been a llrong and ftately fortrefs. At
the north end of the town a fortification was built by the
Englifh in the time of Oliver Cromwell, but it is now
in ruins. It was furrounded with a ditch and rampart j
but it has been allowed to fall into rums. The popu¬
lation in 1801 was 2621.
KIRSTENSIUS, Peter, profelfor of phyfic at
Upfal, and phyfician extraordinary to the queen of
Sweden, was born at Breflaw in 1577. He ftudied
Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, natural philofophy,
anatomy, botany, and other fciences. Being told that
1
a man could not diftinguifh himfelf in phvfie unlefs Kir Item] as
he under flood Avicenna, he applied himfelf to the ll
ftudy of Arabic ; and not only to read Avicenna, but , _
alfo Mefue, Rhalis, Abenzoar, Abukafis, and Aver- ' "'~i
roes. Fie viiited Spain, Italy, England, and did
not return home from his travels till after {’even years.
He was chofen by the magiftrates of Breflaw to have
the direction of their college and of their fchools. A
fit of ficknefs having obliged him to refign that diffi¬
cult employment, with which he was alfo much dif-
gufted, he applied himfelf chiefly to the praftice of
phyfic, and went with his family into Pruffia. Here
he obtained the friendfliip and efteem of the chancellor
Oxenftiern, whom he accompanied into Sweden j
where he was made profeffor of phyfic in the univer-
fity of Upfal, and phyfician to the queen. He died
in 1640. It is faid in his epitaph, that he underftood
26 languages. He wrote many works j among which
are, 1. Liber fecundus Canonis A vice time, typit Arab ids,
ex MSS. editus, el ad verbum in Latinum tranjlatus, in
folio. 2. De vero ufu et abufu Medicince. 3. Gram¬
mo tica Arabica, folio. 4. Vitce quatuor Evangelijla-
rum, ex antiquijfimo codice MSS. Aradco erutce, in folio.
5. No tee in Evangelium S. Matthcd, ex collatione textuum
Arabicorum, Syriacorum, Egypliacorum, Grcecorum, et
Latinorum, in folio, &c.
He ought not to be confounded with George Ker-
Jlemus, another learned phyfician and naturalifl, who
was born at Stettin, and died in 1660 j and is alfo the
author of feveral works.
KIRTLE, a term ufed for a ffiort jacket j alfo fora
quantity of flax about a hundred weight.
KIRTON, or Kirkton, a town of Lincolnfhire,.
151 miles from London. It had its name from its
kirk or church, which is truly magnificent. It has a
market and two fairs. This place is famous for the
pippin, which, when grafted on its flock, is called
the rennet. It gives name to its hundreds, in which
are four villages of the fame name.
KISSER, the ancient Colonia Afluras in Africa,
as appears from many inferiptions flill to be met with
in the place. Here is a triumphal arch done in a very
good tafle : there is alfo a fmall temple of a fquare fi¬
gure, having feveral inflruments of facrifice carved
upon it j but the execution is much inferior to the
defign, which is very curious. The town is fituated
in the kingdom of Tunis, on the declivity of a hill,
above a large fertile plain ; which is flill called the
plain of Surfo, probably from its ancient name AJfuras.
KISSING, by way of falutation, or as a token of
refpe6l, has been pra6tifed in all nations. The Ro¬
man emperors fainted their principal officers by a kifs.
Killing the mouth or the eyes was the ufual compli¬
ment upon any promotion or happy event. Soldiers
kiffed the general’s hand when he quitted his office.
Fathers, amongft the Romans, had fo much delicacy,
that they never embraced their wives in the prefence
of their daughters. Near relations were allowed to
kifs their female kindred on the mouth : but this was
done in order to know whether they fmelt of wine or
not 5 becaufe the Roman ladies, in fpite of a prohibi¬
tion to the contrary, were found fometimes to have made
too free with the juice of the grape. Slaves kiffed their
mailers hand, who ufed to hold it out to them for
that purpofe. Killing was a cuftomary mode of falu¬
tation
Kilti
* Memoir
of a map of
the coun¬
tries com¬
prehended,
between
the Black
Sea and the
Cafpian.
K I S [
tation among the Jews, as we may collect from. .
circumftance of Judas approaching his Mafter with a
kifs. Relations ufed to kifs their kindred when dying,
and when dead j when dying, out of a ftrange opi¬
nion that they fhould imbibe the departing foul *, and
when dead, by way of valedictory ceremony. They
even kiffed the corpfe after it was conveyed to the pile,
when it had been ieven or eight days dead.
KISTI, an Afiatic nation, which extends from the
higheft ridge of Caucafus, along the Sundlha rivulets.
According to Major Rennel *, they are bounded to
the weft by the little Cabarda, to the eaft by the Tar¬
tars and Lefguis, and to the fouth by the Lefguis
and Georgians. He imagines they may be the people
whom Gaerber calls the Taulirvzi, i. e. “ mountaineers,”
and to whom he attributes the following ftrange eu-
ftom :—“ When a gueft or ftranger comes to lodge
with them, one of the hoft’s daughters is obliged to
receive him, to unfaddle and feed his horfe, take care
of his baggage, prepare his dinner, pafs the night with
him, and continue at his dilpofal during his ftay. At
his departure, (he faddles his horfe and packs up his
baggage. It would be very uncourtly to refufe any
of thefe marks of hofpitality.” The different tribes of
this reftlefs and turbulent nation are generally at va¬
riance with each other, and with all their neighbours.
Their dialefts have no analogy with any known lan¬
guage, and their hiftory and origin are at prefent ut¬
terly unknown.
Their diftrifts, as enumerated in Major Rennel’s Me¬
moir, are, I. Ingulhi, about 60 miles to the fouthward
of Mofdok,. in the high mountains about the Kum •
belei. 2. Endery •, and, 3. Axai, on a low ridge be¬
tween the Sundlha and laxai rivers. In their terri¬
tories are the hot wells. 4. Ackinyurt towards the
upper part of the Sundlha and Kumbelei. 5* Ardakli,
on the Rolhni that joins the Sundlha. 6. Wapi, near
the Offetin village Tlhim, towards the fource of the
Terek. 7. Angulht, on the upper part of the Kum¬
belei. 8. Shalkha, called by the Ruffians Ma/ot An-
gujht. 9. Thetlhen, on the lower part of the Argun
river. 10. Atakhi, a fmall diftriCt on the upper part
of the Argun. 11. Kulga, or Dlhanti, in the high
mountains. 1 2. Galgai, or Halha, about the fource of
the Afai, a Sundlha rivulet. 13. Tlhabrilo, and Sha-
bul, on the Sundlha. 14. Tftiilhni-Kabul, on the
Rolhni, a Sundlha rivulet. 15. Karaboulak, a wan¬
dering tribe, who have their little villages about the
fix uppermoft rivulets of the Sundlha, particularly the
Fortan. 16. Meefti, Meredlhi, Galalhka, and Duban,
are fmall tribes on the Axai.
The Ingulhi, or firft of the above tribes, fubmitted
to Ruflia in 1770. They are capable of arming about
5000 men •, they call themfelves Ingujhi, Ki/li, or Halha;
they live in villages near each other, containing about
20 or 30 houfes ; are diligent hulbandmen, and rich
in cattle. Many of their villages have a ftone tower,
which ferves in time of war as a retreat to their women
and children, and as a magazine for their effedfs.
Thefe people are all armed, and have the cuftom of
wearing Ihields.—-Their religion is very fimple, but
has fome traces of Chnftianity : They believe in one
God, whom they call Daxle, but have no faints or re¬
ligious perfons j they celebrate Sunday, not by any re-
469 ] K L E
the ligious ceremony, but by refting from labour j they have Kuh
a fall in fpring, and another in fummer 5 they obferve
no ceremonies either at births or deaths j they allow of t
polygamy, and eat pork. One kind of facrifice is
ufual among them : at certain times a Iheep is killed by
a perfon who feems to be confidered as a kind of prieft,
as he is obliged to live in a ftate of celibacy. His ha¬
bitation is in the mountains, near an old ftone church,
which is faid to be adorned with various ftatues and
infcriptions. Under the church is a vault that contains
certain old books, which, however, no one ever at¬
tempts to approach. Mr Guldenftaedt f was pre-f^/**
vented by the weather from vifiting this church. v0*
The 6th, 7th, and 8th tribes, which were formerly5
tributary to the Cabardean princes, fubmitted to Ruf-
fia in 1770. The 9th, Tihetlhen, is governed by its
own chiefs, who are related to the Avar-Khan. I his
tribe is fo numerous and warlike, and has given, the
Ruffians fo much trouble, that its name is ufually given
by them to the whole Kifti nation. The chief village
of Tlhetlhen lies on the Argun, about 15 miles from
its mouth. Its other principal villages are Hadfhiaul
and langejent, both on the Sundlha.
KIT, in Mu fie, the name of a fmall violin, of fuch
form and dimenfion as to be capable of being carried
in a cafe or Iheath in the pocket. Its length, mea-
furing from the extremities, is about 16 inches, and
that of the bow about 17. Small as this inftrumenfe
is, its powers are co-extenfive with thofe of the violin.
Krr-Cat-Club, an affociation of above 30 noblemen
and gentlemen of diftinguilhed merit, formed in 17C)3»
purely to unite their zeal in favour of the Proteftant
fucceffion in the houfe of Hanover. Their name was
derived from Chriftopher Kat, a paftry cook, near the
tavern where they met in King’s ftreet, Weftminfter,.
who often fupplied them w'ith tarts. Old Jacob Ton-
fon was their bookfeller : and that family is in poffef-
fion of a pifture of the original members of this fa¬
mous club, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller. I he de-
fign of thefe gentlemen was to recommend and encou¬
rage true loyalty by the powerful influence of wit and
humour j and Sir Samuel Garth diftinguiftred himfelf
by the extempore epigrams he made on their toafts,
which were inferibed on their drinking glafles.
KITCHEN, the room in a houfe where the pro-
vifions are cooked.
Army KITCHEN, is a fpace of about 16 or 18 feet
diameter, with a ditch furrounding it three feet wide j
the opnofite bank of which ferves as a leat for the men
who drefs the viftuals. The kitchens of the flank com¬
panies are contiguous to the outline of the camp j and
the intermediate fpace is generally diftributed equally
for the remaining kitchens j and as each tent forms a
mefs, each kitchen muft have as many fire places as
there are tents in the company.
KITCHEN Garden, a piece of ground laid out for the
cultivation of fruit, herbs, pulfe, and other vegetables,
ufed in the kitchen. See Gardening.
KITE. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
KITTTWAKE. See Larus, Ornithology In¬
dex.
KIU-hoa. See Parthentdm, P,otany Index.
KIUN-TCHEOU-FOU. See HAI-Nan.
KLEINHOYIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the
K L E
t
Kle^' ’ gynandrIa c^a^s> and in the natural method rank-
i— - ,ng under the 3 7^ °rder, Columniferce. See Botany
Index.
KLEIST, Edward Christian de, a celebrated
German poet, and a foldier of diftinguilhed bravery,
was born at Zeblin, in Pomerania, in 1715. At nine
years of age he was fent to purfue his fludies at
Cron in Poland ; and he afterwards ftudied at Dant-
zic and Koningfberg. Having finiihed his ftudies, he
went to vifit his relations in Denmark, who invited
him to. fettle there 5 and having in vain endeavoured
to obtain preferment in the law, at 2i years of age
accepted of a port in the Danirti army. He then ap¬
plied himfelf to the ftudy of all the fciences that have
a relation to military affairs, with the fame afliduity
as he had before rtudied civil law. In 1740, at the
beginning of the reign of Frederic king of Pruflia,
Mr de Kleift went to Berlin, and was prefented to
ins. majefty, who made him lieutenant of his brother
Prince Henry’s, regiment 5 and he was in all the cam-
paigns which diftinguilhed the firft live years of the
king of Pruflia’s reign. In 1749 he obtained the port
of captain ; and in that year publilhed his excellent
poem on the Spring. Before the breaking out of the
laft war, the king chofe him, with feme other officers
at Pot Ida m, companion to the young Prince Frede¬
ric William of. Pruffia, and to eat at his table. In
the fnlt campaign, in 1756, he was nominated major
of Haufen’s regiment ; which being in garrifon at
Eeipfic, he had time to finirti feveral new poems.
After the battle of Rofbach, the king gave him, by
an order in his own handwriting, the infpe&ion of the
great hofpital eftabliflied at Leipfic. And on this
occafion his humanity was celebrated by the lick and
wounded of both parties, and his dilintereftednefs was
equally admired by all the inhabitants of that city.
In 175S, Prince Henry coming to Leipfic, Mr Kleift
defired to ferve in his army with the regiment of Hau-
fen, which was readily granted. Opportunities of dif-
tinguifhing himfelf could not be wanting under that
great officer, and he always communicated his cou¬
rage to the battalion under his command. He alfo
ferved that prince at the beginning of the campaign of
J759» "hen he was with him in Franconia, and in all
the expeditions of that army, till he was detached with
the troops under General de Fink to join the king’s
army. On the 12th of Auguft was fought the bloody
battle of Kunnerfdorf, in which he fell. He attacked
the flank of the Ruffians, and aflifted in gaining three
batteries. In thefe bloody attacks he received twelve
contufionsy and the two firft fingers of his right hand
being wounded, he was forced to hold his fword in
the .left. His port of major obliged him to remain
nehind the ranks j but he no fooner perceived the
commander of .he battalion wounded and carried away,
than he inftantly put himfelf at the head of his troop!
He led his battalion in the midft of the terrible fire
of the enemy’s artillery, againft the fourth battery.
He called up the colours of the regiment j and, ta¬
king. an enfign by.the arm, led him on. Here he
received a ball in nis left arm ; when, being no longer
able to hold his fword in his left hand, he took it
again in the right, and held it with the two laft fingers
and his thumb. He ftill puffied forward, and was
within thirty fteps of the battery, when his right leg
470 1 K L O
was lhattered by the wadding of one of the great Kleift,
guns j and he fell from his horle, crying to his men, Klopftock.
“ My boys, don’t abandon your king.” By the af! •““-v—-'
fiftance of thofe who lurrounded him, he endeavoured
twice to remount his horfe •, but his ftrength forfook
him, and he fainted. Fie was then carried behind the
line ; where a furgeon, attempting to drefs his wounds,
was fliot dead. J he Coffacks arriving foon after
ftripped Mr Kleift naked, and threw him into a
miiy place 5 wnere fome Ruflian huffars found him
in the night, and laid him upon fome draw near the
fire of the grand guard, covered him with a cloak, put
a hat on his head, and gave him fome bread and wa¬
ter. In the morning one of them offered him a piece
of filver, which he refilled j on which he toffed it up¬
on the cloak that covered him, and then departed with
his companions. Soon after the Coflacks returned, and
took all that the generous huffars had given him. Thus
he again lay naked on the earth j and in that cruel
fituation continued till noon, when he was known by
a Ruffian officer, who caufed him to be conveyed in
a "3ggon to Frankfort on the Oder j where he arriv¬
ed in the evening, in a very weak ftate, and was in¬
ftantly put into the hands of the furgeons. But the
fra&ured bones feparating, broke an artery, and he
died by the lofs of blood. I he city of Frankfort be¬
ing then in the hands of the enemy, they buried this
Pruffian hero with all military honours t the governor,
a great number of the Ruffian officers, the magiftrates
of the city, with the profeffors and the ftudents, form¬
ed the proceffion, preceded by the funeral mufic. Mr
Kleift’s poems, which are greatly admired, are ele¬
gantly printed in the German tongue, in two volumes
8vo.
KLOPSTOCK, Frederic Theophilus, who was
born .at Quedlinburg in 17-24, was the greateft and
moft juftly celebrated of the German poets. His father
was a man of an elevated charafter, and a magiftrate
of that place, who afterwards farmed a bailiwick in
the Brandenburg part of Mansfeld. Klopftock was
the .oldeft of eleven children, and having received the
rudiments of education at home, he was put to the
public fchool of Quedlinburg, where he foon became
confpicuous both for bodily and mental exercifes. He
went to the college of the fame place at the age of
fixteen, where, under the tuition of an able teacher,
he obtained a knowledge of, and tafte for, the beauties
of the beft claffical authors. He compofed fome paf-
torals in verfe •, and -even at this early period he con¬
ceived the bold defign of writing an epic poem, fixing
at length, after much deliberation on the “ Meffiah,”
by which he has rendered his name immortal.
He commenced the ftudy of theology at the univer-
fity of Jena, in the year 1745, although in his retire¬
ment he was conftantly ruminating on his great projedt-
ed work already mentioned, fketching out the three
firft cantos. They were firft written in profe, as the
common meafure of German verfe did not accord with
his own fentiments. Tranfported with the melody of
Homer’s and Virgil’s ftrains, he determined to make
trial of German hexameters, in which he fucceeded fo
entirely to his own fatisfadfion, that he fixed upon this
majeftic verfe for the whole of his poem. By his re¬
moval from Jena to Leipzig in 1746, he became ac¬
quainted with a number of young votaries of the mufes,
who
K L O [47
Klopftock. who occafionally publidiied their eflays in a paper call-
  v  e{l the “ Bremen Contributions,” in which appeared
the three cantos of Klopftock’s Meflxah, and a number
of his odes, for which he was fo applauded as to animate
him to perfevere.
He quitted Leipzig in 1748, and refided at Lan-
genfalza, where he carried on a fruitlefs correfpondence
with a beautiful young lady, who difcovered no incli¬
nation to return his paflion, which for fome time threw
a gloom over his mind. He now publifhed ten books
of his Mefliah, by which he came to be known and
admired all over Germany. It was an extremely po¬
pular work among all thofe who were at once the lovers
of poetry and devotion. It was quoted from the pulpit
by young divines, while others of a more ftern deport¬
ment found fault with the author, as indulging too
much in fiftion on facred topics.
He travelled into Switzerland in 1750 Pay a
to Bodmer of Zurich, in confequence of an invitation,
where he was received with every token of refpedd.
The fublime fcenery of that country, the fimplicity of
its inhabitants, and the freedom they enjoyed, were
admirably fuited to the tafte and fentiments of Klop-
ftock. Here in all probability he would have breath¬
ed his laft, had not Baron BernftorfF, who was charm¬
ed with his poetry, engaged Count Molke, after re¬
turning from France to Copenhagen, to invite him to
that city, with affurances of fuch a penfion as vyould
make him independent. Our author accordingly fet
out for Copenhagen in the year I751} by the way of
Brunfwuck and Hamburgh, at which latter place he
became acquainted wuth a young lady (Mifs Moller)
of literary abilities, and a heart fufceptible of tender
impreflions. They were foon after married, and teem¬
ed deftined by Providence to be one of the happieft
couples upon earth, but he was very foon deprived of
her, for (he died in childbed, and her memory was fa¬
cred to Klopftock to the laft hour of his exiftence. He
lived for the moft part at Copenhagen till the year
1771, after which he refided at Hamburgh id the capa¬
city of royal Daniftr legate, and counfellor of the mar¬
grave of Baden, who gave him a penfion, and engaged
him to pafs the year 1775 at his palace of Carlfruhe.
Such was the diffidence of our poet, that it required
the moft extraordinary condefcenfion on the part of the
great to make him eafy in their prefence.
The decline of his health made no change on the
habitual tranquillity of his mind ; he contemplated his
approaching diflblution without any difmay, and his
pious fortitude continued unlhaken amidft the fevereft
fufferings. He died at Hamburgh in March 1803,
being 79 years of age, and his funeral was attended
with fuch honours as juftly belonged to the greateft
poet of the country.
_ The character of Klopftock as a poet is that of exu¬
berance of imagination and fentiment. His fublimity,
which is nearly unparalleled, makes him almoft lofe
himfelf in myftical attraftion. A great critic claims
for the author of the Mefliah, and we think juftly,
a rank among the very firft clafs of poets. His odes
and lyric poems are much admired by his country¬
men, and his dramatic works difplay great force and
dignity, but are thought to be better adapted to the
clofet than the theatre. He was alfo an excellent
i ] K N. A
profe writer, as is fully evinced by his “ Grammatical
Dialogues.”
KNARESBOROUGH, a town in the weft rid¬
ing of Yorkfhire in England, 109 miles from London,
is an ancient borough by prefcription, called by fo¬
reigners the Yorkjhire Sfiaw. It is almoft encompafled
by the river Nid, which iffues from the bottom of Cra¬
ven hills $ and had a priory, with a caftle, long fince
demoliffied, on a craggy rock, whence it took the name.
The town is about three furlongs in length j and the
pariffi is famous for four medicinal fprings near each
other, and yet of different qualities. 1. I he Iw’eet fpaw,
or vitriolic well, in Knarefborough foreft, three miles
from the town, which was difcovered in 1620. 2. The
{linking or fulphure'ous fpawq which is ufedonly in bath¬
ing. 3. St Mungo’s, a cold bath, four miles from the
town. 4. The dropping well, which is in the town, and
the moft noted petrifying fpring in England, fo called
by reafon of its dropping from the fpongy rock hang¬
ing over it. The ground which receives it, before it
joins the well, is, for 12 yards long, become a folid
rock. From the well it runs into the Nid, where the
fpring water has made a rock that ftretches fome yards
into the river. The adjacent fields are noted for liquo¬
rice, and a foft yellow marl which is rich manure. The
town is governed by a bailiff. Its baths are lefs fre¬
quented fince Scarborough Spaw has been reforted to.
It has a good market and fix fairs. Here is a ftone
bridge over the river, near cne end of which is a cell
dug out of the rock, and called St Robert"1 s Chapel. I he
number of inhabitants in 1801 was 3388*
KNAPDALE, one of the divifions of Argyleffiire
in Scotland. It is parted from Cowal on the eaft by
Lochfyn •, bounded by Kintyre on the fouth, by
Lorn on the north, by Braidalbin on the north-eaft,
and on the weft by the Hebrides. Its length from
north to fouth does not exceed 20 miles, and the
breadth in fome places may amount to 13. It is
joined to Kintyre by a neck of land not above a mile
broad, over which the country people draw their boats,
to avoid failing round Kintyre. This part of Knap-
dale abounds with lakes, fome of them containing lit¬
tle iflands, on which there are caftles belonging to dif¬
ferent proprietors. The grounds are more adapted for
pafturage than grain j but that on the fide of Lochow
is fruitful in both.
Klopftock
II
Knave.
KNAPSACK, in a military fenfe, a rough lea¬
ther bag which a foldier carries on his back, and
which contains all his neceffaries. Square knapfacks
are moft convenient 5 and ffiould be made with a
divifion to hold the ffioes,. black ball and bruffies,
feparate from the linen. White goat-fkins are thje
beft.
KNAVE, an old Saxon word, which had at firft a
fenfe of fimplicity and innocence, for it fignified a botj-:
Sax. cnapa, whence a knave child, i. e. a boy, diftin-
guiffied from a girl,-in feveral old writefs; afterwards
it was taken for a fervant boy, and at length for any
fervant man. Alfo it w-as applied to a minifter or
officer that bore the ftiield or weapon of his fuperior ;
as field knapa, whom the Latins call armiger, and the
French efcuyer, 14 Edw. III. c. 3. And it was fome-
times of old made ufe of as a titular addition ; as Joannes
C. films Willieltm C. de Derby, knave, &c. 22 Hen.
'K N E C 472 ] K N I
Knive VII. c. 3^. The word is now perverted to the hardelt
I'1 meaning, viz. a falfe deceitful fellow.
_n>ee.' ■ KNAVESHIP, in Scots Law, one of the names of
the fmall duties payable in thirlage to the miller’s fer-
vants, called fequels.
KNAUTIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 48th order, Aggregate. See Botany Index.
KNEE, in Anatomy, the articulation of the thigh
and leg bones. See Anatomy, N° 59.
Knee, in a fhip, a crooked piece of timber, having
two branches or arms, and generally ufed to connedt
the beams of a (hip with her Tides or timbers.
The branches of the knees form an angle of greater
or fmaller extent, according to the mutual fituation of
the pieces which they are defigned to unite. One
branch is fecurely bolted to one of the deck beams,
whilft the other is in the fame manner attached to a
correfponding timber in the (hip’s fide, as reprefented
by E in the plate of MIDSHIP Frame.
Befides the great utility of knees in connefting the
beams and timbers into one compaft frame, they con¬
tribute greatly to the (Irength and folidity of the (hip,
in the different parts of her frame to which they are
bolted •, and thereby enable her with greater firmnefs
to refift the effetfts of a turbulent fea.
In fixing of thefe pieces, it is occafionally neceffary
to give an oblique direction to the vertical or fide
branch, in order to avoid the range of an adjacent gun-
port, or becaufe the knee may be fo fiiaped as to require
this difpofition ; it being fometimes difficult to procure
fo great a variety of knees as may be neceffary in the
conffrudlion of a number of (hips of war.
In France, the fcarcity of thefe pieces has obliged
their fliipwrights frequently to form their knees of
Iron.
Knees are either faid to be lodging or hanging. The
former are fixed horizontally in the (hip’s frame, having
one arm bolted to the beam, and the other acrofs two
or three timbers, as reprefented in the Deck, Plate
CLXIX. The latter are fixed vertically, as we have
-defcribed above. See alfo SHIP-Building, Deck, and
Midship Frame.
KNEE of the Head, a large flat piece of timber, fixed
edgewife upon the fore part of a (hip’s ftem, and fup-
porting the ornamental figure or image placed under
the bowfprit. See SHIP-Building.
The knee of the head, which may properly be de¬
fined a continuation of the ftem, as being prolonged
from the ftem forwards, is extremely broad at the up¬
per part, and accordingly compofed of feveral pieces
united into one, YY (Pieces of the Hull, in SHIP-Buiid-
ing Plates). It is let into the head, and fecured to
the (hip’s bows by ftrong knees fixed horizontally
upon both, and called the cheeks of the head. The heel
of it is fcarfed to the upper end of the fore foot; and
it is faftened to the ftem above by a knee, called Kflan-
dard, expreffed by & in the plate.
Befides fupporting the figure of the head, this piece
is otherwife ufeful, as ferving to fecure the boom
or bumkin, by which the fore tack is extended to wind¬
ward ; and by its great breadth, preventing the (hip
from falling to leeward when clofe hauled fo much as
(lie would otherwife do. It alfo affords a greater fe-
curity to the bowfprit, by increafing the angle of the
bob-ftay, fo as to make it adl more perpendicularly on Kree
the bowfprit. f|
I he knee of the head is a phrafe peculiar to (hip-,
wrights*, as this piece is always called the cut-water 'r""
by (eamen, if we except a few, who, affecting to be
wifer than their brethren, having adopted this expref-
fion probably on the prefumption that the other is a
cant phrafe or vulgarifm.
Carling KNEES, in a (hip, thofe timbers which ex¬
tend from the thip to the hatchway, and bear up the
deck on both fides.
KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, a painter, whole fame
is well eftabliftied in thefe kingdoms. He was born
at Lubeck in 1648 } and received his firft inftrudtions
in the fchool of Rembrandt, but became afterwards a
difciple of Ferdinand Bol. When he had gained as
much knowledge as that fchool afforded him, he tra¬
velled to Rome, where he fixed his particular attention
on litian and the Caracci, He afterwards vifited
Venice, and diftinguilhed himfelf fo eftedlually in that
city by his hiftorical pictures and portraits of the noble
families there, that his reputation became confiderable
in Italy. By the advice of fome friends he came at
laft to England, where it was his good fortune to gain
the favour of the duke of Monmouth : by his recom¬
mendation, he drew the picture of King Charles II.
more than once j who was fo taken with ‘his (kill in
doing it, that he ufed to come and fit to him at his
houfe in, Covent-Garden piazza. The death of Sir
Peter Lely left him without a competitor in England,
and from that time his fortune and fame were tho¬
roughly eftabhftied. No painter could have more in-
ceflant employment, @nd no painter could be more
diftinguiftied by public honour. He was (late painter
to Charles II. James II. William III. Queen Anne,
and George I. equally efteemed and refpefted by them
all : the emperor Leopold made him a knight of the
Roman empire, and King George I. created him a ba¬
ronet. Moft of the nobility and gentry had their like-
neffes taken by him, and no painter excelled him in a
fure outline, or in the graceful difpofition of his figures ;
his wmrks were celebrated by the beft poets in his time.
He built himfelf an elegant houfe at Whitton near
Hampton Court, where he fpent the latter part of his
life ; and died in 1726.
KNIFE, a well known inftrument, made for cut¬
ting, and adapted in form to the ufes for which it is de¬
figned.
Knives are faid to have been firft made in England
*n *563, by one Matthews, on Fleet Bridge, Lon¬
don. Ihe importation of all forts of knives is prohi¬
bited.
KNIGHT (eques'), among the Romans, a perfon of
the fecond degree of nobility, following immediately
that of the fenators. See EQUESTRIAN Order, and
Equites.
Knight, (or Cnecht, Germ.), in feodal hiftory, was
originally an appellation or title given by the ancient
Germans to their youth after being admitted to the
privilege of bearing arms.
Ihe paflion for arms among the Germanic dates,
as defcribed by Dr Stuart *, was carried to extremity.* View of
It was amidft fcenes of death and peril that the young Society m
were educated : It was by valour and feats of proweis Europe,
that the ambitious fignalized their manhood. All the?- 46‘
honours
K N I [ 473 ] K N I
Knight, honours they knew were allotted to the brave. The
'V'-—' fword opened the path to glory. It was in the field
that the ingenious and the noble flattered moft their
pride, and acquired an afcendaney. The ftrength of
their bodies, and the vigour of their councils, fur-
rounded them with warriors, and lifted them to com¬
mand.
But, among thefe nations, when the individual felt
the call of valour, and wiflied to try his ftrength
againft an enemy, he could not of his own authority
take the lance and the javelin. The admiflxon of their
youth to the privilege of bearing arms, was a matter of
too much importance to be left to chance or their own
choice. A form was invented by which they were ad¬
vanced to that honour.
The council of the diftrift, or of the canton to
which the candidate belonged, was affembled. His
age and his qualifications were inquired into ; and if
he was deemed worthy of being admitted to the privi¬
leges of a foldier, a chieftain, his father or one of his
kindred, adorned him with a ihield and the lance. In
confequence of this folemnity, he prepared to diftin-
guifti himfelf •, his mind opened to the cares of the pub¬
lic ; and the domeftic concerns, or the oftices of the
family from which he had fprung, were no longer the
objects of his attention. To this ceremony, fo Ample
and fo interefting, the inftitution of knighthood is in¬
debted for his rife.
Knighthood, however, as a fyftem known under
the denomination of Chivalry, is to be dated only
from the nth century. All Europe being reduced
to a ftate of anarchy and confufion on the decline of
the houfe of Charlemagne, every proprietor of a manor
or lordihip became a petty fovereign ; the manfion
houfe was fortified by a moat, defended by a guard,
and called a cqftle. The governor had a party of 700
or 800 men at his command ; and with thefe he ufed
frequently to make excurfions, which commonly ended
in a battle with the lord of fome petty ftate of the
fame kind, whofe caftle was then pillaged, and the
women and treafures borne oft' by the conqueror. Du¬
ring this ftate of univerfal hoftility, there were no friend¬
ly communications between the provinces, nor any
high roads from one part of the kingdom to another :
the wealthy traders, who then travelled from place to
place with their merchandife and their families, were
in perpetual danger 5 the lord of almoft every caftle
extorted fomething from them on the road ; and at
laft, fome one, more rapacious than the reft, feized up¬
on the whole of the cargo, and bore off the women for
his own ufe.
Thus caftles became the warehoufes of all kinds of
rich merchandife, and the prifons of the diftrefled fe¬
males whofe fathers or lovers had been plundered or
flain, and who being therefore feldom difpofed to take
the thief or murderer into favour, were in continual
danger of a rape.
But as fome are always diftinguifhed by virtue in
the moft general defection, it happened that many
lords infenfibly aflociated to reprefs thefe fallies of vio¬
lence and rapine, to fecure property, and protect the
ladies. Among thefe were many lords of great fiefs •,
and the aflbciation was at length ftrengthened by a
folemn vow, and received the fancftion of a religious
ceremony. As the firft knights were men of’ the
Vol. XI. Part II.
higheft rank, and the largeft poffeflions, uch having
moft to lofe, and the leaft temptation to fteal, the fra¬
ternity was regarded with a kind of reverence, even
by thofe againft whom it wras formed. Admiflion into
the order was deemed the higheft honour : many ex^
traordinary qualifications were required in a candidate,
and many new' ceremonies were added at his creation.
After having fafted from funrife, confeffed himfelf,
and received the facrament, he was drefled in a white
tunic, and placed by himfelf at a fide-table, where he
was neither to fpeak, nor fmile, nor to eat: while the
knights and ladies, who were to perform the principal
parts of the ceremony, vrere eating, drinking, and
making merry at the great table. At night his ar¬
mour was conveyed to the church where the ceremony
was performed ; and here having watched it till the
morning, he advanced with his {word hanging about his
neck, and received the benediction of the prieft. He
then kneeled down before the lady who was to put on
his armour, who being aflifted by perfons of the firft
rank, buckled on his fpurs, put a helmet on his head,
and accoutred him with a coat of mail, a cuirafs, brace¬
lets, cuifles, and gauntlets.
Being thus armed cap-a-pee, the knight who dub¬
bed him {truck him three times over the ftioulder with
the flat fide of his fword, in the name of God, St
Michael, and St George. He w'as then obliged to
watch all night in all his armour, with his fword gird¬
ed, and his lance in his hand. From this time the
knight devoted himfelf to the redrefs of thefe wrongs
which “ patient merit of the unworthy takes j” to fe¬
cure merchants from the rapacious cruelty of banditti,
and women from ravilhers, to whofe pow'er they were
by the particular confufion of the times continually ex-
pofed.
From this view of the origin of chivalry, it W'ill be
eafy to account for the caftle, the moat, and the bridge,
which are found in romances ; and as to the dwarf, he
was a conftant appendage to the rank and fortune of
thofe times, and no caftle therefore could be without him.
The dwarf and buffoon were then introduced to kill
time, as the card-table is at prefent. It will alfo be
eafy to account for the multitude of captive ladies
whom the knights, upon feizing a caftle, fet at liber¬
ty ; and for the prodigious quantities of ufelefs gold
and filver veffels, rich fluffs, and other merchandife,
with which many apartments in thefe caftles are faid
to have been filled.
The principal lords who entered into the confrater¬
nity of knights, ufed to fend their fons to each other
to be educated, far from their parents, in the myftery
of chivalry. Thefe youths, before they arrived at the
age of 21, were called bachelors, or has chevaliers, in¬
ferior knights, and at that age were qualified to receive
the order.
So honourable was the origin of an inftitution, com¬
monly confidered as the refult of caprice and the
fource of extravagance ; but which, on the contrary,
rofe naturally from the ftate of fociety in thofe times,
and had a very ferious effe6t in refining the manners
of the European nations. Valour, humanity, courtefy,
juftice, honour, were its charafteriftics : and to thefe
was added religion j which, by infufing a large por¬
tion of enthufiaftic zeal, carried thtm all to a roman¬
tic excefs, wonderfully fuited to the genius of the age,
3 O and
K N I [ 474 ] K N I
Knight, and productive of the greateft and rnofl permanent ef~
—nr—' fefls both upon policy and manners. War was carried
on with lefs ferocity, when huraanity, no lefs than
courage, came to be deemed the ornament of knight¬
hood, and knighthood a dittinftion fuperior to royalty,
and an honour which princes were proud to receive
from the hands of private gentlemen : more gentle and
polilhed manners were introduced, when courtefy was
recommended as the moft amiable of knightly virtues,
and every knight devoted himfelf to the fervice of a
lady r violence and oppreflion decreafed, when it was
accounted meritorious to check and to punifh them:
a fcrupulous adherence to truth, with the moft reli¬
gious attention to fulfil every engagement, but parti¬
cularly thofe between the fexes as more eafily violated,
became the diftinguilhing character of a gentleman,
becaufe chivalry was regarded as the fchool of honour,
and inculcated the moft delicate fenfibility with refpedl
to that point •, and valour, feconded by fo many mo¬
tives oflove, religion, and virtue, became altogether ir-
refiftible.
That the fpiritof chivalry fometimes rofe to an ex¬
travagant height, and had often a pernicious tendency,
muft however be allowed. In Spain, under the influ¬
ence of a romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a feries
of wild adventures which have been defervedly ridicu¬
led: in the train of Norman ambition, it extinguilhed
the liberties of England, and deluged Italy in blood;
and at the call of fuperftition, and as the engine of
papal power, it defolated Afia under the banner of the
crofs. But thefe ought not to be confidered as argu¬
ments againft an inftitution laudable in itfelf, and ne-
ceflary at the time of its foundation ; and thofe who
pretend to defpife it, the advocates of ancient barba-
rifm and ancient rufticity, ought to remember, that
chivalry not only firft taught mankind to carry the ci¬
vilities of peace into the operations of war, and to
mingle politenefs with the ufe of the fword ; but rouf-
ed the foul from its lethargy, invigorated the human
charatfter even while it foftened it, and produced ex¬
ploits which antiquity cannot parallel. Nor ought
they to forget, that it gave variety, elegance, and
pleafure, to the intercourfe of life, by making w'omen
a more effential part of fociety ; and is therefore en¬
titled to our gratitude, though the point of honour,
and the refinements in gallantry, its more doubtful ef¬
fects, fliouid be excluded from the improvement of
modern manners. For,
To illuftrate this topic more particularly, we may
obferve, that w'omen, among the ancient Greeks and
Romans, feem to have been eonftdered merely as ob-
jefts of fenfuality, or of domeftic conveniency : they
were devoted to a ftate of feclufion and obfcurity, had
few attentions paid them, and were permitted to take
as little fhare in the converfation as in the general
commerce of life. But the northern nations, who paid
a kind of devotion to the fofter fex, even in their native
foreits, had no fooner fettled themfelves in the pro¬
vinces of the Roman empire, than the female charac¬
ter began to affume new confequence. Thofe fierce
barbarians, who feemed to third only for blood, who
involved in one undiftinguiftiing ruin the monuments
of ancient grandeur and ancient ingenuity, and who
devoted to the flames the knowledge of ages, always
forbore to offer any violence to the women. They
brought along with them the refpeftful gallantry of
the north, which had power even to reftrain their fa-
vage ferocity: and they introduced into the weft of
Europe a generofity of fentiment, and a complailancc
toward the ladies, to which the moft poliflied nations
of antiquity w'ere ftrangers.—Thefe fentiments of ge¬
nerous gallantry were foftered by the inftitution of
chivalry, which lifted women yet higher in the fcale
of life. Inftead of being nobody in fociety, flie be¬
came his primum mobile. Every knight devoting him¬
felf to danger, declared himfelf the humble fervant of
fome lady, and that lady was often the objeft of his
love. Her honour was fuppofed to be intimately con-
nefted with his, and her fmile was the reward of his
valour : for her he attacked, for her he defended, and
for her he fhed his blood. Courage, animated by fo
powerful a motive, loft fight of every thing but enter-
prife : incredible toils were cheerfully endured, incre¬
dible aftions were performed, and adventures feeming-
ly fabulous were more than realized. The effeft was
reciprocal. Women, proud of their influence, became
w'orthy of the heroifm which they had infpired : they
were not to be approached but by the high minded
and the brave ; and men then could only be admitted
to the bofom of the ehafte fair, after proving their fi¬
delity and affe&ion by years of perfeverance and of
peril.
Again, As to the change which took place in the ope¬
rations of war, it may be obferved, that the perfetft hero
of antiquity was fuperior to fear, but he made ufe of
every artifice to annoy his enemy: impelled by animo-
fity and hoftile paflion, like the favage in the American
woods, he was only anxious of attaining his end, with¬
out regarding whether fraud or force were the means..
But the true knight or modern hero of the middle ages,,
who feems in all his rencounters to have had his eye on
the judicial combat or judgment of God, had an equal
contempt for ftratagem and danger. He difdained to
take advantage of his enemy : he defired only to fee-
him, and to combat him upon equal terms, trufling
that heaven, would declare in behalf of the juft ; and
as he profefled only to vindicate the caufe of religion^
of injured beauty, or opprefled innocence, he was fur¬
ther confirmed in this enthufiaftic opinion by his own
heated imagination. Strongly perfuaded that the de-
cifion muft be in his favour, he fought as if under the
influence of divine infpiration rather than of military
ardour. Thus the fyflem of chivalry, by a Angular
combination of manners, blended the heroic and fanc-
tified charafters, united devotion and valour, zeal and
gallantry, and reconciled the love of God and of the
ladies.
Chivalry fiouriftied moft during the time of the
croifades. From thefe holy wars it followed, that
new fraternities of knighthood were invented : hence
the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the Hofpitall'ers,
Templars, and an infinite number of religious or¬
ders. Various other orders were at length inftituted
by fovereign princes : the Garter, by Edward HE
of England ; the Golden Fleece, by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy ; and St Michael, by Louis XL of
France. From this time ancient chivalry declined to
an empty name ; when fovereign princes eftabliflied
regular companies in their armies, knights bannerets
were no more, though it was ftill thought an honour
to
Knight.
K N I [ 475 ] K N I
to be dubbed by a great prince or vi&orious hero ;
and all who profeffed arms without knighthood affum-
ed the title of efqmt e.
There is fcarce a prince in Europe that has not
thought fit to inftitute an order of knighthood •, and
the Ample title of knight, which the kings of Britain
confer on private fubjefts, is a derivation from ancient
chivalry, although very remote from its fource. See
Knight-B ACHE LO R.
KNIGHT Service (fervitium militare, and in law French
chivalry); a fpecies of Tenure, the origin and nature
of which are explained under the articles Chivalry-,
and Feudal Syjlem, N° 13—21.
The knights produced by this tenure differed moll
effentially from the knights defcribed in the pre¬
ceding article ; though the difference feems not to
have been accurately attended to by authors (a).
The one clafs of knights was of a high antiquity :
the other was not heard of till the invention of a
fee. The adorning with arms and the blow of the
fword made the aid of the creation of the ancient
knight; the new knight was conftituted by an inveft-
ment in a piece of land. The former was the mem¬
ber of an order of dignity which had particular privi¬
leges and diftin&ions j the latter was the receiver of
a feudal grant. Knighthood was an honour ; knight
fervice a tenure. The firft communicated fplendour
to an army *, the laft gave it ftrength and numbers.—
The knight of honour might ferve in any ffation what¬
ever ; the knight of tenure was in the rank of a fol-
dier.—It is true, at the fame time, that every noble
and baron were knights of tenure, as they held their Knight,
lands by knight fervice. But the number of fees they
poffeffed, and their creation into rank, feparated them
widely from the Ample individuals to whom they gave
out grants of their lands, and who were merely the
knights of tenure. It is no lefs true, that the fove-
reign, without conferring nobility, might give even a
Angle fee to a tenant j and fueh vaffals in capite of the
crown, as well as the vaffals of Angle fees from a fub-
jecf, were the mere knights of tenure. But the for¬
mer, in refpeft of their holding from the crown, were
to be called to take upon themfelves the knighthood
of honour j a condition in which they might rife from
the ranks, and be promoted to offices and command.
And as to the vaffals in capite of the crown who had
many fees, their wealth of itfelf fuffieiently diftinguhh-
ed them beyond the ftate of the mere knights of te¬
nure. In faft, they poff.ffed an authority over men
who were of this laft defcription j for, in proportion
to their lands were the fees they gave out and the
knights they commanded.
By the tenure of knight fervice the greateft part
of the lands in England were holden, and that princi¬
pally of the king in capite, till the middle of the laft
century •, and which was created as Sir Edward Coke
exprefsly teftiAes, for a military purpofe, viz. for de-Blackjlone'i
fence of the realm by the king’s own principal fub- Cammen-
jefls, which was judged to be much better than to tarief-
truft to hirelings or foreigners. The defcription here
given is that of knight fervice proper, which was to
attend the king in his wars. There were alfo feme
3 O 2 other
(a) “ The terms knight and chiva/er (Dr Stuart f obferves), denoted both the knight of honour and knight f View of
®f tenure ; and chivalry was ufed to exprefs both knighthood and knight-fervice. Hence, it has proceeded, that Society in
thefe perfons and thefe ftates have been confounded. Yet the marks of their difference are fo ftrong and point-
ed, that one muft wonder that writers ffiould miftake them. It is not, however, mean and common compilers^' ^
®nly who have been deceived. Sir Edward Coke, notwithftanding his diftinguiftiing head, is of this num¬
ber. When eftimating the value of the knight’s fee at 2ol. per annum, he appeals to the ftatute de unlitibus,
an. 1 Ed. II. and, by the fenfe of his illuftration, he conceives, that the knights alluded to there were the
fame with the poffeflbrs of knights fees : and they, no doubt, had knights fees : but a knight’s fee might be
enjoyed not only by the tenants in capite of the crown, but by the tenants of a vaffal, or by the tenants of t.
fub-vaffal. Now, to thefe the ftatute makes no alluAon. It did not mean to annex knighthood to every land¬
holder in the kingdom who had a knight’s fee 5 but to encourage arms, by requiring the tenants in capite of
the crown to take to them the dignity. He thus confounds knighthood and the knight's fee. Coke on Little¬
ton, p. 69.
“ If I am not deceived, Sir William Blackftone has fallen into the fame miftake, and has added to it. Speak¬
ing of the knights of honour, or the equites aurati from the gilt fpurs they wore, he thus expreffes himfelf:
4 They are alfo called, in our law, mihtes, becaufe they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal army,
e in virtue of their feodal tenures j one condition of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee (which
* in Henry II.’s time amounted to 20I. per annum), was obliged to be knighted, and attend the king in his wars,
4 or Aned for his noncomplianoe. The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to raife money, in the reign
‘ of Charles I. gave great offence, though warranted by law, and the recent example of Queen Elizabeth : but
4 it was, at the Reftoration, together with all other military branches of the feodal law, aboliftiedj and this kind
‘ of knighthood has Ance that time fallen into great difrepute.’ Book I. ch. 1 2.
“ After what has been faid, I need hardly obferve, that this learned and able writer has confounded the
knight of honour, and the knight of tenure ; and that the requiAtion to take knighthood was not made to every
poffeffor of a knight’s fee, but to the tenants of knights fees held in capite of the crown, who had merely a
fufficieney to maintain the dignity, and were thence difpofed not to take it. Uhe idea that the whole force
of the royal army conAfted of knights of honour, or dubbed knights, is fo extraordinary a circumftance, that
it might have (hown of itfelf to this eminent writer the fource of his error. Had every foldier in the feu¬
dal array received the inveftiture of arms ? could he wear a feal, furpafs in Aik and drefs, ufe enAgns armorial,
and enjoy all the other privileges of knighthood ? But, while I hazard thefe remarks, my reader will oblerve,
that it is with the greateft deference I diffent from Sir William Blackftone, whofe abilities are the object of a
snoft general and deferved admiration.”
Knight.
K N I [ 4^76
other fpecxes of knight fervice 5 fo called, though im- it.
properly, becaufe the fervice or render was of a free
and honourable nature, and equally uncertain as to the
time of rendering as that of knight fervice proper, and
becaufe they were attended with fimilar fruits and con-
fequences. Such was the tenure by grand ferjeantrj,
per magnum fervitium, whereby the tenant was bound,
inftead of ferving the king generally in his wars, to do
fome fpecial honorary fervice to the king in perfon ;
as to carry his banner, his fword, or the like j or be
his butler, champion, or other officer, at his corona¬
tion. It was, in moil other refpe&s, like knight fer¬
vice, only he was not bound to pay aid or efeuage $
and when tenant by knight fervice paid five pounds
for a relief on every knight’s fee, tenant by grand
ferjeanty paid one year’s value of his land, svere it
much or little. Tenure by carnage, which was to wind
a horn when the Scots or other enemies entered the
land, in order to warn the king’s fubje&s, was (like
other fervices of the fame nature) a fpecies of grand
ferjeanty.
Thefe fervices, both of chivalry and grand ferjeanty
were all perfonal, and uncertain as to their quantity
or duration. Eut the perfonal attendance in knight
fervice growing troublefome and inconvenient in many
refpeefs, the tenants found means of eompoundino-
for it, by firft fending others in their Head, and in
procefs of time making a pecuniary fatisfaclion to the
lords in lieu of it. This pecuniary fatisfadtion at lall;
came to be levied by afieffments, at fo much for every
knight’s fee ; and therefore this kind of tenure was
called feutngium in Latin, or fervitium feuti; feutum
being then a well-known denomination of money : and
in like manner it was called, in our Norman French
efeuage $ being indeed a pecuniary inftead of a military
fervice. The firft time this appears to have been
taken, was in the 5 Hen. II. on account of his ex¬
pedition to Touloufe $ but it foon came to be fo uni-
verfal, that perfonal attendance fell quite into difufe.
Hence we find in our ancient hiftories, that, from
this period when our kings went to war, they levied
feutages on their tenants, that is on all the landhold¬
ers of the kingdom, to defray their expences and to
hire troops: and thefe affeffments in the timeof Henry II.
leem to have been made arbitrarily, and at the king’s
pleafure. Which prerogative being greatly abufed by
liis fucceflors, it became matter of national clamour j
and King John was obliged to confent, by his magna
endrta, that no feutage ffiould be impofed without
confent of parliament. But this claufe was omitted in
his fon Henry III.’s charter j where we only find, that
feutages or efeuage ffiould be taken as they were ufed
to be taken in the time of Henry II. ; that is, in a
reafonable and moderate manner. Yet afterwards, by
fiatute 2$ Edw. I. c. 5. and 6. and many fubfequent
ftatutes, it was enabled, that the king ffiould take no
aids or talks but by the common aiTent 'of the realm.
Hence it is held in our old books, that efeuage or
iputage could not be levied but by confent of par¬
liament ; fuch feutages being indeed the ground-work
of all fucceeding fubfidies, and the land tax of later
times.
Since, therefore, efeuage differed from, knight fervice
in nothing, but as a compenfation differs from a&ual
tervice? knight fervice is frequently confounded with
3
] K N I
And thus Littleton muft be underftood, when
he tells us, that tenant by homage, fealty, and ef¬
euage, was tenant by knight fervice : that is, that
this tenure (being fubfervient to the military policy of
the nation) was refpefted as a tenure in chivalry. But
as the a final, fervice was uncertain, and depended up¬
on emergencies, fo it was neceffary that this pecuniary
compenfation ffiould be equally uncertain, and depend
on the affeffments of the legiflature fuited to thefe emer¬
gencies. Fer had the eicuage been a fettled invariable
fum, payable at certain times, it had been neither more
nor lefs than a mere pecuniary rent ; and the tenure
inftead of knight fervice, would have then been of ano¬
ther kind, called soccage.
By the degenerating of knight fervice, or perfonal
military duty, into efeuage or pecuniary affeffments,
all the advantages (either promifed or real) of the feo-
dal conftitutions were deftroyed, and nothing but the
hard (hips remained. Inftead of forming a national
militia compofed of barons, knights, and gentlemen,
bound by their intereft, their honour, and their oaths,
to defend their king and country, the whole of this
fyftem of tenures now tended to nothing elfe but a
wretched means of raifing money to pay an army of
o.ccafional mercenaries. In the mean time the fami¬
lies of all our nobility and gentry groaned under the
intolerable burdens (wffiich in confequence of the fiftion
adopted after the conqueft) w’ere introduced and laid
upon them by the fubtlety and fineffe of the Norman
lawyers. For, befides the feutages to which they
were liable in defeat of perfonal attendance, which,
however, were afftffed by themfelves in parliament,
they might be called upon by the king or lord para¬
mount for aids, whenever his eldeft fon was to be
knighted, or his eldeft daughter married ; not to for¬
get the ran.fom of his own perfon. The heir, on the
death of his anceftor, if of full age, was plundered of
the firft emoluments arifing from his inheritance, by
way of relief and primer feifn : and if under age, of
the whole of his eftate during infancy. And then, as
Sir d homas Smith very feelingly complains, “ when
he came to his own, after he was out of wardfhip, his
woods decayed, houfes fallen down, flock wafted and
gone, lands let forth and ploughed to be barren,” to
make amends, he was yet to pay half a year’s profits
as a fine for fuing out his livery ; and alfo the price or
value of his marriage, if he refufed fuch wife as his
lord and guardian had bartered for, and impofed upon
him ; or twice that value, if he married another wo¬
man. Add to this, the untimely and expenfive ho¬
nour of knighthood, to make his poverty more com¬
pletely fplendid. And when, by thefe dedu&ions, his
fortune was fo {battered and ruined, that perhaps he was
obliged, to fell his patrimony, be had not even that
poor privilege allowed him, without paying an exorbi¬
tant fine for a hcenfe of alienation.
A flavery fo complicated and fo extenfive as this,
called aloud for a remedy in a nation that boafted of
her freedom. Palliatives were from time to time ap¬
plied by fucceffive a£ls of parliaments, which affuaged
fome temporary grievances. Till at length the huma¬
nity of King James I. confented, for a proper equiva¬
lent, to abolifti them all, though the plan then pro¬
ceeded not to effefl 5 in like manner, as he had formed
a fcheme, and began to put it in execution, for remov¬
ing
Knight.
KNIGHTHOOD. PLATE CCLXXXVm
Hf^Ar'c/izia/cL J’ezi/p .
K N I [4
Knight. Jng the feodal grievances of heritable jurifdiftions in
—-v  Scotland, which has fmce been purfued and effected
by the ftatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43. King James’s plan
for exchanging our military tenures feems to have been
nearly the fame as that which has been fince purfued ;
only with this difference, that by way of compenfation
for the lofs which the crown and other lords would
futlain, an annual fee-farm rent ffiould be fettled and
infeparably annexed to the crown, and affured to the
inferior lords, payable out of every knight’s fee within
their refpeftive feignories. An expedient feemingly
much better than the hereditary excite which was after-
wards made the principal equivalent for thefe concef-
fions. For at length the military tenures, with all
their heavy appendages, were deftroyed at one blow
by the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. which enafts, “ that
the court of ward or liveries, and all wardthips, liveries,
primer feifins, and oufterlemains, values and forfeitures
of marriages, by reafon of any tenure of the king or
others, be totally taken away. And that all fines for
alienations, tenures by homage, knights fervice, and
efcuage, and alfo aids for marrying the daughter or
knighting the fon, and all tenures of the king tn capite,
be likewife taken away. And that all forts of tenures,
held of the king or others, be turned into free and
common foceage : fave only tenures in frankalmoign,
copyholds, and the honorary fervices (without the
Ilavifh part) of grand ferjeanty.” A ftatute which
■was a greater acquifition to the civil property of this
kingdom than even magna charta itfelf: fince that
only pruned the luxuriances that had grown out of
the military tenures, and thereby preferved them in
vigour : but the ftatute of King Charles extirpated the
whole, and demoliftied both root and branches.
KNIGHTS-Errant. During the prevalence of chi¬
valry, the ardour of redrefling wrongs feized many
knights fo powerfully, that, attended by efquires,
they w’andered about in fearch of obje&s whofe misfor¬
tunes and mifery required their afliftance and fuc-
cour. And as ladies engaged more particularly their
attention, the relief of unfortunate damfels was the
achievement they moft courted. This was the rife
of knights-errant, whofe adventures produced ro¬
mance. Thefe were originally told as they happened.
But the love of the marvellous came to interfere •,
fancy was indulged in her wildeft exaggerations ; and
poetry gave her charms to the moft monftrous fiflions,
and to feenes the moft unnatural and gigantic. See
Knight.
Knight-Bachelor. See Bachelor.
KNIGHT-Baronst. See BARONET.
KNIGHTS of the Shire, or Knights of Parliament, are
two gentlemen of worth, chofen on the king’s writ
in plena comitatu, by fuch of the freeholders of every
county as can expend 40s. per annum, to reprefent fuch
county in parliament. Thefe, when every man wdio
held a knight’s fee in capite of the crown was cuftoma-
rily conftrained to be a knight, wrere of neceffity to
be milites gladio cinSi, for fo the writ runs to this day )
but now cuftom admits efquires to be chofen to this
office. They muft have at leaft 500I. per annum •, and
their expences are to be defrayed by the county,
though this be feldom now required.
KNIGHT-Marfhal, an officer in the king’s houfe-
hold, who has jurifdi&ion and cognizance of any tranf-
7 ] K N I
greffion within the king’s houfehold and verge ; as alfo Knight,
of contrails made there, whereof one of the houfe is ^nl£*.u"
hood.
party. .
KNIGHT-Fi/h. See Eques, ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
Knights, in a ftnp, two ftiort thick pieces of w'ood,
commonly carved like a man’s head, having four drivers
in each, three for the haulyards, and one for the top
to run in : one of them (lands faft bolted on the beams
abaft the foremaft, and is therefore called the fore¬
knight ; and the other, (landing abaft the mainmaft, is
callen the main-kmght.
KNIGHTHOOD, a military order or honour, or
a mark or degree of ancient nobility, or reward of
perfonal virtue and merit.
There are four kinds of knighthood ) military, regu¬
lar, honorary, and focial.
Military KNIGHTHOOD, is that of the ancient knights,
who acquired it by high feats of arms. They are call¬
ed milites, in ancient charters and titles, by which they
were diftinguiftred from mere bachelors, &c. Thefe
knights were girt with a fw'ord, and wore a pair of gilt
fpurs 5 whence they wrere called equites aurati.
Knighthood is not hereditary, but acquired. It
does not come into the urorld with a man like nobility j
nor can it be revoked. The fons of kings, and kings
themfelves, with all other fovereigns, heretofore had
knighthood conferred on them as a mark of honour.
They were ufually knighted at their baptifm or mar¬
riage, at their coronation, before or after a battle,
&c.
Regular KNIGHTHOOD, is applied to all military or¬
ders which profefs to wear fome particular habit, to
bear arms againft the infidels, to fuccour and affift pil¬
grims in their paffage to the Holy Land, and to ferve
in hofpitals where they ftrould be received j fuch were
the knights templars, and fuch dill are the knights of
Malta, &c.
Honorary KNIGHTHOOD, is that which princes confer
on other princes, and even on their own great minifters
and favourites •, fuch are knights of the Garter, Bath,
St Patrick, Nova Scotia, Thiftle, &c. See thefe ar¬
ticles $ and for a reprefentation of their different infig-
nia, fee Plate CCLXXXVIII.
Social KNIGHTHOOD, is that which is not fixed nor
confirmed by any formal inftitution, nor regulated by
any lading ftatutes; of which kind there have many or¬
ders been erefted on occafion of factions, of tilts and
tournaments, mafquerades, and the like.
The abbot Bernardo Juftiniani, at the beginning of
his Hiftory of Knighthood, gives us a complete cata¬
logue of the feveral orders : according to this computa¬
tion, they are in number 92. Favin has given us two
volumes of them under the title of Theatre d'Honneur
et de Chevalerie. Menenius has publiftiecl Delicice Equef-
trium Ordinum, and Andr. Mendo has written De Or-
dinibus Militaribies. Beloi has traced their original;
and Geliot, in his Armorial Index, has given us their
inftitutions. To thefe may be added, Father Mene-
ftrier de la Chevalerie Hncicnre et Moderne, Michieli’s
Trefor Militaire, Caramuel’s Theologia Regolare, Mi-
reeus’s Origines Equefrium five Militanum Ordinum :
but above all, Juftinian’s Hiforie Chrono/ogiche delC
Origine de gP Ordine Mihtari, e di tutte le Reiigione Ca-
valerefche ; the edition which is fulled is that of Venice
in 1692, in two vols folio.
KNIGHTLOW
K N O [ 47B ] K N O
Knightlow KNIGHTLOW Hill or Cross, which gives
name to a hamlet in Warwickfhire, ftands in the road
t, ' I v' ‘ from Coventry to London, at the entrance of Dunf-
more Heath. About 40 towns in this hamlet, which
are fpecified by Dugdale, are obliged, on the forfei¬
ture of 30s, and a white bull, to pay a certain rent to
the lord of the hamlet, called wroth-money, ox fwarf.
penny; which muft be depofited every Martinmas day
in the morning at this crofs before funrife ; when the
party paying it muft go thrice about the crois, and fay
the wroth-money, and then lay it in the hole of the faid
crofs before good witnefs.
KNIGHTON, a well built town of Radnorlhire in
South Wales, 155 miles from London. It is pleafant-
ly fituated on an elevation rifing from a fmall river,
which divides this part of Wales from Shropftiire. It
carries on a confiderable trade, and has a market and
a fair, with about 800 inhabitants.
KNIGHTSBRIDGE, a village of Middlefex, and
the firft village from London on the great w'eftern road.
It lies in the parilhes of St Margaret’s Weftminfter,
and St George by Hanover Square j and has a chapel,
which is neverthelefs independent. At the entrance
of it from London ftands that noble infirmary for fick
and wounded, called St George's Hofpital, ere&ed and
maintained by the contributions of our nobility and
gentry, of whom there are no lefs than 300 governors.
In the centre of this village, there is a fabric lately
erefted, where is carried on one of the moft confider¬
able manufactures in England for painting floor-cloths,
&c.
KNOCTOPHER, a borough and market town of
^ Ireland, in the county of Kilkenny and province of
Leinfter, 63 miles from Dublin. Before the union,
this town returned two members to the Irilh parlia¬
ment.
KNOLL, a term ufed in many parts of the kingdom
for the top-of a fmall hill, or for the hill itfelf.
KNOLLES, Richard, was born in Northampton-
ihire, about the middle of the 16th century, and edu¬
cated at Oxford, after which he w'as appointed mailer
of the free-lehool at Sandwich in Kent. He compofed
Gram??iaticce Latince, Greece, et Hebraic#, compendium,
cum radicibus, London 1606 5 and fent many excellent
Icholars to the univerfities. He alfo fpent 12 years in
compiling a hiftory of the Turks; which was firft print¬
ed in 1610. It is called, The general hijiory of the
Iwks, from the firft beginning of that nation to the n/ing
of the Ottoman family, &c. He died in 1610, and
this hiftory has been fince continued by ftvtral hands:
the beft continuation is that by Paul Ricaut conful at
Smyrna, folio, London, 1680. Knolles wrote alfo,
4‘ The lives and conquefts of the Ottoman kings and’
emperors to the year 1610 which was not printed till
after his death in 1621, to which time it was conti¬
nued by another hand ; and laftly, “ A brief difeourfe
of the greatnefs of the Turkifh empire, and where¬
in the greatnefs of the ftrength thereof confifteth,”
&.c.
KNO P, a part of a tree, from which (hoot out
branches, roots, or even fruit. The ufe of the knots
is, to ftrengthen the ftern they ferve alfo as fearces,
to filtrate, purify, and refine the juices raifed up for
the nouriftiraent of the plant.
Knots of a Rope, among feamen, are diftinguifhed
2
into three kinds, viz. whole knot, that made fo with Knot*
the lays of a rope that it cannot flip, ferving for r II
flieets, tacks, and Hoppers : bowline knot, that fo firm. Knox*
ly made and faftened to the cringles of the fails, that
they muft break or the fail fplit before it flips: and
Iheep-fhank knot, that made by ihortening a rope with¬
out cutting it, which may be prefently loofened, and
the rope not the worfe for it.
KNOTS of the Log-line, at fea, are the divifions of it.
See the article Log.
Knot. See Tringa, Ornithology Index.
Knot Grafs, or Bijlort. See Polygonum, Botany
Index.
KNOTTESFORD, a town of Cheftiire, near the
Merfey, 184 miles from London, is divided into the
upper and lower towns by a rivulet called Bicken. In
the former is the church ; and in the latter is a chapel
of eafe, the market and town houfe.
KNOT TINGE EY, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkfhire, on the Aire near Ferrybridge, is noted for
its trade in lime. The ftones of which it is made
are dug up plentifully at Elmet, and here burnt ; from
whence it is conveyed at certain feafons in great quan¬
tities to Wakefield, Sandal, and Standbridge, for fale,
and fo carried into the weftern parts of the county for
manure..
KNOUT, the name of a punifhment inflifted in
Ruftia, with a kind of whip called knout, and made of
a long ftrap of leather prepared for this purpofe. With
this whip the executioners dexteroufly carry off a flip
of fldn from the neck to the bottom of the back laid
bare to the waift, and repeating their blows, in a little
while rend away all the fldn of the back in parallel
ftripes. In the common knout the criminal receives the
laflies fufpended on the back of one of the executioners:
but in the great knout, which is generally ufed on the
fame occafions as racking on the wheel in France, the
criminal is raifed into the air by means of a pulley fixed
to the gallows, and a cord faflened to the two wrifts
tied together; a piece of wood is placed between his
two legs alfo tied together ; and another of a crucial
form under his breaft. Sometimes his hands are tied
behind over his back; and when he is pulled up in this
pofition, his (boulders are dillocated. The execution¬
ers can make this puniflimentmore or lefs fevere; and it
is faid, are fo dexterous, that when a criminal is con¬
demned to die, they can make him expire at pleafure
either by one or feveral lafhes.
KNOWLEDGE, is defined by Mr Locke to be
the perception of the connexion and agreement or dif-
agreement and repugnancy of our ideas. See Meta¬
physics and Logic.
KNOX, John, greatly diflinguiflied by the part he
took in the reformation in Scotland, was born in 1 50?,
at Gifford near Haddington, and educated at the univer-
fity of St Andrew ’s-, where he took a degree in arts, and
commenced teacher very early in life. At this time the
new religion of Martin Luther was but little known in
Scotland ; Mr Knox therefore at firfl was a zealous
Roman Catholic: but attending the fermons of a cer¬
tain Black friar, named Guiulliam, he began to waver
in his opinions ; and afterwards converfing w ith the fa¬
mous Wifhart, who in 1544 came 1:0 Scotland with the
commiflioners fent by Henry VIII. he renounced the
ilomifli religion, and became a zealous reformer. Be-
ing
K N O [ 479 ] K O E
Knox, ing appointed tutor to the fons of the lairds ox Ormi-
■"''v-"—''ftoun and Longniddery, he began to inftruft them in
the principles of the Proteftant religion j and on that
account was fo violently perfecuted by the biihop of
St Andrew’s, that with his two pupils he was obliged
in the year 1547 to take (helter in the caftle of that
place. But the caftle was befieged and taken by 21
French galleys. He continued a prifoner on board a
galley two years, namely, till the latter end of the year
1549 ; when, being fet at liberty, he landed in Eng¬
land, and having obtained a licenfe, was appointed
preacher, firft at Berwick, and afterwards at Newcaftle.
Strype conje&ures that in 1552 he was appointed chap¬
lain to Edward VI. He certainly obtained an annual
penfion of 40I, and was offered the living of All-hallows
in London ; which he refufed, not chociing to conform
to the liturgy.
Soon after the aceeflion of Queen Mary, he retired
to Geneva ; whence, at the command of John Calvin,
he removed to Frankfort, where he preached to the
exiles : but a difference arifing on account of his refu-
ftng to read the Englifti liturgy, he went back to Ge¬
neva 5 and from thence in 1555 returned to Scotland,
where the reformation had made conliderable progrefs
during his abfence. He now travelled from place to
place, preaching and exhorting the people with unre¬
mitting zeal and refolution. About this time (1556),
he wrote a letter to the queen regent, earneftly en¬
treating her to hear the Proteftant doflrine ; which let¬
ter the treated with contempt. In the fame year the
Englifh Calvinifts at Geneva, invited Mr Knox to re-
fide among them. He accepted their invitation. Im¬
mediately after his departure from Scotland, the bifliop
fummoned him to appear, and he not appearing, con¬
demned him to death for herefy, and burned his effigy
at the crofs of Edinburgh.
Our reformer continued abroad till the year 1559,
during which time he publiftred his “ Firft Blaft againft
the monftrous Regiment of Women.” Slaving now re¬
turned to Scotland, he refumed the great work of re¬
formation with his ufual ardour, and was appointed
minifter at Edinburgh. In 1561 Queen Mary arrived
from France. She, it is well known, was bigotted
to the religion in which ftie had been educated j and
on that account was expofed to continual infults from
her reformed fubje&s. Mr Knox himfelf frequently
infulted her from the pulpit; and when admitted to
her prefence, regardlefs of her fex, her beauty, and
her high rank, behaved to her with a moft unjuftifiable
freedom. In the year 1571 our reformer was obliged
to leave Edinburgh, on account of the confufion and
danger from the oppofition to the earl of Lennox, then
regent; but he returned the following year, and re¬
fumed his paftoral fun&ions. He died at Edinburgh
in November 1572, and was buried in the churchyard
of St Giles’s in that city.—His Hiftory of the Refor¬
mation was printed with his other works at Edinburgh
in 15S4, 1586, 1644, 1732. He publiihed many
other pieces $ and feveral more are preferved in Calder-
wood’s Hiftory of the Church of Scotland. Pie left alfo
a confiderable number of manufcripts, which in 1732
were in the poffeffion of Mr Woodrow, minifter of Eaft-
wood.
As to his chara&er, it is eafily underftood, notwith-
ftanding the extreme diffimilitude of the two portraits
drawn by Popifh and Calviniftical pencils. According Kn**
to the firft, he was a devil; according to the latter, an
angel. The following character is drawn by Dr Ro-
bertfon. “ Zeal, intrepidity, difintereftednefs, were
virtues that he poffeffed in an eminent degree. He was
acquainted too with the learning cultivated in that age j
and excelled in that fpecies of eloquence which is calcu¬
lated to roufe and to inflame. His maxims, however,
were often too fevere, and the impetuofity of his temper
exceffive. Rigid and uncomplying, he ihowed no in¬
dulgence to the infirmities of others. Regardlefs of the
diftindtions of rank and charadfter, he uttered his admo¬
nitions with an acrimony and vehemence more apt to
irritate than to reclaim and this often betrayed him
into indecent expreffions, with refpeft to Queen Mary’s
perfon and conduft. Thofe very qualities, however,
which now vender his charadler lefs amiable, fitted him
to be the inftrument of Providence for advancing the
Reformation among a fierce people, and enabled him to
face dangers, and to furmount oppofition, from which
a perfon of a more gentle fpirit would have been apt to
(brink back. By an unwearied application to ftudy
and to bufinefs, as well as by the frequency and fervour
of his public difcourfes, he had worn out a conftitution
naturally ftrong. During a lingering illnefs, he difco-
vered the utmoft fortitude •, and met the approach of
death with a magnanimity infeparable from his cha¬
racter. He was conftantly employed in a6ts of devo¬
tion, and comforted himfelf with thofe profpe6ts of im¬
mortality, which not only preferve good men from def-
ponding, but fill them with exultation in their laft mo¬
ments. The earl of Morton, who was prefent at his
funeral, pronounced his eulogium in a few words, the
more honourable for Knox, as they came from one
whom he had often cenfured with peculiar feverity j
“ Her^ lies he who never feared the face of man.”
KNOXIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stcllntce. See Botany Index.
KNUTZEN, Matthias, a native c.r Holftein, the
only perfon on record who openly proftfled and taught
atheifm. It is faid he had about 1000 difciples i* dif¬
ferent parts of Germany. They were called Confcien-
ciaries, becaufe they afferted there is no other God, no
other religion, no other lawful magiftracy, but confci-
enee, which teaches every man the three fundamental
principles of tj?e law of nature :—to hurt nobody, to
live honeftly, and to give every one his due. Several
copies of a letter of his from Rome were fpread abroad,
containing the fubftance of his fyftem. It is to be
found entire in the laft edition of Micrcelius.
KOEDQE. See Capra.
KOEI-tcheou, a province of China, and one of the
fmalleft in the empire. On the fouth it has Quang-fi,
on the eaft Hou-quang, on the north Se-tchuen, and
Yun-nan on the weft. The whole country is almoft a
defert, and covered with inacceffible mountains : it may
juftly be called the Siberia of China. The people who
inhabit it are mountaineers, accuftomed to independence,
and who feem to form a feparate nation : they are no
lefs ferocious than the favage animals among which they
Rve.—The mandarins and governors who are lent to
this province are fometimes difgraeed noblemen, whom
the emperor does not think proper to difeard entirely,
either on account of their alliances, or the Cervices
which
K O E
Kod- which they have rendered to the ftate : numerous gar-
Koe n ^Vr r'‘ons are intrufted to their charge, to overawre the in-
» ^ habitants of the country ; but thefe troops are found in-
fufficient, and the court delpairs of being ever able tho¬
roughly to fubdue thefe untratfable mountaineers. Fre¬
quent attempts have been made to reduce them to obe¬
dience, and new forts have from time to time been
ere&ed in their country ; but the people, who are not
ignorant of thofe defigns, keep themfelves fhut up among
their mountains, and feldom iffue forth but to deftroy
the Chinefe works or ravage their lands. Neither filk
fluffs nor cotton cloths are manufaftured in this pro¬
vince ; but it produces a certain herb much refembling
our hemp, the cloth made of which is ufed for fummer
dreffes. Mines of gold, fdver, quickfilver, and copper,
are found here •, of the laft metal, thofe fmall pieces of
money are made which are in common circulation
throughout the empire.-—Koei-tcheou contains 10 cities
of the firft clafs, and 38 of the fecond and third.
KOEMPFER, Engelbert, was born in 1651 at
Eemgow in Weftphalia. After fludying in feveral
towns, he went to Dantzick, where he gave the firft
public fpecimen of his proficiency in a differtation
De Mnjeftatis Diviftone. He then went to Thorn •, and
from thence to the univerfity of Cracow, where he took
his degree of doftor in philofophyj after which he went
to Koningfberg in Pruflia, and ftaid there four years.
He next travelled into Sweden, where he foon began
to make a figure, and was appointed fecretary of the
embaffy to the fophi of Perlia. Fie fet out from Stock¬
holm with the prefents for that emperor ; and went
through Aaland, Finland, and Ingermanland, to Nar-
%ra, where he met Mr Fabricius the ambaffador, who
had been ordered to take Mofcow in his uay. The
ambaffador having ended his negociations at the Ruffian
court, fet out for Perfia. During their flay, two years,
at Ilpahan, Dr Kcempfer, whofe curious and inquifitive
difpofition fuffered nothing to efcape him unobferved,
made all the advantages pofhble of remaining fo long in
the capital of the Perfian empire. The ambaffador, to¬
wards the dole of 1685, preparing to return into Eu¬
rope, Dr Koempfer chofe rather to enter into the fer-
vice of the Dutch Eaft India Company, in quality of
chief furgeon to the fleet, then cruifing in the Perfian
gulf. He went aboard the fleet, which, after touching
at many Dutch fettlements, came to Batavia in Septem¬
ber 1689. Dr Koempfer here applied himfelf chiefly
to natural hiftory. Hence he fet out for Japan, in qua¬
lity of a phyfician to the embafly which the Dutch Eaft
India Company fend once a year to the Japanefe court.
He quitted Japan to return to Europe in 1692. In
1694 he took his degree of do£tor of phyfic at Leyden j
on which occafion he communicated, in what are called
Inaugural Thefes, ten very Angular and curious obferva-
tions made by him in foreign countries. He intended
to digeft his memoirs into proper order j but was pre¬
vented, by being made phyfician to the count de
Lippe. He died in 1716. His principal works are,
I. Amcemtates Kxoticce, in 4^° j a work, which includes
many curious and ufeful particulars in relation to the
civil and natural hiftory of the countries through which
he paffed. 2. Herbarium Ultra-Gangeticum. 3. The
hiftory of Japan, in German, which is very curious and
much efteemed *, and for which the public is indebted
to the late Sir Hans Sloane, who purchafed for a con-
K O N
fiderable Turn of money all our author’s curiofities, Koempfer
both natural and artificial, as likewhe all his drawings 7 i'i
and manufcript memoirs, and prevailed with the learn- ^oni%' t
ed Dr Scheuchzer to tranflate the japanefe hiftory into
Englilh.
KOEMPFERIA. See Kempferia.
KOENIGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafs. See Botany Index.
KONGSBERG, a town of Norway, belonging to
Denmark, and celebrated for its filver mines, whole
produce has been confiderably exaggerated by moft of
the travellers that have publilhed on this fubjeft. The
town, which ftretches on both fides the river Lowe,
contains about 1000 houfes, and including the miners
6000 inhabitants. The mines, which lie about two
miles from the town, were firft difcovered and worked
during the reign of Chriitian IV. j and of their prefent
ftate the following account is given by Mr Coxe *. * TVyk.*’'*
There are 36 mines now working j the deepeft where-Poland,
of, called Se^en-Gottes in der North, is 652 feet perpen- v’ 234*
dicular. The matrix of the ore is the faxum of Lin¬
naeus, The filver is extracted according to the uiual
procefs, either by fmelting the ore with lead or by
pounding. The pure filver is occafionally found in
fmall grains and in fmall pieces of different fizes, fel¬
dom weighing more than four or five pounds. Some¬
times, indeed, but extremely rare, maffes of a confi-
derable bulk have been difcovered 5 and one in parti¬
cular which weighed 409 marks, and was worth 3000
rix-dollars, or 600I. This piece is ftill preferved in
the cabinet of curiofities at Copenhagen. Formerly
thefe mines produced annually 350,000 rixdollars, or
70,000!.; and in 1769, even 79,000!. \ at prefent they
feldom yield above from 44,000!. to 50,000!. 'Former¬
ly above 4000 men were neceffary for working the
mines, fmelting and preparing the ore j but a few
years ago 2400 miners were removed to the cobalt
works lately eftabliftied at Foffum, and to other mines;
and the number is now reduced to 2500. By thefe
and other reductions, the expence, which was before
eftimated at 5760I. per month, now amounts to only
4400I. or about 52,800!. per annum. Yet even with
this diminution the expences generally equal, and fome-
times exceed the profits. Government, therefore, draws
no other advantages from thefe mines, than by giving
employment to fo many perfons, who would otherwife
be incapable of gaining their livelihood, and by re¬
ceiving a certain quantity of fpecie, which is much
wanted in the prefent exhaufted ftate of the finances in
Denmark. For fuch is the deficiency of fpecie, that
even at Kongfberg itfelf change for a bank note is
with difficulty obtained. The miners are paid in fmall
bank notes, and the whole expences are defrayed in
paper currency. The value of 13,000 rixdollars, or
2600I. in block filver is annually fent to Copenhagen j
the remainder of the ore is coined in the mint at
Kongfberg, and transferred to Copenhagen. The
largeft piece of money now ftruck at Konglberg is only
eight {killings or fourpence.
KONIG, George Matthias, a learned German,
born at Altorf in Franconia in 1616. He became
profeffor of poetry and of the Greek tongue there, and
librarian to the univerfity ; in which laft office he fuc-
ceeded his father. He gave feveral public fpecimens
of his learning j but is principally known for a Bio¬
graphical
r 480 ]
K O Pt [ 481 ] K O T
Konig graphical Dictionary, entitled, Bibliotheca vet us et nova,
4to, Altorf, 1674: which, though it is very defe£tive,
K-craquas, ^ ufefu^ to biographers. He died in 1699.
v_., — v KON1GSTEIN, the capital of a county of the fame
name in Germany. It is n miles north-weft of Franc-
fort on the Maine, and 30 miles north-eaft of Mentz.
KoNIGSTEIN, is alfo the name of a town in Bavaria,
and of one in Saxony.
K.ONINGSBERG, a town of Poland, and capital
of Regal Pruftia, with a'magnificent palace, in which
is a hall 274 feet long and 59 broad without pillars
to fupport it, and a handfome library. It is about
five miles in circumference; and, including the garri-
fon of 7000 men, contains 6d,ooo inhabitants. The
townhoufe, the exchange, and the cathedral church,
are all very fine ftiu61ures. The tower ot the eaftle is
exceeding high ; and ^has 284 Heps to go to the top,
from whence there is a very diftant profpecl. There
are 18 churches in all ■> of which 14 belong to the
Lutherans, three to the Calvinifts, and one to the Pa-
pifts. It Hands on the Pregel, a navigable river which
flows from the north-weftern provinces of Poland, and
here falls into the eaftern extremity of the Frifche-Haf,
an inlet of the Baltic. No (hips draw ing more than
feven feet water can pafs the bar and come up to the
town ; fo that the large vtffels anchor at Pillau, a fmail
town on the Baltic, which L the port of Koningfberg j
and the merchandife is fent in fmaller veffels to this
place. Its trade is very confiderable.—Koningfberg con¬
tains an univerfity founded by Albert of Brandenburg.
According to the original endowment there were 40
profefiors j but their number is now reduced to 16.
Each profeffor receives a falary of about 50I. per annum,
which may be increafed by private lectures. In 1775,
the univerfity contained 800 ftudents, of whom 200
are lodged and boarded at the expence of the crown.
There art three public libraries in the town, the royal
or univerfity library, the town library, and the Wallen-
rodt library, fo called becaufe it was given by Martien
von Wallenrodt, in 1650. E. Long. 35. N. Lat. 54. 43.
KORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran and Ma¬
hometanism.
KORAQUAS, a tribe of Hottentots inhabiting
a diftrict in the fouth of Africa, on the confines of the
Nimiqua country. The people are much taller than
the other Hottentots of the colonies, though they evi¬
dently appear to be defeended of the fame race, having
the fame language and cuftoms with their neighbours
the Nimiquas, who are undoubtedly of the fame ex¬
traction. Like other favage tribes, the Koraquas are
ever ready to pilfer, and appropriate to their own ufe
whatever they find pleafing, or fuited to their purpofes.
They attempted to carry off fome of M. Vaillant’s ef¬
fects, even before his face 5 and he was obliged, either
to watch over or depofit them in fome place of fafety,
in order to prevent their rapacity.
The exceflxve drynefs of the country renders fprings
extremely rare j but to fupply this defect the inhabitants
dig in the earth a kind of cifterns, to which they gra¬
dually defeend by means of fteps *, the greateft marks of
induftry w hich M. Vaillant could difeover among any of
the African nations. To fecure this fcanty fupply of
water even from the birds, they are in the practice of
covering the mouth of the hole with Hones and the
branches of trees ; yet in fpite of all this economy, the
Vol. XL Part II.
wells frequently become dry, in which cafe the horde Koraquas
muft remove to fome other quarter. This circumftance ^ot^eriu
renders the Koraquas a more w andering people than any  .
of the other weftern tribes. They colour their bodies
diiTerently according to whim or caprice, and it is no
uncommon thing to fee them vary it every day, which
gives them to each other a ftrange appearance as if they
were drolled for a mafquerade.
KOREKI, the country of the Koriacs. See the
next article.
KORIACS, a people inhabiting the northern part
of Kamtfchatka, and all the coaft of the Eaftern ocean
from thence to the Anadir. They are divided into
the Rein-deer or Wandering Koriars, and the Fixed
Koriacs. The former lead an erratic life, in the trail:
bounded by the Penfchinlka fea to the louth-eaft, the
river Kowyma to the weft, and the river Anadir to
the north. They wander from place to place with
their rein deer, in fearch of the mols, the food of thofe
animals, which are their only w ealth. They are fqua-
lid, cruel, and warlike •, the terror of the Fixed Ko¬
riacs, as much as the Tfchutlki are of them. They
never frequent the fea, nor live on filh. Their habita¬
tions are jourts, or places half funk in the earth j and
they never ufe balagans or fummer houfes elevated on
pofts like the Kamtlchatkans. 'J hey are in their per-
fons lean, and very Ihortj have fmall heads and black,
hair, which they (have frequently : their faces are oval;
their nofe is ftiort ; their eyes are fmall j their mouth
is large*, and their beard black and pointed, but often
eradicated.—The Fixed Koriacs are likewife (hort j
but rather taller than the others, and ftrongly made :
the Anadir is alfo their boundary to the north, the
ocean to the eaft, and the Kamtfchatkans to the fouth.
They have a few rein deer, which they ufe in their
Hedges ; but neither of the tribes of Koriacs are civi¬
lized enough to apply them to the purpofes of the
dairy. Each fpeaks a different dialed! of the fame
language : but the Fixed in moft things referable the
Kamtfchatkans ; and, like them, live almoft entirely on
fifli. They are timid to a high degree, and behave to
their wandering brethren with the utmoft fubmiflion j
v'ho call them by a name which fignifies their Jlaves.
Thefe poor people feem to have no alternative : for,
by reafon of the fcarcity of rein deer, they depend on
thefe tyrants for the effential article of clothing.—
Thefe two nations, Mr Pennant luppofes, from their
features, to be the offspring of Tartars, which have
fpread to the tail, and degenerated infize and ftrength
by the rigour of the climate, and often by fcarcity of
food.
KOS, in Jewifti antiquity, a meafure of capacity,
containing about four cubic inches : this was the cup
of bleffmg out of which they drank when they gave
thanks after folemn meals, like that of the paffover.
KOTTERUS, Christopher, was one of the three
fanatics whofe vifions were publiihed at Amfterdam in
1657, th® °f Lux in tenebris. He lived
at Sprotta in Silefia, and his vifions began in 1616.
He fancied he faw an angel under the form of a man,
who. commanded him to go and declare to the niagi-
ftrates, that, unlefs the people repented, the wrath of
God would make dreadful havock. The elector pala¬
tine, whom the Proteftants had declared king of Bo¬
hemia, was introduced in thefe viiions. Kottevu-.
3 P waited
K O U r 482 ] KG u
Kottcrus waited on him at Breflaw in December 1620, and in-
formed him of his commiffion. He went to fsveral
t ^ ' , other places, and at laft to the court of Brandenburg.
As moft of thefe prediftions promifed felicity to the
eleftor palatine, and unhappinefs to his imperial ma-
jefty, the emperor’s fifcal in Silefia and Lufatia got
him feized, fet on the pillory, and banifhed the empe¬
ror’s dominions. Upon this he went to Lufatia, and
there lived unmolefted till his death, which happened
in 1647.
KOU-chu, a Chinefe ftirub, which bears a great
refemblance to the fig tree both in the make of its
Crofter's branches and the form of its leaves. From its root
China,vo\. i. feVeral twigs or (hoots generally fpring up, which form
]>■ 486. a k;nc[ 0f • but fometimes it confifts of only one
(hoot. The wood of the branches of the kou-chu is
foft and fpongy, and covered with bark like that of the
fig-tree. Its leaves are deeply indented, and their co¬
lour and the texture of their fibres are exaftly the fame
as thole of the fig tree 5 but they are larger and thick¬
er, and much rougher to the touch.
This tree yields a kind of milky juice, which the
Chinefe ufe for laying on gold-leaf in gilding. They
make one or more incifions in the trunk, into which
they infert the edges of a (hell, or fomething elfe of
the fame kind to receive the lap. When they have
extrafted a fufficiency, they ufe it with a fmall bru(h,
and delineate whatever figures they intend for the de¬
coration of their work. They then lay on the gold-
leaf, which is fo ftrongly attracted by this liquor, that
it never comes off.
KOUANIN, in the Chinefe language, the name of
a tutelary deity of women. The Chinefe make great
numbers of the figures of this deity in white porcelain,
and fend them to all parts of the world, as cvell as keep
them in their own houfes. The figure reprefents a
woman with a child in her arms. The women who have
no children pay a fort of adoration to thefe images, and
iuppofe the deity they reprefent to have power to make
them fruitful. The flatue always reprefents a hand-
lome v?oman very modeftly attired.
KOUC, or Koeck, Peter, an excellent painter in
the 16th century, was born at Aloft, and vras the dif-
ciple of Bernard Van Orley, who lived with Raphael.
He went to Rome ; and by ftudying the beautiful
pieces which he found there, formed an excellent tafte,
and became a very correft defigner. On his return to
his own country, he undertook the office of directing
the execution of fome tapeftry wrork after the defigns
of Raphael. He was afterwards perfuaded by fome
merchants of Bruffels to undertake a voyage to Con-
ftantinople j but when he came there, finding that the
Turks were not allowed by their religion to draw' any
figure, and that there was nothing for him to do but
to draw defigns for tapeftry, be (pent his time in de-
figning the particular profpedls in the neighbourhood
of Conftantinople, and the manner of the Turks liv¬
ing 5 of w'hich he has left many wooden cuts, that
alone fuffice to give an idea of his merit. After his
return from Conftantinople he fettled at Antwerp,
where he drew feveral piftures for the emperor Cha. V.
He was alfo a good architeft ; and, in the latter part
of hisdife, wrote A Treatife of Sculpture, Geometry,
and Perfpeftive ; and tranflated Vitruvius and Serliv
into the Flemiffi tongue. He died in 1550.
KOULI-Khan, Thamas, or Sc hah Nadir, was KouJ:-
not the Con of a ffiepherd, as the authors of the Eng- ,k’ian’i
lifh Biographical Didtionary affert : his father being ^0UI:li‘5‘
chief of a branch of the tribe of Affchars, and gover¬
nor of a fortreis erected by that people againft the
Turks. Upon his father’s .death, his uncle ufurped
his government, under the pretext of taking care of
it during the minority of Kouli-Khan j or, more pro¬
perly, young Nadir. Difguft at this affront made
him commence adventurer. He entered into the fer-
vice of the beglerbeg or governor of Mufchada, in
Khorafan 5 who, difcovering in him ftrong marks of a
military genius, promoted him to the command of a
regiment of cavalry. In 1720, the Ufbec Tartars ha¬
ving made an irruption into Khorafan with io,Coo
men, the beglerbeg, whofe whole force confifted only
of 4000 horle and 2000 infantry, called a council of
war, in which it was declared imprudent to face the
enemy with fueh an inferior force : but Kouli-Khan
propofed to march againft the enemy, and engaged to
conduct the expedition, and to be anfwerable for the
fuccefs of it. Fie was accordingly made general j de¬
feated the Tartars, and took their commander prifon-
er. Hoffein Beglerbeg received him at his return
with marks of diftinftion : but growing jealous of his
riling fame, inftead of obtaining him the rank of lieu¬
tenant-general of Khorafan, as he had promifed, ob¬
tained it for another •, which fo exafperated Kouli-
Khan, that he publicly complained of the governor’s
ingratitude and perfidy ; who thereupon broke him,
and ordered him to be puniftied with the baftinado fo
feverely, that the nails of his great toes fell off. This
affront occafioned his flight, and his joining a ban¬
ditti of robbers (not his dealing his father’s or his
neighbour’s (heep). The reft of his adventures are
too numerous to be inferted in this work. In 1729
he was made general of Perfia by Schah Thamas, and
permitted to take his name Thamas, and that of Khuli,
which fignifies Jlave : his title therefore was TheJlavc
of Thamas ; but he was ennobled by the addition of
Khan. In 1736, he fomented a revolt againft his
mafter, for having made an ignominious peace w'ith
the Turks •, and having the army at his command, he
procured his depofition, and his own advancement to
the throne. In 1739 he conquered the Mogul em¬
pire ; and from this time growing as cruel as he was
ambitious, he at length met with the ufual fate of
tyrants, being affaffinated by one of his generals, in
league with his nephew and fucceffor, in 1 747, aged
fixty.
KOUMISS, a fort of wine made in Tartary, where'
it is ufed by the natives as their common beverage
during the feafon of it, and often ferves them inftead
of all other food. It is faid to be fo nouriftiing and
falutary, that the Bafchkir Tartars, who towards the
end of winter are much emaciated, no fooner return
in fummer to the ufe of koumifs, than they become
ftrong and fat. The author of “ A hiftorical defcription
of all the nations which compofe the Ruffian empire,”
fays, (peaking of koumifs, El/e eft fort nouriffunte, et
peat tenir lieu de tout autre aliment. Les Bafdkirs s'en
trouvent tres hien, elle les rend bierportans et gais ; elte
leur donne de P embonpoint, et de bonne coni curs. From
the Tartars it has been borrowed by the Ruffians, who
ufe it medicinally. It is made with fermented mares
milk,
K O U [ 483 ] K O U
Houma's, milk, according to the following recipe, communicated
‘ — by Dr Grieve, in the Edinburgh Philofophical Tranf-
* Tsi * actions *, as he obtained it from a Ruilian nobleman,
' who went into that part of Tartary where it is made,
for the fake of ufmg it medicinally.
“ Take of freih mares milk, of one day, any quan¬
tity ; add to it a lixth part of water, and pour the mix¬
ture into a wooden veffel j ufe then, as a ferment, an
eighth part of the foureft cows milk that can be got;
but at any future preparation, a fmall portion of old
koumifs will better anfwer the purpofe of fouring ;
cover the veffel with a thick cloth, and fet in a place
of moderate warmth j leave it at reft 24 hours, at
the end of which time the milk will have become
four, and a thick fubftance will be gathered on the
top ; then with a flick made at the lower end in the
manner of a churn ftaf$r beat it till the thick fubftance
above mentioned be blended intimately with the fubja-
cent fluid. In this fituation, leave it again at reft for
24 hours more ; after which pour it into a higher and
narrower veffel, refembling a churn, where the agita¬
tion muft be repeated as before, till the liquor appear
to be perfedlly homogeneous ; and in this ftate it is call¬
ed koumifs, of which the tafte ought to be a pleafant
mixture of fweet and four. Agitation muft be employ¬
ed every time before it be ufed.”-—To this detail of the
procefs the nobleman fubjoined, that in order to obtain
milk in fufficient quantity, the Tartars have a cuftom
of feparating the foal from the mare during the day, and
allowing it to fuck during the night : and when the
milk is to be taken from the mare, which is generally
about five times a-day, they always produce the foal,
on the fuppofttion that fhe yields her milk more copi-
oufly when it is prefent.
To the above method of making koumifs, our au¬
thor has added fome particulars taken from other com¬
munications with which he was favoured by Tartars
fchemfelves. According to the account of a Tartar
who lived to the fouth-eaft of Orenbourg, the pro¬
portion of milk and fouring ought to be the fame as
above j only, to prevent changing the veffel, the milk
may be put at once into a pretty high and narrow
veffel : and in order to accelerate the fermentatioa,
fome warm milk may be added to it, and, if neceffary,
more fouring.—From a Tartar whom the dodftor met
with at the fair of Macarieff upon the Volga, and from
whom he purehafed one of the leathern bags (a) which
are ufed by the Kalmucs for the preparation and car¬
riage of their koumifs, he learned thaf. the procefs may
be much Ihortened by heating the milk before the four-
ing be added to it, and as foon as the parts begin to fe-
parate, and a thick fubftance to rife to the top, by agi¬
tating it every hour or oftener. In this way he made
fome in the doftor’s prefence in the fpace of 12 hours.
Our author learned alfo, that it was common among fome
Tartars to prepare it in one day during fummer, and
that w ith only two or three agitations j but that in win- Koumifs.
ter, when, from a deficiency of mares milk, they are v-“—
obliged to add a great proportion of that of cows, more
agitation and more time are neceffary : and though
it is commonly ufed within a few days after the pre¬
paration, yet when well fecured in clofe veffels, and
kept in a cold place, that it may be preferved for three
months, or even more, without any injury to its qua-
lilies. He was told farther, that the acid fermenta¬
tion might be produced by four milk as above, by a
four pafte of rye Hour, by the rennet of a lamb’s fto-
mach, or what is more common, by a portion of old
koumifs, and that in fome places they laved much
time, by adding the new milk to a quantity of that
already fermented 5 on being mixed with which, it very
foon undergoes the vinous change.
It was according to the procefs firft mentioned,
however, that all koumifs which the doftor employed
in medicine was prepared.—It has been found fervice-
able in heftics and nervous complaints j and our au¬
thor relates fome very ftriking cales which the uie of
it had completely cured. All thofe who drank it, our
author informs us, agreed in faying, that during its
ufe, they had little appetite for food ; that they drank
it in very large quantities, not, only without difguft,
but with pleafure j that it rendered their veins turgid,
without producing languor •, that, on the contrary, they
foon acquired from it an uncommon degree of fpright-
linefs and vivacity j that even in cafes of fome excefs
it was not followed by indigeftion, headach, or any of
the fymptoms which ufually attend the abufe of oiher
fermented liquors.
The utility, however, of this preparation as a medi¬
cine, fuppofing it completely afcertained, would among
Us, as our author obferves, be greatly circumfcribed by
the fcarcity of mares milk in this country. “ Hence
(fays he) inquiries will naturally be made, whether other
fpecies of milk admit of a fimilar vinous fermentation,
and what proportion of fpirit they contain. As thefe
have never been the object, however, of my attention,
I will here give the fubftance of what I have been able
to learn from others refpedling that which is the moil
common, the milk of cows.
“ Dr Pallas, in the work above quoted, fays, that
cows milk is alfo fufceptible of the vinous fermentation,
and that the Tartars prepare a wine from it in winter,
when mares milk fails them •, that the wine prepared
from cows milk, they call airen ; but that they always
prefer koumifs when it can be got, as it is more agree¬
able, and contains a greater quantity of fpirit j that
koumifs on diftillation yields of a weak fpirit one third,
but that airen yields only two-ninth parts of its whole
quantity, which fpirit they call arica.
“ This account is confirmed by Oferetlkowfky, a
Ruffian, who accompanied Lepechin and other acade¬
micians, in their travels through Siberia and Tartary.
3 P 2 He
(a) This bag was made of a horfe’s hide undreffed, and by having been fmoked had acquired a great degree
of hardnefs. Its (hape was conical, but was at the fame time fomewhat triangular, from being compofed of three
different pieces, fet in a circular bafe of the fame hide. The futures, which were made with tendons, were fe¬
cured by a covering on the outfide, with a doubling of the fame fkin, very clolely fecured. It had a dirty ap¬
pearance, and a very difagreeable fmell. On being afked the reafon of this, he faid, “ The remains of the old
koumifs were left, in order to fupply a ferment to the new milk,”
K R I [ 484 ] K U R
Kriflma.
Kounnfs pie publifiied latelj* a diflertatlon on the ardent fpirit
1 to be obtained from cows milk.
, “ From his experiments it appears, tliat cows milk
may be fermented with, or even without, fouring, pro¬
vided fufficient time and agitation be employed ; that
no Ipirit could be produced from any of its contii-
tuent parts taken feparately, nor from any two of them,
unlefs inafmuch as they are mixed with fome part of
the third 5 that the milk with all its parts in their na¬
tural proportion was the moft produftive «f it ; that
the clofer it was kept, or, which is the fame thing, the
more ditficultly the fixed air is allowed to efcape during
the fermentation (care being taken, however, that wre
do not endanger the bur ding of the veffel), the more
fpirit is obtained. He alfo informs us, that it had a
fourer fmell before than after agitation ; that the quan¬
tity of fpirit was increafed, by allowing the fermented
liquor to repofe for fome time before didillation ; that
from fix pints of milk fermented in a clofe veffel, and
thus let to repofe, he obtained three ounces of ardent
ipirit, of which one was confirmed in burning; but
that from the fame quantity of the fame milk fer¬
mented in an open veffel, he could fcarcely obtain an
ounce.”
KRAKEN, the name of an animal’ fuppofed to have
been feen at fea, of a monftrous fize, in theexiftence of
which the weaknefs and credulity of the filhermen have
excited the belief even among refpftable naturalifts,
and among others Bifhop Pontoppidan, who deferibes
it in his Natural Hiftory of Norway.. It is probable
that the whole depends on certain optical appearances
arifing from a peculiar ftate of the atmofphere, which
thus exhibits to the deluded fancy fomething of the
form of a huge animal.
KRANTZIUS, Albertus, a native of Hamburgh,
and a famous hillorian, who travelled overfeveral parts
of Europe, and was made re&or of the univerfity of
Roftoeh in 1482. He went from thence to Ham¬
burgh in 1508, where he was ele&ed dean of the chap¬
ter in the cathedral. He did many good fervices to
that church and city ; and was fo famed for his abili¬
ties and prudence, that John king of Denmark and
frederic duke of Holftein did not feruple to make him
umpire in a difpute they had with the Ditmarfi. He
wrote feverab good hiftorical works ; the moft conft-
derable of which is an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of Saxo-
ny, entitled Metropolisi in folio ; the beft edition is that
of Francfnrt. He died in ij'iy.
KRAUT, or Crout. See Grout.
KRISHNA, or Crishna, an eaftern river of con-
fiderable magnitude, very little known to Europeans.
It annually overflows a vaft tra£l of country, like the
Indus on the weftern fide of the empire. It rifes from
the foot of the weftern Ghauts, about 45 miles from
Severndroog. I here is another branch to the eaft, on
which fide is Sattara, a ftrong fortrefs, and once the
capital of the Mahratta ftate.. I.he river continues de-
feending to the eaft. Into the north fide of the Krifh-
na falls the great river Jdima, after traverfing a country
350 miles in extent. The Kriftma, above and below
its conflux with the Bima, is fordable ; and its channel
is 600 yards wide a few miles below, rendered horrible
by the number and rudenefs of the different rocks,
which are only covered during the rainy feafon.
Another extenfive branch of the Krilhna is Tung-
4
buddra, vhich falls into it in Lat. 160 2J7, and rifes
far to the louthward from a dubious fountain. This
river derives eonfiderable celebrity from its having had
on its banks at one period the fplendid city of Vijana-
gar, in Lat. ij° 22'; founded in 1344 by Belaldeo,
king of the Carnatic, which at that time comprehend¬
ed the whole peninfula. This vaft city is laid to have
been 24 miles in circumference. In the remaining
part of the courfe of the Kriftma, there is nothing to
be met with whit h is any way remarkable.
KUBESHA.. See Lesguis.
KUMI, the name of an ifland fituated between Ja¬
pan and China, which was vifited by the unfortunate
navigator Peroufe. The inhabitants of this ifland are
neither Japanele nor Chinefe, but Item to participate
of the nature of both. They wear a ftiirt and cotton
drawers; and their hair, tuckedVip on the crown of the
head, is rolled round a needle, probably of gold. Each
wears a dagger with a golden handle; their canoes are
made of trees hollowed out, which they manage with
no great dexterity. At Kumi, veffels in want of pro-
vilions, wood, and water, might find a feafonabl'e fup-
ply ; but as the whole illand does not exceed 12 miles
in circumference, the population can fcarcely be efti-
mated at more than 500 ; and as M. Peroufe well ob-
ferves, a few gold needles are not of themftlves a
proof of wealth,” fo that the trade with its inhabitants
would of neceflity be very limited. Kumi lies in 240
33' N. Lat. and I 20° 56' E. Long, from Paris.
KUNCKEL, John, a celebrated Saxon chemift,
was born in the duchy of Slefwick, in 1630. He be¬
came chemift to the eleclor of Saxony, the eleftor of
Brandenburgh, and Charles XI. king of Sweden, who
gave him the title of counfellor in metals, and letters of'
nobility, with the furname of Louwenjleing. He em¬
ployed 50 years in chemiftry ; in which, by the help
of the furnace of a glafshoufe which he had under
his care, he made feveral excellent difeoveries, parti¬
cularly of the phofphorus of urine. Hfe died in Swe¬
den in 1^02; and left feveral works, fome in Ger¬
man, and others in Latin : among which, that en¬
titled Obfervationes Chemicce, and the Art of Making
Glafs, printed at Paris in 1752, are the moft eL
teemed.
KURIL or Kurilski Isles, extending from N.
Lat. 31. to 43. which probably once lengthened the
peninlula of Kamtfchatka before they were convulfed
from it, are a feries of iflands running fouth from the
low promontory Lopatka, between which and Shoomlka
the moft northerly is only the diftance of one league.
On the lofty Paramoufer, the fecond in the chain, is a
high peaked mountain, probably volcanic; there is alfo
a volcano on the fourth, called Auraumahutan ; and
there are others on fome of the fmaller iflands. Japan,
alfo abounds with volcanoes; fo that there is a feries of
fpiraeles from Kamtfchatka to Japan, the laft great
link of this extenfive chain.—The Ruffians foon an¬
nexed thefe iflands to their conquefts.. The fea abound--
ed with otters, and the land with bears and foxes; and
fome of the ifles fheltered the fable ; but now it is faid,
the furs of the fea otters have become extremely fcarce
both here and in Kamtfchatka.
Of the 21 iflands fubjefl to the Ruffian empire, no
more than four are inhabited, which are the firft, fe¬
cond, thirteenth, and fourteenth, as they are diftin-
guifhed
K U S [ 485 ] K Y P
Kuril gui(hed from each other by numbers inftead of names,
jj The inhabitants pafs the winter on N° 14, and the fum-
mer months on N°I3. The reft of thefe iflands are
wholly uninhabited 5 but vifited occafionally, for the
purpofe of hunting otters and foxes. Between the
iflands the currents are extremely violent, efpecially at
the entrance of the channels, fome of which are block-
- ed up with rocks on a level with the fea. The popu¬
lation of the four inhabited iflands may amount to
1400. The natives are hairy, have long beards, and
fubfift entirely on the produce of the chace, on feals,
and other fpecies of filh. At the time when Peroufe
vifited this ifland, the people were exempted for ten
years from the tribute paid to the emperor of Iluflia,
becaufe the number of otters was greatly diminifhed j
a pleafing proof of the mildnefs of that government,
which has been fo often reprefented as rigidly defpotic.
The people of thefe iflands are reprefented as poor, but
virtuous, given to hofpitality, and docile, and all of
them believers of the Chriftian religion. They extend
from 510 to 450 N. Lat.
KURT US, a genus of fifties belonging to the order
Jugu/ares. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
KUSTER, Ludolf, a very learned writer in the
18th century, was born at Blomberg in Weftphalia.
When very young, he was upon the recommendation
of Baron Spanheim appointed tutor to the two fons
of the count de Schwerin, prime minifter of the king
of Pruftia, ivho, upon our author’s quitting that Ra¬
tion, procured him a penfion of 400 livfes. He was
promifed a profeflbrfliip in the univerfity of Joachim ;
and till this ftiould be vacant, being then but 25, he
refolved to travel. He read lectures at Utrecht; went
to England; and from thence to France, where he
collated Suidas with three MSS. in the king’s library,
which furniftied him with a great many fragments
that had never been publiihed. He was honoured
with the degree of doftor by the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, which made him feveral advantageous offers
to continue there : but he was called to Berlin, where
he was inftalled in the profefforftiip promifed him.
Afterwards he went to Antwerp ; and being brought
over to the Catholic religion, he abjured that of the
, Proteftants. The king of France rewarded him with
a penfion, and ordered him to be admitted fupernu-
merary aflbciate of the Academy of Infcriptions. But
he enjoyed this, however, a very fhort time; he died
in 1716, aged 46. He was a great mafter of the
Latin tongue, and wrote well in it; but his chief Kufter
excellence was his fkill in the Greek language, to il
which he almoft entirely devoted himfelf. He wrote ^1>/oai" i.’
many w orks; the principal of which are, I. Hiftoria
critica Homeri. 2. Jamblicus de vita Pythagoree. 3. An
excellent edition of Suidas, in Greek and Latin, three
volumes, folio. 4. An edition of Ariftophanes, in
Greek and Latin, folio. 5. A new Greek edition
of the New Teftament, with Dr Mills’s Variations,
in folio.
KYLE, a diftrift of Ayrfhire in Scotland, the li¬
mits of which are erroneoufly ftated in the account
which is given of that county. There are three dif-
triffs in Ayrfhire, Carrick to the fouth, Kyle in the
middle, and Cunningham to the north. Carrick is di¬
vided from Kyle by the river Doon, and not by the
river Ayr as has been noted bymiftake; the boundaries
of Kyle are the river Doon on the fouth, and the river
Irvine on the north. See Ayrshire.
KYPHONISM, Kyphonlsmus, or Ctjphouifmus,
an ancient punifliment which was frequently undergone
by the martyrs in the primitive times ; wherein the
body of the perfon to fuffer was anointed with honey,
and fo expofed to the fun, that the flies and wafps
might be tempted to torment him. This was per¬
formed in three ways: fometimes they only tied
the patient to a flake; fometimes they hoifted him
up into the air, and fufpended him in a bafket ; and
fometimes they ftretched him out on the ground with
his hands tied behind him. The word is originally Greek,
and comes from Kvipar, which fignifies either they?ale
to which the patient was tied, the co//ar fitted to his
neck, or an injdrument wherewith they tormented him:
the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes fays, it was a w'ooden
lock, or cage ; and that it was called fo from kuttUiv,
“ to crook or bend,” becaufe it kept the tortured in
a crooked, bowing pofture : others take the xvQav for
a log of wood laid over the criminal’s head, to prevent
his Handing upright : Hefychius defcribes the
as a piece of wood whereon criminals were ftretched
and tormented. In effeft, it is probable the word
might fignify all thefe feveral things. It was a generi-
cal name, whereof thefe were the fpecies.
Suidas gives us the fragment of an old law, which
punifhed thofe who treated ‘the laws with contempt
with kyphonifm for the fpace of twenty days; after
which they were to be precipitated from a rock, dreffed
in women’s habit.
L.
LA femi-vowel, or liquid, making the eleventh
9 letter of the alphabet.
It was derived from the old Hebrew Lamed, or Greek
Lambda X. It is founded by intercepting the breath
between the tip of the tongue and forepart of the pa¬
late, with the mouth open; and makes a fweet found,
with fome thing of an afpiration; and therefore the
Britons and Spaniards ufually doubled it, or added an
h to it, in the beginning of words, as in //an, or /Aan,
“ a temple,” founding nearly likey?, &c. In Engliflr
words of one fyllable it is doubled at the end, as te//,
be//, bnell, &c. but in words of more fyllables than one
it is Angle, at the end, as evil, general, conjlitutional, &c..
It is placed after moft of the confonants in the begin¬
ning
LAB r 4S6 1 LAB
ning of words and fyllables, as black, glare, ad ie, ea-g!e,
Labadie ^tc‘ ^ut ^e^ore none. Its found is clear in Abel, but
obfcure in able, &.c.
As a numeral letter, L denotes 50 ; and with a dalb
over it, thus L, 5000. Ufed as an abbreviature, L
Hands for Lucius j and L. L. S. for a fefterce. See
Sesterce.
LA, the fyllable by which Guido denotes the laft
found of each hexachord ; if it begins in C, it anfwers
to our A j if in G, to E $ and if in F, to D.
LABADIE, John, a famous French enthufiaft, fon
of John Charles Labadie, governor of Bourges and
gentleman in ordinary of the bedchamber to the French
Icing, was born in 1610. He entered young into the
Jefuits college at Bourdeaux $ which, by his own ac¬
count, he afterwards quitted, but by other accounts was
expelled for his peculiar notions, and for hypocrify.
He became a popular preacher j but being repeatedly
detefted in working upon female devotees with fpiritual
inftru£tions for carnal purpofes, his lofs of character
among the Catholics drove him among the Proteftants.
A reformed Jefuit being thought a great acquifition, he
was precipitately accepted as a pallor at Montauban,
where he officiated for eight years ; but, attempting the
challity of a young lady whom he could not convert to
his purpofe, and quarrelling with the Catholic priell
about the right of interring a dead body, he was at
length baniffied that place. The ftory of his affair with
the lady, as related by Mr Bayle, may here be given
as a fpecimen of his miniltry. Having directed this
damfel to the fpiritual life, which he made to conlift in
internal recollection and mental prayer, he gave her
out a certain point of meditation j and having llrongly
recommended it to her to apply herfelf entirely for fume
hours to fuch an important objeft, he went up to her
■when he believed her to be at the height of her recol-
leClion, and put his hand into her brealt. She gave
him a hafty repulfe, expreffed a great deal of furprife
at the proceeding, and was even preparing to rebuke
him, when he, without being in the lead difconcerted,
and with a devout air, prevented her thus : “ I fee
plainly, my child, that you are at a great dillance
from perfeClion ; acknowledge your weaknefs with a
humble fpirit ; aik forgivenefs of God for your having
given fo little attention to the myfteries upon which
you ought to have meditated. Had you bellowed all
necellary attention upon thefe things, you would not
have been fenfible of what was doing about your brealt.
But you are fo much attached to fenfe, fo little con¬
centered with the Godhead, that you were not a mo¬
ment in difcovering that I had touched you. I wanted
to try whether your fervency in prayer had raifed you
above the material world, and united you with the
Sovereign Being, the living fource of immortality and
of a Ipiritual Hate ; and I fee, to my great grief, that
you have made very fmall progrefs, and that you only
creep on the ground. May this, my child, make you
alhamed, and for the future move you to perform the
duties ol mental prayer better than you have hitherto
done.” The young lady, who had as much good
fe.pfe as virtue, was no lefs provoked at thefe words
than at the bold actions her ghottly inllrudtor ; and
could never afterwards bear the name of fuch a holy
father. Labadie being driven out of Montauban, went
i;2 feek an afylum at Orange : but not finding hhnfelf
I
fo fafe there as he imagined, he withdrew privately tq Labsdie
Geneva, where he impofed on the people by his de- it
vout preaching and carriage ; and from thence was , Labat‘
invited to Middleburg, where his fpirituality made
him and his followers be confidered as fo many faints,
diilinguilhed by the name of Labadijls. They in-
creafed fo much, that he excited the attention of the
other churches, whofe authority he difputed, till he
was formally depofed by the fynod of Dort. Infiead
of obeying, he procured a tumultuous fupport from a
crowd of his devotees •, and at length formed a little
fettlement between Utrecht and Amllerdam, where
he eredled a printing prefs, which fent forth many of
his works. Here he was betrayed by feme deferters,
w ho expofed his private life, and informed the public
of his familiarities with his female difciples, under pre¬
tence of uniting them more particularly to God ; and
was finally obliged to retire to Altena in Holilein,
where he died in 1674.
LAB ADI STS, a fe£l of religionifts in the 17 th
century, followers of the opinions of John Labadie, of
wLona an account is given in the preceding article.
Some of their opinions were, 1. That God could, and
did deceive men. 2. That, in reading the Scriptures,
greater attention ffiould be paid to the internal infpi-
ration of the Holy Spirit than to the words of the text,
3. That baptifm ought to be deferred till mature age.
4. That the good and the wicked entered equally into
the old alliance, provided they defeended from Abra¬
ham j but that the new admitted only fpiritual men.
5. That the obfervation of Sunday was a matter of in¬
difference. 6. That ChriH would come and reign
1000 years on earth. 7. That the eucharifl was only
a commemoration of the death of Chrift 5 and that,
though the fymbols were nothing in themfelves, yet
that Chrill was fpiritually received by thofe who par¬
took of them in a due manner. 8. That a contempla¬
tive life was a Hate of grace, and of divine union during
this life, the fummit of perfeftion, &c. 9. That the
man whofe heart was perfe£lly content and calm, half
enjoys God, has familiar entertainments with him, and
fees all things in him. 10. That this Hate was to be
come at by an entire felf-abnegation, by the mortifica¬
tion of the fenfes and their objects, and by the exercife
of mental prayer.
LABARUM, the banner or ftandard borne before
the Roman emperors in the wars. The labarum con-
filled of a long lance, with a flaff a-top, croffing it at
right angles j from wffiich hung a rich flreamer, of a
purple colour, adorned with precious Hones. Till the
time of Conflantine it had an eagle painted on it; but
that emperor, in lieu thereof, added a crofs with a ci¬
pher expreffing the name of Je/us.
This flandard the Romans look from the Germans,
Dacse, Sarmalse, Pannonians, &c. whom they had
overcome. The name labarum was not known before
the time of Conftantine ; but the Handard itfelf, in the
form we have deferibed it, abating the fymbols of
Chriftianity, was ufed by a}l the preceding emperors.
Some derive the word from labor, as if this finiffied
their labours ; fome from svAaos;«, “ reverence, piety
others from XayJloMtv, “ to take j” and others from
hxtpvgx, “ fpoils.”
LAB AT, John Baptist, a celebrated traveller, of
the order of St Dominic, was born at Paris, taught
philofophy
LAB [ 487 ] LAB
Xabat philofopliy at Nancy, and in 1693 vent to America
!i in quality of a miflionary. At his return to France
LanorAt-.-y.-n he was lent to the chapter of his order at
Bologna to give an account of his million, and itaid
feveral years in Italy. He died at Paris in 1738.
His principal works are, I. A new voyage to the
American illands, 6 vols 1 2mo. 2. Travels in Spain
and Italy, § vols i2mo. 3. Anew account of the
weltern parts of Africa, 5 vols i2mo. Father Labat
was not in Africa, and therefore was not a witnefs of
what he relates in that work. He alfo publilhed the
Chevalier des Marchais'1 s voyage to Guinea, in 4 vols
12mo. \ and An hijlorical account of the wefern parts
of Ethiopia, tranllated from the Italian of Father Ca-
vazzi, 5 vbls i2mo.
LABDANUM, or Ladanum, a relinous juice
which exudes from a tree of the ciftus kind. See Che¬
mistry and Materia Medica Index.
LABDASSEBA, a tribe of lavage Arabs inhabit¬
ing the defert of Sahara in Africa. They are conlider-
ed as the moll powerful of all thofe tribes except the
Ouadeliras, and very much referable them in every
particular. See Sahara and Ouadelims.
LABEL, a long, thin, brafs rule, with a fmall fight
at one end, and a centre hole at the other ; commonly
ufed with a tangent line on the edge of a circumferen¬
tor, to take altitudes, &c.
Label, in Law, is a narrow flip of paper, or parch¬
ment, affixed to a deed or writing, in order to hold the
appending feal.—Any paper annexed by way of addi¬
tion or explication, to any will or tellament, is alfo
called a label or codicil.
Label, in Heraldry, a fillet ufually placed in the
middle along the chief of the coat, without touching
its extremities. Its breadth ought to be a ninth part
of the chief. It is adorned with pendants $ and when
there are above three of thefe, the number mult be
fpecified in blazoning.
It is ufed on the arms of elded fons while the father
is alive, to diflinguiffi them from the younger ; and
is edeemed the mod honourable of all differences. See
Heraldry.
LABIAL letters, thofe pronounced chiefly by
means of the lips.
LAB I AT ED flowers, monopetalous flowers, con¬
fiding of a narrow tube with a wide mouth, divided in¬
to two or more fegments. See Botany.
LABIAU, a fmall tow n of Pruflia, in a circle of
the fame name, feated at the mouth of the river Deime,
with a drong caflle, two fides of which are fur rounded
with water, and the other defended by a wall and
ditch. E. Long. 21. 15. N. Lat. 55. 17.
LABORATORY, or Elaboratory, the chemids
w'orkhoufe, or the place where furnaces are built, vef-
fels kept, and operations are performed. In general
the term laboratory is applied to any place where phy-
fical experiments in pharmacy, chemidry, pyrotechny,
8tc. are performed.
As laboratories mud be of very different kinds, ac¬
cording to the nature of the operations to be performed
in them, it is impoflible that any direBions can be gi¬
ven which will anfwer for every one. Where the pur-
pofes are merely experimental, a Angle furnace or two
of the portable kind will be fufficient. It is fcarcely
needful to add, that dielves are neceffary for holding
veffels w ith the produSs of the different operations : Laboratory>
and that it is abfolutely neceffary to avoid confufion ^
and diforder, as by thefe means the produ£ls of the
operations might be lod or piidaken for one another.
Mortars, filters, levigating flones, &c. mud alfo be
procured : but from a knowledge of the methods of
performing the different chemical operations will
eafily be derived the knowledge of a proper place and
proper apparatus j for which fee Chemistry, and
Furnace.
Morveau has contrived a portable laboratory with
which many chemical experiments may be conveniently
performed. The follow ing is a defcription of it.
Fig. 1. reprefents the w'hole apparatus ready mounted Plate
for dillillation, with the tube of fafety and a pneumatic cclxxxix*
receiver. A is the body or refervoir of Argand’s lamp,
with its fliade and glafs chimney. The lamp may be
raifed or lowered at pleafure by means of the thumb-
fcrew B, and the wdck rifes and falls by the motion of
the fmall-toothed wheel placed over the wade cup.
This condrudlion is mod convenient, becaufe it affords
the facility of altering the pofition of the flame with
regard to the veffels, which remain fixed} and the
troublefome management of bended wires above the
flame for the fupport of the veffels is avoided, at the
fame time that the flame itfelf can be brought nearer
to the matter on which it is intended to a£l. D, a fup¬
port confiding of a round dem of brafs, formed of two
pieces which fcrew together at about two-thirds of its
height. Upon this the circular ring E, the arm F, and
the nut G Aide, and are fixable each by its refpeftive
thumb-fcrew'. The arm carries a moveable piece H,
which ferves to fufpend the veffels in a convenient fitu-
ation, or to fecure their pofition. The whole fupport is
attached to the fquare iron dem of the lamp by a piece
of hard wood I, which may be fixed at any required
fituation by its fcrew. K reprefents a dand for the re¬
ceivers. Its moveable tablet L is fixed at any requir¬
ed elevation by the wooden fcrew M. The piece which
forms the foot of this dand is fixed on the board N ; but
its relative pofition wdth regard to the lamp may be
changed by Aiding the foot of the latter between the
pieces OO. P, another dand for the pneumatic trough.
It is raifed or lowered, and fixed to its place, by a flrong
wooden fcrew Q. R is a tube of fafety, or reverfcd
fyphon, which ferves, in a great meafure, to prevent
the bad effefts of having the veffels either perfectly
clofed, or perfedtly open. Suppofe the upper beli-
fhaped veffel to be nearly of the lame magnitude as the
bulb at the lower end of the tube, and that a quantity
of water, or other fuitable fluid, fomewhat leis than the
contents of that veffel, be poured into the apparatus :
In this fituation, if the elaflicity of the contents of the
veffel be lefs than that of the external air, the fluid will,
defcend in the bulb, and atmofpheric air will follow
and pafs through the fluid into the veffels : but, on the
contrary, if the eladicity of the contents be greater,
the fluid will be either fuflained in the tube, or driven
into the bell-fliaped veffel ; and if the force be drong
enough, the gafeous matter will pafs through the fluid,
and in part efcape.
Fig. 2. Shews the lamp furnace difpofid to produce
the faline fufion *, the chimney of glafs Ihortcned ; the
fupport D turned down j the capiule of platina or filver
S placed on the ring very near the flame.
Fig.
LAB [ 488 ] LAB
Laboratory
II.
Labyrinth.
Fig. 3. The fame part of the apparatus, in which,
inhead of the capfule, a very thin and fmall crucible of
platina T is fubllituted, and refts upon a triangle of
iron wire placed on the ring.
Fig. 4. Exhibits the plan of fig. 3.
Laboratory, in military affairs, fignifics that place
where all forts of fire-works are prepared, both for ac¬
tual fervice and for experiments, viz. quick matches,
fuzes, port-fires, grape fhot, cafe (hot, carcaffes, hand-
grenades, cartridges, Ihells filled, and fuzes fixed, wads,
&c. &c.
LABOUR, in general, denotes a clofe application
to work or bufinefs.—Among feamen a Ihip is faid to
labour when hie rolls and tumbles very much, either
a-hull, under fail, or at anchor.—It is alfo fpoken of a
woman in travail or childbirth ; fee Midwifery.
LABOURER, generally fignifies one that does the
mofi: flaviih and lels artful part of a .laborious work, as
that of hufbandry, mafonry, &c.
LABOUREUR, John le, almoner to the king of
France, and prior of Juvigne, was born at Montmo¬
rency near Paris in 1623. At the age of 18, he dif-
tinguifiied himfelf by publifiiing “ A colltflion of the
monuments of illuftrious perfons buried in the church
of the Celeffines at Paris, with their elogies, genealo¬
gies, arms, and mottos,” 410. He afterwards pub-
liihed an excellent edition of The Memoirs of Michael
de Caftelneau, with feveral other genealogical hiftories }
and died in 1675.—He had a brother, Louis-/e Labou-
reur, bailiff of Montmorency, author of feveral pieces
of poetry ; and an uncle, Dome Claude le Labour ear,
provoft of the abbey of LTfle Barbe, of which abbey
he wrote a hiftory, and publifiied notes and correftions
upon the breviary of Lyons, with fome other things.
LABRADOR, the fame with Neva BRITAIN, or
the country round Hudson's Bay. See. thefe articles.
LABRADOR.E STONE, a fpecies of mineral which
exhibits a great variety of colours. See Mineralogy
Index.
LABRUM, in antiquity, a great tub which flood at
the entrance of the temples, containing water for the
priefls to wafli themfelves in previous to their facrifices.
It was-alfo the name of a bathing tub ufed in the baths
of the ancients.
_ Lx'kBRUS, a genus of fillies belonging to the order
of thoraciei. See Ichthyology Index.
LABURNUM. See Cytisus, Botany Index,
LABYRINTH, among the ancients, was a large
intricate edifice cut out into various aifies and meanders
running into each other, fo as to render it difficult to
get out of it.
There is mention made of feveral of tl^ofe edifices
among the ancients-, but the moff celebrated are the
Egyptian and the Cretan labyrinths.
That of Egypt, according to Pliny, was the oldeff
of all the known labyrinths, and was fubfifting in his
time after having flood 3600 years. He fays it was
built by King Petefucus, or Tithoes j but Herodotus
makes it the work of feveral kings : it flood on the
banks of the lake Moeris, and confifted of 12 large
contiguous palaces, containing 3000 chambers, ijco
of which were under ground.—Strabo, Diodorus Sicu¬
lus, Pliny, and Mela, fpeak of this monument with the
fame admiration as Herodotus : but not one of them
tells us that it was conflru&ed to bewilder thofe who
attempted to go over it; though it is manife.fi: that, Labyviniji,
without a guide, they would be in "danger of lofing '—'V"—^
tlnir way.
It was this danger, no doubt, which introduced a
new term into the Greek language. The word laby¬
rinth, taken in the literal fenfe, fignifies a circumferi-
bed fpace, interfered by a number of paffages, fome of
which crofs each other in every direftion like thofe in
quarries and mines, and others make larger or fmaller
circuits round the place from which they depart like
the fpiral lines we fee on certain (hells. In the figura¬
tive fenfe, it was applied to obfeure and captious quef-
tions, to indirer and ambiguous anfwers, and to thofe
difeuflions which, after long digreflions, bring us back
to the point from which we let out. *
The Cretan labyrinth is the moft famed in hiflory
or fable $ having been rendered particularly remarka¬
ble by the ftory of the Minotaur, and of Thefeus who
found his way through all its windings by means of
Ariadne’s clue. On Plate CCLXXX1X. is exhibited
a fuppofed plan of it, copied after a draught given by
Meurfius *, taken from an ancient (lone.—But what * In Cret.
was the real nature of this labyrinth, merits a more fib-
particular inquiry. caP* *•
Diodorus Siculus relates as a conjecture, and Pliny
as a certain fatff, that Daedalus conftructed this laby¬
rinth on the model of that of Egypt, though on a lefs
(bale. They add, that it was formed by the command
of Minos, who kept the Minotaur (hut up in it; and
that in their time it no longer exifted, having been ei¬
ther deftroyed by time, or purpofely demoliihed. Dio¬
dorus Siculus and Pliny, therefore, confidered this la¬
byrinth as a large edifice ; while other writers repre-
fent it (imply as a cavern hollowed in the rock, and
full of winding paffages. T. he two former authors, and
the writers lafl mentioned, have tranfmitted to us two
different traditions ; it remains for us to choofe that
which is moft probable.
If the labyrinth of Crete had been conftrubled by
Dcedalus under Minos, whence is it that we find no
mention, of it, neither in Homer, who more than once
fpt aks of that prince and of Crete ; nor in Herodotus,
who deferibes that of Egypt, after having faid that
the monuments of the Egyptians are much fuperior to
thofe of the Greeks ; nor in the more ancient geogra¬
phers ; nor in any of the writers of the ages when
Greece flouriftied ?
This work was attributed to Daedalus, whofe name
is alone fufficient to diferedit a tradition. In fa£l, his
name, like that of Hercules, had become the refource
of ignorance, whenever it turned its eyes on the early
ages. All great labours, all works which required more
ftrength than ingenuity, were attributed to Hercules ;
and all thole which had a relation to the arts, and re¬
quired a certain degree of intelligence in the execution,
were aferibed to Daedalus.
The opinion of Diodorus and Pliny fuppofes, that in
their time no traces of the labyrinth exifted in Crete,
and that even the date of its deftrubtion had been for¬
gotten. Yet it is faid to have been vifited by the dif-
ciples of Apollonius of Tyana, who was colemporary
with thofe two authors. The Cretans, therefore, then
believed that they poffeffed the labyrinth.
“ I would requeft the reader (continues the abbet travels
Barthelemif, from whom thefe obfervalions are ex-°fA>litchat-
traaed/'’ 44
LABORATORY.
PLATE CCLXXXLX
LABYKINTH•
by Hf&D.ZixaTxr-EdmT
lbx/n7r Sc Engraved
\
*
■
LAC r 489 ] ' LAC
labyrinth, trailed) to attend to the following paffage in Strabo.
kac~ At Napulia, near the ancient Argos, (lays that judi-
cious writer), are ftill to be feen vaft caverns, in which
are conftrufted labyrinths that are believed to be the
work of the Cyclops : the meaning of which is, that
the labours of men had opened in the rock paffages
which croffed and returned upon themfelves, as is done
in quarries. Such, if I am not miftaken, is the idea
we ought to form of the labyrinth of Crete.
“ VVere there feveral labyrinths in that ifland ? An¬
cient authors fpeak only of one, which the greater part
place at CnolTus; and fome, though the number is but
fmall, at Gortyna.
“ Belon and Tournefort have given us the defcrip-
tion of a cavern fituated at the foot of Mount Ida, on
the fouth fide of the mountain, at a fmall diftance
from Gortyna. This was only a quarry according to
the former, and the ancient labyrinth according to
the latter ; whofe opinion I have followed, and abridg¬
ed his account. Thofe who have added critical notes
to his work, befides this labyrinth, admit a fecond at
Cnoffus, and adduce as the principal fupport of this
opinion the coins of that city, which reprefent the
plan of it according as the artifts conceived it. For
on fome of thefe it appears of a fquare form, on others
round : on fome it is only Iketched out; on others it
has, in the middle of it, the head of the Minotaur. In
the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, I have
given an engraving of one which appears to me to be of
about the 15th century before Chrift, and on which
we fee on one fide the figure of the Minotaur, and on
the other a rude plan of the labyrinth. It is therefore
certain, that at that time the Cnoffians believed they
were in poffeflion of that celebrated cavern j and it al-
fo appears that the Gortynians did not pretend to con-
teft their claim, fince they have never given the figure
of it on their money.
“ The place where I fuppofe the labyrinth of Crete
to have been fituated, according to Tournefort, is but
one league diftant from Gortyna *, and, according to
Strabo, it was diftant from Cnoffus fix or feven leagues.
All we can conclude from this is, that the territory of
the latter city extended to very near the former.
“ What was the ufe of the caverns to which the
- name of labyrinth was given ? I imagine that they
were firft excavated in part by nature 5 that in fome
places ftones were extra£led from them for building
cities j and that in more ancient times they ferved for
a habitation or afylum to the inhabitants of a diftrifl
expofed to frequent incurfions. In the journey of Ana-
charfis through Phocis, I have fpoken of two great ca¬
verns of Parnaffus, in which the neighbouring people
took refuge •, in the one at the time of the deluge of
Deucalion, and in the other at the invafion of Xerxes.
I here add, that, according to Diodorus Siculus, the
moft ancient Cretans dwelt in the caves of Mount Ida.
The people, when inquiries were made on the fpot,
faid that their labyrinth was originally only a prifon.
It may have been put to this ufe ^ but it is difficult
to believe, that, to prevent the efcape of a few un¬
happy wretches, fuch immenfe labours would Jiave
been undertaken.”
Labyrinth of the Ear. See Anatomy.
LAC, Milk. See Milk, Chemistry Index.
Vol. XI. Part II.
Lac, Gum. See Lacca.
LACCA, Lac, or Gum Lac, is a fubflance, of
which a fpecies of infers form cells upon trees, like
honeycombs. This is the coccus lacca, Lin. See En¬
tomology Index. In thefe cells remain fome of the
dead infedts, which give a red colour to-the whole fub-
ftance of the lac. That called Jlkk lac is the wax ad¬
hering to fome of the fmall branches of the tree, and
w'hich is unprepared. This lac, when feparated from
the adhering flicks', and grofsly powdered, and deprived
of its colour by digeftion with menftruums for the fake
of the dyes and other purpofes, is tailed /m/ lac; when
the flick lac is freed from impurities by melting it o-
ver a gentle fire, and formed into cakes, it is called
lump lac ; and, laftly, that called Jhell lac is the cells
liquefied, ftrained, and formed into thin tranfparent
laminae. See Dyeing Index.
The following are fome of the purpofes to which this
fubftance is applied.
1. For feahng wax. Take a flick, and heat one end
of it upon a charcoal fire j put upon it a few leaves of
the fhell lac foftened above the fire ; keep alternately
heating and adding more ftiell lac until you have got a
mafs of three or four pounds of liquefied fhell lac upon
the end of your flick (in which manner lump lac is
formed from feed lac). Knead this upon a wetted
board with three ounces of levigated cinnabar j form
it into cylindrical pieces and to give them a polifti,
rub them while hot with a cotton cloth.
2. For japanning. Take a lump of fhell lac, pre¬
pared in the manner of fealing wax, with whatever co¬
lour you pleafe, fix it upon the end of a flick, heat the
polifhed wood over a charcoal fire, and rub it over ■with
the half melted lac, and polifti by rubbing it even with
a piece of folded plantain leaf held in the hand j heat¬
ing the lacquer, and adding more lac as occafion re¬
quires. Their figures are formed by lac charged with
various colours in the fame manner.
3. For varnifh. In ornamenting their images and
religious houfes, &c. they make ufe of very thin beat
lead, which they cover with various varnifhes, made
of lac charged with colours. The preparation of them
is kept a fecret. The leaf of lead is laid upon a fmooth
iron heated by fire below while they fpread the varnifh
upon it.
4. For grindfones. Take of river fand three parts,
of feed lac wafhed one part: mix them over the fire
in a pot, and form the mafs into the fhape of a grind-
ftone, having a fquare hole in the centre, fix it on an
axis with liquefied lac, heat the ftone moderately, and
by turning the axis it may be eafily be formed into an
exa£t orbicular fhape. Polifhing grindflones are made
only of fuch fand as will pafs eafily through fine muf-
lin, in the proportion of two parts fand to one of lac.
This fand is found at Ragimaul. It is compofed of
fmall angular cryflalline particles tinged red with iron,
two parts to one of black magnetic fand. The flone-
cutters, inftead of fand, ufe the powder of a very hard
granite called corune. Thefe grindftones cut very fall.
When they want to increafe their power, they throw
fand upon them, or let them occafionally touch the
edge of a vitrified brick. The fame compofition is
formed upon flicks, for cutting ftones, fhells, &cc. by
the hand.
3 & 5- For
Lae,
Lacca.
& A C [ 490 ] LAC
fcacta. j1, For painting. Take one gallon of the red liquid
from the firft wafhing for fhell lac, drain it through a
cloth, and let it boil for a fhort time, then add half an
ounce of foap earth (foffil alkali) j boil an hour more,
and add three ounces of powdered load (bark of a tree) ;
boil a fliort time, let it ftand all night, and drain next
day. Evaporate three quarts of milk without cream
to two quarts upon a flow fire, curdle it with four milk,
and let it dand for a day or two j then mix it with the
red liquid above mentioned ; drain them through a
cloth $ add to the mixture one ounce and a half of
alum, and the juice of eight or ten lemons: mix the
whole, and throw it into a cloth bag drainer. The
blood of the infe£l forms a coagulum with the cafeous
part of the milk,, and remains in the bag, while a lim¬
pid acid water drains from it. The coagulum is dried
in a drade, and is ufed as a red colour in painting and
colouring.
The method of obtaining the fine red lac ufed by
painters from this fubdance, is by the following fimple
procefs: Boil the dick lac in water, filter the decoflion,
and evaporate the clear liquor to drynefs over a gentle
fire. Theoccafion of this eafy fepara'tionis, that the beau¬
tiful red colour here feparated, adheres only dightly to
the outfides of the dicks broke off the trees along with
the gum lac, and readily communicates itfelf to boiling
water. Some of the dicking matter alfo adhering to
the gum itfelf, it is proper to boil the whole together
for the gum does not at all prejudice the colour, nor
diffolve in boiling water: fo that after this operation
the gum is as fit for making fealing wax as before, and
for all other ufes which do not require its colour.
6. For dyeing. See DYEING Index.
Lac is likewife employed for medicinal purpofes.—
The dick lac is the fort ufed. It is of great edeem
in Germany, and other countries, for laxity and fpon-
ginefs of the gums proceeding from cold or a fcor-
butic habit * for this ufe the lac is boiled in water,
with the addition of a little alum, which promotes its
folution *, or a tindlure is made from it with rectified
fpirit. This tinfture is recommended alfo internally
in the fluor albus, and in rheumatic and fcorbutic dif-
qrders : it has a grateful fmell, and not unpleafant,
bitterifh, adringent tade.
The gum-lac has been ufed as an eleflric, indead of
glafs, for eleffrieal machines. See Lacquer, Lake,
and Varnish.
Arlifictiil Lacca, or Lacqve, is alfo a name given to
a coloured, fubdance drawn from feveral flowers j as
the yellow from the flower of the juniper, the red from
the poppy, and the blue from the iris or violet. The
tindlures of thefe flowers are extracted by digefiing
them feveral times in aqua vitm, or by boiling them
©ver a flove fire in a lixivium of pot allies and alum.
An artificial lacca is alfo made of Brafil wood, boil¬
ed in a lixivium of the branches of the vine, adding a
lit.le cochineal, turmeric, calcined alum,, and arfenic,
incorporated with the bones of the cuttle filh pulve¬
rized, and made up into little cakes and dried. If it
be to be very red, they add the juice of lemon to it ;
to make it brown, they add oil of tartar. Dove-co¬
loured or columbine lacca is made with Brafil of
Fernambuc, fteeped in diftilled vinegar for the fpace
«£ a month, and mixed with alum incorporated ia
cuttle filh bone. For other proceffes, fee COLOUR- Lasea,.
dialing. Lace.
LACE, in Commerce, a work compofed of many
threads of gold, filver, or filk, interwoven the one with
the other, and worked upon a pillow with fpindles ac¬
cording to the pattern defigned. The open work is
formed with pins, which are placed and difplaced as the
fpindles are moved. The importation of gold and filver
lace is prohibited.
Method of Cleaning Gold-LACE and Embroidery xvhen
tarnifhed.—Yox this purpofe alkaline liquors are by no.
means to be ufed j for while they clean the gold, they
corrode the filk, and change or difcharge its colour.
Soap alfo alters the lhade, and even the fpecies, of cer¬
tain colours. But fpirit of wine may be uftd without,
any danger of its injuring either the colour or quality
of the fubjedt; and in many cafes proves as effectual,
for reftoring the luftre of the gold, as the corrofive de¬
tergents. A rich brocade, flowered with a variety of
colours, after being difagreeably tarnilhed, had the
luftre of the gold perfedlly reflored by waffling it with
a foft brufli dipt in warm fpirit of wine ; and fome
of the colours of the filk, which were likewife foiled,
became at the fame time remarkably bright and lively.
Spirit of wine feems to be the only material adapted
to this intention, and probably the boafted fecret of
certain artiffs is no other than this fpirit difguifed. A-
mong liquids, Dr Lewis fays, he does not know of any
other that is of fufficient adtivity to difeharge the foul
matter, without being hurtful to the filk : as to pow¬
ders, however fine, and however cautioufly ufed, they
fcratch and wear the gold, which here is only fuperfU
cial and of extreme tenuity.
But though fpirit of wine is the moft innocent mate¬
rial that can be employed for this purpofe, it is not in
all cafes proper. The golden covering may be in iome.
parts worn off-, or the bafe metal, with which it had
been iniquitoufly alloyed, may be corroded by the air,
fo as to leave the particles of the gold difunited ; while;
the filver underneath, tarniffied to a yellow hue, may
continue a tolerable colour to the whole j in which
cafes it is apparent, that the removal of the tarnifh
would be prejudicial to the colour, and make the lace
or embroidery lefs like gold than it was before. A
piece of old tamiffied gold lace, cleaned by the fpirit
of wine, was deprived, with its tarnith, of the greateft
part of its golden hue, and looked now almoft like fil¬
ver lace.
Method offeparating the Gold and Silver from LACK
'without burning it.—Cut the lace in pieces, and (hav¬
ing feparated the thread from it by which it was fewed
to the garment) tie it up in a linen cloth, and boil it
in foap ley, diluted with water, till you perceive it isi
diminifhed in bulk •, which will take up but a little
time, unlefs the quantity of lace be very confiderable.
Then take out the cloth, and waflr it fevcral times in ■
cold water -, fqueezing it pretty hard with ynur foot,
or beating it with a mallet, to clear it of the foap ley
then untie the cloth, and you will have the metallic
part of the lace pure, and nowhere altered in colour or
diminilhed in weight.
This method is abundantly more convenient and
lefs troublefome than the common way of burning j
and as a fmall quantity of the ley will be fufficient, the
expenca-
L.ice
LAG [49
expence will be trilling, efpecially as the fame ley may
be ufed feveral times, if cleared of the filky calcination.
It may be done in either an iron or copper vtflel.
The ley may be had at the foap boilers, or it may
be made of pearl a(h and quicklime boiled together in
a fufficient quantity of water.
The reafon of this fudden change in the lace will be
evident to thofe who are acquainted with chemiftry :
for filk, on which all our laces are wove, is an animal
fubftance, and all animal fubftances are foluble in al¬
kalies, efpecially when rendered more cauilic by the
addition of quicklime •, but the linen you tie it in, be¬
ing a vegetable, will remain unaltered.
Blond Lace, a lace made of fine linen thread or filk,
much in the fame manner as that of gold and filver.
The pattern of the lace is fixed upon a large round pil¬
low, and pins being ftuek into the holes or openings
in the patterns, the threads are interwoven by means
of a number ot bobbins made of bone or ivory, each
of which contains a fmall quantity of fine thread, in
fuch a manner as to make the lace exadlly refemole
the pattern. There are feveral towns in England, and
particularly in Buckinghamfhire, that carry on this
manufa&urey but vail quantities of the fineft lace have
been imported from Flanders.
LACEDAEMON, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Ju¬
piter and Tayget the daughter of Atlas, who married
■Sparta the daughter of Europa, by whom he had Amy-
clas and Eurydice the wife of Acrifius. He was the
-firft who introduced the wovfhip of the Graces in La¬
conia, and who firft built them a temple, from Lace-
dtemon and his wife, the capital of Laconia was called
Lacedcemon and Sparta.
Lacedaemon, a noble city of Peloponnefus, cal¬
led alfo Sparta; thefe names differing in this, that
the latter is the proper and ancient name of the
eity, the former of the country, which afterwards
came to be applied to the city (Strabo, Stephanus).
Homer alfo makes this diftinftion j who calls the coun¬
try holy, becaufe encompaffed with mountains. It has
alfo been feverally known by the name of Le/egia,
from the Leleges the firft inhabitants of the country, or
from Lelex one of their kings ; and Oebalia, from
Oebalas the fixth king from Eurotas. It was alfo cal¬
led Hecatompolis, from 100 cities which the whole pro¬
vince once contained. This city was the capital of La¬
conia, fituated on the right or weft fide of the Euro¬
tas : it was lefs in compals than, however equal, or even
fuperior to, Athens in power. Polybius makes it 48
ffadia, a circuit much inferior to that of Athens. Le¬
lex is fuppofed to have been the firft king of Lace¬
daemon. His defcendants, 13 in number, reigned fuc-
ceflively after him, till the reign of the fons of Oreft-
es, when the Heraclidse recovered the Peloponnefus
about 80 years after the Trojan war. Procles and Eu-
ryfthenes, the defcendants of the Heraclidte, ufurped
the crown together; and after them it was de creed
that the two families ftiould always fit on the throne
together. The monarchical power was abolilhed, and
the race of the Heraclidae extinguilhed at Sparta about
219 years before Chrift. Lacedaemon in its flourifti-
ing ftate remained without walls, the bravery of its ci¬
tizens being inftead of them (Nepo-). At length in
Caffander’s time, or after, when the city was in tb^
hands of tyrants^ difhufting the defence by arms and
I ]
LAG
bravery, a wall was built round it, at firft ftight, and
in a tumultuary or hafty manner j which the tyrant Ir,cn '
Nabis made very ftrong (Livy, Juftin). Paufanias
l!
afcribes the firft; walls to the times of Demetrius and
Pyrrhus, under Nabis. The walls of the city were
pulled down 188 years before Chrift by Philopoemen,
who was then at the head of the Achaean league, and
Laconia fbme time after became a Roman province
when reduced by Mummius. See Sparta.——JL he pre-
fent city is called Mifitra, fituated in E. Long. 23* O.
N. Lat. 36. 55-.
LACERNA, a coarfe thick garment worn by the
Romans over their gowns, like a cloak, to keep oft the
rain and cold. It was firft ufed in the camp, but after¬
wards admitted into the city. The emperors wore the
lacerna of a purple dye. The lacerna was at firft very
fliort, but was lengthened after it became fafhionable,
which was not till the civil wars and the triumvirate ;
before this time it was confined to the foldiers. Sena¬
tors were forbidden wearing it in the city by Valen-
tinian and Theodofius. Martial makes mention of la-
cernte worth 10,000 fefterces. Some confound this
garment with the penula ; but it feems rather to have
refembled the chlamys and birr us.
LACERTA, including the Lizard, Crocodile,
■&c. a genus of amphibious animals, belonging to the
order of reptilia. See Erpetolcgy Index.
LACHES, (from the French lofcher, i. e. laxare,
or lafche, ignavus), in the Englifli law figmfies flack-
nefs or negligence, as it appears in Littleton, where
laches of entry is a neglefl of the heir to enter. And
probably it may be an old Englilh word : for where
we fay thefe is laches of entry, it is all one as it it
were faid there is a lack of entry : and in this fignifi-
cation it is ufed. No laches fttall be adjudged in the
heir within age ; and regularly, laches {hall not bar in¬
fants or femme coverts for not entry or claim, to avoid
defcents ; but laches {hall be accounted in them for
non-performance of a condition annexed to the ftate of
the land.
f LACHESIS, in Mythology, one of the Parcos.
Her name is derived from to meafure out by lot.
She prefided over futurity, and was reprefented as
fpinning the thread of life, or, according to others,
holding the fpindle. She generally appeared covered
with a garment variegated with liars, and holding
fpindles in her hand.
LACHISH, in Ancient Geography, a city fouth-
ward of the tribe of Judah. Eufebius and St Jerome
tell us, that in their time there was a village called
Lachifh, feven miles from Eleutheropolis, fouthward.
Sennacherib befieged Lachilh, but did not take it.
From thence it was that he fent Rabfhakeh againft Je-
rufalem. Here King Amaziah was {lain by his rebel
fubjefls.
LACHNEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
oftandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 31ft order, Vtprecu/ce. See Botany Index.
I.ACHRYMAL, in Anatomy, an appellation givem
to feveral parts of the < ye. See ANATOMY.
LACHRYMATORY, in antiquity, a veffel where¬
in were* collefted the tears of a deceafed perfon’s
friends, and preferved along with the alhes and urn.
They were fmall glafs or earthen bottles, chiefly in the
form of phials. At the Roman funerals, the friend*
3&» *
Lachrytra,
LAC [ 492 ] LAC
Lachryma
tory
II
Lacquers.
of the deoeafed, or the pr<zficce, women hired for that
purpofe, ufed to fill them with their tears, and depofite
them very carefully with the afhes, in teflimony of
their forrow, imagining the manes of the deceafed were
thereby greatly comforted. Many fpecimens of them
are pn ferved in the cabinets of the curious, particular¬
ly in the Britilh Mufeum.
LACINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a noble pro¬
montory of the Bruttii, in Italy, the fouth boundary of
the Sinus Tarentinus and the Adriatic ; all to the fouth
of it being deemed the Ionian fea : it was famous for a
rich temple of Juno, furnamed Lacinia, with a pillar of
folid gold {landing in it ; which Hannibal intending
to carry off, was, according to Cicero, diffuaded by a
dream. Now Capo del/e Colonne, from the columns of
Juno’s temple {fill {landing, on the north-eaft coaff of
Calabria Ultra.
LACK of rupees, is 100,000 rupees j which fup-
pofing them ftandard, or ficcas, at 2s. 6d. amounts to
12,500!. llerling.
L ACM US, a dye fluff prepared by the Dutch from
the Lichen roccella. See Dyeing Index.
LACONIA, or Laconica, a country in the fouth-
ern parts of Peloponnefus, having Argos and Arcadia
on the north, Meffenia on the weft, the Mediterra¬
nean on the fouth, and the bay of Argos on the eaft.
Its extent from north to fouth was about 50 miles. It
was watered by the river Eurotas. The capital was
called Sparta, or Lacedaemon : (See Lacedaemon
and Sparta). The brevity with which the Laco¬
nians always expreffed themfelves is now become pro¬
verbial $ and by the epithet of Laconic we underftand
whatever is concife, and is not loaded with unneceffary
words.
^ LACONIUM, (whence our term laconic), a ihort
pithy fententious fpeech, fuch as the Lacedaemonians
were remarkable for : Their way of delivering them¬
felves was very concife, and much to the purpofe. See
the preceding article. <
LACQUERS, are varnifties applied upon tin, brafs,
and other metals, to preferve them from tarnilhing,
and to improve their colour. The bafis of lacquers is
a folution of the reftnous fubftance called feed lac, in
fpirit of wine. The fpirit ought to be very ftrong, in
order to diffolve much of the lac. For this purpofe,
fome authors diredl dry potafli to be thrown into the
fpirit. This alkali attracts the water, with which it
forms a liquid that fubfides diftindlly from the fpirit at
the bottom of the veffel. From this liquid the fpirit
may be feparated by decantation : but by this procefs
the fpirit is impregnated with part of the alkali, which
depraves its colour, and communicates a property to the
lacquer of imbibing moifture from the air. Thefe in¬
conveniences may be prevented by diftilling the fpirit j
or, if the artift has not an opportunity of performing that
procefs, he may cleanfe the fpirit in a great meafure
from the alkali, by adding to it fome calcined alum j
the acid of which uniting with the alkali remaining in
the fpirit, forms with it a vitriolated tartar, which, not
being foluble in fpirit of wine, falls to the bottom to¬
gether with the earth of the decompofed alum. To a
pint of the purified fpirit, about three ounces of pow¬
dered file 11 lac are to be added j and the mixture to be
digefted during fame day with a moderate heat. The
liquor ought then to be poured off, ftrained, and clear¬
ed by fettling. This clear liquor is now fit to receive
the required colour from certain refinous colouring Jub¬
ilances, the principal of which are gamboge and anot-
to ; the former of which gives a yellow, and the latter
an orange colour. In order to give a golden colour,
two parts of gamboge are added to one of anotto ; but
thefe colouring fubftances may be feparately diffolved
in the tinfture of lac, and the colour required may be
adjufted by mixing the two folutions in different pro¬
portions. When filver leaf or tin are to be lacquered,
a larger quantity of the colouring materials is requi-
fite than when the lacquer is intended to be laid on
brafs.
LACSHA, the Indian name of the lac infe£l. See
Lac, Chemistry, and Dyeing Index.
LACTA1T0, Lactation, among medical wri- Motherbft
ters, denotes the giving fuch. The mother’s breaft, {{Medical'
poflible, ftrould be allowed the child, at leaft during Btftionarp
the firft month for thus the child is more peculiarly
benefited by what it fucks, and the mother is preferved
from more real inconveniences than the falfely delicate
imagine they would fuffer by compliance herewith : but
if by reafon of an infirm conftitution, or other caufes,
the mother cannot fuckle her child, let dry nurfing un¬
der the mother’s eye be purfued.
When women lofe their appetite by giving fuck,
both the children and themfelves are thereby injured j
w'et nurfes are to be preferred, who, during the time
they give the breaft, have rather an increafed appetite,
and digeft more quickly ; the former are apt to wafte
away, and fometimes die confumptive. In ftiort, thofe
nurfes with whom ladlation may for a while agree,
fhould wean the child as foon as their appetite leffens,
their ftrength feems to fail, or a tendency to hyfteric
fymptoms is manifeft.
When the new born child is to be brought up by
the mother’s breaft, apply it thereto in ten or twelve
hours after delivery : thus the milk is fooner and more
eafily fupplied, and there is lefs hazard of a fever than
when the child is not put to it before the milk begins
to flow of itfelf.
If the mother does not fuckle her child, her breafts
Ihould be kept fo warm with flannels, or with a hare
ikin, that a conftant perfpiration may be fupported j
thus there rarely will arife much inconvenience from
the milk.
The child, notwithftanding all our care in dry nur¬
fing, fometiraes pines if a breaft is not allowed. In this
cafe a wet nurfe ftiould be provided, if poflible one that
hath not been long delivered of a child. She fhould be
young, of a healthy habit, and an aftive difpofition, a
mild temper, and with breafts well filled with milk.
If the milk is good, it is fweetifti to the tafte, and to¬
tally free from faltnefs ; to the eye it appears thin, and
of a bluifti call. That the woman hath her menfes, if
in other refpedls obje&ions be not made, need not be
any; and as to the cuftom with many, of abftaining
from venery while they continue to fuckle a child, it is
fo far without reafon to fupport it, that the truth is, a
rigorous chaftity is as hurtful, and often more pernici¬
ous, than an immoderate ufe of venery. Amongft the
vulgar errors, is that of red-haired women being im¬
proper for wet nurfes.
Lacqufjs
II .
Latftatio.
a
if
LAC [493
La&atio If the menfes do not appear during the firft months,
!l but after fix or eight months fuckling they begin to de-
tadiferous. fcen(^ cbild (hould be weaned.
Wet nurfes Ihould eat at leaft one hearty meal of
animal food every day 5 with this a proper quantity of
vegetables {hould be mixed. Thin broth or milk are
proper for their breakfafts and their Tappers •, and if
the ftrength {hould feem to fail a little, a draught of
good ale {hould now and then be allowed ; but Ipiritu-
ous liquors mull in general be forborne-, not but a fpoon-
ful of rum may be allowed in a quart of milk and water,
(i, e. a pint of each), which is a proper common drink.
Though it is well obferved by Dr Hunter, that
the far greater number of thofe women who have can¬
cers in the bread: or womb are old maids, and thofe
who refufe to give fuck to their children } yet it is
the unhappinefs of fome willing mothers not to be
able : for inftance, thofe with tender conftitutions, and
who are fubjeft to nervous diforders thofe who do not
eat a fufficient quantity of folid food, nor enjoy the be¬
nefit of exercife and air : if children are kept at their
breafts, they either die while young, or are weak and
fiekly after childhood is paft, and io on through re¬
maining life.
LACTANTIUS, Lucius Coelius Firmianus, a
celebrated author at the beginning of the 4th century,
was, according to Baronius, an African j but, accord¬
ing to others, was born at Fermo in the marquifate of
Ancona, from whence it is imagined he was called
Firmianus. He ftudied rhetoric under Arnobius -, and
was afterwards a profeflor of that fcieiice in Africa and
Nicomedia, where he was fo admired, that the empe¬
ror Conftantine chofe him preceptor to his fon Cnfpus
Caefar. Laftantius was fo far from feeking the plea-
fure and riches of the court, that he lived there in po¬
verty, and, according to Eufebius, frequently wanted
neceflaries. His works are written in elegant Latin.
The principal of which are, 1. De tra divina. 2. De
operibus Dei, in which he treats of the creation of man,
and of divine providence. 3. Divine Inftitutions, in
feven books : this is the molt confiderable of all his
works: he there undertakes to prove the truth of the
Chriftian religion, and to refute all the difficulties that
had been raifed againft it ; and he folidly, and with
great ftrength, attacks the illufions of Paganifm. His
ftyle is pure, clear, and natural, and his expreflions
noble and elegant, on which account he has been called
the Cicero of the ChrijUans. There is alfo attributed
to him a treatife De morte perfecutorum ; but feveral
of the learned doubt its being written by Laftantius.
The moft copious edition of Ladlantius’s works is that
of Paris in 1748, 2 vols. 4to.
LACTEALS, or Lacteal Vessels, a kind of
long {lender tubes for the conveyance of the chyle
from the inteftines to the common refervatory. See
Anatomy, N° 105.
LACTIFEROUS^ an appellation given to plants
abounding with a milky juice, as the fow thiftle and
the like. The name of laBiferous, or la&efcent, is given
to all thofe plants which abound with a thick coloured
juice, without regarding whether it is white or not.
Moft laftiferous plants are poifonous, except thofe with
compound flowers, which are generally of an innocent
quality.
] LAD
Of the poifonous la&efcent plants the moft remark- Ladliferous
able are fumach, agaric, maple, burning thorny plant,
caiTada, celandine, puccoon, prickly poppy, and the _
plants of the natural order contort#, as {wallow-wort,
apocynum, cynanchum, and cerbera.
The bell-ftiaped flowers are partly noxious, as cardi¬
nal flower -, partly innocent, as campanula.
Among the laftefcent plants with compound flowers
that are innocent in their quality, may be mentioned
dandelion, picris, hyoferis, wild lettuce, gum fuccory,
hawkweed, baftard hawkweed, hypochceris, goat’s
beard, and moft fpecies of lettuce : we fay moft fpe-
cies, becaufe the prickly fpecies of that genus are faid
to be of a very virulent and poifonous nature *, though
Mr Lightfoot denies this, and affirms that they are a
fafe and gentle opiate, and that a fyrup made from the
leaves and ftalks is much preferable to the common dia-
co'dium.
LACTUCA, Lettuce, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clals j and in the natural rg^thod
ranking under the 49th order, Compofit#. See Botany
Index. And for the method of cultivating lettuce, fee
Gardening Index.
LACUNAE, m Anatomy, certain excretory canals in
the genital parts of women.
LACUNAR, in ArchiteRure, an arched roof or
ceiling, more efpecially the planking or flooring above
porticos or piazzas.
LACYDES, a Greek philofopher, born at Cyrene,
was the difciple of Arcefilaus, and his fucceflor in the
academy. He taught in a garden given him by At¬
tains king of Pergamus ; but that prince fending for
him to court, he replied, “ That the piftures of kings
{hould be viewed at a diftance.” He imitated his
matter in the pleafure he took in doing good without
caring to have it known : he had a goofe which follow¬
ed him everywhere by night as well as by day ; and
when {he died, he made a funeral for her, which was
as magnificent as if it had been for a fon or a brother.
He taught the fame do&rine as Arcefilaus 5 and pre¬
tended that we ought to determine nothing, but always
to fufpend our opinion. Fie died 212 B. C.
LADDER, a frame made with a number of fteps,
by means of which people may afcend as on a ftair to
places otherwife inacceffible.
Scaling Ladders, in the military art, are ufed in
fcaling when a place is to be taken by furprife. They
are made feveral ways : here we make them of flat
ftaves, fo that they may move about their pins, and
{hut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying
them : the French make them of feveral pieces, fo as
to be joined together, and to be made of any neceflary
length : fometimes they are made of Angle ropes,
knotted at proper diftances, with iron hooks at each
end, one to fatten them upon the wall above, and the
other in the ground *, and fometimes they are made
with two ropes, and ftaves between them, to keep the
ropes at a proper diftance, and to tread upon. When
they are ufed in the aftion of fealing w^alls, they
ought to be rather too long than too ftiort, and to be
given in charge only to the ftouteft^of the detach¬
ment. The foldiers fhould carry thefe ladders with
the left arm patted through the fecond ftep, taking
care to held them upright clofe to their fides, and
very
L A* B [ 494 1 LAD
Ladder very fhort below, to prevent any accident in leaping
I! into the difch.
a( °ga‘ . The firft rank of each divifion, provided with lad¬
ders, fhould fet out with the reft at the fignal, march¬
ing refolutely with their firelocks flung, to jump into
the ditch j when they are arrived, they fhould apply
their ladders againft the parapet, obferving to place
them towards the falient angles rather than the middle
of the curtain, becaufe the enemy have lefs force there.
Care muft be taken to place the ladders within a foot
of each other, and not to give them too much nor
too little Hope, fo that they may not be overturned or
broke with the weight of the foldiers mounting upon
them.
The ladders being applied, they who have carried
them, and they who come after, fhould mount up, and
rufh upon the enemy fword-in-hand : if hfc who goes
firft, happens to be overturned, the next fhould take
care not to be thrown down by his comrade ; but, on
the contrary, immediately mount himfelf, fo as not to
give the enemy time to load his piece.
As the foldiers who mount firft may be eafily tum¬
bled over, and their fall may caufe the attack to fail,
it would perhaps be right to protedl their breafts with
the fore parts of cuirafles j becaufe, if they can pene¬
trate, the reft may eafily follow.
The fuccefs of an attack by fcaling is infallible, if
they mount the four fides at once, and take care to
fhower a number of grenades amongft the enemy,
cfpeeially when fupported by fome grenadiers and
picquets, who fhare the attention and fire of the enemy.
LADEN, in the fea language, the ftate of a ftiip
■when {lie is charged with a weight or quantity of any
fort of merchandifes, or other materials, equal to her
tonnage or burden. If the cargo with which fhe is
laden is extremely heavy, her burden is determined by
the weight of the goods j and if it is light, (lie car¬
ries as much as ftie can Jlow, to be fit for the purpofes
of navigation. As a ton in meafure is generally efti-
mated at 2000lb. in weight, a veflel of 200 tons ought
accordingly to carry a weight equal to 400,0001b.
■when the matter of which the cargo is compofed is fpe-
cifically heavier than the water in which fhe floats $
or, in other words, when the cargo is fo heavy that fhe
cannot float high enough with fo great a quantity of
it as her hold will contain.
LADEN in Bulk, the ftate of being freighted with a
cargo which is neither in calks, boxes, bales, nor cafes,
but lies loofe in the hold •, being defended from the
moifture or wet of the hold, by a number of mats and
a quantity of dimage. Such are ufually the cargoes of
corn, fait, or fuch materials.
LADENBURG, a town of Germany in the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, feated on the river .Neckar, in
■ E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat. 49. 27. It belongs to the
bifhopric of Worms, and the eleftor Palatine.
LADISLAUS, the name of feveral kings of Po¬
land. See Poland.
LADOGA, a lake in Ruflia, between the gulfs of
Onega and Finland, meafunng 150 miles by 90, and
confidered as the largeft in Europe. Seals are among
the fifh with which it abounds. Ir is full of quickfands,
which often prove fatal to the Ruffian flat-bottomed
vofi*.Is } thefe lands often ftfifting'from place to place
by violent fiorms, and forming a number of fhelves.
On this account Peter the Great cut a'canal 67 miles Ladoga
in length from the fouth-weft extremity of the lake, 11
thus opening a communication between it and the gulf Laclr01'-'
of Finland. —y—
Ladoga, NeVJ, a town in the Ruffian govern¬
ment of Peterfburgh, feated on the Volkhof, between
the canal and lake of Ladoga. Old Ladoga is higher
up the river, and a place of no great extent. Ths
former is 70 miles eaft of Peterfburgh, in N. Lat. 60*
E. Long. 21° 44'.
LADOGNA, or Lacedogna, a town of Italy in
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Capitanata, with a
bifhop’s fee. E. Long. 15. 12. N. Lat. 41. 16.
LADON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Arcadia
falling into the Alpheus. 1 he metamorphofis of Daph¬
ne into a laurel, and of Syrinx into a reed, happened
near its banks.
L ADRONE or Marian iflands, a clufter of twelve
iflands lying in the Pacific ocean, in about 1450 of
eaft longitude, and between the nth and 21ft degree
of north latitude. They were firft difeovered by Ma¬
gellan, who failed round the* world through the ftraits
which bear his name. Fie gave them the name of
La drone iflands, or the ijlands of Thieves, from tfna
thievifti difpofition of the inhabitants. At the time
thefe iflands were difeovered by the Europeans, tho
natives were totally unacquainted with any other coun¬
try befides their own ; and having no traditionary ac¬
counts of their own origin, they imagined that the
author of their race was formed of a piece of the rock
of Funa, one of their fmalleft iflands. Many things
looked upon by us as abfolutely neceflary to our exift-
ence, were utterly unknown to thefe people. They
had no animals of any fort ; and would not even have
had any idea of them, had it not been for the birds $
and even of them they had but one fpecies, fomewhat
like the turtle dove, which they never killed for
eating, but only tamed them, and taught them to
fpeak. They were much aftenifhed on feeing a horfQ
which a Spanilh captain left among them in 1673,
and could not for a long time be fatisfied with ad¬
miring him. But what is more furprifing and incre¬
dible in their hiftory is, that they were utterly unac¬
quainted with the element of fire, till Magellan, pro¬
voked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their
villages. When they faw their wooden houfes blazing,
they firft thought that the fire was a beaft which fed
upon the wood j and fome of them who came too near,
being burnt, the reft flood at a dillance, left they fhould
be devoured or poifoned by the breathings of this ter¬
rible animal.
The inhabitants of the Ladrones are olive coloured,
but not of fuch a deep dye as thofe of the Philippine
iflands ; their ftature is good, and their limbs well
proportioned. Though their food confifts entirely of
fifh, fruits, and roots, yet they are fo fat, that t»
ftrangers they appear fwelled j but this does not render
them lefs nimble and adlive. They often live to ic®
years or more, yet retain the vigour and health of mea
of 50. The men go Hark naked, but the women are
covered. 'They are not ill looked, and take great
care of their beauty, though their ideas on that fub-
je£l are very different from ours. They love black teeth
and wh:te hair. Hence one of their principal occu¬
pations is to keep their teeth black by the help of
certain
LAD
[ 495 3
LAE
Ladrone. eertain herbs, and to whiten their hair, fprinkling up-
V on it a certain water for this purpofe. The women
have their hair very long; but the men generally {have
it clofe, except a fingle lock on the crown of the head,
after the manner of the Japanefe. Their language
much refembles that of the people called Tagales, in
the Philippine iflands.. It is agreeable to the ear, with
a foft and eafy pronunciation. One of its chief graces
confifts in the facility of tranfpofmg words, and even
all the fyllables of one word *, and thus furnilhing a va¬
riety of double meanings, with which thefe people are
' greatly delighted. Though plunged in the deepeft
ignorance, and dellitute of every thing valued by the
reft of mankind, no nation ever (bowed more prefump-
tion or greater conceit of themfelves, than thele ifland-
ers, looking on their own nation as the only wife, fen-
fible, and poliftied one in the world, and beholding
every other people with the greateft contempt. 1 hough
they are ignorant of the arts and fciences, ye^-» like
every other nation, they have their fables which ferve
them for hiftory, and fome poems which they greatly
admire. A poet is with them a character of the firft
eminence, and greatly refpedled.
J It is not known at what time, or from what place,
the Ladrrtne iflands were firft peopled. As Japan lies
•within fix or feven days fail of them, fome have been
induced to believe, that the firft inhabitants of the
Ladrones came from Japan. But from their greater
refemblance to the inhabitants of the Philippine iflands
than to the Japanefe, it is more probable that they
came from the former than the latter. Formerly
moft of the iflands were inhabited ; and about c^> years
ago, the three principal iflands, Guam, Tinian, and
Rota, are faid to have contained 50,000 people 5 but
fince that time, Tinian has been entirely depopulat¬
ed, and only 200 or 300 Indians left at Rota to cul¬
tivate rice for the ifland of Guam, which alone is in¬
habited by Europeans, and where the Spaniards have a
governor and a garrifon: here alfo the annual Manilla
fliip touches far refreftiments in her paflage from A-
capulco to the Philippines. The ifland of Tinian af¬
forded an afylum to Commodore Anfon in 1742 *, and
the mafterly manner in which the author of that voy¬
age paints the natural beauties of the country, has gi¬
ven a degree of eftimation not only to this ifland, but
to all the reft, which they had not before. Commo¬
dore Byron, in 1765, continued nine weeks at Ti¬
nian, and anchored in the very fpot where the Centu¬
rion lay *, but gives a much lefs favourable account of
this climate and country than the former navigator.
The water, he fays, is brackiflr, and full of worms ;
many of his men were feized with fevers, occafioned
by the intenfe heat •, the thermometer, which was kept
on board the fliip, generally flood at 86°, which is but
10 or 11 degrees lefs than the heat of the blood at the
heart j and had the inftrument been afliore, he ima¬
gines it would have flood much higher than it did. It
was with the greateft difficulty that they could pene¬
trate through the woods •, and when they had fortu¬
nately killed a bull, and with prodigious labour drag¬
ged it through the forefts to the beach, it ftunk, and
was full of fly-blows by the time it readied the fliore.
The poultry was ill tafted ; and within an hour after it
was killed, the flefli became as green as grafs, and
fwarmed. with maggots, The wild hogs were very
fierce^ and fo large, that a carcafs frequently weighed
200 pounds. Cotton and indigo were found on the
ifland. Captain Wallis continued here a month in
1767, but makes no fuch complaints.
LADY. This title is derived from two Saxon
words, which fignify loaf-day^ which words have in
time been contracted into the prefent appellation. It
properly belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all
of higher rank ; but cuftom has made it a word of
complaifance for the wives of knights and of all emi¬
nent women.
As to the original application of this expreflion, it
may be obferved, that heretofore it was the fafliion for
thofe families, whom God had bleffed with affluence,
to live conftantly at their manfion houfes in the coun¬
try, and that once a-week, or oftener, the lady of the
manor diftributed to her poor neighbours, with her
own hands^ a certain quantity of bread j but the prac¬
tice, which gave rife to this title is now as little known
as the meaning of it; however, it may be from that
hofpitable cuftom, that to this day the ladies in this
kingdom alone ferve the meat at their own table.
Ladrons
Lasvinus.
1
JM,J
Index,
LADr's Bedjiraw. See GALIUM,
LabT's Mantle. See Alchemilla, ( g0TAN7
LaBT's Smoke. See CARDAMINE, 1
Labt's Slipper. See Cypripedium,
Labt's TreJJes. See Ophrys,
LabT Day, in Law, the 25th of March, being the
annunciation of the Holy Virgin. See Annuncia¬
tion-.
LiELIUS, Caius, a Roman eonful and great ora¬
tor, furnamed the Wife, diftinguiihed himfelf in Spain
in the war againft Viriathus the Spanifh general. He
is highly praifed by Cicero, who gives an admirable
defeription of the intimate friendship which fubfifted
between Radius and Scipio Africanus the Younger.
His eloquence, his modefty, and his abilities, ac¬
quired him a great reputation j and he is thought to
have affifted Terence in his comedies. He died about
the year 1 26 B. C.
LiENA, in antiquity, w'as a gown worn by the
Roman augurs, and peculiar to their office. In this
gown they covered their heads, when they made their
obfervation on the flight of birds,,&c. See Augur.
LAER. See Bamboccia.
L/ESTRYGONES, the moft ancient inhabitants
of Sicily. Some fuppofe them to be the fame as ths
people of Leontium, and to have been neighbours to
the Cyclops. They fed on human flefti 5 and when
Ulyffes came on their eoafts, they funk his (hips and
devoured his companions. They were of a gigantic
ftature, according to Homer’s defeription. A colony
of them, as fome fuppofe, paffed over into Italy with
Lamus at their head, where they built the town of
Formise, whence the epithet of Lajlrygonia is often
ufed for that of Formiana.
LJETIA, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
L/EVINUS, Torrentinus, commonly called Van-
der Bekin, or Tprrentin, was a native of Ghent, and
bred in the univerfity of Louvain. He afterwards
made the tour of Italy, where his virtues obtained him
the friendfliip of the mofl; illuftrious perfonages of his-
LAG [ 49^ ] LAI
Levinus time. On his return to the Low Countries •, he was
T )l made canon of Liege, and vicar-general to Erneft de
-‘"A-jU_neS'. Baviere, bithop of that fee. At length, having exe¬
cuted a fuccefsful embaffy to Philip II. of Spain, he
was rewarded with the bifhopric of Antwerp j from
whence he was tranflated to the metropolitan church
of Mechlin, and died there in 1595. He founded a
College of Jefuits at Louvain, to which he left his li¬
brary, medals, and curiofities. He wrote feveral poems
that obtained him the charafter of being, after Horace,
the prince of lyric poets.
LAiVIUS, a Latin poet. It is not well known
at what time he lived, but probably before the age of
Cicero. A poem of his, entitled, Erotopagnia, i. e.
Love-Games, is quoted by Aulus Gellius. Apuleius
alfo quotes fix lines from the fame poet \ but he does
not tell from what work he borrowed them. Lse-
vius had alfo compofed a poem, entitled, The Cen¬
taurs, which Feftus quotes under the title of Petra-
rum.
LAGAN, or Lagon. See Flotsom.
LAGEMAN {logammannus'), homo habeas legem,
or homo legalis feu legitimus; fuch as we call now
“ good men of the jury.” The Word is frequently
ufed in Domefday, and the law's of Edward the Con-
felfor, cap 38.
LAGEN (Lagena), in ancient time, was a meafure
of wine, containing fix fextarii : whence probably is
derived our flagon. The lieutenant of the Tower has
the privilege to take imam lagenam vini ante malum et
retro, of all wine (hips that come upon the Thames ;
and Sir Peter Leicefter, in his Antiquities of Chelhire,
interprets lagena vini, “ a bottle of wine.”
LAGEPiSTROEMIA, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polyandria clafs. See Botany Index.
LAGNY, a town of the Ifle of France, with a fa¬
mous Benediftine abbey. It is feated on the river
Marne, in E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 48. 50.
LAGOEC1A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
LAGOON, an ifiand in the South fea, lying in
S. Lat. 18. 47. W. Long. 139. 28. It is of an oval
form, with a lake in the middle, which occupies much
the greateft part of it. The whole is covered with
trees of different growth. It is inhabited by a race of
Indians, tall, of a copper colour, with long black hair.
Their weapons are poles or fpikes, which are twice as
long as themfelves. Their habitations were feen under
fome clumps of palm trees, which formed very beauti¬
ful groves. This ifland was difcovered by Captain Cook
in April 1769.
L AGOPUS, the Ptarmigan. See Tetrao, Or¬
nithology hidex.
LAGOS, a fea port town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Algarva, wfith a cattle near the fea, where
there is a good harbour, and where the Englifh fleets
bound to the Straits ufually take in frefti water. W.
Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 36. 45.
LAGUNA, or San Chrfloval de Laguna, a confi-
derable town in the ifland of Teneriffe, near a lake of
the fame name, on the declivity of a hill. It has very
handfome buildings, and a fine fquare. W. Long. 16.
24. S. Lat. 28. 30.
LAGUNES of Venice, are marlhes or lakes in
Italy on which Venice is feated. They communicate
with the fea, and are the fecurity of the city. There Lagunti
are about 60 iflands in thefe Lagunes, which together 11
make a bifliop’s fee. Eurano is the moft confiderable, Fa‘reffe«
next to thofe on which Venice Hands,
LAGURUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
triandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
LAHOLM, a fea port town of Sweden, in the pro¬
vince of Gothland, and territory of Halland, feated
near the Baltic fea, with a cattle and a harbour, in
E. Long. 13. 13. N. Lat. 56. 35.
LAHOR, a large town of Afia, in Indoftan, and
capital of a province of the fame name, and one of the
molt confiderable in the Mogul’s dominions. It is of
a vaft circumference, and contains a great number of
mofques, public baths, caravanferas, and pagods. It
was the refidence of the Great Mogul ; but fince the
removal of the court, the fine palace is going to decay.
There is a magnificent walk of thady trees, which runs
from this to Agra, that is upwards of 300 miles. Here
they have manufactures of cotton cloths and fluffs of
all kinds, and they make very curious carpets. E.
Long- 75- 55- N. Lat. 31. 40..
LAINEZ, James, a Spaniard, companion of Ig¬
natius of Loyola, fecond general of the Jefuits, and
a man of a more daring and political charafter. Hav¬
ing procured from Pope Paul IV. the perpetual ge-
neralfnip of the new order of Jefuits, after the death
of Ignatius, he got the following privileges ratified by
that pontiff, which fhow that he was in faft the found¬
er of the w'orft part of their inftitution : 1. The right
of making all forts of contrafts (without the privity
of the community) veiled in the generals and their
delegates. 2. That of giving authenticity to all com¬
ments and explanations of their conftitutions. 3. The
power of making new, and altering the old : this open¬
ed the door to their bloody political tenets, not to be
attributed to Loyola. 4. That of having prifons in¬
dependent of the fecular authority, in which they put
to death refraftory brethren. Lainez died in 1565,
aged 53-
LAlRESSE, Gerard, an eminent Flemilh paint¬
er, born at Liege in 1640. He received the principal
part of his inftruftion from his father Renieve de
Laireffe, though he is alfo accounted a difciple of Bar-
tolet. He firfl fettled at Utrecht, where he lived in
diftreffed circumftances ; but an accidental recommen¬
dation carrying him to Amfterdam, he foon exchan¬
ged want and obfcurity for affluence and reputation.
He was a perfeft mailer of hiflory ; his defigns are
diltinguilhed by the grandeur of the compofition ; and
the back grounds, wherever the fubjefts required it,
are rich in architefture, which is an uncommon cir-
cumftance in that country. He had the unhappinefs
to lofe his fight feveral years before his death, which
happened in 1711 j fo that the treatife on Defign and
Colouring, which paffes under his name, was not wrote
by him, but collefted from his obfervations after he
was blind, and publilhed after his death. He had
three fons, twm of whom w'ere painters ', and alfo three
brothers, Erneft, James, and John ; Erneft and John
painted animals, and James was a flower painter. He
engraved a good deal in aquafortis : his works confifi:
of 256 plates, above half of which w'ere done with his
own hand. He wrote an excellent book on the art,
which
L A K [ 497 ] L A K
whicli has been tranflated into Engliih, and printed at
London both in 4to and 8vo.
LAIS, a celebrated courtezan, daughter of Timan-
dra, the miftrefs of Alcibiades, born at Hyccara in Si¬
cily. She was carried away from her native place when
Nicias the Athenian general invaded Sicily. She firtt
began to fell her favours at Corinth for 10,000 drach¬
mas, and the imtnenfe number of princes, noblemen,
philofophers, orators, and plebeians, which courted her
embraces, (how how much commendation is owed to
her perfonal charms. The expences which attended
.her pleafures, gave rife to the proverb of Non cuivis
homini contingit adire Corinthum. Even Demofthenes
himfelf vilited Corinth for the fake of Lais; but when
he was informed by the courtefan, that admittance to
her bed was to be bought at the enormous fum of a-
bout 200I. Engliih money, the orator departed, and
obferved that he would not buy repentance at fo dear
a price. The charms which had attra&ed Demo¬
fthenes to Corinth had no influence upon Xenocrates.
When Lais faw the philofopher unmoved by her beau¬
ty, ftie vifited his houfe herfelf; but there (he had no
reafon to boafl; of the licentioufnefs or eafy lubmiflion
of Xenocrates. Diogenes the Cynic was one of her
warmeft admirers, and though filthy in his drefs and
manners, yet he gained her heart, and enjoyed her
moft unbounded favours. The fculptor Mycon alfo fo-
licited the favours of Lais, but he met with coldnefs :
he, however, attributed the caufe of his ill reception to
the whitenefs of his hair, and dyed it of a brown co¬
lour, but to no purpofe : “ Fool that thou art (faid the
courtefan) to alk what I refufed yefterday to thy fa¬
ther.” Lais ridiculed the aufterity of philofophers,
and laughed at the weaknefs of thofe who pretend to
have gained a fuperiority over their paflions, by ob-
ferving that the fages and philofophers of the age were
not above the reft of mankind, for {lie found them at
her door as often as the reft of the Athenians. The
fuccefs which her debaucheries met at Corinth encou¬
raged Lais to pafs into Theffaly, and more particular¬
ly to enjoy the company of a favourite youth called
Hippoftratus. She was however difappointed : the wo¬
men of the place, jealous of her charms, and appre-
henfive of her corrupting the fidelity of their hulhands,
affaffinated her in the temple of Venus, about 340
years before the Chriftian era. Some fuppofe that
there were two perfons of this name, a mother and her
daughter.
LAITY, the people as diftinguiftied from the cler¬
gy ; (fee Clergy). The lay part of his majefty’s
fubjefts is divided into three diftinft ftates; the civil,
the military, and the maritime. See Civil, Mili¬
tary, and Maritime.
LAKE, a colledlion of waters contained in fome
cavity in an inland place, of a large extent, furround-
ed wdth land, and having no communication with the
ocean. Lakes may be divided into four kinds. 1. Such
as neither receive nor fend forth rivers. 2. Such as
emit rivers, without receiving any. 3. Such as receive
rivers, without emitting any. And, 4. Such as both
receive and fend forth rivers. Of the firft kind, fome
are temporary, and others perennial. Moft of thofe
that are temporary owe their origin to the rain, and
the cavity or depreffion of the place in which they are
lodged: thus in India there are feveral fuch lakes made
Vol. XI. Part II,
by the induftry of the natives, of which fome are a Lake,
mile, and fome two miles, in circuit; thefe are fur- J
rounded with a ftone wall, and being filled in the rainy
months, fupply the inhabitants in dry feafons, who live
at a great diftance from fprings or rivers. There are
alfo feveral of this kind formed by the inundations of
the Nile and the Niger; and in Mufcovy, Finland, and
Lapland, there are many lakes formed, partly by the
rains, and partly by the melting of the ice and fnow ;
but moft of the perennial lakes, which neither receive
nor emit rivers, probably ow'e their rife to fprings at
the bottom, by which they are conftantly fupplied.
The fecond kind of lakes, which emit without receiv¬
ing rivers, is very numerous. Many rivers flow from
thefe as out of cifterns; where their fprings being fi-
tuated low within a hollow place, firft fill the cavity
and make it a lake, which not being capacious enough
to hold all the w'ater, it overflows and forms a river :
of this kind is the Wolga, at the head of the river
Wolga ; the lake Odium at the head of the Tanais ;
the Adac, from whence one branch of the river Ti¬
gris flow's; the Ozero, or White lake, in Mufcovy,
which is the fource of the river Shakfna ; the great
lake Chaamay, which emits four very large rivers,
which water the countries of Siam, Pegu, &.c. viz. the
Menan, the Ava, the Caipoumuo, the Laquia, &c.
The third fpecies of lakes, which receive rivers but
emit none, apparently owe their origin to thofe rivers
which, in their progrefs from their fource, falling in¬
to fome extenfive cavity, are colledled together, and
form a lake of fuch dimenfions as may lofe as, much
by exhalation as it continually receives from thefe
fources: of this kind is that great lake, improperly
called the Cafpian fea ; the lake Afphaltites, alfo call¬
ed the Dead fea ; the lake of Geneva, and feveral
others. Of the fourth fpecies, wdiich both receive and
emit rivers, we reckon three kinds, as the quantity
they emit is greater, equal, or lefs, than they receive.
If it be greater, it is plain that they muft be fupplied
by fprings at the bottom ; if lefs, the furplus of the
water is probably fpent in exhalations; and if it be
equal, their fprings juft fupply what is evaporated by
the fun.
Lakes are alfo divided into thofe of frefh water and
thofe of fait. Dr Halley is of opinion, that all great
perennial lakes are faline, either in a greater or lefs
degree; and that this faltnefs increafes with time : and
on this foundation he propofes a method for determin¬
ing the age of the world.
Large lakes anfwer the moft valuable purpofes in
the northern regions, the warm vapours that arife from
them moderating the pinching cold of thofe climates ;
and, w'hat is ftill a greater advantage, when they are
placed in warmer climates at a great diftance from the
fea, the exhalations raifed from them by the fun caufe
the countries that border upon them to be refreflied
with frequent {bowers, and confequently prevent their
being barren deferts.
Lake, or Lacqt/e, a preparation of different fub-
ftances into a kind of magiftery for the ufe of painters.
One of the fineft and firft invented of which was that
of gum lacca or lacque; from which all the reft, as made
by the fame precefs, are called by the common name
lacquer. See Lacca.
The method of preparing thefe in general may be
3 H known
L A K [ 498 ] LAM
Lake, known t>y the example of that of the curcuma root of
v.,^"Vn." 1 (hops, called turmeric root; the proceis for the
making of which is this : Take a pound of turmeric
root in fine powder, three pints of water, and an ounce
of fait of tartar •, put all into a glazed earthen veffel,
and let them boil together over a clear gentle fire, till
the water appears highly impregnated with the root,
and will {lain a paper to a beautiful yellow. Filtre
this liquor, and gradually add to it a ftrong folution
of rock alum in water, till the yellow matter is all
curdled together and precipitated j after this pour
the whole into a filtre of paper, and the water will run
off and leave the yellow matter behind. It is to be
walhed many times with frefii water, till the water
comes off infipid. and then is obtained the beautiful
yellow called lacque of turmeric, and ufed in paint-
ing.
In this manner may a lake be made of any of the
tinging fubftances that are of a fomewhat ftrong tex¬
ture, as madder, logwood, &c. but it will not fucceed
in the more tender fpecies, as the flowers of rofes, vio¬
lets, &x. as it deftroys the nice arrangement of parts
in thofe fubjefts on which the colour depends.
A yellow lake for painting is to be made from
broom flowers in the following manner : Make a ley of
pot aihes and lime reafonably ftrong \ in this boil, at a
gentle fire, frefh broom flowers till they are white, the
ley having extrafted all their colour j then take out
the flowers, and put the ley to boil in earthen veffels
over the fire j add as much alum as the liquor will dif-
folve ;, then empty this ley into a veffel of clean water,
and it will give a yellow colour at the bottom. Let
all fettle, and decant off the clear liquor. Wafh this
powder, which is found at the bottom, with more wa¬
ter, till all the falls of the ley are walhed off; then fe-
parate the yellow matter, and dry it in the lhade. It
proves a very valuable yellow.
Handmaid Lake is at prelent feldom prepared from any other
to the Arts, fubftance than fcarlet rags, cochineal, and Bralil wood,
vol i. p. Gi-Xhe bell of what is commonly fold is made from the
colour extracted from fcarlet rags, and depofited on
the cuttle-bone ; and this may be prepared in the fol¬
lowing manner : Diffolve a pound of the bell pearl
alhes in two quarts of water, and filtfe the liquor through
paper j add to this folution two more quarts of water
and a pound of clean fcarlet Ihreds, and boil them in a
pew ter boiler till the Ihreds have loft their fcarlet co¬
lour take out the Ihreds and prefs them, and put the
coloured whaler yielded by them to the other : in the
lame folution boil another pound of the Ihreds, pro¬
ceeding in the fame manner ; and likewife a third and
fourth pound. Whilft this is doing, difl'olve a pound
and a kalf of cuttle-filh bone in a pound of ftrong
aquafortis in a glafs receiver j adding more cf the bone
it it appear to produce any ebullition in the aquafortis j
and pour this {trained folution gradually into the other j
but if any ebullition be occafioned, more of the cuttle-
filh bone mult be diffolved as before, and added till no
ebullition appears in the mixture. The crimfon fedi-
ment depofited by the liquor thus prepared is the lake :
pour off the water ; and ftir the lake in two gallons
of hard fpring water, and mix the fediment in two
gallons of frelh water , let this method be repeated
four or five times. If no hard water can be procured,
or the lake appears too purple, half an ounce of alum
ftiould be added to each quantity of water before it be Lake, ,
ufed. Having thus fufficiently freed the lake from Lama,
the falls, drain off the water through a filtre, covered
with a worn linen cloth. When it has been drained
to a proper drynefs, let it be dropped through a pro¬
per funnel on clean boards, and the drops will become
fmall cones or pyramids, in which form the lake
mull be fullered to dry, and the preparation is com¬
pleted.
Lake may be prepared from cochineal, by gently
boiling two ounces of cochineal in a quart of water j
filtering the folution through paper, and adding two
ounces of pearl-allies diffolved in half a pint of warm
water, and filtered through paper. Make a folution of
cuttle-bone as in the former procefs j and to a pint of
it add two ounces of alum difl'olved in half a pint of
water. Put this mixture gradually to that of the
cochineal and pearl-allies, as long as any ebullition
appears to arife, and proceed as above. A beautiful
lake may be prepared from Bralil wood, by boiling
three pounds of it for an hour in a folution of three
pounds of common fait in three gallons of water, and
filtering the hot fluid through paper ; add to thjs a
folution of five pounds of alum in three gallons of
water. Diffolve three pounds of the bell pearl-allies
in a gallon and a half of water, and purify it by filter-
ing ; put this gradually to the other, till the whole of
the colour appear to be precipitated, and the fluid
be left clear and colourlefs. But if any appearance of
purple be feen, add a frelh quantity of the folution of
alum by degrees, till a fcarlet hue be produced. Then
purfue the directions given in the firft procefs with re¬
gard to the fediment. If half a pound of feed lac be
added to the folution of pearl-allies, and diffolved in it
before its purification by the filtre, and two pounds of
the wood, and a proportional quantity of the common
fait and wrater be ufed in the coloured folution, a lake
will be produced that will Hand well in oil or water,
but is not fo tranfparent in oil as without the feed lac.
The lake with Brafil wrood may be alfo made by add¬
ing half an ounce of anotto to each pound of the wood 5
but the anotto mult be diffolved in the folution of
pearl-alhes. There is a kind of beautiful lake brought
from China ; but as it does not mix well with either
water or oil, though it diffolves entirely in fpirit of
wine, it is not of any ufe in our kinds of painting.
This has been erroneoully called fafflower*
Orange Lake, is the tinging part of anotto precipi¬
tated together with the earth of alum. This pigment,
which is of a bright orange colour, and fit for varnilh
painting, where there is no fear of flying, and alfo for
putting under cryftal to imitate the vinegar garnet,
may be prepared by boiling four ounces of the bell
anotto and one pound of pearl-allies half an hour in a
gallon of w’ater j and {training the folution through
paper. Mix gradually with this a folution of a pound
and a half of alum in another gallon of water j defin¬
ing when no ebullition attends the commixture. Treat
the fediment in the manner already direfted for other
kinds of lake, and dry it in fquare bits or round lo¬
zenges.
LAMA, a fynonyme of the camelus pacos. See
Camelus, Mammalia Index.
Lama, the fovereign pontiff, or rather god, of the
Afiatic Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barantola.
The
LAM [ 499 ] L A M
Xa:na. The lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the
—country, but alfo by the kings of Tartary, who fend
him rich prefents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him
adoration, calling him lama congiu, i. e. “ god, the
everlalting father of heaven.” He is never to be feen
but in a fecret place of his palace, amidft a great num¬
ber of lamps, fitting crofs-legged upon a cufhion, and
adorned all over with gold and precious (tones 5 where
at a diftance they proftrate themfelves before him, it
not being lawful for any to kifs even his feet. He is
called great lama, or lama of lamas ; that is, “ pried
of prieds.” The orthodox opinion is, that when the
grand lama feems to die either of old age or infirmity,
his foul in fa£t only quits a crazy habitation to look for
another younger or better •, and it is diicovered again
in the body of fome child, by certain tokens known
only to the lamas or prieds, in which order he always
appears.
The following account of the ceremonies attend¬
ing the inauguration of the infant lama in Thibet
is extracted from the fird volume of the Afiatic Re-
fearches.
The emperor of China appears on this occafion to
have affumed a very confpicuous part in giving tedi-
mony of his refpeft and zeal for the great religious fa¬
ther of his faith. Early in the year 1784, he difmif-
fed anibaffadors from the court of Pekin to Teedioo
Loomhoo, to reprefent their fovereign in fupporting
the dignity of the high pried, and do honour to the oc¬
cafion of the aflumption of his office. Dalai Lama
and the viceroy of Lada, accompanied by all the court,
one of the Chinefe generals da tinned at Lafla with a
part of the troops under his command, two of the four
magidrates of the city, the heads of every monadery
throughout Thibet, and the emperor’s ambafladors,
appeared at Teedioo Loomboo, to celebrate this epocha
in their theological inditutions. The 28th day of the
feventh moon, correfponding nearly, as their year com¬
mences with the vernal equinox, to the middle of Oc¬
tober 1784, was chofen as the mod aufpicious for the
ceremony of inauguration : a few days previous to
which the lama was conduced from Terpaling, the mo¬
nadery in which he had pafled his infancy, with every
mark of pomp and homage that could be paid by an
enthufiadic people. So great a concourfe as allembled
either from curiofity or devotion was never feen before,
for not a perfon of any condition in Ihibet was abfent
who could join the fuite. The proceffion was hence
necefiarily condrained to move fo flow, that though
Terpaling is fituated at the didance of 20 miles only
from Teeffioo Loomboo, three days expired in the per¬
formance of this ffiort march. The fird halt was made
at Tfondue ; the fecond at Summaar, about fix miles
off, whence the mod fplendid parade was referved for
the lama’s entry on the third day, the account of
which is given by a perfon who was prefent in the
proceffion. The road, he fays, was previoufly prepa¬
red by being whitened with a w'affi, and having piles
of dones heaped up with fmall intervals between on
either fide. The retinue paffed between a double row
of prieds, who formed a dreet extending all the way
from Summaar to the gates of the palace. Some of
the prieds held lighted rods of a perfumed compofition
that burn like decayed wood, and emit an aromatic
(moke j the red were furnidied with the different mu-
fical indruments they ufe at their devotions, fuch as Lama,
the gong, the cymbal, hautboy, trumpets, drums, and
fiea (hells, which were all founded in uni. with the
hymn they chanted. - The crowd of fpe&ators was
kept without the dreet, and none ad mb ted on the
high road but fuch as properly belonged to or had a
preferibed place in the proceffion, which was arranged
in the following order.
The van was led by three military commandants or
governors of cbftri&s at the head of 6000 or 7000 horfe-
tnen armed with quivers, bows, and matchlocks. In
their rear followed the ambaffador with his fuite, car-
rying his diploma, as is the cudom of China, made up
in the form of a large tube, and fadened on his back.
Next the Chinefe general advanced with the troops un¬
der his command, mounted, a^ 1 accoutred after their
way with fire arms and fabres , then came a very nu¬
merous group bearing tl*e various dandards and infig-
nia of date ; next to them moved a full band of wind
and other fonorous indruments : after which were led
two horfes richly caparifbned, each carrying two large
circular doves difpofed like panniers acrois the horfe’s
bpek and filled with burning aromatic woods. Thefe
were followed by a fenior pried, called a lama, who
bore a box containing books of their form of prayer
and fome favourite idols. Next nine fumpter hoifes
were led loaded with the lama’s apparel •, after which
came the prieds immediately attached to the lama’s
perfen for the performance of daily offices in the
temple, amounting to about 700 5 following them
Were two men each carrying on his (libulder a large
cylindrical gold infignium emboffed with emblematical
figures (a gift from the emperor of China). The Du-
hunniers and Soopoons, who were employed in com¬
municating addreffes and didributing alms, immediate¬
ly preceded the lama’s bier, which was covered with
a gaudy canopy, and borne by eight of the 16 Chinefe
appointed for this fervice. On one fide of the bier at¬
tended the regent, on the other the lama’s father. It
was followed by the heads of the different monaderies,
and as the proceffion advanced, the prieds who formed
the dreet fell into the rear and brought up the fuite,
which moved at an extremely flow pace, and about
noon was received within the confines of the monadery,
amidd an amazing difplay of colours, the acclamations
of the crowd, folemn mufic, and the chanting of their
prieds.
The lama being fafely lodged in the palace, the re¬
gent and Soopoon Choomboo went out, as is a cudo-
mary compliment paid to vifitors of high rank on their
near approach, to meet and conduct Dalai Lama and
the viceroy of Lada who were on the way to Teefhoo
Loomboo. Their retinues encountered the following
morning at the foot of Painom cadle, and the next day
together entered the monadery of Teedioo Loomboo,
in which both Dalai Lama and the viceroy were ac¬
commodated during their day.
The following morning, which was the third after
Teeffioo Lama’s arrival, he was carried to the great
temple, and about noon feated upon the throne of his
progenitors •, at which time the emperor’s ambafiador
delivered his diploma, and placed the prefents with
which he had been charged at the lama’s feet.
The three next enfuing days, Dalai Lama met Tee-
(hoo Lama in the temple, where they were affided by
3R2 all
JL A M [ 5C0 ] LAM
a]l the priefls in the invocation and public worfliip of
^manon., goc(s> The rites then performed completed, as
we underhand, the bufinefs of inauguration. During
this interval all who were at the capital were entertain¬
ed at the public expence, and alms were diirribyted
without referve. In conformity likewife to previous
notice circulated everywhere for the fame fpace of
time, univerfal rejoicings prevailed throughout Thibet.
Banners were unfurled on all their fortreues, the pea-
fantry filled up the day with mufic and feftivity, and
th e night was celebrated by general illuminations. A
long period was afterwards employed in making pre¬
sents and public entertainments to the newly induced
lama, who at the time of his acceffion to the mufnud,
or, if we may ufe the term, pontificate of Teelhoo
Loomboo, was not three years of age. The ceremony
was begun by Dalai Lama, whofe offerings are faid to
have amounted to a greater value, and his public en¬
tertainments to have been more fplendid than the reft.
The fecond day was dedicated to the viceroy of Lafla.
The third to the Chinefe general. Then followed the
cullcong or magiftrates of Lafla, and the reft of the
principal perfons who had accompanied Dalai Lama.
After which the regent of Teefhoo Loomboo, and
all that were dependent on that government, were fe-
verally admitted, according to pre-eminence of rank,
to pay their tributes of obeifance and refpeft. As
foon as the acknowledgements of all thofe were received
who were admiflible to the privilege, Teefhoo Lama
made in the fame order fuitable returns to each, and
the confummation lafted 40 days.
Many importunities were ufed with Dalai Lama to
prolong his ixay atTeeflioo Loomboo j but he excufed
himfelf from encumbering the capital any longer with
fo numerous a concourfe of people as attended on his
movements, and deeming it expedient to make his ab-
fence as fhort as poflible from the feat of his authority,
at the expiration of 40 days he withdrew with all his
fuite to Laflfa, and the emperor’s ambaflador received
his difmiftion to return to China, and thus terminated
this famous feftival.
LAMANON, Robert Paul, a celebrated natura-
lift, was born at Salon in Provence, in the year 1752,
of a refpeftable family. He was deftined for the church,
and fent to Paris to ftudy divinity ; but the acquaint¬
ance of philofophers foon made him relinquifh his theo¬
logical purfuits, and he turned his attention to chemi-
ftry and mineralogy. Yet he afterwards became a ca¬
non in the church ; but the death of; his father and el¬
der brother caufed him to refign an office to which he
was never attached, and he now poffeffed the power of
dire&ing his own future exertions. One amiable trait
in the charafter ofLamanon is highly worthy of notice,
and that is, that he refuted to accept of his paternal in¬
heritance, but as an equal fliarer with his brothers and
lifters. When offered a confiderable fum to refign his
office of canon in favour of a certain individual, he re¬
plied, “ the chapter of Arles did not fell me my bene¬
fice; I (hall therefore reftore it in the fame manner that
I received it,” which was a conduft undoubtedly me¬
ritorious. Anxious to remove the veil -which conceals
the fecrets of nature from mortal eyes, he travelled
through Provence and Dauphine, and fealed the Alps
and Pyrenees. He reached the fummit of rocks, and
explored the abyfs of caverns, weighed the air, analyf-
ed fpecimens, and in ffiort confidered himfelf qualified Lamancn,
to form a new fyftem of this world. Lamb.
After feme time he returned to Paris, and from V'—"'
thence went over to England ; and although he was in
imminent danger of being overwhelmed by the un¬
governable fury of the waves, he ordered himfelf to be
tied to the main-maft, that he might be enabled to
contemplate more at leifure this grand and terrific fpec-
tacle, Inftead of being difmayed, he was tranfported
with the tremendous roar of thunder, the vivid fiafhes
of lightning, the glancing fpray with which he -was
almoft inceffantly covered ; and in his own eftimation
this was the moft exquifite day which he ever enjoyed.
During the time which Lamanon afterwards fpent at
Paris, he became one of the founders of the mufeum.
Again refolving to revifit Switzerland and Italy, he
went firft to lurin, where he joined himfelf to the
learned of that country. From Piedmont he went to
Italy, returning by the way of Switzerland, where he
explored the Alps, and afeended to the top of Monfc
Blanc ; and on his return to Provence with the fpoils
of the countries which he had vifited, he properly
arranged the interefting fruits of his journey. While
Lamanon was preparing for the prefs his interefting
work on the I'heory of the Earth, the French go¬
vernment conceived the defign of completing the dif-
coverits of Captain Cook, and the academy of fciences
was charged with the felecftion of men qualified to rec¬
tify our notions of the fouthern hemifphere. Condor-
cet therefore made choice of Lamanon fur advancing
the progrefs of natural hiftory connefited with this
great enterprife, and he received the invitation of that
philofopher with the moft eager tranfports. He fet
out for Paris, refufed the lalary offered him, took leave
of his friends, and went dire&ly for Breft. The arma¬
ment under the command of the juftly celebrated but
unfortunate La Pevoufe, fet fail on the ift of Auguft
1785 ; and having reached the ifland of Maouna, La¬
manon went afliore with the crew of two boats, where
he fell a facrifice to the fury of the favages, bravely
fighting in felf-defence.
In the eftimation of his eulogift M. Ponee, Lama¬
non feemed dellined to effect fome great revolution in
fcience. His ideas were profound, his charafler ener¬
getic, his mind fagacious, and he poffeffed that lively
curiofity which can draw inftru&ion out of any thing,
and which might have led him in time to the moft in¬
terefting difeoveries. His perfon was tall, his counte¬
nance highly expreflive, his ftrength and aftivity al¬
moft incredible. His ftyle as a writer is nervous, and
he was eminently endowed w ith the precifion of logical
reafoning, which cannot fail to command attention and
enforce perfuafion.
LAMB, in Zoology, the young of the ffieep kind.
See Ovis, Mammalia Index.
Scythian LAMB, a kind of mofs, which grows about
the roots of. fern in fome of the northern parts of Eu¬
rope and Alia, and fometimes aflumes the form of a qua¬
druped; fo called from a fuppofedrefemblance in fliape
to that animal. It has fomething like four feet, and its
body is covered with a kind of down. Travellers re¬
port that it will fuffer no vegetable to grow within a
certain diftance of its feat. Sir Hans Sloane read a me¬
moir upon this plant before the Society ; for which
thofe who think it worth while may confult their Tranf-
a£lions#
LAM [ 501 ] LAM
Xarr.b a&ions, N° 245, p. 461. Mr Bell, in his “ Account
H of a journey from St Peterfourgh to Ifpahan,” informs
Lambert. i'earched in vain for this plant in the neigh¬
bourhood of Aftracan, when at the fame time the more
fenfible and experienced amongft the Tartars treated
the whole hiftory as fabulous.
LAMBECIUS, Peter, born at Hamburgh in
1628, was one of the molt- learned men of his time.
He went very young to fludy in foreign countries, at
the expence of his uncle the learned Holftenius. He
wjts chofen profeffor of hiftory at Hamburgh in 1652,
and redtor of the college of that city in 1660. Pie had
taken his degree of dodlor of law in France before. He
fuffered a thoufand vexations in his own country 5 be-
caufe his enemies charged him with atheifm, and cen-
fured his writings bitterly. He married a rich lady,
but who was fo very covetous that he left her in dif-
guft within a fortnight. He went to Vienna, and from
thence to Rome, where he publicly profeffed the Catho¬
lic religion. He returned to Vienna in 1662, where
he was kindly received by the emperor, who appointed
him his fublibrarian, and afterwards his principal libra¬
rian, with the title of coutifellor and hijlori&graptier ; in
which employment he continued till his death, and
gained a great reputation by the works he publiftied,
viz. 1. An Efiay on Aulus Gellius. 2. The Antiqui¬
ties of Hamburgh. 3. Remarks on Codinus’s Antiqui¬
ties of Conftantinople, &c.
LAMBERT of Afchaffenburgh, a Benedidline
monk, in the nth century, wrote feveral works j
among which is a hiftory of Germany, from the year
1050 to 1077.
Lambert, John, general of the parliament’s forces
in the civil wars of the laft century, was of a good fa¬
mily, and for feme time ftudied the law in one of the
inns of court 5 but upon the breaking out of the rebel¬
lion, went into the parliament army, where he foon rofe
to the rank of colonel, and by his conduft and valour
performed many eminent fervices. But when Crom¬
well feemed inclined to aflame the title of king, Lam¬
bert oppofed it with great vigour, and even refufed to
take the oath required by the aflembly and council to
be faithful to the government •, on w liich Cromwell de¬
prived him of his commiflion, but granted him a pen-
fion of 2200I. a-year. This w'as an ad! of prudence ra¬
ther than of generofity ; as he well knew, that fuch
genius as Lambert’s, rendered defperate by poverty,
was capable of attempting any thing.
Lambert being now diverted of all employment, re¬
tired to Wimbleton houfe where turning florift, he
had the fineft tulips and gilliflowers that could be got
for love or money. Yet amidft thefe amufements he
ftill nourilhed his ambition j for when Richard Crom¬
well fucceeded his father, he adted fo effedtually with
Fleetwood, Delborough, Vane, Berry, and others, that
the new protector was obliged to furrender his authori¬
ty *, and the members of the long parliament, who had
continued fitting till the 20th of April 1653. when
Oliver difmifled them, were reftored to their ieats, and
Lambert was immediately appointed one of the council
of ftate, and colonel of a regiment of horfe and another
of foot. For this fervice the parliament prefented him
loool. to buy a jew'el; but he diftributed it among his
officers. This being foon known to the parliament,
they concluded that he intended to fccure a party in the
army. They therefore courteoufly invited him to come Lambert
to London but refolved, as foon as he flrould arrive, Lom|ch
to fecure him from doing any further harm. Lambert, . “ ‘
apprehenfive of this, delayed his return, and even refu¬
fed to refign his commiffion when it was demanded of
him and of eight of the other leading officers j and,
marching up to London with his army, diflodged the
parliament by force in October 1659. He was then
appointed, by a council of the officers, major-general
of the army, and one of the newr council for the ma¬
nagement of public affairs, and fent to command the
forces in the north. But General Monk marching
from Scotland into England to fupport the parliament,
againft which Lambert had afted with fuch violence,
the latter, being deferted by his army, was obliged to
fubmit to the parliament, and by their order was com¬
mitted prifoner to the Tower ; whence efcaping, he foon
appeared in arms with four troops under his command,
but was defeated and taken prifbner by Colonel In¬
gold (by.
At the Rcftoration he was particularly excepted out
of the aft of indemnity. Being brought to his trial
on the 4th of June 1662, for levying war againft the
king, this daring general behaved with more iubmiffion
than the meaneft of his fellow prifoners, and was by his
majefty’s favour reprieved at the bar, and fentenced to
be confined during life in the ifland of Guernfey,
Lambert, Anna Therefa de Marguenat de Courcelfes,
marchionefs of, an elegant moral writer, was the only
daughter of Stephen Marguenat lord of Courcelles. In
1666 ftie married Henry de Lambert, who at his death
was lieutenant-general of the army 5 and ftie afterwards
remained a widow with a ion and a daughter, whom
ftie educated with great care. Her houfe was a kind
of academy, to which perfons of diftinguifhed abilities
regularly reforted. She died at Paris in 1733, aged 86.
Her works, which are written with much tafte, judge¬
ment, and delicacy, are printed in 2 vols. The advice
of a mother to her fon and daughter are particularly
efteemed.
LAMBIN, Dennis, an eminent claffical commen¬
tator, was born at Montreuil-fur-Mer, in Picardy, and
acquired great (kill in polite literature. He lived for
a long time at Rome •, and at his return to Paris w'as
made royal profeflbr of the Greek language. Fie died
in 1572, aged 56, of pure grief at the death of his.
friend Ramus, who was murdered at the maffacre on
St Bartholomew’s day. He wrote commentaries on
Plautus, Lucretius, Cicero, and Horace, and other-
works. His commentary on Horace is more particu¬
larly efteemed.
LAMECH, of the race of Cain, was the fon of
Methufael, and father of Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-cain, and
Naamah, Gen. iv. 18, 19, 20, &c. Lamech is cele¬
brated in Scripture for his polygamy, whereof he is
thought to be the firft author in the world. He mar¬
ried Adah and Zillah. Adah w as the mother of Jabal
and Jubal 5 and Zillah of Tubal-cain, and Naamah his
filter. One day Lamech faid to his wives, “ Hear me.
ye wives of Lamech ; I have flain a man to my wound¬
ing, and a young man to my hurt. If Cain lhall be
avenged feven fold, truly Lamech feventy and feven
fold.” Thefe words are an unintelligible riddle. The
reader may confult the commentators. There is a
tradition among the Hebrews, that Lamech growing
blind,
LAM [ 5C2 ] LA M
Lamech blind, ignorantly killed Cain, believing him to be feme
.11 -wild bead } and that afterwards he flew his own fon
~JBel!umm -Tubal-cain, who had been the caufe of this murder,
^ becaufe he had diredted him to Ihoot at a certain place
in the thickets where he had feen fomething ftir. See
Cain.
Several other fuppofitions are produced in order to
explain this paffage concerning Lamech, and all almoft
equally uncertain and abfurd.
Lamech, the fon of Methufelah, and father of
Noah. He lived a hundred fourfeore and two years
before the birth of Noah, (Gen. v. 25, 31.) ; and af¬
ter that, he lived five hundred and ninety-five years
longer : thus the- whole time of his life was feven
hundred feventy-feven years, being born in the year
of the world 874, and dying in the year of the world
165!.
LAMELLAE, in Natural Hiflory, denotes very thin
plates, fuch as the feales of filhes are compofed of.
LAMENTATIONS, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, written by the prophet Jeremiah, accord¬
ing to Archbifhop Ufher and feme other learned men,
who follow the opinion of Jofephus and St Jerome, on
occafion of Jofiah’s death. But this opinion does not
feem to agree with the fubjedf of the book, the la¬
mentation compofed by Jeremiah on that occafion be¬
ing probably loft. The fifty-fecond chapter of the
book of Jeremiah was probably added by Ezra, as a
preface or introduction to the lamentations : the two
dSrft chapters are employed in deferihing the calami¬
ties of the fiege of Jerufalem : in the third the au¬
thor deplores the perfecutions he himfelf had fuffered :
the fourth treats of the defolation of the city and tem¬
ple, and the misfortunes of Zedekiah : the fifth chap¬
ter is a prayer for the Jews in their difperfion and cap¬
tivity : and at the clofe of all he fpeaks of the cruelty
of the Edomites, who had infulted Jerufalem in her
mifery. AH the chapters of this book, except the laft,
are in metre, and digefted in the order of the alpha¬
bet j with this difference, that in the firft, fecond,
and fourth chapters, the firft letter of every verfe fol¬
lows the order of the alphabet : but in the third the
lame initial letter is continued for three verfes toge¬
ther. This order was probably adopted, that the book
might be more eafily learnt and retained. The fub-
je£f of this book is of the moft moving kind *, and the
ftyle throughout lively, pathetic, and affeffing. In
this kind of writing the prophet Jeremiah was a great
mafter, according to the charadter which Grotius gives
of him, Mir us in affctlibus concitandis.
LAMIA, in slnaent Geography, a town of the
Phthiotis, a diftridt of Thelfaly. F amous for giving
name to the Vellum Lamiacum, waged by the Greeks,
on the Macedonians after Alexander’s death.
LAMIACUM bellum happened after the death
ot Alexander, when the Greeks, and particularly the
Athenians, incited by their orators, refolved to free
Greece from the garrifons of the Macedonians. Leof-
thenes was appointed commander of a numerous force,
and marched againil Antipater, who then prefided
over Macedonia. Antipater entered Tbeffaly at the
head of 13,000 foot and 600 horfe, and was beaten by
the fuperior force of the Athenians and of their Greek
confederates. Antipater after this blow fled to Lamia,
wheye he refolved, with all the courage and fagacity
of a careful general, to maintain a fiege with about 8000 Tan.' mm
or 9000 men that had efcaped from the field of battle. i5ellum
Leoithenes, unable to take the city by ftorm, began to T •)
7 . , * * o Lamoi^non,
make a regular fiege. His operations were delayed by ° t
the frequent fallies of Antipater : and Leofthenes be¬
ing killed by the blow of a ftone which he received,
Antipater made his efcape out of J.amia, and foon af¬
ter, with the afliftance of the army of Craterus brought
from Afia, he gave the Athenians battle near Cranon j
and though only 5CO of their men were flain, yet
they became fo difpirited, that they fued for peace
from the conqueror. Antipater at laft with difficulty
confented, provided they raifed taxes in the ufual man¬
ner, received a Macedonian garrifon, defrayed the ex-
pences of the war, and, laftly, delivered into his hands
Demoftheaes and Hyperides, the two orators whofe
prevailing eloquence had excited their countrymen
againft him. Thefe difadvantageous terms were ac¬
cepted by the Athenians, yet Demofthenes had time
to efcape and poifon himfelf. Hyperides was carried
before Antipater, by whofe orders, his tongue being
previoufly cut out, he was put to death.
LAMIiE, a fort of demons who had their exiftence
in the imaginations of the heathens, and were fuppof-
ed to devour children. Their form was human, re-
fembling beautiful women. Horace makes mention of
them in his Art of Poetry. The name, according to
fome, is derived from lanio, “ to tear j” or according
to others, is a corruption of a Hebrew word fignify-
ing to devour. They are alfo called Larvae or Lemu-
res.
LAMINiE, in Physiology, thin plates, or tables,
whereof any thing confifts j particularly the human
flcull, which are two, the one laid over the other.
LAMINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Carpatani in the Hither Spain; at the diftance of feven
miles from the head of the Anas or Guadiana: Now
Montiel, a citadel of New Caftile ; and the territory
called /Iger Laminitanus, is now el Campo de Montiel,
(Clufius).
LAMIUM, Dead-Nettle, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 42d order, Verticillata. See
Botany Index.
LAMMAS-DAY, the firft of Auguft ; fo called, as
fome will have it, becaufe lambs then grow out of fea-
fons, as being too big. Others derive it from a Saxon
word, fignifying “ loaf-mafs,” becaufe on that day our
forefathers made an offering of bread made with new
wheat.
On this day the tenants who formerly held lands of
the cathedral church in York, were bound by their te¬
nure to bring a lamb alive into the church at high
mafs.
LAMOIGNON, Chretien Francis de, marquis
of Baville, and prefident of the parliament of Paris, was
born in 1644. His father would not truft the educa¬
tion of his fon to another, but took it upon himfelf,
and entered into the minuteft particulars of his firft
ftudies : the love of letters and a folid tafte were the
fruits the fcholar reaped from this valuable education.
He learned rhetoric in the Jefuits college, made the
tour of England and Holland, and returned home the
admiration of thofe meetings regularly held by per-
fons of the firft merit at his father’s houfe. The fe-
veral
latTO!gnon
Lamp.
LAM [
veral branches of literature were however only
amufement: the law was his real employ and the elo¬
quence of the bar at Paris owes its reformation from
bombaft and affe&ed erudition to the plain and noble
pleadings of M. Lamoignon. He was appointed the
king’s advocate general in 1673 ; whieh he difeharged
until 1698, when the prefidentlhip of the parliament
was conferred on him. This poll he held nine years,
when he was allowed to refign in favour of his eldeft
fon : he was chofen prefident of the Royal Academy
of Infcriplions in 1705. The only work he fuffered
to fee the light was his Pleader, which is a monument
of his eloquence and inclination to polite letters. He
died in 1709.
LAMP, a veffel containing oil, with a lighted wick.
Lamps were in general ufe amongft the Jews, Greeks,
and Romans. The candleftick with feven branches,
placed in the fancluary by Mofes, and thofe which
Solomon afterwards prepared for the temple, were
crylfal lamps filled with oil, and fixed upon the
branches. The lamps or candlefticks made ufe of by
the Jews in their own houfes were generally put into
a very high Hand on the ground. The lamps fuppofed
to be ufed by the foolifh virgins, &c. in the gofpel,
were of a different kind.—According to critics and an¬
tiquaries, they were a fort of torches, made of iron or
potters earth, wrapped about with old linen, and
moiftened from time to time with oil. Matth. xxv.
1,2. The lamps of Gideon’s foldiers were of the fame
kind. The ufe of wax was not unknown to the Ro¬
mans, but they generally burnt lamps j hence the pro¬
verb Tempus et oleum perdidi, “ 1 have loft my labour.”
Lamps were fometimes burnt in honour of the dead,
both by Greeks and Romans.
Dr St Clair, in the Philof. Tranf. N° 245, gives the
defeription of an improvement on the common lamp.
He propofes that it fhould be made two or three inches
deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoft as
high as the top of the veffel. Let it be filled fo high
with water that it may cover the whole of the pipe at
the bottom, that the oil may not get in at the pipe
and fo be loft. Then let the oil be poured in fo as to
fill the veffel almoft brim full j and to the veffel muft be
adapted a cover having as many holes as there are to
be wicks. When the veffel is filled and the wicks light-
S°3 1 L A M
his 6d. per gallon, makes the expence of burning 12 hours Limp.
only 2.34 farthings. t""_ v
Perpetual LAMPS. The teftimony of Pliny, St
Auftin, and others, have led many to believe that the
ancients had the invention of perpetual lamps j and
feme moderns have attempted to find out the fecret,
but hitherto in vain. Indeed it feems no eafy matter
to find out either a perpetual wick or perpetual oil.
The curious may read I)r Plot’s conjeftures on the
fubjeft in the Philof. Tranf. N° 166 * or in Lowthorp’s
Abridgement, vol. iii. p. 636. But few', wre believe,
will give themfelves the trouble of fearching for the
fecret, when they confider that the credulity of Pliny
and of St Auftin was fuch, that their teftimony does
not feem a fufficient inducement to us to believe a lamp
was ever formed to bum 1500 or 1000 years: much
lefs is it credible that the ancients had the fecret of
making one burn for ever.
Rolling LAMPS. A machine AB, with two moveable Hate
circles DE, FG, w ithin it ; whofe common centre of cclxxxix«
motion and gravity is at K, where their axes of mo¬
tion crofs one another. If the lamp KC, made pretty
heavy and moveable about its axis HI, and whole
centre of gravity is at C, be fitted within the inner cir¬
cle, the common centre of gravity of the whole machine
will fall between K and C •, and by reafon of the pi¬
vots A, B, D, E, H, I, will be always at liberty to de-
feend : hence, though the whole machine be rolled along
the ground, or moved in any manner, the flame will
always be uppermoft, and the oil cannot fpill.
It is in this manner they hang the compafs at fea j
and thus Ihould all the moon lanterns be made, that are
carried before coaches, chaifes, and the like.
Argand's LAMP. This is a very ingenious contri¬
vance, and the greateft improvement in lamps that has
yet been made. It is the invention of a citizen of Ge¬
neva ; and the principle on which the fuperiority of
the lamp depends, is the admiflion of a larger quantity
of air to the flame than can be done in the common
way. This is accomplifhed by making the wick of a
circular form ; by which means a current of air ruflies
through the cylinder on which it is placed w'ith great
force; and, along with that which has accefs to the
outfide, excites the flame to fuch a degree that the
fmoke is entirely confumed. Thus both the light and
ed, if Avater falls in by drops at the pipe, it will always heat are prodigioully increafed, at the fame time that
keep the oil at the fame height or very near it j the
weight of the w'ater being to that of the oil as 20-^
to 19, which in two or three inches makes no great
difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil waftes,
it will only run over at the top of the pipe, and what
does not run over will come under the oil, and keep it
at the fame height.
From experiments made in order to afeertain the
expence of burning chamber oil in lamps, it appears,
that a taper lamp, with eight threads of cotton in the
wick, confumes in one hour TVoV oz* °f fpermaceti oil,
at 2s. 6d. per gallon ; fo that the expence of burning
r2 hours is 4.57 farthings. This lamp gives as good
a light as the candles of eight and ten in the pound j
it feldom wants fnuffing, and calls a ftrong and Heady
light. A taper, chamber, or watch lamp, with four
ordinary threads of cotton in the wick, confumes
0,166407.. of fpermaceti oil in one hour 5 the oil at 2s.
I
there is very confiderable faving in the expence of oil,
the combuftion being exceedingly augmented by the
quantity of air admitted to the flame j and that what
in common lamps is diflipated in fmoke is here con¬
verted into a brilliant flame.
This lamp is now very much in ufe j and is applied
not only to the ordinary purpofes of illumination, but
allb to that of a lamp furnace for chemical operations,
in which it is found to exceed every other contrivance
yet invented. It confifts of two parts, viz. a refervoir
for the oil, and the lamp rtfelf. The refervoir is ufually
in the form of a vafe, and has the lamp proceeding
from its fide. The latter confifts of an upright metal¬
lic tube about one inch and fix-tenths in diameter,
three inches in length, and open at both ends. With¬
in this is another tube about an inch in diameter, and
nearly of an equal length ; the fpace betwixt the two
being left clear for the paffage of the air. The inter¬
nal
LAM
rial tube is clofed at the bottom, and contains another
limilar tube about half an inch in diameter, which is
foldered to the bottom of the fecond. It is perforated
throughout, fo as to admit a current of air to pafs
through it; and the oil is contained in the fpace be¬
twixt the tube and that which furrounds it. A par¬
ticular kind of cotton cloth is ufed for the wick, the
longitudinal threads of which are much thicker than
the others, and which nearly fills the fpace into which
the oil flows ; and the mechanifm of the lamp is fuch,
that the wick may be raifed or depreffed at pleafure.
When the lamp is lighted, the flame is in the form1 of
a hollow cylinder ; and by reafon of the firong influx
of air through the heated metallic tube, becomes ex¬
tremely bright, the fmoke being entirely confumed for
the reafons already mentioned. The heat and light
are ftill farther increafed, by putting over the whole a
glafs cylinder nearly of the iize of the exterior tube.
By diminifhing the central aperture, the heat and light
are proportionably diminiflied, and the lamp begins to
fmoke. The accefs of air both to the external and in¬
ternal furfaces of the flame is indeed fo very neceffary,
that a fenfible difference is perceived when the hand is
held even at the diflance of an inch below the lower
aperture of the cylinder ; and there is alfo a certain
'length of wick at which the effect of the lamp is
flrongefl. If the wick be very fliort, the flame, though
white and brilliant, emits a difagreeable and pale kind
of light j and if very long, the upper part becones
brown, and fmoke is emitted.
The faving of expence in the ufe of this inflrument
for common purpofes is very confiderable. By fome
experiments it appears that the lamp will continue to
burn three hours for the value of one penny : and the
following was the refult of the comparifon between the
light emitted by it and that of a candle. The lat¬
ter having been fuffered to burn fo long without fnuf-
fing, that large lumps of coally matter were formed
upon the wick, gave a light at 24 inches diftance equal
to the lamp at 129 inches: whence it appeared that
the light of the lamp was equal to 28 candles in this
ftate. On fluffing the candle, however, its light w'as
fo much augmented, that it became neceffary to re¬
move it to the diftance of 67 inches before its light
became equal to that of the lamp at 1 29 inches 5 whence
it wras concluded that the light of the lamp was fome-
what lefs than that of four candles freffi fnuffed. At
another trial, in which the lamp was placed at the di¬
ftance of 1314 inches, and a candle at the diftance of
55 inches, the lights were equal. In thefe experiments
the candles made ufe of were io-j inches long, and 2-/6-
inches in diameter. When the candle was newly fnuff¬
ed, it appeared to have the advantage ; but the lamp
foon got the fuperiority j and on the whole it was con¬
cluded, that the lamp is at leaft equivalent to half a
dozen of tallow candles of fix in the pound ; the ex¬
pence of the one being only twopence halfpenny, -and
the other eightpence, in feven hours.
The heft method of comparing the two lights to¬
gether feems to be the following : Place the greater
light at a confiderable diftance from a white paper, the
fmalier one being brought nearer or removed farther
off as occafion requires. If an angular body be held
before the paper, it will projeft two fnadows : thefe
two lhadows can coincide only in part; and their an-
L A M
gular extremities will, in all pofitions but one, be at Lamp,
fome diftance from each other $ and. being made to i-—v*”
coincide in a certain part of their bulk, they will be
bordered by a lighter fliadow, occafioned by the ex-
clufion of the light from each of the two luminous bo¬
dies refpedlively. Thefe lighter ftiadows, in faft, are
fpaces of the white paper illuminated by the different
luminous bodies, and may eafily be compared together,
becaufe at a certain point they adually touch one ano¬
ther. If the fpace illuminated by the fmaller light
appear brighteft, the light muft be removed farther off,
but the contrary if it appear more obfeure.
. On cutting open one of Argand’s wicks longitudi¬
nally, and thus reducing the circular flame to a ftraight-
lined one, the lights appeared quite equal in power j
but the circular one had by far the greateft effect in
dazzling the eyes ; though when the long flame was
made to fliine on the paper, not by the broadfide, but
in the direaion of its length, it appeared more dazzling
than the other. On placing this long flame at right
angles to the ray of Argand’s lamp, it projeaed no
fhadow : but when its length was placed in the direc¬
tion of the ray, it gave a ftiadow bordered with two
broad, well defined, and bright lines.
The broad-wicked lamp feems to have the advantage
of the other, as requiring lefs apparatus j and indeed
by this contrivance we may at the moll trifling expence
have a lamp capable of giving any degree of light we
pleafe. The only difadvantage attending either the
one or the other is, that they cannot eafily be carried
from one place to another j and in this refpeft it does
not feem poffible by any means to bring lamps to an
equality with candles.
I. he moft economical method of lighting up large
apartments by means of different lamps and candles, as
it is of great importance, has occupied the attention of
many ingenious men, particularly of Count Rumford
and M. Haffenfratz. The following is the fimple and
accurate method propofed by the count, for meafuring
the relative quantities of light emitted by lamps differ¬
ently conftruifted.
Let the two lamps or other burning bodies to be
compared, be denominated A and B ; and let them be
.placed at equal heights upon two light tables, or move-
able Hands, in a darkened room } let a Iheet of clean
white paper be equally fpread out, and faftened upon
the wainfeot, or fide of the room, at the fame height
from the floor as the lights j and let the lights be
placed oppofite to this flieet of paper, at the diftance of
lix and eight feet from it, and the fame from each other,
in fuch a manner, that a line drawn from the centre
of the paper, perpendicular to its furface, ftiall bifeft
the angle formed by lines drawn from the lights to that
centre 5 in which cafe, confidering the paper as a plane
fpeculum, the one light will be. precifely in the line of
refleftion of the other.
If the one light be rveaker than the other, and the
weaker being placed at the diftance of four feet from
the centre of the paper, it ftiould be found neceffary,
in order that the ftiadows may be of the fame denfity,
to remove the ftronger light to the diftance of eight
feet from that centre } in that cafe, the real intenfity
of the ftronger light will be to that of the weaker as
8* to 4% or as 4 to 1.
When the ftiadows are of equal denfity at any given
point,
[ S°4 ]
Limp
II. .
Lampridi-
LAM [ 505
point, the intenfity of the rays at that point are alfo
equal. The greateft care mufi. be taken in every cafe
that the lights compared be properly trimmed, elle the
refults of the experiments will be inconclufive.
Count Rumford found, from a variety of experiments
conducted with his ufual caution, that if oil is burnt in
the lamp called Argand’s lamp, inftead of one of the
common conitruftion, the confumer has a clear faving
of i 5 per cent, an obje£i of attention furely to thole
whofe finances are circumfcribed. The principal dif¬
ference between thefe -two lamps is, that in the com¬
mon lamp much of the oil is volatilized, without un¬
dergoing the procefs of combuftion, from which origi¬
nates the difagreeable fmell produced by it ; whereas
in Argand’s lamp the heat is fo intenfe at the top of
the wick, that the oil is decompofed in its patfage
through it, the wick being fo difpefed as to admit free
accefs to the air, for the purpofe of aiding combuftion.
The count having made experiments with different
inflammable fubftances, in order to afcertain which is
the cheapeft or moft econojnical, obtained the following
refults.
Bees-wax.—A good wax candle, kept well
fnuffed, and burning with a clear bright
flame,
Tallow.—A good tallow candle, kept well
fnuffed, and burning with a bright flame,
The fame burning dim for want of fnuffing,
Olive-oil—-Burnt in an Argand’s lamp, with a
clear bright flame, without fmoke,
Rape-oil—Burnt in the fame manner,
Linfeed-oil—Likewife burnt in the fame man-
Equal
parts in
weight.
100
101
229
129
125
120
This table, together with the current prices of the
articles mentioned in it, will enable any perfon to af¬
certain the relative prices of light produced by thefe
materials. It is worthy of obfervation, that 100 of
Argand’s lamps burning with fiih oil, are equal to 2x8
common lamps, 285 fpermaceti candles, 333 tallow
ditto, or 546 wax candles, from which it evidently ap¬
pears, that an Argand’s lamp is vaftly fuperior, in point
of economy, to any other burning body commonly
made ufe of in families or in {hops.
LAMP-B/ack, among colourmen. See COLOUR-Ma-
iingy N° 18, 19.—Subftances painted with lamp-black
and oil, are found to refiit the effedls of eleftricity to a
furprifing degree j fo that in many cafes even lightning
itfelf feeros to have been repelled by them.
LAMPADARY, an officer in the ancient church
ef Conftantinople, fo called from his employment,
which was to take care of the lamps, and to carry a
taper before the emperor er patriarch when they went
to church or in proceflion.
LAMPAS, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
LAMPREY. See Petromyzon, Ichthyology
Index.
LAMPRIDIUS, ^Elius, a Latin hiftorian, who
lived under the emperors Dioclefian and Conftantine
the Great. Of his writing there are extant the lives of
four emperors, Antoninus, Commodus, Diadumenus,
and Heliogabalus. Some attribute the life of Alex¬
ander Severus to him ; but the MS. in the Palatine
library aferibes it to Spartian.
Vol. XL Part II.
] LAN
LamfriDIUS, BenediB, of Cremona, a celebrated Lampriduis
Latin poet of the 16th century. He taught Greek II .
and Latin at Rome and at Padua, until he was invited }"'nCa^me‘.
to Mantua by Frederic Gonzaga to undertake the tui¬
tion of his fon. We have epigrams and lyric verfes
of this writer, both in Greek and Latin, which were
printed feparately, as well as among the Delicice of the
Italian poets.
LAMPSACUS, or Lampsacum, in Alncient Geo¬
graphy, a confiderable city of Myfia ; more anciently
called Pityea, (Homer), becaufe abounding in pine
trees, a circumftance confirmed by Pliny •, fituated at
the north end or entrance of the Hellefpont into the
Propontis, with a commodious harbour, oppofite to
Callipolis, in the Thracian Cherfonefus. It w as aflign-
ed by Artaxerxes to Themiftocles, for furnifhing his
table with wine, in which the country abounded. It
was faved from the ruin threatened by Alexander be¬
caufe in the intereft of Perfia, by the addrefs of Anaxi¬
menes the hiftorian, fent by his fellow-citizens to avert
the king’s difpleafure ; who hearing of it, folemnly de- •
dared he would do the very reverfe of Anaximenes’s
requeft, who therefore begged the king, utterly to de-
ftroy it, which he could not do becaufe of his oath.
Lampfacius the epithet, denoting lafcivus, the charafter
of the people : ftill called Lampfacus. E. Long. 28°
N. Lat. 40. 12.
LAMPYRIS, the Fire-fly, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the coleoptera order. See Entomology
Index.
LANCARIM spring, the name of a mineral wa¬
ter of Glamorganfhire. It has its name from a town
near which it rifes j and has been long famous for the
cure of the king’s evil. The fpring is very clear, and
rifes out of a pure white marl. The cures that have
been performed there, are proofs of a real power in the
w'ater. The perfons who come for relief not only drink
of the fpring, but alfo bathe the part affefted after¬
wards in the water.
LANCASHIRE, a large maritime province of Eng¬
land, w'aihed by the Irilh fea on the weft 5 bordering on
the north with part of Cumberland and Weftmoreland;
bounded on the eaft by the w'eft riding of Ycrkftxire, and
on the fouth by Chefliire; extending 73 miles in length,
and 4 rin breadth, comprehending 6 hundreds,63 pariihes,
27 market towns, 894 villages, above 114,000 houfes,
and more than 672,000 inhabitants in the year 1801.
The eaftern parts of the province are rocky, and in
the northern diftrifts we fee many Angle mountains re¬
markably high, fuch as Ingleborough hill, Cloughbo-
rough hill, Pendle hill, and Longridge hill. Nor is
there any want of wood in this county, either for tim»
ber or fuel; witnefs Wierfdale foreft and Rowland
foreft to the northward, and Simon’s wood in the
fouthern part of Lancaftiire.
This county is well watered with rivers and lakes.
Among the lakes or meres of Lancalhire, we reckon
the Winander mere j and the Kiningfton mere, which,
though neither fix large nor fo well ftored with fifh, yet
affords plenty of excellent char. There was on the
fouth fide of the Ribble another lake called Marton,
feveral miles in circumference, which is now drained,
and converted into pafture ground. In this operation,
the w'orkmen found a great quantity of fifti, together
with eight canoes, refembling thofe of America, fup-
3 S pofed
L A M _ r
Lancafliire. pofed to liave been ufed by the ancient Britifti fither-
» " ■ men. Befides thefe meres or lakes, this county abounds
with morafles and moffes, from which the inhabitants
di^ excellent peat or turi for fuel, as well as marl for
manuring the ground, and trunks of old fir trees,
fuppofed to have lain there fince the general deluge.
Some of thefe are fo impregnated with turpentine, that
when divided into fplinters, they burn like candles,
and are ufed for that purpofe by the common people.
There is a great variety of mineral waters in this coun¬
ty, fome periodical fprings, and one. inftance of a vio¬
lent eruption of water at Kirky in Fournels. The moll
remarkable chalybeate fpaws are thofe of Latham,
Wigan, Stockport, Bundy, Bolton, Plumpton, Mid¬
dleton, Strangeways, Lancaller, Larbrick, and Chor-
ly. At Ancliif, m the neighbourhood of Wigan, is
a fountain called the Burning Weil, from whence a bi¬
tuminous vapour exhales, which being fet on fire by a
candle burns like brandy, fo as to produce a heat that
will boil eggs to a hard confiftence, rvhile the water
*SeeBwr«-itfelf retains its original coldnefs*. There is at Barton
ipg Well, a fountain of fait water, fo ftrongly impregnated with
the mineral, as to yield fix times as much as can be ex-
tra&ed from the fame quantity of fea water. At Bog-
ham, in Fournefs, there is a purging faline fountain j
and in the neighbourhood of Raffal, where the ground
is frequently overflowed by the fea, a Bream deicends
from Hagbur hills, which, in the ipace of feven years,
is faid to convert the marl into a hard freeftone fit for
building. The air of Lancalhire is pure, healthy, and
agreeable, an obfervation equally applicable even to the
fens and the fea fhore, according to the experience of
thofe who have dwelt on that coafi for many years. The
foil is various in different parts of the county, poor
and rocky on the hills, fat and fertile in the valleys
and champaign country. The colour of the peat is
white, gray, or black, according to the nature of the
' compofition and the degree of putrefadb’on which the
ingredients have undergone. There is a bituminous
earth about Orm'lkirk, that fmells like the oil of am¬
ber, and indeed yields an oil of the fame nature, both
in its fcent and medicinal effe6ts, which moreover re¬
duces raw flelh to the confiftence of mummy ; this earth
burns like a torch, and is ufed as fueh by the country
people. The metals and minerals of this county confift
of lead, iron, copper, antimony, black lead, lapis cala-
minaris, fpar, green vitriol, alum, fulphur, pyrites, free¬
ftone, and pit and cannel coal.
The level country produces plenty of wheat and
barley, and the fkirts of the hills yield good harvefts
of excellent oats : very good hemp is raifed in di¬
vers parts of the province ; and the pafture which
grows in the valley is fo peculiarly rich, that the cat¬
tle which feed upon it are much larger and fatter than
in any other part of England. No part of the world
is better fupplied than Lancaftiire with provifions of
all kinds, and at a very reasonable rate ; fuch as beef,
veal, mutton, lamb, pork, poultry, and game of all
forts, caught upon the moors, heaths, and commons,
in the hilly part of the Ihire. Befides the fea fowl
common to the fliores of England, fuch as duck, eaf-
terlings, teal, ’and plover, many uncommon birds are
obferved on the coaft of Lancafhire, the fea crow, va¬
riegated with blue and black, the puffin, the cormo-
the curlew, the razor-bill, the copped wren,
6 ] LAN
the redlhanks, the fwan, the tropic bird, the king’s Lanca»h!re«.
fiiher, &c. * 1J
The chief manufactures of this county are woollen
and cotton cloths of various kinds, tickings, and cot¬
ton velvets, for which Manchefter is particularly fa¬
mous. The principal rivers are the Merfey, which
parts Chelhire and this county 5 and the Kibble, which
rifes in Yorkffiire, and enters this county at Clithero,
running fouth-weft by Prefton into the Irifti fea. Be¬
fides thefe there, are many leffer ftreams. The navi¬
gation made by his grace the. duke of Bridgewater in
this county is highly worthy of notice. The canal re¬
ceives veffels of 60 tons burden, and is carried over
two rivers, the Merfey and the Irwell. The fough or
adit, which was neceffary to be made, in order to
drain the water from the coal mines, is rendered navi¬
gable for boats of fix or feven tons burden, and forms
a kind of fubterraneous river, which runs about a mile
and a half under ground, and communicates with the
canal. This river leads to the head of the mines, is
arched over with brick, and is juft wide enough for
the paffage of the boats : at the mouth of it are two
folding doors, which are clofed as foon as you enter,,
and you then proceed by candle light, which calls a
livid gloom, ierving only to make darknefs vifible*
But this difmal gloom is rendered Hill more awful by
the folemn echo of this fubterraneous water, which re¬
turns various and difeordant founds. One while you
are ftruck with the grating noife of engines, which by.
a curious contrivance let down the coals into the boats y
then again you hear the ftiock of an explofion, occa-
fioned by the blowing up the hard rock, which will not
yield to any other force than that of gunpowder ; the
next minute your ears are faluted by the fongs of merri¬
ment from either fex, w ho thus beguile their labours ia
the mine. You have no fooner reached the head of the
works, than a new fcene opens to your view. Thera-
you behold men and women almoft in their primitive
Hate of nature, toiling in different capacities, by the
glimmering of a dim taper, fome digging coal out e£
the bowels of the earth ; fome again loading it in
little waggons made for the purpofe j others drawing
thofe waggons to the boats. To perfect this canal,.,
without impeding the public roads, bridges are built
over it, and where the earth has been raifed to prei
ferve the level, arches are formed under it ^ but what
principally ftrikes every beholder, is a work raifed
near Barton bridge, to convey the canal over the river
Merfey. This is done, by means of three ftone arches,,
fo fpacious and lofty, as to admit veffels failing through
them ; and indeed nothing can be more fingular and
pleafing, than to obftrve large veffels in full fail un¬
der the aqueduft, and at the fame time the duke of
Bridgewater’s veffels failing over all, near 50 feet
above the navigable river. By this inland navigation
communication has been made, with the rivers Mer¬
fey, Dee, Kibble, Oufe, .Trent, Derwent, Severn,
Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. 5 which navigation, in¬
cluding its windings, extends above 500 miles in the
counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter,
Weftmoreland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
Lancafhire was erefted into a county palatine by
Edward III. who conferred it as an appendage on his
fon John of Gaunt, thence called duke of Lancq/ler; but
the
LAN
[ So? 1
LAN
Lance.
Lancafliire the duchy contained lands that are not in Lancalhire,
and among other demefnes, the palace of the Savoy,
, and all that diftrift in London, which indeed belong
- to it at this day. The revenues of this duchy are ad-
miniftered by a court which fits at Weftminfter, and a
chancery court at Prefton, which has a feal diftindl
from that of the county palatine. The title of Lan-
cajler diftinguiihed the pofterity of John of Gaunt
from thofe of Jus brother, w ho fucceeded to the duchy
of York, in their long and bloody conteft for the
crown of England. Lancathire fends two members to
parliament for the county; and 12 for the fix boroughs
of Laneatter, Prefton, Newton, Wigan, Clithero, and
Liverpool.
LANCASTER, the capital of the county of Lan-
caftrire in England, is pleafantly fituated on the fouth
&de of the river Lun, over which there is a handfome
ftone bridge. It is an ancient town, and is fuppofed
to have been the Lcngc-vicum of the Romans. King
John confirmed to the burgeffes all the liberties he had
granted to thofe of Briftol ; and Edward III. granted
that pleas and fefhons ftiould be held there, and no¬
where elfe in the county. It is governed by a mayor,
recorder, 7 aldermen, 2 bailiffs, 12 capital burgeffes,
12 common burgeffes, a town clerk, and 2 ferjeants at
jnace. The affixes are held in the caftle, where is alfo
the county gaol. It carries on a very confiderable trade
with Jamaica and the other iflands in the Wbfl: Indies,
as alfo with Portugal, Hamburgh, &c. There is a
market on Wednetday by grant, and another on Satur¬
day by prefcription, betides one every other Wed-
nefday throughout the year for cattle ; and three fairs,
in May, July, and Ocfober. The caftle is not large,
but neat and ftrong. Not very long ago, in digging
a cellar, there were found feveral Roman utenfils and
veffels for facrifices, as alfo the coins of Roman emper¬
ors ; fo that it is fuppofed there was here a Roman
fortrefs. On the top of the caftle is a fquare tower,
called John of Gaunt's chair, whence there is a charra-
ing profpecl of the adjacent country, and eipecially
towards the fea, where is an extenfive view even to the
Ifle of Man. There is but one church, a fine Gothic
building. It is placed on the fame elevation, and from
fome points of view forms one group with the caftle,
which gives the mind a moft magnificent idea of this
important place. 1 he late confiderable additional new
ftreets and a new chapel, with other improvements, give
an air of elegance and profpe.rity to the town, and the
new bridge of 5 equal elliptic arches, in all 549 in
length, adds not a little to the embelliftiment and con-
veniency of the place. Adjoining to the caftle, the
new gaol is ere£ted on an improved plan. On the fide
of the hill b low ir, hangs a piece of a Roman wall,
called Wery-WalL Here is a cuftomhoufe. . By means
of inland navigation, Lancafter has communication with
the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent,
Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c although fuch
■extenfive communication, when itwasfirft fuggefted, was
eonfidered by many to be altogether iniprafticable. For
its peculiar government, fee X)XJCHT-Court.
LANCE, Lance A, a fpear; an offenfive weapon
worn bv the ancient cavaliers, in form of a half pike.
The lance confided of three parts, the (haft or handle,
the w ings, and the dart. Pliny attributes the inven¬
tion of lances to the iEtolians. But Varro and Aulus
Gellius fay, the word lance is Spanifti ; whence others
conclude the ufe of this weapon was borrowed by the
people of Italy from the Spaniards. Diodorus Sicu¬
lus derives it from the Gaulifti, and Feftus from the
Greek which fignifies the fame.
Lance, or Sanded. See Ammodytes, Ichthyolo¬
gy Index.
LANCEOLATED leaf. See Botany Index.
LANCET, a chirurgical inftrument, ftiarp pointed
and two-edged, chiefly uled for opening veins in the
operation of phlebotomy or bleeding ; alfo for laying
open abfeeffes, tumours, &c.
LANCH, a peculiar fort of long boat, ufed by the
French, Spanilh, and Italian {hipping, and in general
by thofe of other European nations when employed in
voyaging in the Mediterranean fea.
A lanch is proportionably longer, lower, and more
flat bottomed than the long boat; it is by confe-
quence lefs fit for failing, but better calculated for row¬
ing and approaching a flat (bore. Its principal fuperi-
ority to the long boat, however, confifts in being by its
conftrucRion much fitter to under-run the cable; which
is a very neceffary employment in the harbours of the
Levant fea, where the cables of different (hips are faft-
ened acrofs each other, and frequently render this exer-
cife extremely neceffary.
Lanch, is alfo the movement by which the fhip of
boat delcends from the (bore, either when (lie is at firfl:
built, or at any time afterwards.
To facilitate the operation of lanching, and pre¬
vent any interruption therein, the ftiip is fupported by
two ftrong platforms, laid with a gradual inclination
to the water, on the oppofite fide of her keel, t*
which they are parallel. Upon the furface of this de¬
clivity are placed two correfponding ranks of planks,
which compofe the bafe of a frame, called the cradle,
whofe upper part envelopes the ftiip’s bottom, whereto
it is fecurely attached. Thus the lower furface of the
cradle, conforming exa&ly to that of the frame below,
lies flat upon it lengthwife, under the oppofite fides of
the ftiip’s bottom ; and as the former is intended to
Aide downwards upon the latter, carrying the fhip
along with it, the planes or faces of both are well daub¬
ed with foap and tallow.
The neceffary preparations for the lanch being made„
all the blocks and wedges, by which the fhip was for¬
merly fupported are driven out from unckr her keel,
till her whole weight gradually fubfides upon the plat¬
forms above deferibed, which are accordingly called
the ways. The fhores and ftanchions, by which fhe is
retained upon the flocks till the period approaches for
lanching, are at length cut away, and the lerews ap¬
plied to move her if neceffary. Fhe. motion ufually
begins on the inftant when the fhores are cut, and the
fhip Hides downward along the ways, which are gene¬
rally prolonged under the furface of the water, to a
fufficient depth to float her as foon as fhe arrives at the
fartheft end thereof.
When a fhip is to be lanched, the enfign, jack, and
pendant, are always hoilled, the laft being difplayed
from a ftaff ere£ted in the middle of the ftup.
Ships of the firft rate are commonly conftru&ed iat
dry docks, and afterwards floated out, by throwing
open the flood gates, and fuffering the tide to enter as
foon as they are finiftied. T a vrr> tr p rvr a
3 S 2 LANCERQTA,
Lane©
LanCf-rota
I!
Land.
LAN [ 508 J LAN
LANCEROTA, one of the Canary iflands, fub-
jeet to Spain, and fituated in W. Long. 13. 26. N.
Lat. 29. 8. It is about 32 miles in length and 22
in breadth. The ancient inhabitants were negroes,
very ftrong, active, and fwift of foot. There is a ridge
of hills runs quite through it, on which are fed a good
number of Iheep and goats. They have but few black
cattle, ftill fewer camels, and a very few fmall horfes.
The valleys are dry and fandy, yet they produce a
fmall quantity of wheat and barley. This ifland was
jfirft discovered in 1417. In 1596 it was taken by the
Englifh under the command of the earl of Cumber¬
land ; after which it was better fortified than before.
There is in this ifland a city called alfo Lancerota,
which, at the time the earl of Cumberland was there,
confiflid only of about 100 houfes, all poor buildings,
generally of one ftory, and covered with reeds or ftraw
laid upon a few rafters, and over all a coat of dirt
hardened by the fun. There was alfo a church which
had no windows in it, and was fupplied with light only
by the door.
LANCIANO, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Abruzzo, with
an archbifhop’s fee ; famous for its fairs, which are
held in July and Auguft. It is feated on the river
Feltrino near that of Sangor. E. Long. 14. 20. N.
Lat. 42. 12.
LANCISI, John Marca, an eminent Italian phy-
fician, was born atilome in 1564. From his earlieft
years he had a turn to natural hiftory ; and ftudied
botany, chemiftry, anatomy, and medicine, with great
vigour. In 1688 Pope Innocent XI. appointed him
his phyfician and private chamberlain, notwithftanding
his youth •, and Cardinal Altieri Camerlingamade him
his vicar for the inftallation of dodlors in phyfic, -which
Pope Clement XL gave him as long as he lived, as
well as continued to him the appointments conferred
on him by his predeceffor. He died in iJiO, after
giving his fine library of more than 20,000 volumes to
the hofpital of the Holy Ghoft for the ufe of the pub¬
lic. This noble benefaction was opened in 1716, in
the prefence of the pope and molt of the cardinals. He
-wrote many works which are elteemed, the principal of
which were collected together, and printed at Geneva
in 1718, in 2 vols. 410.
LAND, in a general fenfe, denotes terra Jirma, as
diftinguilhed from fea.
Land, in a limited fenfe, denotes arable ground.
See Agriculture.
Land, in the fea language, makes part of feveral
compound terms ; thus, land-laid, or, to lay the land,
is juft to lofe fight of it. Land-locked, is when land
lies all round the Ihip, fo that no point of the com-
pafs is open to the fea. If Ihe is at anchor in fuch a
place, (he is faid te ride land-locked, and is therefore
concluded to ride fafe from the violence of the winds
and tides. Land-mark, any mountain, rock, fteeple,
tree, See. that may ferve to make the land known at
fea. Land is Jhut in, a term ufed to fignify that an-
«ther point of land hinders the fight of that from
which the (hip came. I-,and-to, or the (hip lies land-
to; that is, (he is fo far from (bore, that it can only
juft be difeerned. Land-turn is a wind that in almoft
all hot countries blows at certain times from the (hore
I
in the night. To fet the land; that is, to fee h>y the
com pafs how it bears.
LAND Tax, one of the annual taxes raifed upon the
fubjeft. See Tax.
The land tax, in its modern (hape has fuperfeded
all the former methods of rating either property or
perfons in refpeCI of their property, whether by tenths
or fifteenths, fubfidies on land, hydages, feutages, or-
talliages : a (hort explication of which will, however,
greatly afilft us in underftanding our ancient laws and
hiftoryr.
Tenths and fifteenths were temporary aids iffuing
out of perfonal property, and granted to the king by
parliament. They were formerly the real tenth or
fifteenth part of all the moveables belonging to the
fubjeCl j when fuch moveables, or perfonal eftates,
were a very different and a much lefs confiderable
thing than what they ufually are at this day. Tenths
are faid to have been firft granted under Henry II.
who took advantage of the faftiionable zeal for croi-
fades to introduce this new taxation, in order to de¬
fray the expence of a pious expedition to Paleftine,
which he really or feemingly had projected againft Sa-
ladine emperor of the Saracens, whence it was origi¬
nally denominated the Sa/adine tenth. But afterwards
fifteenths were more ufually granted than tenths.
Originally the amount of thefe taxes wras uncertain,
being levied by affeffments new made at every frefti
grant of the commons, a commiflion for which is pre-
ferved by Matthew Paris : but it was at length redu¬
ced to a certainty in the eighth year of Edward III.
when, by virtue of the king’s commiflion, new taxa¬
tions were made of every townlhip, borough, and city
in the kingdom, and recorded in the exchequer j which
rate was, at that time, the fifteenth part of the value of
every tow'nftiip, the whole amounting to about 29,cool,
and therefore it ftill kept up the name of a fifteenth,
when, by the alteration of the value of money and the
increafe of perfonal property, things came to be in a
very different fituation. So that when, of later years,
the commons granted the king a fifteenth, every parifti
in England immediately knew their proportion of it •,
that is, the fame identical fum that was affeffed by
the fame aid in the eighth of Edward III. ; and then
raifed it by a rate among themfelves, and returned it
into the royal exchequer.
The other ancient levies w ere in the nature of a mo¬
dern land tax : for we may trace up the original of
that charge as high as to the introduction of our mili¬
tary tenures •, when every tenant of a knight’s fee was
bound, if called upon, to attend the king in his army
for 40 days in every year. But this perfonal attend¬
ance growing troublefome in many refpeCts, the te¬
nants found means of compounding for it, by firft;
fending others in their (lead, and in procefs of time by
making a pecuniary fatisfaClion to the crown in lieu of
it. This pecuniary fatisfaCtion at laft came to be levied
by affeffments, at fo much for every knight’s fee, under
the name of feutages j which appear to have been
levied for the firft time in the fifth year of Henry II.
on account of his expedition to Touloufe, and were
then (Sir Wm. Blackftone apprehends) mere arbitrary
compofitions, as the king and the fubjeCl could agree.
But this precedent being afterw ards abufed into a means
*4 "
Land.
LAN [ 509 ] LAN
of opprelfion (by levying fcutages on tbe landholders of knights of the tee ; and thencefornard alfo the
by the King's authority only, whenever our kings went praftice of giving ecclefiaftical fubfidies hath fallen into
to war, in order to hire mercenary troops and pay their total difufe.
Land.
contingent expences), it became thereupon a matter of
national complaint; and King John was obliged to
promife, in his tnagna chartthat no feutage fhould be
jmpofed without the confent of the common council of
the realm.
Of the fame nature with feutages upon knights fees
were the affeffments of hydage upon all other lands,
and of talliage upon cities and boroughs. But they all
gradually fell into difufe, upon the jntrodudion of
fubfidies, about the time of King Richard II. and
King Henry IV. Thefe were, a tax, not immediately
impofed upon property, but upon perfons in reipedt of
their reputed eftates, after the nominal rate of 4s. in
the pound for lands, and 2s. 6d._for goods; and for
thofe of aliens in a double proportion. But this affeff-
ment wras alfo made according to an ancient valuation,
wherein the computation ivas fo very moderate, and the
rental of the kingdom was fuppofed to be fo exceeding
low, that one fubfidy of this fort did not, according
to Sir Edward Coke, amount to more than 70,000!.
whereas a moderate land tax at the fame rate produces
two millions. It was anciently the rule never to grant
more than one fubfidy and two fifteenths at a time :
but this rule was broke through for the firft time on a
very preffing occafion, the Spanifh invafion in 1588;
when the parliament gave Queen Elizabeth two fubfi¬
dies and four fifteenths. Afterwards, as money funk
in value, more fubfidies were given ; and we have an
inftance, in the firft parliament of 1640, of the king’s
defiring 12 fubfidies of the commons, to be levied in
three years ; which was looked upon as a ftartling pro-
pofal; though Lord Clarendon tells us that the fpeak-
er, Serjeant Glanville, made it manifeft to the houfe,
how very inconfiderable a fum 12 fubfidies amounted
to, by telling them he had computed what he was to
pay for them : and when he named the fum, he being
known to be pofleffed of a great eftate, it feemed not
worth any farther deliberation. And, indeed, upon
calculation, we (hall find, that the total amount of
thefe 1 2 fubfidies, to be raifed in three years, is lefs
than what is now raifed in one year by a land tax of
2s. in the pound.
The grant of feutages, talliages, or fubfidies by the
commons, did not extend to fpiritual preferments ;
thofe being ufually taxed at the fame time by the
clergy themfelves in convocation ; which grants of the
clergy wrere confirmed in parliament ; otherwife they
were illegal, and not binding ; as the fame noble writer
obferves of the fubfidies granted by the convoca¬
tion, which continued fitting after the difiblution of
the firft parliament in 1640. A fubfidy granted by
the clergy was after the rate of 4s. in the pound, ac¬
cording to the valuation of their livings in the king’s
books ; and amounted, Sir Edward Coke tells us, to
about 20,oool. While this cuftom continuedj con¬
vocations were wont to fit as frequently as parlia¬
ments ; but the laft fubfidies, thus given by the cler¬
gy, were thofe confirmed by ftatute 15 Car. II. c. 10.
iince which another method of taxation has generally
prevailed, which takes in the clergy as well as the lai¬
ty : in recompenfe for which, the beneficed clergy have
from that period been allowed to vote at the election
The lay fubfidy was ufually raifed by commiflioners
appointed by the crown, or the great officers of ftate :
and therefore in the beginning of the civil wars be¬
tween Charles I. and his parliament, the latter having
no other fufficient revenue to fupport themfelves and
their meafures, introduced the praftice of laying
weekly and monthly affeffments of a fpecific fum upon
the feveral counties of the kingdom ; to be levied by
a pound rate on lands and perfonal eftates; which
were occafionally continued during the whole ufurpa-
tion, fometimes at the rate of 120,000!. a month,
fometimes at inferior rates. After the Reftoration, the
ancient method of granting fubfidies, inftead of fuck
monthly affeffments, was twice, and twice only, re¬
newed ; viz. in 1663, when four fubfidies were granted
by the temporality and four by the clergy; and in
1670, when 8oo,oool. was raifed by way of fubfidy,
which was the laft time of raifing fupplies in that
manner. For the monthly affeffments being now
eftablifhed by euftom, being raifed by commiflioners
named by parliament, and producing a more certain
revenue ; from that time forwards we hear no more of
fubfidies, but occafional affeffments were granted as the
national emergencies required. 'Ihefe periodical af¬
feffments, the fubfidies which preceded them, and the
more ancient feutage, hydage, and talliage, were to
all intents and purpofes a land tax ; and the afleffments
were fometimes exprefsly called fo. Yet a popular
opinion has prevailed, that the land tax was firft in¬
troduced in the reign of King William III. ; becaufe
in the year 1692 a new affeffment or valuation of
eftates was made throughout the kingdom ; which,
though by no means a perfect one, had this effe£L
that a fupply of 500,000!. was equal to is. in the
pound of the value of eftates given in. And, accora-
ing to this enhanced valuation, from the year 1693
the prefent, a period of near a century, the land tax
has continued an annual charge upon the fubjeft ;
about half the time at 4s. in the pound, fometimes at
3s. fometimes at 2s. twice at is. but without any total
intermiftion. The medium has been 3s. 3d. in the
pound ; being equivalent to 23 ancient fubfidies, and
amounting annually to more than a million and a half
of money. The method of raifing it is by charging a
particular fum upon each county, according to the va¬
luation given in, A. D. 1692 ; and this fum is affeffed
and raifed upon individuals (their perfonal eftate, as
well as real, being liable thereto) by commiffioners ap¬
pointed in the aft, being the principal landholders in
the county and their officers.
An aft paffes annually for the raifing in general*
2,037,627!. 9s. io^d. by the above faid tax at 4s.
in the pound ; whereof there (hall be railed in the fet-
veral counties in England, according to the propor¬
tions expreffed in the aft, 1,989,673k 7s. io^d.;
and in Scotland, 47,954k is. 2d. by an eight months
cefs of 5994k 5s. l^d. per menfem, to be raifed out of
the land rent, and to be paid at four terms, as fpecified
in the aft, by two months amount each time.
LAND IVaiter, an officer of the cuftomhoufe, whole
duty is, upon landing any merchandife, to examine,
tafte, weigh, meafure them, &c, and to take an account
thereof..
LAN [ 5r
Land tKereof. In fome ports they alfo execute the office of
1 an'icn a C0a^ wa^pr- They are likevvife occafionally ftyled
1— rearchers, and are to attend and join with the patent
fearcher in the execution of all cockets for the fhip-
ping of goods to be exported to foreign parts \ and in
cafes where drawbacks on bounties are to be paid to
the merchant on the exportation of any goods, they,
as well as the patent fearchers, are to certify the (hip¬
ping thereof on the debentures.
LANDAFF, a town or village of Glamorganffiire
in South Wales, with a bifhop’s fee, and on that ac¬
count has the title of a city. It is feated upon an
afcent on the river Taff, or Tave, near Cardiff j but
the cathedral (lands on a low ground, and is a large
(lately building. The original ftrudlure was built
about the beginning of the Ji2th century. The build¬
ing now ufed as the cathedral includes part of the
body of the ancient one ; but is in other refpedls as
modern as the prefent century, about the middle of
which the old church underwent fuch reparation as
was almoft equivalent to rebuilding. The ruins are
at the weft end of the modern church, and conftft of
the original weftern door-way, and part of the north
and fouth (ides. The arch over the door is circular,
and hafe a well carved epifcopal ftatue immediately
over it. On the upper part of the front under which this
door (lands is * whole length figure of the Virgin Mary,
with a crofs on the apex of the building. In this
front are two rows of neat pointed arches for win¬
dows ; and on the north and fouth fides above men¬
tioned are two circular door-cafes half funk in the
earth. Thefe ruins exhibit an afpect very differertt
from the prefent cathedral, the new part of which the
architedl formed principally on the Roman model,
without confidering how incongruous this ftyle of
architecture is with the plan purfued in the ancient
part.—Landaff is a place of but fmall extent, and
lias no market. It is a port town, however, and car¬
ries on a good trade, as it has a very tolerable harbour
that opens into the river Severn about four miles di-
flant. The ruins of the bifhop’s palace (how it to
have been caftellated. It was built in 1120, and was
deftroyed by Henry IV. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat.
LANDAU, an ancient, handfome, and very ftrong
town of France, in Lower Alface. It was fomerly
imperial, and belonged to Germany, till che treaty of
Munfter, when it was given up to France. It is feated
on the river Zurich, in a pleafant fertile country. It
was feverely bombarded by the allies in 1793, but they
were obliged to raife the fiege. E. Long. 8. 12. N.
Lat. 49. 12.
LANDEN, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Brabant, famous for a battle gained over the French
by the allies, in July 1693, w^t‘n 0,000 men were
killed. It is feated on the river Beck, in E. Long.
5. 5. N. Lat. ^2. 45.
Landen, John, F. R. S. an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born at Peakirk, near Peterborough in
Northampton (hire, in January 1719. He became very
early a proficient in the mathematics, for we find him
a very refpe&able contributor to the Ladies Diary in
1744-, and he was foon among- the foremoft of thofe
who then contributed to the fupport of that fmail but
valuable publication, in which almoft every Engl iftima-
2
]
LAN
thematician, who has arrived at any degree of eminence LanJen.
for the laft half century, has contended for fame at one
time of his life or other. Mr Landen continued his
contributions to it at times, and under one fignature or
other, till within a few years of his death.
It has been frequently obferved, that the hiftories of
literary men confift chiefly of a hiftory of their writings,
and the oblervation was never more fully verified than
it will be in this artic le concerning Mr Landen.
In the 48th volume of the Philofophieal Tranfaflions,
for the year 1754, Mr Landen gave “ Aninveftigatioa
of fome theorems which fuggeft feveral very remark¬
able properties of the circle, and nre at the fame time
of confiderable ufe in refolving fratftions, the denomi¬
nators of which are certain multinomicils, into more
fimple ones, and by that means facilitate the compu¬
tation of fluents.” This ingenious paper was handed
to the Society by that eminent mathematician the late
Thomas Simpfon of Woolwich ; a circumftance which
will convey to thofe who are not themfelves judges of
it fome idea of its merit. In the year 1755, he pub-
lifhed a volume of about 160 pages, entitled “ Mathe¬
matical Lucubrations.” The title to this publication
was made choice of as a means of informing the world
that the fludy of the mathematics was at that time
rather the purfuit of his leifure hours than his princi¬
pal employment*, and indeed it continued to be fo the
greatell part of his life, for about theyear 1762 he was
appointed agent to the right honourable the earl Fitz-
william, and refigned that employment only two years
before his death. Had it been otherwife, it feems
highly probable he would have extended his refearches
in the mathematics, to wrhich he was mod enthufiafti-
cally devoted, much farther than any other perfon has
done. His lucubrations contain a variety of tra&s re¬
lative to the redlification of curve lines, the fumma-
tion of feries, the finding of fluents, and many other
points in the higher parts of the mathematics. About
the latter end of the year 1757, or the beginning of
1758, he publiftied propofals for printing by fubferip-
tion “ The Refidual Analyfis, a new* branch of the Al¬
gebraic art :” and in 1758 he publiftied a fmall traft
in quarto, entitled “ A Difcourfe on the Refidual
Analyfis,” in which he refolved a variety of problems,
to which the method of fluxions had been ufually
applied, by a mode of reafoning entirely new j com¬
pared thefe folutions with folutions of the fame pro¬
blems, inveftigated by the fluxionary method j and
(bowed that the folutions by his new method were, in
general, more natural and elegant than the fluxionary
ones.
In the 51ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions
for the year 1760, he gave “ A new method of com¬
puting the (urns of a great number of infinite feries.”
This paper was alfo prefented to the fociety by his in-
gen ous friend the late Mr Thomas Simpfon. In
1774, he publilhed the firft book of “ The Refidual
Analyfis,” in a 4 0 volume of 218 pages, with feveral
copperplates. In this treatile, befides explaining
the principles which his new analyfis was founded
on, he applied it to drawing tangents and finding the
properties of curve lines j todeferibing thtir involutes
and evolutes, finding the radius of curvature, their
greateft and lead ordinates, and points of contrary
fiuxure j to the determination of their cufps, apd the
drawing
LAN [5
laaden. drawing of aflymptotes : and he propofed in a fecond
book to extend the application of this new analyfis to
a great variety of mechanical and phyfical fubje&s.
The papers which were to have formed this book lay
long by him ; but he never found leifure to put them
in order for the prefs.
On the j 6th of January 1766, Mr Landen was ele£l;ed
a fellow of the Royal Society, and admitted on the 24,th
of April following. In the 58th volume of the Philo-
ibphical Tranfa6tions, for the year 1768', he gave a
“ Specimen of a new method of comparing curvilineal
areas $ by means of which many areas are compared, that
did not appear to be comparable by any other method j”
a circumftance of no fmall importance in that part of
natural philofophy which relates to the do&rine of
motion. In the 60th volume of the fame work for
the year 1770, he gave “ Some new theorems for
computing the whole areas of curve lines, where the
ordinates are exprefled by fraftions of a certain form,”
in a more concife and elegant manner than had been
done by Cotes, De Moivre, and others who had con-
fidered the fubjeft before him. In the 6rft volume
for 1771, he has inveftigated feveral new and ufeful
theorems for computing certain fluents, which are af-
fignable by yes of the conic fe&ions. This fubjefl
had been confidered before both by Mr Maclaurin
and M. d’Alembert y but fonie. of the theorems
which were given by thefe celebrated mathematicians,
being in part exprefled by the difference between an
arc of a hyperbola and its tangent, and that dif¬
ference being not dire£Hy attainable when the arc
and its tangent both become infinite, as they will do
when the whole fluent is wanted, although fuch fluent
be finite •, thefe theorems therefore fail in thofe cafes,
and the computation becomes impradticable without
farther help. This defeat Mr Landen has removed
by afligning the /imit of the difference between the hy¬
perbolic arc and its tangent, while the point of con-
ta£l is fuppofed to be removed to an infinite diftance
from the vertex of the curve. And he concludes the
paper with a curious and remarkable property relating
to pendulous bodies, which is deducible from thofe
theorems. In the fame year he publiflied, “ Animad-
verfions on Dr Stewart’s computation of the fun’s dif¬
tance from the earth.”
In the 65th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, for 1775, he gave the inveftigation of a general
theorem, which he had promifed in 1771, for finding
the length of any arc of a conic hyperbola by means of
two elliptic arcs ; and obferves, that by the theorems
there inveftigated, both the elaftic curve and the curve
of equable recefs from a given point, may be con-
ftrufted in thofe cafes where Mr Maclaurin’s elegant
method fails. In the 67th volume, for 1777, he gave
A new theory of the motion of bodies revolving
about an axis in free fpace, when that motion is di-
fturbed by fome extraneous force, either percuflive or
accelerative.” At this time he did not know' that the
' fubjeft had been handled by any perfon before him j
and he confidered only the motion of a fphere’s fphe-
roid and cylinder. The publication of this paper,
however, w as the caufe of his being told, that the doc¬
trine of rotatory motion had been confidered by M.
d’Alembert j and purchafing that author’s Opufcules
Mathemaliq.uesy he there learned that M. d’Alembert
n ] LAN
was not the only one who had confidered the matter
before him ; for M. d’Alembert there fpeaks of fome
mathematician, though he does not mention bis name,
who, after reading what had been written on the fub-
jeft, doubted whether there be any folid whatever,
befides the fphere, in which any line, palling through
its centre of gravity, will be a permanent axis of rota¬
tion. In confequtnce of this, Mr Landen,took up
the fubjeift again ; and though he did not then give a
folution to the general problem, viz. “ To determine
the motions of a body of any form whatever, revolving
without reftraint about any axis palling through its
centre of gravity,” he fully removed every doubt of
the kind which had been ftarted by the perlon alluded
•to by M. d’Alembert, and pointed out feveral bodies,
which, under certain dimenfions, have that remarkable
property. This paper is given, among many others
equally curious, in a volume of Memoirs which he pub-
liftied in the year 1780. But what renders that vo¬
lume yet more valuable, is a very extenfive appendix,
containing “ Theorems for the calculation of fluents.”
The tables which contain thefe theorems are more
complete and extenfive than any which are to be found
in any other author, and are chiefly of his own invefti-
gating •, being fuch as had occurred to him in the
courfe of a long and curious application to mathemati¬
cal ftudies in almoft every branch of thofe fciences. In
1781, 1782, and 1783, he publilhed three little trafts
on the fummation of converging feries, in which he ex¬
plained and Ihowed the extent of fome theorems which
had been given for that purpofe by M. de Moivre,,
Mr Sterling, and his old friend Thomas Simpfon, in
anfwer to fome things which he thought had been
written to the difparagement of thofe excellent ma¬
thematicians. It was the opinion of fome, that Mr
Landen did not fhow lefs mathematical fldll in explain¬
ing and illuftrating thefe theorems, than he has done
in his writings on original fubjedls ; and that the au¬
thors of them w ere as little aware of the extent of their
own theorems as the reft of the world were before Mr
Landen’s ingenuity tnade it obvious to all.
About the beginning of the year 1782, Mr Landen
had made fuch improvements in his theory of rotatory
motion, as enabled him, he thought, to give a folution
of the general problem fpecified above ; but finding the
refult of it to differ very materially from the refult of
the folution which had been given of it by M. d’A¬
lembert, and not being able to fee clearly where that
gentleman had erred, he did not venture to make his
own folution public. In the courfe of that year, hav¬
ing procured the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for
1757, which contain M. Euler’s foluticn of the pro¬
blem, he found that this gentleman’s folution gave the
fame refult as had been deduced by M. d’Alembert j
but the perfpicuity of M. Euler’s manner of writing-
enabled him to difeover where he had erred, which
the obfeurity of the other did not do. The agreement,
however, of two writers of fuch eftablilhed reputation
as M. Euler and M. d’Alembert made him long du¬
bious of the truth of his own folution, and induced
him to revife the procefs again and again with the ut-
moft circumfpe&ion ; and being every time more con¬
vinced that his own folution was right and theirs
wrong, he at length gave it to the public in the 75th1
volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 3785.
Landed
II
Landgrave
L A N [ j
The extreme difEculty of the fubje£f, joined to the
concife manner in which Mr Landen had been obliged
, to give his foliation in order to confine it within pro¬
per limits for the Tranfaftions, rendered it too difficult,
or at leaft too laborious, a piece of bufinefs for moft
mathematicians to read it; and this circumflance, join¬
ed to the eftabliffied reputation of Euler, induced many
to think that his folution was right and Mr Landen’s
wrong ; and there did not want attempts to prove it.
But notwithftanding thefe attempts were manifeftly
wrong, and that every one who perufed them faw it,
they convinced Mr Landen that there was a neceffity
for giving his folution at greater length, in order to
render it more generally underftood. About this time
alfo he met by chance with the late P. Frifi’s Cofmo-
graphite PhijJrcce et Mathematicce; in the fecond part
of which there is a folution of this problem, agreeing
in the refult with thofe of M. Euler artd D’Alembert,
which is not furprifing, as P. Frifi employs the fame
principle -that they did. Here Mr Landen learned
that M. Euler had revifed the folution which he had
given formerly in the Berlin Memoirs, and given it
another form and a greater length in a volume pub-
liffied at Gryphifwell in 1765, entitled, Theoria Motus
corporum Jb/idorum feu rigidorum. Having therefore
procured this book, Mr Landen found the fame prin¬
ciples employed in it, andofcourfe the fame conclufion
refulting from them that he had found in M. Euler’s
former folution of the problems : but as the reafoning
was given at greater length, he was enabled to fee
more diftinftly how M. Euler had been led into the
miftake, and to fet that miftake in a llronger point of
view.. As he had been convinced of the neceffity of
explaining his ideas on the fubjeft more fully, fo he
now found it necefiary to lofe no time in fetting about
it. He had for feveral years been feverely afflifted
with the ftone in the bladder, and toward the latter
part of his life to fuch a degree as to be confined to
his bed for more than a month at a time : yet even
this dreadful diforder did not abate his ardour for ma¬
thematical ftudies *, for the fecond volume of his Me¬
moirs was written and revifed during the intervals of
his diforder. This volume, befides a folution of the
general problem concerning rotatory motion, contains
the refolution of the problem concerning the motion
of a top j an inveftigation of the motion of the equi¬
noxes, in which Mr Landen has firft of any one point¬
ed out the caufe of Sir Ifaac Newton’s miilake in his
folution of this celebrated problem ; and fame other
papers of confiderable importance. He juft lived to
lee this work finifhed, and received a copy of it the
day before his death, which happened on the I5ch of
January 179°* at Milton, near Peterborough, in the
71 ft year of his age.
LANDERNEAU, a town of France, in Lower
Bretagne, now the department of Finifterre, feated on
the river .Elhorn, 20 miles eaft of Breft. In an
inn here is a well which ebbs and flows like the fea,
hut at contrary times. E. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat.
48. 25.
LAND‘oRA\ E, (formed of the German land,
“ earth,” and graff, or grave, “ judge” or “ count”) 5
a name formerly given to thofe who executed juftice
in behalf of the emperors, with regard to the internal
policy of the country. The title does not fe m to
12] LAN
have been ufed before the nth century. Thefe judges Lacdgrave
were firft appointed within a certain diftrift of Ger- T II
many: in procefs of time the title became hereditary, Landfllu't-)
and jhefe judges affumed the fovereignty of the feveral *
diftri&s or counties over which they prefided. Land¬
grave is now applied by way of eminence to thofe fo-
vereign princes of the empire who polfefs by inheritance
certain eftates called landgravates, and of which they
receive the inveftiture of the emperor. There are four
princes who have this title, viz. thofe of Thuringia,
Heffia, Alface, and Leuchtemberg. There are alfo
other landgraves, who are not princes but counts of the
empire. See Count.
LANDGRAVIATE, or Landgravate, the of¬
fice, authority, jurifdiaion, or territory of a land¬
grave.
LANDGUARD fort feems to belong to Suffolk,
but is in the limits of Effex, and has a fine profpeift of
the. coafts of both counties. It was erefted, and is
maintained, for the defence of the port of Harwich
over againft it j for it commands the entry of it from
the fea up the Maningtree water, and will reach any
(hip that goes in or out. It is placed on a point of
land fo furrounded with the fea at high water, that it
looks like a little ifland at leaft one mile from the ffiore.
The making its foundation folid enough for fo good a
fortification coft many years labour and a prodigious
expence. It was built in the reign of King James I.
when it was a much more confiderable fortification
than now, having four baftions mounted with 60 very
large guns, particularly thofe on the royal baftion,
which would throw a 28 pound ball over Harwich.
Here is a fmall garrifon, with a governor, and a plat¬
form of guns. This fort is refitted and greatly en¬
larged for the conveniency of the officers of ordnance,
engineers, and matroffes 5 and a barrack built for the
foldiers.
LANDISFARN, or Lindesfarn. See Holt-
Ifand.
LANDRECY, a town of the French Netherlands,
in Hainault, ceded to France by the treaty of the Py¬
renees, and is now very w^ell fortified. It was befieged
by Prince Eugene in 1712, but to no purpofe. It was
taken by the allies in April 1794, but retaken in July
following. It is feated in a plain on the river Sambre,
in E. Long. 3. 47. N. Lat. 50. 7.
LANDSCAPE, in painting, the view or profpeft
of a country extended as far as the eye will reach. See
Painting and Drawing.
LANDSCROON, a fea port town of Sweden, in
South Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated on
the Baltic fea, within the Sound, 22 miles north of Co¬
penhagen. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 55. 42.
LANSDOWNE, a town in Somerfetffiire, near
Bath, where there is a fair in O&ober for cattle and
cheefe.
I-ANDSHUT, a ftrong town of Germany in
Lov rer Bavaria, with a ftrong caftle on an adjacent
hill. It is feated on the river Ifer, E. Long. 12. 15.
N. Lat. 48. 29. There is another fmall town of the
fame name in Silefia, and in the duchy of Schweidnitz,
feated on the river Zeider, which falls into the Bauber :
and there is alfo another in Moravia, feated on the
river Morave, on the confines of Hungary and Auf-
tria.
LANDSKIP.
LAN
LancUklp, LANDSKIP. See Landscape.
Lanerk- LANERKSHIRE, or Lanarkshire, a county of
ft're' .»Scotland, called alfo Clydefdale, from the river Clyde
by which it is watered. It is bounded on the north by
the county of Dumbarton •, on the eaft by Stirling,
Linlithgow, Edinburgh, and Peebles, {hires j on the
foUth by Dumfries j and on the weft by Ayr and Ren¬
frew (hires. Its extent from north to fouth is about
40 miles, from eaft to weft 36.—The river Clyde, de¬
fending from the fouthern part of this county, divides
it into two aimoft equal parts ; and after a courfe of
about 50 miles, meets the tide a little below Glafgow;
(fee GLASGOW). Proceeding up the river from Glaf¬
gow, the country is rich and well cultivated. Bothwell
caftle, now in ruins, Hands on an eminence which over¬
looks the Clyde. Some of its walls are (till remaining,
which meafure 15 feet in thicknefs and 60 feet in
height. Between this caftle and the priory of Blan-
tyre on the oppohte fide of the Clyde, there is faid to
have been in ancient times a fubterraneous paffage un¬
der the river. A little above (lands Bothwell bridge,
noted for the defeat of the Covenanters by the duke of
Monmouth in 1679.—Eaft from Bothwell caftle, in an
elevated fituation, (lands the Kirk of Shotts, amid a
wild and barren country. This dreary wade is cover¬
ed with heath-, and though a high fituation, is flat* and
very nrarlhy in many places. It is chiefly employed
as (beep walks ; and notwithftanding the vicinity of
coal and lime, feems fcarce capable of cultivation.
This want is, however, compenfated by the abundance
ef iron (lone and coal, which are here brought toge¬
ther by the hand of nature. Nor is this advantage
confined to the barren tra£l in the north-eaft corner
of the (hire. The whole county abounds with thefe
valuable minerals*, and two iron works are erefted on
the banks of the Clyde, one a little above Glafgow,
and another at Cleland near Hamilton. But the moll
confiderable work of this kind in the county is that of
Cleugh, a few miles fouth-eaft from the Kirk of Shotts.
A village is here built for the accommodation of the
workmen. It is called Wi/fontown from the name of
the proprietors. There are befide thefe, two other
iron works in this county, one on the banks of the
Cadder near Airdrie, and the other at Shotts.—The
fmall borough of Lanerk is fituated on the brow of a
hill, on the north-eaft fide of the Clyde, commanding
a fine profpe£l over the river. In this neighbourhood
are fome of the greateft cotton manufactories in Scot¬
land. The Clyde near this place runs for feveral miles
between high rocks covered with woods ; and in its
courfe exhibits many aftonifhing cataracts : (fee the
article Clyde).—From Lanerk, pafling the village of
Carftairs, a few miles to the eaft we meet the fmall
town of Carnwath. In this neighbourhood, and along
the Clyde to the fouth-eaft, there is much cultivation
and rich pafture.—To the fouth of Carnwath is the town
of Biggar •, where is feen the ruin of a collegiate
church founded in 1545.—The lands about the vil¬
lages of Culler and Lamington are fertile j but
further up the Clyde we meet with nothing but
(beep walks and pafture grounds in tracing it to its
fource.
In the fouthern part of the (hire, generally called
Clydefdale, the country is not lefs wild. Among the
mountains here, or rather in a hollow near their lum-
Vol. XL Part II.
LAN
mit, we meet ivith the village of Leadhills, by fome Lanerk-
faid to be the higheft human habitation in the ifland
of Great Britain. Here, however, refide many hun¬
dreds of miners witfr their families. Thefe miners,
though in a great meafure excluded from fociety by
their fituation, yet not only find means to procure a
comfortable fubliftence, but alfo pay more attention to
the cultivation of the mind than many of their coun¬
trymen fituated feemingly in more favourable circum-
ftances for the attainment of knowledge. As an evi¬
dence of this, they are very intelligent, and have pro¬
vided a circulating library for the inftru&ion and
amufement of the little community belonging to the
village.—Amid thefe mountains particles of gold have
fometimes been found waftied down by the rains and
dreams of water j but this defert trad is chiefly va¬
luable for producing metals of inferior worth. “ No¬
thing (fays Mr Pennant) can equal the gloomy appear¬
ance of the country round. Neither tree, nor ftirub,
nor verdure, nor pidurefque rock, appear to amufe the
eye. The fpedator muft plunge into the bowels of thefe
mountains for entertainment.” The veins of lead lie
moftly north and fouth', and their thicknefs varies from
a few inches to 20 inches and two feet. At one place
the Sufannah vein (the richeft ever difcovered at Lead-
hills) fwelled out to the extraordinary thicknefs of 14
feet. Some have been found filled with ore within two
fathoms of the furface •, others fink to the depth of 90
fathoms. The earl of Hopeton, the proprietor, has in
his pofltflion a folid mafs of lead ore from thefe mines
weighing five tons. His lordftiip has alfo, it is faid,
a piece of native gold that weighs two ounces, which
was found here. The lead fmelted at this place is all
fent to Leith, where it has the privilege of being ex¬
ported free of duty. The fcanty pafture afforded by
this barren region feeds fome (heep and cattle j but
thofe in the neighbourhood of the mines fometimes
perifli by drinking of the water in which the lead ore
has been walked : for the lead ore communicates a
deleterious quality to the water, though that liquid
acquires no hurtful taint from remaining in leaden pipes
or cifterns. North from this mountainous region lies
Crawford muir.
About nine miles north of Leadhills, on the eaft;
fide of the fmall river Douglas, which falls into , the
Clyde a few miles below, (lands Douglas caftle, for
many ages the refidence of the fecond family in Scot¬
land. A modern building has been erefled on the
fame file, in imitation of the ancient caftle. Near it
(lands the town of Douglas. A few miles to the
north-eaft is Tinto, « remarkable conic mountain,
round the bafe of which the Clyde makes a noble
fweep. Weftward, beyond Douglas, the river Nethan
defcends into the Clyde through the populous parifti
of Lefmahago.—Hamilton houfe, the feat of the duke
of Hamilton, (lands in a plain between the rivers Clyde
and Avon. It is a magnificent ftrudlure, furrounded
by many venerable oaks. In the vicinity is the town
of Hamilton, which contains many handfome houfes :
(fee Hamilton). Here are feen the ruins of a colle¬
giate church, founded in 1451. At a little diftance
from Hamilton houfe is an elegant appendage to it,
called Chatelherault, the name of the ancient poffefiions
held by the family in France. This building is feated
an the. river Avon, and is furrounded by woods and
3 T deep
[ 513 1
LAN [ 514, ] LAN
I^nnk- drep dells, and every rural beauty that can produce a
Lan fbo b'* ’ :‘nS ei^es^ on the imagination.—On the weft of
rou„]1< Hamilton is the little town of Kilbride ; and to the
«—y—— fouth that of Strathaven, furrounded by the fertile
tradf from «hich it derives its name. In our way from
Hamilton to Glafgow we meet with the ancient bo¬
rough of Rutherglen, inhabited chiefly by weavers and
other manufacturers : and the village of Govan ftands
on the fame fide of the river on the road from Glafgow
to Renfrew.
The population of this county in 1801 amounted to
147,796 j but as it is ftated in the Statiftical Hiftory,
according to its parilhes, it is the following :
Parijhes.
l Avendale
Biggar
Blantyre
Bothwell
5. Cadder
Cambuflang
Cambufnethan
Carluke
Carmichael
10 Carmunnock
Carnwath
Carftairs
Covington
Crawford
35 Crawford John
Culter
Dalferf
Dalziel
Dolphington
20 Douglas
Dunfyre
G las ford
Glafgow 1
Do. Barony y
25 Gorbals 1
Govan y
Hamilton
Kilbride
Lamington
50 Lanark
Lefmahago
Libberton
Monkland, New
Monkland, Old
35 Pettinain
Robertoun
Rutherglen
f Shotts
Stonehoufe
40 Symington
41 Walfton,
Population Population in
in 1755. 1790—1798.
3551 3343
1098 937
496 1040
1561 2707
2396 1767
934 I288
1419 1684
1459 I73a
899 781
471 570
2390 3000
845 924
521 484
2009 M90
765 59°
422 326
765 1100
35i 478
302 2C0
2009 171c
359 36o
559 788
27,451 58,401
4389 9066
3815 5017
2029 2359
599 4I7
2294 475i
3996 2810
738 750
2733 3560
1813 4000
33° 386
1102 740
988 i860
2322 2041
823 1060
264 307
478 427
81,726 125,254
81,726
Increafe 43,528
L ANESBOROUGH, a borough town of Ireland,
in the county of Longford and province of Leinfter,
fituated on the river Shannon, 62 miles from Dublin,
This town gave title of vifcount to the family of Lane, Lanctbo-
and now gives title of earl to that of Butler. There is rou&h
a bridge over the Shannon at Lanelborough into the T ,
county of Rofcommon. N. Lat. 53. 40. W. Long. 8. 6. . an^e an ‘
LANFRANC, an Italian, born at Pavia, became
archbifiiop of Canterbury in 1070. He difputed againft
Berengarms in the council held at Rome in 1059, and
wrote againft him concerning the real prefence in the
eucharirt. He had other difputes, &c. and died in
1089.
LANFRANC, John, an eminent Italian hiftory paint¬
er, born at Parma in 1581. He was firft the difeiple
of Auguftin Caracci j and, after his death, of Hanni¬
bal, whofe tafte in defign and colouring he fo happily
attained, that he was intrufted to execute fome of his
defigns in the Farnefian palace at Rome. Thefe he fi~
nilhed in fo mafterly a manner, that the difference is
imperceptible to this day between his work and that
of his mafter. His genius direfted him to grand com-
pofitions, which he had a peculiar facility in defigning
and in painting either in frefco or in oil ; he did in¬
deed afpire to the grace of Correggio, but could never
arrive at his excellence ; his greateft power being ma-
nifefted in compofition and fore fliortening. He was
deficient in correftnefs and exprefiion ; and his colour¬
ing, though fometimes admirable, was frequently too
dark. By order of Pope Urban VIII. he painted in
St Peter’s church at Rome the reprefentation of that
faint walking on the water, which afforded the pope fo
much fatisfaclion that he knighted him. He died in
1647.
LANGBAINE, Gerard, D. D. a learned Eng-
lifh writer, was born in 1608. He was educated at
Queen’s college, Oxford j and became keeper of the
archives of that univerfity, and provoft of his college.
He was highly efteemed by Archbifhop Ulher, Selden,
and other learned men $ he died in 1657. publifh-
ed, 1. An edition of Longinus, in Greek and Lalin^
with notes j and other works.
LANGBAINE, Gerard, an eminent writer, the fon of
the former, was born in 1656. He was put apprentice
to Mr Symonds, bookfeller in St Paul’s churchyard :
but was foon after called from thence by his mother up¬
on the death of his eldeft brother, and by her entered
a gentleman commoner of Univerfity college, Oxford,
in 1672. Here he run out a good part of his eftate j
but afterwards corrected his manner of living, and for
fome years lived in retirement near Oxford. During
this time he improved his tafte for dramatic poetry $ and
at firft wrote fome fmall pieces without his name, but
afterwards publilhed feveral works which he publicly
owned. In 1690 he was elefted inferior beadle of arts
in the univerfity of Oxford j and, in January following,
was chofen fuperior beadle of law, but died foon after
in 1692. He wrote, 1. The Hunter, a difcourfe on
horfemanlhip. 2. A new catalogue of English plays
with their beft editions, and divers remarks on the
originals of moft plays, and on the plagiaries of feveral
authors. 3. An account of the Englilh dramatic poets.
LANGELAND, Robert, an old Englilh poet of
the 14th century, and one of the firli difciples of Wick-
liffe the reformer. He is faid to have been born in
Shroplhire. He wrote The vifions of Pierce Plowman ^
a piece which abounds with imagination and humour,
though dreffed to great difadvantage in very uncouth
verfification
LAN [ 5
Langeland verfification and obfolete language. It is written with-
i! out rhyme, an ornament which the poet has endeavour-
Langres. e(j to fUpply by making every verfe begin with the
L ’ fame letter. Dr Hickes obferves, that this kind of al¬
literative verfification was adopted by Langeland from
the praflice of the Saxon poets, and that thefe vifions
abound with Saxonifms: he fiyles him celeberrimus Me
fatirographus, morum vindex acernmus, &c. Chaucer
and Spenfer have attempted imitations of his vifions,
and the learned Selden mentions him with honour.
Langeland, an xfland of Denmark in the Baltic fea,
in the lirait called the great belt, and between Zealand,
Saland, and Fyonia. It produces plenty of corn, and
the principal town is Rutcoping. E. Long. n. 10.
N. Lat. 55. O.
L ANGETZ, a town of France, in Touraine, noted
for its excellent melons. It is feated on the river Loire,
in E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 42. 20.
LANGHORNE, John, D.D. was born at Kirkby-
Stephen in Weftmoreland. His father was the reverend
John Langhorne of Winfton, who died when his fon
was young. After entering into holy orders, he be¬
came tutor to the fons ©f Mr Cracroft, a Lincolnfliire
gentleman, whole daughter he married. The lady in
a Ihort time died : and the lofs of her was very pathe¬
tically lamented by her hufband in a monody $ and by
another gentleman, Mr Cartwright, in a poem entitled
“ Conftantia.” Dr Langhorne held the living of Blag-
den in Somerfetlhire at the time of his death, which
happened April 1. 1779. He was the author of feveral
literary produftions j amongft others, of Poems in two
vols, 1766 ; Sermons in 2 vols, 1773 ) Effufions of Fan¬
cy, 2 vols ; Theodofius and Conftantia, 2 vols j Soly-
man and Almena j Frederic and Pharamond, or the
Confolations of Human Life, 1769'j a Differtation on
the Eloquence of the Pulpit, and another on Religious
Retirement: and he was editor of the works of St Evre-
mond, of the Poems of Collins, and fome other articles.
LANG IONA, a large, rich, and ftrong town of
Afia, capital of the kingdom of Laos, with a large and
magnificent palace where the king refides. E. Long.
96, 45. N. Lat. 22. 38.
LANGOBARDI, a people of Germany fituated
between the Elbe and the Oder, in the Marche of
Brandenburg, whom their paucity ennobled j in re¬
gard that, being encompaffed by many and powerful
nations, they preferved themfelves, not fo much by fub-
miflion, as by dint of arms and encountering dangers,
(Tacitus).
LANGPORT, a town in Somerfetlhire, 132 miles
from London, is a well frequented town on the Parrot,
between Bridgewater and Crewkern. Here are light¬
ers which are conftantly employed in carrying coals,
&c. from Bridgewater. Eels are taken in vaft plenty out
of the holes of the banks of the river in frofty weather.
LANGREL SHOT, at fea, that confifting of two
bars of iron joined by a chain or Ihackle, and having
half a ball of iron fixed on each end *, by means of which
apparatus it does great execution among the enemy’s
rigging. # t
LANGRES, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in Champagne, with a biftiop’s fee. The cut¬
lery wares made here are in high efteem. It is feated
on a mountain near the river Marne, in E. Long. 4.
24. N. Lat. 47. 52.
s ] LAN
LANGTON, Stephen, was born in England, but Langton,
educated at Paris, and was greatly efteemed for his Language.
learning by the king and nobility of France. He w'as
chancellor of Paris, a cardinal of Rome, and in the
reign of King John was made archbilhop of Canterbury
by Pope Innocent III. in oppofition both to the monks
of Canterbury and to the king. Langton was one of
the moft illuftrious men of his age for learning •, and
continued archbilhop 22 years, dying in 1228. A ca¬
talogue of his books is given by Bale and I anner. r
LANGUAGE, in the proper fenfe of the word,Definition,
fignifies the expreflion of our ideas and their various
relations by certain articulate founds, which are uled as
the figns of thofe ideas and relations. By articulate
founds are meant thofe modulations of fimple voice, or
of found emitted from the thorax, which are formed by
means of the mouth and its feveral organs,—the teeth,
the tongue, the lips, and the palate. In a more gene¬
ral fenfe of the word, language is fometimes ufed to de¬
note all founds by which animals of any kind exprefs
their particular feelings and impulfes in a manner that
is intelligible to their own fpecies.
Nature has endowed every animal with powers fuf-
ficient to make known all thofe of its fenfations and
defires, with which it is neceffary, for the prefervation
of the individual or the continuance of the kind, that
others of the fame fpecies Ihould be acquainted. For
this purpofe, the organs of all vocal animals are (»
formed, as, upon any particular impulfe, to utter founds,
of which thofe of the fame fpecies initinaively know
the meaning. The fummons of the hen is inftantly
obeyed by the whole brood of chickens y and in many
others of the irrational tribes a fimilar mode of commu¬
nication may be obferved between the parents and the
offspring, and between one animal and its cuftomary af-
fociate. But it is not among animals of the fame fpe¬
cies only that thefe inftin&ive founds are mutually un-
derftood. It is as neceffary for animals to. know the^ *
voices of their enemies as the voice of their } in w^at^re„
and the roaring of the lion is a found, of which, previ-fp^s
eus to all experience, every beaft of the foreft is natu-ferent from
rally afraid. Between thefe animal voices and the
guage of men there is however very little analogy. Hu-an.majs.
man language is capable of exprefling ideas and no¬
tions, which there is every reafon to believe that the
brutal mind cannot conceive. “ Speech (fays Arifto-
tle) is made to indicate what is expedient and what in¬
expedient, and in confequence of this what is juft and
unjuft. It is therefore given to men *, becaufe it is pe¬
culiar to them, that of good and evil, juft and unjuft,
they only (with refpedft to other animals) poffefs a fenfe
or feeling.” The voices of brutes feem intended by na¬
ture to exprefs, not diftinfl ideas or moral modes, but
only fuch feelings as it is for the good of the fpecies that
they ftiould have the power of making known •, and in
this, as in all other refpeas, thefe voices are analogous ;
not to our fpeaking, but to our weeping, laughing,
finging, groaning, fcreaming, and other natural and
audible expreflions of appetite and paflion.—Another
difference between the language of men and the voices
of brute animals confifts in articulation, by which the
former may be refolved into diftimft elementary founds
or fyllables ; whereas the latter, being for the moft part
unarticulated, are not capable of fi.ch a refolution.
Hence Homer and Hefiod charafterile man by the epi-
2 T 2 the!
L AM [5
Language, thet fMgnpf or “ voice dividing,” as denoting a power
~ peculiar to the human fpecies j for though there are a
* The par- few birds* which utter founds that may be divided in-
tmi Eaft00’t0 HableSj yet each of thefe birds utters but one fuch
India bird ^ound, which feems to be employed rather as notes of
called cor- natural mufic than for the purpofe of giving informa-
iatoo, See. tion to others •, for when the bird is agitated, it utters
3 cries which are very different, and have no articulation.
Not from  A third difference between the language of men
inftm^but an<^ ^ %n^cant cr‘es °f brute animals, is, that the
’ u former is from art and the latter from nature. Every
human language is learned by imitation, and is intelli¬
gible only to thofe who either inhabit the country
where it is vernacular, or have been taught it by a maf-
ter or by books : but the voices in queftion are not
learned by imitation ; and being wholly inftindtive,
they are intelligible to all the animals of that fpecies by
which they are uttered, though brought together from
the moft diflant countries on earth. That a dog,
which had never heard another bark, would notwith-
flanding bark himfelf, and that the barkings or yelps
of a Lapland dog would be-inftin6tively underftood by
the dogs of Spain, Calabria, or any other country, are
fads which admit not of doubt: but there is no reafon
to imagine that a man who had never heard any lan¬
guage fpoken would himfelf fpeak *, and it is well
known that the language fpoken in one country, is un¬
intelligible lo the natives of another country where a
dirrerent language is fpoken. Herodotus indeed records
a fad which, could it be depended upon, would tend
to overturn this reafoning, as it infers a natural relation
between ideas and certain articulate, founds. He tells
us, that Pfammetichus king of Egypt, in order to dif-
cover which was the oldefl language, caufed two chil¬
dren, newly born of poor parents, to be brought up by
a fhepherd among his cattle, with a ftritt injun&ion
that they fhould never hear a human voice ; and that
at the end of two years the children pronounced at the
fame time the word /Jsxxa?, which in the Phrygian lan¬
guage fignified Either this is one of the many
fables which that credulous hiftorian colledled among
the Egyptians, or the conduft and reafoning of Pfam¬
metichus were very abfurd ; for it is added, that from
this circumftance he inferred that the Phrygians were
the moft ancient people, and that they fpoke the primi¬
tive language. T.he only rational purpofe for which
fuch an experiment could be inftituted, would be to dif-
cover, not which is the oldeft or the lateft language,
but whether there be fuch a thing as a language of na¬
ture or inftinft : but in fuch a language it is obvious
that there could be no wrord to denote bread, becaufe
in what is called the ftate of nature bread is unknown.
The experiment of Pfammetichus was probably never
made j but in the woods of different countries folitary
favages have at different times been caught, who,
though they apparently poffeffed all the fagacity wfoich
is natural to man, and though their organs both of
hearing and of fpeech were perfeft, never ufed articu¬
late founds as figns of fenlations or ideas. They utter¬
ed indeed the inarticulate cries which are inftmftively
exprcllive of pleafure and pain, of joy and forrow, more
diltindlly and forcibly than men civilized; but with re-
ipeft to the very rudiments of language, they were what
Horace reprefents all mankind to have been originally, 
itiutuin et turpe pccus. Indeed it feems to be obvious,
6) LA N
that were there any inftin&ive language, the firil: words Lan
uttered by all children would be the fame; and that   
every child, whether bom in the defert or in fociety,
would underftand the language of every other child,
however educated or however negledled. Nay more,
we may venture to affirm, that fuch a language, though
its general ufe might, in fociety, be fuperfeded by the
prevailing diale£l of art, could never be* wholly loft ;
and that no man of one country would find it difficult,
far lefs impoffible, to communicate the knowledge of
his natural and moft preffing wants to the men of any
other country, whether barbarous or civilized. The
exercife of cultivated reafon, and the arts of civil life,
have indeed eradicated many of our original inftinfts,
but they have not eradicated them all: (fee Instinct).
There are external indications of the internal feelings
and defires, which appear in the moft poliftied fociety,
and which are confeffedly inftinftive. The paffions,
emotions, fenfations, and appetites, are naturally ex-
pieffed in the countenance by chara£lers which the fa-
vage and the courtier can read with equal readinefs.
The look ferene, the fmoothed brow, the dimpled
fmile, and the gliftening eye, denote equanimity and
good will in terms which no man miftakes. The con-
trafted brow, the glaring eye, the fullen gloom, and
the threatening air, denote rage, indignation, and de¬
fiance, as plainly and forcibly as revilings or impreca¬
tions. To teach men to difguife thefe inftinftive indi¬
cations of their temper, and
“To carry fmiles and funlhine in their face,
“ When difeontent fits heavy at their heart,”
conftitutes a great part of modern and refined educa¬
tion. Yet in fpite of every effort of the utmoft {kill,
and of every motive refulting from intereft, the moft
confummate hypocrite, or the moft hackneyed politi¬
cian, is not always able to prevent his real difpofition
from becoming apparent in his countenance. He may
indeed, by long praftice, have acquired a very great
command both over his temper and over the inftinc-
tive figns of it ; but at times nature will predominate
over art, and a fudden and violent paffion will flafti in
his face, fo as to be vifible to the eye of every beholder.
If thefe obforvations be juft, and we flatter ourfelves
with the belief that no man will call them in queftion,
it feems to follow, that, if mankind were prompted by
inftimft to ufe articulate founds as indications of their
paffions, affeftions, fenfations, and ideas, the language
of nature could never be wholly forgotten, and that it
would fometimes predominate over the language of art.
Groans, fighs, and fome inarticulate lively founds, are
naturally expreffive of pain and pleafure, and equally
inteliigibie to all mankind. The occafional ufe of thefe
no art can wholly banilh ; and if there were articu¬
late founds naturally expreffive of the fame feelings, it
is not conceivable that art or education could banilh
the ufe of them, merely becaufe by the organs of the
mouth they are broken into parts and refolvable into
fyllables.
It being thus evident that there is no inftin&ive ar¬
ticulated language, it has become an inquiry of fome
importance, how mankind wrere firft induced to fabri¬
cate articulate founds, and to employ them for the
purpofe of communicating their thoughts. Children
learn to fpeak by infenfible imitation; and when ad¬
vanced
an art in¬
vented by
men.
LAN f 51
language, vanced feme years in life, they iludy foreign languages
— under proper inftruftors : but the firft men had no
4 fpeakers to imitate, and no formed language to ftudy -,
*ither re- Yyjjat; means then did they learn to fpeak ? On this
only tvvo °pinions can poffibly be formed*
ea e ’ Either language mull have been originally revealed
from heaven, or it mu ft be the fruit of human induftry.
The greater part of Jews and Chriilians, and even fome
of the wife ft Pagans, have embraced the former opi¬
nion ; which Teems to be (upported by the authority of
Mofes, who reprefents the Supreme Being as teaching
our firft parents the names of animals. The latter opi¬
nion is held by Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace,
and many other Greek and Roman writers, who confi-
der language as one of the arts invented by man. I he
firft men, fay they, lived for fome time in woods and
caves after the manner of beafts, uttering only confufed
and indiftina noifes •, till affociating for mutual affift-
ance, they came by degrees to ufe articulate founds
mutually agreed upon for the arbitrary figns or marks
of thofe ideas in the mind of the fpeaker which he
wanted to communicate to the hearer. Ihis opinion
fprung from the atomic cofmogony which was framed
by Mofchus the Phenician, and afterwards improved
by Democritus and Epicurus j and though it is part of
a fyftem in which the firft men are reprefented as hav¬
ing grown out of the earth like trees and other vege¬
tables, it has been adopted by feveral modern writers
(a) of high rank in the republic of letters, and is cer-
s tainly in itfelf worthy of examination.
Arguments The moft learned, and on every account the moft re-
for its being fppftjjble author who now fupports this opinion, can-
of human jidiy acknowiedges, that if language was invented, it
invention. ^ very difficult invention, and far beyond the
reach of the groffeft favages. Accordingly he holds,
that though men were originally folitary animals, and
had no natural propenfity to the focial life •, yet before
language could be invented they muft have been affo-
ciated for ages, and have carried on of concert fome
common work. Nay, he is decidedly of opinion, that
before the invention of an art fo difficult as language,
men muft not only have herded together, but have alfo
formed fome kind of civil polity, have exifted. in that
political ftate a very long time, and have acquired filch
powers of abftra&ion as to be able to form general ideas.
(S ee Logic and Metaphysics.) But it is obvious,
that men could not have inftituted civil polity, or have
carried on of concert any common work, without com¬
municating their defigns to each other : and there aie
four ways by which the author thinks that this could
have been done before the invention of fpeech 5 viz.
iff, Inarticulate cries, expreffive of fentiments and paf-
fions : 2d, Gejures and the exprejfton of countenance :
3d, Imitative founds expreffive of audible things ; and
4th, Painting, by which vifible objefts may be. repr.e-
fented. Of thefe four ways of communication it is plain
that only two have any connexion with language, viz.
inarticulate cries and imitative founds •, and of thefe
the author abandons the latter as having contributed
nothing to the invention of articulation, though he
7 1
LAN
thinks it may have helped to advance its progrefs. “ I Language.
am difpofed (fays he) to believe, that the framing of' *~'“
words with an analogy to the found of the things ex-
preffed by them belongs rather to languages of art than
to the firft languages fpoken by rude and barbarous na¬
tions.” It is therefore inarticulate cries only that muft
have given rife to the formation of language. Such
cries are ufed by all animals who have any ufe of voice
to exprefs their wants •, and the fa£t is, that all barba¬
rous nations have cries exprefling different things, fuch
as joy, grief, terror, furprife, and the like. 1 hefe, to¬
gether with geftures and expreflion of the countenance,
were undoubtedly the methods of communication firft
ufed by men : and we have but to luppofe ( lays our au¬
thor) a great number of our fpecies carrying on fome
common bufinefs, and converfing together by figns and
cries ; and we have men juft in a ftate proper for the
invention of language. For if we fuppofe their numbers
to increafe, their wants would increaie alio ; and then
thefe two methods of communication would become too
confined for that larger Iphere of life which their wants
would make neceffary. I he only thing then that re¬
mained to be done was to give a greater variety to the
inftinftive cries 5 and as the natural progrefs is.from
what is eafy to what is more difficult, the. firft variation
would be merely by tones from low to high, and from
grave to acute. But this variety could not anfwer all
the purpofes of fpeech in fociety ; and being advanced
fo far, it was natural that an animal fo fagacious as man
fiiould go on farther, and come at laft to the only other
variation remaining, namely, articulation. 1 he fiift
articulation would be very fimple, the voice being bro¬
ken and diftinguifhed only by a few vowels and confo-
nants. And as all natural cries are from the throat and
larynx, with little or no operation of the organs of the
mouth, it is natural to fuppofe, that the firft languages
were from the greater part fpoken from the throat j that
what confonants were ufed to vary the cries, were moft-
ly guttural •, and that the organs of the mouth would at
firft be very little employed. From this account of the
origin of language it appears, that the firft founds arti¬
culated were the natural cries by which men fignified
their wants and defires to one another, fuch as calling
one another for certain purpofes, and other fu.ch things
as were moft neceffary for carrying on any joint work :
then in procefs of time other cries would be articulated,
to fignify, that fuch and fuch atfions had been per¬
formed or w'ere performing, or that Inch and fuch
events had happened relative to the common bufinefs.
The names would be invented of fuch objefts as th>-y
were converfant with ; but as we cannot fuppofe 1a-
vages to be deep in abftra£lion or fkilful in the art .of
arranging things according to \.\uz'ix genera and fpecies,
all things however fimilar, except perhaps the indivi¬
duals of the loweft fpecies; would be ex prefled by dif¬
ferent words not related to each other either by deri¬
vation or compofition. Thus would language grow by
degrees j and as it grew, it would be more and more
broken and articulated by confonants.; but ftill the
words would retain a great deal of their original na¬
ture
(a) Father Simon, Voltaire, L’Abbe Condillac, Dr Smith, and the author of th Origin and Progrrf, of
Language.
LAN
Language, ture of animal cries. And thus things would go on,
v ' words unrelated ftill multiplying, till at laft the lan¬
guage would become too cumberfome for ufe j and
then art would be obliged to interpofe, and form a
language upon a few radical words, according to the
$ rules and method of etymology.
Arguments Thofe (b) who think that language was originally
for us di- revealed from heaven, confider this account of its hu-
vine origin. lnan invention as a feries of mere fuppolitions hanging
loofely together, and the whole fufpended from no fixed
principle. The opinions of Diodorus, Vitruvius, Ho¬
race, Lucretius, and Cicero, which are frequently quot¬
ed in its fupport, are in their eftimation of no greater
authority than the opinions of other men j for as lan¬
guage was formed and brought to a great degree of
perfection long before the era of any hiftorian with
whom we are acquainted, the antiquity of the Greek
and Roman writers, who are comparatively of yefter-
day, gives them no advantage in this inquiry over the
philofophers of France and England. Ariftotle has
defined man to be £»or : and the definition is
certainly fo far juft, that man is much more remarkable
for imitation than invention j and therefore, fay the
reafoners on this fide of the queftion, had the human
race been originally mutum et turpe pecus, they would
have continued fo to the end of time, unlefs they had
been taught to fpeak by fome fuperior intelligence.
That the firft men fprung from the earth like vege¬
tables, no modern philofopher has ventured to affert $
nor does there anywhere appear fufficient evidence
that men were originally in the ftate of favages. The
oldeft book extant contains the only rational cofmo
gony known to the ancient nations $ and that book
reprefents the firft; human inhabitants of this earth, not
only as reafoning and fpeaking animals, but alfo as in
a ftate of high perfection and happinefs, of which they
were deprived for difobedience to their Creator. Mofes,
fetting afide his claim to infpiration, deferves, from the
confiftence of his narrative, at leaft as much credit as
Mofchus, or Democritus, or Epicurus *, and from his
prior antiquity, if antiquity could on this fubjeCl have
any weight, he would deierve more, as having lived
nearer to the period of which they all w7rite. But
the queftion refpeCling the origin of language may be
decided without refting in authority of any kind,
merely by confidering the nature of fpeech and the
mental and corporeal powers of man. Thofe who main¬
tain it to be of human invention, fuppofe men at firft
to have been folitary animals, afterwards to have herded
together without government or fubordination, then
to have formed political focieties, and by their own
exertions to have advanced from the groffeft ignorance
to the refinements of fcience. But, fay the reafoners
whofe caufe w'e are now pleading, this is a fuppofition
contrary to all hiftory and all experience. There is
not upon record a fingle inftance well authenticated of
a people emerging by their own efforts from barba-
rifm to civilization. There have indeed been many
nations raifed from the ftate of favages •, but it is known
that they were polilhed, not by their own repeated ex¬
ertions, but by the influence of individuals or colonies
LAN
from nations more enlightened than themfelves. The Language
original favages of Greece were tamed by the Pelafgi, ——v—
a foreign tribe j and were afterwards further polifhed
by Orpheus, Cecrops, Cadmus, &c. who derived their
knowledge from Egypt and the Eaft. The ancient
Romans, a ferocious and motley crew, received the blef-
fings of law and religion from a fucceflion of foreign
kings •, and the conquefts of Rome at a latter period
contributed to civilize the reft of Europe. In Ame¬
rica, the only two nations which at the invafion of the
Spaniards could be faid to have advanced a fingle ftep
from barbarifm, were indebted for their fuperiority over
the other tribes, not to the gradual and unaflifted pro-
grefs of the human mind, but to the wife inftitutions of
foreign legiflators.
This is not the proper place for tracing the progrefs
of man from the favage ftate to that of political focie-
ty (fee SAVAGE State'); but experience teaches us that
in every art it is much eafier to improve than to invent.
The human mind, when put into the proper track, is
indeed capable of making great advances in arts and
fciences; but if any credit be due to the records of
hiftory, it has not, in a people funk in ignorance and
barbarity, fufficient vigour to difcover that track, or
to conceive a ftate different from the prefent. If the
rudeft inhabitants of America and other countries have
continued, as there is every reafon to believe they have
continued, for ages in the fame unvaried ftate of bar¬
barifm ; how' is it imaginable that people fo much ruder
than they, as to be ignorant of all language, ffiould
think of inventing an art fo difficult as that of fpeech,
or even to frame a conception of the thing ? In build¬
ing, filhing, hunting, navigating, &.c. they might imi¬
tate the inftinftive arts of other animals, but there
is no other animal that expreffes its fenfations and af-
fedlions by arbitrary articulate founds.—It is faid that
before language could be invented, mankind muft have
exifted for ages in large political focieties, and have
carried on in concert fome common work ; but if in¬
articulate cries, and the natural viftble figns of the
paffions and affections, were modes of communication
fufficiently accurate to keep a large fociety together
for ages, and to direft its members in the execution of
fome common work, what could be their inducement
to the invention of an art fo ufeful and difficult as that
of language ? Let us however fuppofe, fay the advo¬
cates for the caufe which we are now fupporting, that
different nations of favages fet about inventing an art
of communicating their thoughts, which experience
had taught them was not abfolutely neceffary j how
came they all, without exception, to think of the one
art of articulating the voice for this purpofe ? Inar¬
ticulate cries, out of which language is fabricated,
have indeed an inftimffive connexion with our paffions
and affeftions 5 but there are geftures and expreffions
of countenance with which our paffions and affe£Hons
are in the fame manner connefled. If the natural
cries of paffion could be fo modified and enlarged as
to be capable of communicating to the hearer every
idea in the mind of the fpeaker, it is certain that the
natural geftures could be fo modified as to anfwer the
very
[ 518 ]
(b) Warburton, Delaney, Johnlbn, Beattie, Blair, and Dr Stanhope Smith of New Jerfey, &c.
LAN [Si
Language, very fame purpofe (fee Pantomime) $ and it is ftrange
that among the feveral nations who invented languages,
not one ihould have Rumbled upon fabricating vifible
figns of their ideas, but that all Ihould have agreed to
denote them by articulated founds. Every nation
vhofe language is narrow and rude fupplies its defects
by a violent gefticulation ; and therefore, as much lefs
genius is exerted in the improvement of any art than
was requifite for its firlt invention, it is natural to fup-
pofe, that, had men been left to devife for themfelves
a method of communicating their thoughts, they
would not have attempted any other than that by
which they now improve the language tranfmitted by
their fathers. It is vain to urge that articulate founds
are fitter for the purpofe of communicating thought
than vifible gefticulation ; for though this may be true,
it is a truth which could hardly occur to favages,. who
had never experienced the fitnefs of either j and if, to
counterbalance the fuperior fitnefs of articulation, its
extreme ddficulty be taken into view, it mult appear
little lefs than miraculous that every favage tribe ihould
think of it rather than the eafier method of artificial
gefticulation. Savages, it is well known, are remark¬
able for their indolence, and for always preferring eafe
to utility j but their modes of life give iuch pliancy
to their bodies, that they could with very little trouble
bend their limbs and members into any pofitions agreed
upon as the figns of ideas. X his is lo far from being
the cafe with refpeft to the organs of articulation, that
it is with extreme difficulty, if at all, that a man ad¬
vanced in life can be taught to articmate any found
which he has not been accuftomed to hear. No fo¬
reigner vrho comes to England after the age of thirty
ever pronounces the language tolerably well j an Eng-
liihman of that age can hardly be taught to utter the
guttural found which a Scotchman gives to the Greek
or even the French found of the vowel u j and of
the folitary favages who have been caught in different
forefts, we know not that there has been one who,
after the age of manhood, learned to articulate any
language fo as to make himfelf readily underftood.
The prefent age has indeed furnilhed many inftances of
deaf perfons being taught to (peak intelligibly by Ikilful
matters moulding the organs of the mouth into the
pofitions proper for articulating the voice j but who
was to perform this talk among the inventors of lan¬
guage, when all mankind were equally ignorant of the
means by which articulation is effedled ? In a word,
daily experience informs us, that men who have not
learned to articulate in their childhood, never after¬
wards acquire the faculty of fpeech but by fuch helps
as favages cannot obtain ; and therefore, if fpeech was
invented at all, it muft have been either by children
who were incapable of invention, or by men who were
incapable of fpeech. A thoufand, nay a million, of
children could not think of inventing a language.
While the organs are pliable, there is not underftanding
enough to frame the conception of a language j and by
the time that there is underftanding, the organs are
become too ftiff for the talk, and therefore, fay the
advocates for the divine origin of language, reafon as
well as hiftory intimates, that mankind in all ages muft
have been fpeaking animals; the young having con-
ftantly acquired this art by imitating thofe who were
4
9 ] LAN
elder ; and wre may warrantably conclude, that our firft Language.^
parents received it by immediate infpiration. v
To this account of the origin of language an ob¬
jection readily offers itfelf. If the firft language was
communicated by infpiration, it muft have been per¬
fect, and held in reverence by thofe who fpake it, i. e.
by all mankind. But a vaft variety of languages have
prevailed in the w'orld j and fome of thefe which re¬
main are knowm to be very imperfeCt, whilft there is
reafon to believe that many others are loft. If differ¬
ent languages were originally invented by different na¬
tions, all this would naturally follow from the mixture
of thefe nations } but what could induce men poffeffed
of one perfeCt language of divine original, to forfake it
for barbarous jargons of their own invention, and in
every refpeCt inferior to that with which their forefa¬
thers or themielves had been infpired ? j
In anfwer to this objection, it is faid, that nothing in what cir-
was given by infpiration but the faculty of fpeech and cumftances
the elements of language; for when once men hadtl^™°^n^
language, it is eafy to conceive how they might have ct.plous lan-
modified it by their natural powers, as thoufands can miage muft
improve what they could not invent. The firft lan-become
guage, if given by infpiration, muft in its principlesani
have had all the perfection of wffiich language is fuf-
ceptible ; but from the nature of things it could not
poffibly be very copious. The words of language are
either proper names or the figns of ideas and relations;
but it cannot be fuppofed that the All-wife Inftruftor
would load the memorif s of men with words to denote
^things then unknown, or with the figns of ideas which
they had not then acquired. It was fufficient that a
foundation was laid of fuch a nature as would fupport
the largeft fuperftruCture which they might ever after
have occafion to raife upon it, and that they were,
taught the method of building by compofition and
derivations, This would long preferve the language
radically the fame, though it could not prevent the
introduction pf different dialeCts in the different coun¬
tries over which men fpread themfelves. In whatever
region we fuppofe the human race to have been origi¬
nally placed, the increafe of their numbers would in
procefs of time either difperfe them into different na¬
tions, or extend the one nation to a vaft diftance on
all lides from what we may call the feat of govern¬
ment. In either cafe they would everywhere meet
with new objeCls, which would occafion the invention
of new names ; and as the difference of climate and
other natural caufes w7ould compel thofe who removed
eaftward or northward to adopt modes of life in many
refpeCls different from the modes of thofe who travelled
towards the weft or the fouth, a vaft number of words
would in one country be fabricated to denote complex
conceptions, which muft neceffarily be unintelligible to
the body of the people inhabiting countries where
thofe conceptions had never been formed. Thus would
various dialeCIs be unavoidably introduced into the ori¬
ginal language, even whilft all mankind remained in
one fociety and under one government. But after
feparate and independent focieties were formed, thefe
variations would become more numerous, and the fe¬
veral dialeCts would deviate farther and farther from
each other, as well as from the idiom and genius of
the parent tongue, in proportion to the diftance of
the
L A N' [ 5
Language, the tribes by whom they were fpoken. If we fuppofe
a few people either to have been bamlhed together from
the fociety of their brethren, or to have wandered of
their own accord to a diftance, from which' through
tracklefs forefts they could not return fand fuch emi¬
grations have often taken place), it is ealy to fee how
the mod copious language mutt in their mouths have
foon become narrow, and how the offspring of in-
fpiration mutt have in time become fo deformed
as hardly to retain a feature of the anceftor whence
it originally fprung. Men do not long retain a
practical Ikill in thofe arts which they never ex-
ercife •, and there are abundance of fadts to prove,
that a Angle man call upon a defert ifland, and hav¬
ing to provide the neceffaries of life by his own inge¬
nuity, would foon lofe the art of fpeaking with fluency
his mother tongue. A fmall number of men caft away
together, would indeed retain that art fomewhat
longer; but in a fpace of time not very long, it would
in a great meafure be loft by them or their pofterity.
In this ftate of banifhment, as their time would be
almoft wholly occupied in hunting, fifhing, and other
means within their reach to fupport a wretched exift-
ence, they would have very little leifure, and perhaps
lefs defire, to preferve by converfation the remembrance
of that eafe and thofe' comforts of which they now
found themfelves for ever deprived j and they umuld
of courfe foon forget all the words which in their
native language had been ufed to denote the accommo¬
dations and eleganeies of poliftied life. This at leaft
feems to be certain, that they would not attempt to
teach their children a part of language which in their
circumftances could be of no cife to them, and of
which it would be impoftible to make them compre¬
hend the meaning 5 for where there are no ideas, the
figns of ideas cannot be made intelligible. From fuch
colonies as this difperfed over the earth, it is probable
that all thofe nations of favages have arifen, which
have induced fo many philofophers to imagine that the
Hate ef the favage was the original ftate of man j and
if fo, we fee that from the language of infpiration
muft have unavoidably fprung a number of different
dialefts all extremely rude and narrow, and retaining
nothing of the parent tongue, except perhaps the
names of the moft confpieuous obje61s of nature, and
of thofe wants and enjoyments which are infeparable
from humanity. The favage ftate has no artificial
wants, and furnifhes few ideas that require terms to
exprefs them. The habits of folitude and filence in-
20 ] LAN
cline a favage rarely to fpeak *, and when he fpeaks, Language
he ufes the fame terms to denote different ideas. Speech
therefore, in this rude condition of men, muft be ex¬
tremely narrow and extremely various. Every new
region, and every new climate, fuggefts different ideas
and creates different wants, which muft be expreffed
either by terms entirely new, or by old terms ufed g
with a new fignification. Hence muft originate great jjence the
diverfity, even in the firft elements of fpeech, among variety of
all lavage nations, the words retained of the original tongues
language being ufed in various fenfes, and pronounced, wiuch have
as we may believe, with various accents. When any [he'worfd1*
of thofe favage tribes emerged from their barbarifm,
whether by their own efforts or by the aid of people
more enlightened than themfelves, it is obvious that
the improvement and copioufnefs of their language
w'ould keep pace with their own progrefs in knowledge
and in the arts of civil life j but in the infinite multi¬
tude of words which civilization and refinement add to
language, it would be little lefs than miraculous were
any two nations to agree upon the fame founds to re-
prefent the lame ideas. Superior refinement, indeed,
may induce imitation, conquefts may iropofe a lan¬
guage, and extenfion of empires may melt down dif¬
ferent nations and different dialefts into one mafs j
but independent tribes naturally give rife to diverfity
of tongues, nor does it feem poftible that they fhould
retain more of the original language than the words
expreflive of thofe objefts with which all men are at
all times equally concerned.
The variety of tongues, therefore, the copioufnels
of fome, and the narrownefs of others, furnifti no
good objection to the divine origin of language in ge¬
neral ; for whether language was at firft revealed from
heaven, or in a courfe of ages invented by men, a
multitude of dialefts would inevitably arife as foon as
the human race was feparated into a number of diftinft
and independent nations.—We pretend not to decide
for our readers in a queftion of this nature : we have
given the beft arguments on both fides which we
could either devife or find in the writings of others :
and if it be feen, as we doubt not it will, that our
own judgment leans to the fide of revelation, let it
not be haftily condemned by thofe whofe knowledge
of languages extends no farther than to Greece and
Rome, and France and England-; for if they will carry
their philological inquiries to the eaft, they may per¬
haps be able to trace the remains of one original lan¬
guage through a great part of the globe at this day (c).
Language,
(c) Numberlefs inftances of this might be given, but our limits w’ill permit us to produce only a very few'.—
In the Shan/cn't, or ancient language of the Gentoos, OUR fignifies a day: (See Halhed's preface to the code of
Gentoo laws'). In other eaftern languages, the fame word was ufed to denote both light and fire. Thus in the
Chaldee, ur is fire; in the Egyptian, OR is the fun or light, (P/ut. de OJir. et IJid.) : In the Hebreiv, AUR is
light : in the Greek, «>je is the air, often light: in Latin, aura is the air, from the ./Eolic Greek ; and in
Irifih it is aear. From the- very fame original we have the Greek word srtig, and the Englifli fire.—In He¬
brew, OR fignifies to raifie, lift up one's fief, or be raified: hence plainly are derived the Greek to raifie, ex¬
cite, and the Latin ORIOR to arifie ; w hence ORlENS the eafil, and Eng. orient, oriental; alio Lat. origo, and Eng.
or,gwi originate, &c.— I he word KhuNT in the Shanfcrit dialeft, fignifies a fimail territory, which is retained
in Kvrfos, Kent, Canton, Cantabria. The word Khan, KIN, CEAN, GAN, GEN, GIN, is of the fame kind,
and pervades Afia and Europe from the Ganges to the Garonne. The word LIGHT Englifli, lught Flemifh,
LUX Roman, and Greek, has been traced to Egypt. Aretz, arek, erech, hertha, earth,
and ERDE, are all one word from Paleftine and Chaldea to Britain and Germany.—The Chaldeans turned the
Hebrew
Language.
9
The lan¬
guage of
any people
an index to
their mmds.
10
Some ex¬
ceptions to
the prece¬
ding; rule.
LAN [ 52
Language, whatever was its origin, mud be fubje£t
to perpetual changes from its very nature, as well as
from that variety of incidents which affebt all fublu-
nary things •, and thofe changes mulf always corre-
fpond with the change of circumftances in the people
by whom the language is fpoken. When any parti¬
cular fet of ideas becomes prevalent among any fociety
of men, words muft be adopted to exprefs them ; and
from thefe the language mult affume its character.—
Hence the language of a bravre and martial people is
bold and nervous, although perhaps rude, and unculti¬
vated } while the languages of thofe nations in which
luxury and effeminacy prevail, are flowing and harmo¬
nious, but devoid of force and energy of expreflion.
But although it may be conlidered as a general rule,
that the language of any people is a very exaft index
of the ftate of their minds, ytt it admits of fome par¬
ticular exceptions. For as fnan is naturally an imita¬
tive animal, and in matters of this kind never has re-
courle to invention but through neceflity, colonies
planted by any nation, at whatever diflance from the
mother country, always retain the lame general founds
and idiom of language with thofe from whom they are
feparated. In procefs of time, however, the colonifts
and the people of the mother country, by living under
different climates, by being engaged in different occu¬
pations, and by adopting, of courfe, different modes
of life, may lofe all knowledge of one another, aflume
different national characters, and form each a diflinbl
•language to themfelves, totally different in genius and
ftyle, though agreeing with one another in the fun-
‘damental founds and general idiom. If, therefore,
this particular idiom, formed before their feparation,
happen to be more peculiarly adapted to the genius
of the mother country than of the colonies, thefe will
labour under an inconvenience on this account, which
they may never be wholly able to overcome ; and this
inconvenience muft prevent their language from ever
attaining to that degree of perfeblion to which, by the
genius of the people, it might otherwife have been
carried. Thus various languages may have been form¬
ed out of one parent tongue ; and thus that happy
«oncurrence of circumftances which has raifed lome
languages to a high degree of perfection, may be eafi-
3y accounted for, while many ineffectual efforts have
Been made to raife other languages to the fame degree
■®f excellence.
Vol. XI. Part II.
1 ]
LAN
As the knowledge of languages conftitutes a great hangwage^
part of erudition, as their beauty and deformities fur- —-V'-—'
niih employment to take, and as thefe depend much
upon the idioms of the different tongues, we Ihall pro¬
ceed to make a few remarks upon the advantages and
defeCts of lb me of thole idioms of language with which it
we are belt acquainted.—As the words IDIOM and GE-VTat is
Nius of a language are often confounded, it will be^
neceffary to inform the reader, that by IDIOM "'fc^dwhiTt
would here be underitood to mean that general mode uf by the ge¬
arranging words into Jentenccs whn h prevails in any par-nius, ot a
ticular language ; and by the GENIUS of a language, we
mean to exprefs the particular jet of ideas which the
words of any language, either from their formation or
multiplicity, are mojl naturally apt to excite in the mind
of any one who hears it properly uttered. Thus, al¬
though the Enghfh, french, Italian, and Spanifh lan¬
guages nearly agree in the fame general IDIOM, yet
the particular genius of each is remarkably different:
The Englifh is naturally bold, nervous, and itrongly
articulated ; the French is weaker, and more flowing j
the Itafian more foothing and harmonious j and the r,
Spani/h more grave, fonorous, and (lately. Now, when Two idi-
we examine the feveral languages which have been °ms amoHg‘
molt e(teemed in Europe, we find that there are
ly two idioms among them which are tffentially di-(*ftepme({ ^
Itinguilhed from one another j and all thole lan-Europe,
guages are divided between thefe two idioms, follow¬
ing lometimes the one and fometimes the other, either
wholly or in part. The languages which may be faid
to adhere to the firlt IDIOM, are thofe which in their
conitruCtion follow the order of nature ; that is, ex¬
prefs their ideas in the natural order in which they
occur to the mind •, the fubjeCt which occafions the ac¬
tion appearing firlt j then the aCtion accompanied with
its feveral modifications ) and, lalt of all, the objeCt to 13
which it has reference.—Thefe may properly be called The ana-^
ANALOGOUS languages ) and of this kind are the Eng-to£ous anc-
lilh, French, and molt of the modern languages in Eu¬
rope.—The languages which may be referred to the
other idiom, are thofe which follow no other order in
their conftruCtion than what the tafte or fancy of the
compofer may fuggeft 5 fometimes making the objeCt,
fometimes the aCtion, and fometimes the modification
of the aCtion, to precede or follow the other parts.
The confufion which this might ocaafion, is avoided by
the particular manner oiinflecling their words, by which
3 U ’ they
Hebrew word SHUR or SHOR, which fignifies an ox, into THOR, as likewife did the Phenicians (See P/ut. Vit.
<Svl ) ; hence the Greek the Latin taurus, the French taureau, and the Italian and Spanilh toro. I he
Hebrew word BIT or BEITH, which fignifies cavity, capacity, the concave or infide of any place, has fpread itfelf
far and wide, Hill retaining nearly the original fignification ) in the Perfian language it is B\D, BED, BHAD,
and fignifies a houfe or abode. In all the dialeCts of the Gothic tongue, BODE fignifies the fame thing ; hence
the Ei glilh abide, abode, booth, boat, and the French batteau. In all thefe inltances there is a flriking reiem-
blance in found as well as in fenfe between the derived and the primitive words; but this is not always the cafe,
even when of the legitimacy of the derivation no doubt can be entertained. It has been ftiown (fee Bofwell's
Lfe of Johnfon), that the French jour, a day, is derived from the Latin DIES ; but it may be certainly tia ed
from a higher fource. In many of the oriental dialeCts, Di, height, is a name of the fun ; hence the. Greek
Jupiter, and the Latin DIES, a day. From DIES comes DIURNUS ; in the pronunciation of which, either by the
inaccuracy of the fpeaker or of the hearer, diu is readily confounded with gin $ then of the ablative of this adjec¬
tive, corruptly pronouncedgiurno, the Italians make a fubftantive GIORNO, which by the Freni 1 is rcao' y con¬
tracted into giour or jour. From the fame root di, comes Amj, «, #»> the Eelic AiF #5, the Latin divus, and
-the Celtic dhia, God.
T4
tlie tranf-
pofitive lan¬
guages
compared
with re-
fpedl to
LAN [ 52
Language, they are raadte to refer to the others •with which they
ought to be connected, in whatever part of the fentence
they occur, the mind being left at liberty to connect
the feveral parts with one another after the whole fen¬
tence is concluded. And as the words may be heif.
tranfpofed at pleafure, thofe languages may be called
transpositive languages. To this clafs we mull, in
an efpecial manner, refer the Latin and Greek lan¬
guages.—As each of thefe idioms has feveral advan¬
tages and defedfs peculiar to itfelf, we {hall endeavour
to point out the moll confiderable of them, in order
to afcertain with greater precifion the particular charac¬
ter and excellence of fome of thofe languages now
principally fpoken or lludied in Europe.
The partiality which our forefathers, at the revival
of letters in Europe, naturally entertained for the
Greek and Roman languages, made them look upon
every dillinguiihing peculiarity belonging to them as
one of the //ztfvy caufes of the amazing fuperiority which
thofe languages evidently enjoyed above every other at
that time fpoken in Europe.—This blind deference Hill
continues to be paid to them, as our minds are early
prepoffeffed with thefe ideas, and as we are taught in
our earlieif infancy to believe, that to entertain the leal!
idea of our own language being equal to the Greek or
Latin in any particular whatever, would be a certain
mark of ignorance or want of tafte.—Their rights,
th erefore, like thofe of the church in former ages, re¬
main Hill to be examined ; and we, without exerting
our reafon to difcover truth from falfehood, tamely fit
down fatisfied with the idea of their undoubted pre¬
eminence in every refpedt. But if we look around us
for a moment, and obferve the many excellent produc¬
tions which are to be met with in almolt every language
of Europe, we mull be fatisfied, that even thefe are now
poffeffed of fome powers which might afford at lealt a
prefumption, that, if they were cultivated with a pro¬
per degree of attention, they might, in fame refpeBs, be
made to rival, if not to excel, thofe beautiful and jullly
admired remains of antiquity. Without endeavouring
to derogate from their merit, let us, with the cool eye
of philofophic reafoning, endeavour to bring before the
facred tribunal of Truth fome of thofe opinions which
have been moll generally received upon this fubjeft,
and reft the determination of the caufe on her impartial
decifion.
The learned reader well knows, that the feveral
changes which take place in the arrangement of the
words in every TRANSPOSITIVE language, could not be
admitted without occafioning great confufion, unlefs
certain clafles of words were endowed with particular
variations, by means of which they might be made to
refer to the other words with which they ought natural¬
ly to be connected. From this caufe proceeds the ne-
ceffity of feveral variations of verbs, nouns, and adjec~
fives; which are not in the leaft elfential or necell'ary in
the analogous languages, as we have pretty fully ex¬
plained under the article Grammar, to which we refer
for fatisfaftion on this head. We fliall in this place
confider, whether thefe variations are an advantage or a
difadvantage to language. f
As it is generally fuppofed, that every language
whofe verbs admit of inflexion, is on that account much
more perfeft than one where they are varied by auxi¬
liaries ; we lhall in the firft place, examine this with
2 ] LAN
fome degree of attention ; and that what is faid on this Langusgi’,
head may be the more intelligible, we (hall give ex- w-—
amples from the Latin and Englilh languages. We
make choice of thefe languages, becaufe the Latin is
more purely tranfpojitive than the Greek, and the Eng¬
lilh admits of lels infeciwn than any other language
that we are acquainted with. i(.
If any preference be due to a language from the cpverff{y 0f
one or the other method of conjugating verbs, it muft founds, va¬
in a great meaCure be owing to one or more of thefe bety of ex-
three caufes :—Either it muft admit of a greater va-P1^0”8*.
riety of founds, and confequently more room for har-^ecl‘
monious diverlity of tones in the language :—or a meaning,
greater freedom of expreftion is allowed in uttering any
fimple idea, by the one admitting of a greater variety
in the arrangement of the words which are neceffary to
exprefs that idea than the other does :—or, laftly, a
greater precifion and accuracy in fixing the meaning
of the perfon who ufes the language, arife from the ule
of one of thefe forms, than from the ule of the other :
for, as every other circumftance which may ferve to
give a diverfity to language, fuch as the general and
moft prevalent founds, the frequent repetition of any
one particular letter, and a variety of other circum-
ftances of that nature, which may ferve to debafe
a particular language, are not inlluenced in the lealt
by the different methods of varying the verbs, they
cannot be here confidered. We lhall therefore pro¬
ceed to make a comparifon of the advantages or difad-
vantages which may accrue to a language by inflefting
its verbs with regard to each of thefe particulars,—va¬
riety of found, variety of arrangement, and accuracy of
meaning. _
The firjl particular that we have to examine L, Diverfity of
Whether the one method of exprefling the variations founds,
of a verb admits of a greater variety of founds ? In
this refpect the Latin feems, at firft viewq to have a
great advantage over the Englijh : for the words amo,
atnabam, amaveram, amavero, amem, &c. feem to be
more different from one another than the Englilh trani-
lations of thefe, / love, I did love, I had loved, lJball <
have loved, l may love, &c. \ for although the fyllable
am is repeated in every one of the firft, yet as the
laft fyllable ufually ftrikes the ear with greater force
and leaves a greater imprcffion than the firft, it is very
probable that many will think the frequent repetition
of the word LOVE in the laft inftance, more llriking
to the ear than the repetition of am in the former.
We will therefore allow this its full weight, and grant
that there is as great, or even a greater difference be¬
tween the founds of the different tenfesoi a Latin verb,
than there is between the words that are equivalent to
them in Englilh. But as we here confider the variety
of founds of the language in general, before any jult
conclufion can be drawn, we muft not only compare
the different parts of the lame verb, but alfo compare
the different verbs with one another in each of thefe
languages. And here, at firft view, we perceive a
moft ftriking diftinction in favour of the analogous
language over the injledled: for as" it would be impof-
fible to form a particular fet of inflexions different
from one another for each particular verb, all thofe
languages which have adopted this method have been
obliged to reduce their verbs into a fmall number of
claffes } all the words of each of which claffes com¬
monly
LAN [ 52
Language rnonly called conjugations, have the feverai variations of
-v——• m0Jes^ tenfes, and perfons, expreiled exaflly in the
fame manner, which mull of neceffity introduce a fi-
milarity of founds, into the language in general, much
greater than where every particular verb always retains
its own diflinguilhing found. To be convinced of this,
we need only repeat any number of verbs in Latin and
Engliih, and obferve on which fide the preference with
refpe£! to variety of founds muft fall.
Pono,
.Dono,
Cano,
Sono,
Orno,
Pugno,
Lego,
Scribo,
Puto,
Vivo,
Ambulo,
I put.
I give.
Ifing-
Ifound.
I adorn.
I fight.
1 read.
1 write.
I think.
I live.
I walk.
Moveo,
Doleo,
Lugeo,
Obeo,
Gaudeo.
Incipio,
Faeio,
Fodio,
Rideo,
Impleo,
Abdineo,
I move,
I ail.
I mourn.
I die.
I rejoice.
1 begin.
I make.
I dig.
I laugh.
Ifilh
l forbear.
The fimilarity of founds is here fo obvious in the La¬
tin, as to be perceived at the firft- glance-, nor can we
be furprifed to find it fo, when we confider that all their
regular verbs, amounting to 4000 or upwards, muft be
reduced to four conjugations, and even thefe differing
but little from one another, which muft of neceffity pro¬
duce the famenefs of founds which we here perceive j
whereas, every language that follow the natural order,
like the Englilh, mftead of this fmall number of uni¬
form terminations have almoft as many diftiruft founds
as original verbs in their language.
But if inftead of the prefent of the indicative mood,
we ftiould take almoft any other tenfe of the Latin verb,
the fimilarity of founds would be ftill more perceptible,
as many of thefe tenfes have the fame termination in all
the four conjugations, particularly in the imperfe£l of
the indicative, as below.
Pone-bam ;
Dona-bam
Cane-bam ;
Sona-bam ;
Orna-bam
Pugna-bam
Lege-bam ;
Scribe-bam
Puta-bam $
Vive-bam}
/ d/d put,
I did give,
I did fing,
I did found,
1 did adorn,
1 did fight,
I did read,
I did write,
I did think,
I did live,
I put.
1 gave.
I fun%.
I founded.
1 adorned.
I fought.
I read.
I wrote.
I thought.
/ lived.
\
i
3 1
Abula-bam }
Move-bam j
Dole-bam j
Luge-bam j
Obi-bam j
Gaude-bam
Incipie-bam 5
Facie-bam \
Fodie-bam \
Ride-bam $
Imple-bam
Abftine-bam j
It is unneceffary to make any remarks on the Latin
words m this example : but in the Englifti tranflation.
we have carefully marked in the firft column the words
without any inflexion j and in the fecond, have put
down the fame meaning by an inflexion of our verb j
which we have been enabled to do, from a peculiar
excellency in our own language unknown to any other
either ancient or modern. Were it neceffary to pur-
fue this fubjeft farther, we might obferve, that the
perfedl tenfe in all the conjugations ends univertally in
I, the pluperfeB in ERAM, and the future, in am or BO ;
in the fubjundlive mood, the imperfeB univerfal/y in
REM, the perfeB in ERIM, the pluperfeB in ISSEM, and
the future in ERO : and as a ftill greater famenefs is
obfervable in the different variations for the perfons in
thefe tenfes, feeing the firft perfon plural in all tenfes
ends in mus, and the fecond perfon in Tis, with little
variation in the other perfons it is evident that, in re-
fpeft to diverfity of founds, this method of conjugating
verbs by inflexion, is greatly inferior to the more natu¬
ral method of expreffing the various connexions and re¬
lations of the verbal attributive by different words, ufu-
ally called auxiliaries. 17
The fecond particular, by which the different me-Variety of
thods of marking the relation of the verbal attributive exPreflioi'ti*
can affeft language, arifes from the variety of expref-
fions which either of thefe may admit of in uttering
the fame fentiment. In this refpeft, likewife, the me¬
thod of conjugatioxr by inflexion feems to be deficient.
Thus the prefent of the indicative mood in Latin can
at moft be expfeffed only in two ways, viz. scrtbo
and EGO scribo ; which ought perhaps in ftri&nefs to
be admitted Only as one : whereas, in Engliftr, we can
vary it in four different ways, viz. \Jl, I WRITE idly,
I do write ; ^dly, Write I do ; t\thly, Write do
I (d). And if we coniider the further variation which
thefe receive in power as well as in found, by having
3 U 2 the
L A
I did walk,
I did move,
I did ail,
I did mourn,
I did die,
I did rejoice,
I did begin,
I did make,
I did dig,
I did laugh,
1 did fill,
1 did forbear.
N
I walked.
I moved.
I a iled.
/ mourned.
I died.
/ rejoiced,
I began.
/ made.
I dug.
I laughed.
I filled.
1 forbore.
Language.
(d) We are fufficienlly aware, that the laft variation cannot in ftrianefs be confidered as good language j
although many examples of this manner of ufing it in ferious compofition, both in poelry an pro.t, mig L
be eafily produced from the heft authors in the Englifh language.—But however unjuftifiable it may be t»
ufe it "in ferious compofition * yet, when judicioufly employed in works of humour, this *nd other forced
expreffions of the like nature produce a fine effeft, by giving a burlefque air to the language, and beauti¬
fully contrafting it to the purer diftion of iolid reafoning. Ihe fagacious Shakefpeare, has, on many occa-
iions, (bowed how fuccefsfullv thefe may be employed in compofition, particulaily in drawing the charac¬
ter of ancient Pifiol\n Henry V. Without this liberty, Butler would have found greater difficulty in drawing
the inimitable charafter of Hudibras.—Let this apology fuffice for haying inferted _ this and other variations
of the fame kind which, although they may be often improper for ferious compofition, have ftnl their ulc
language.
LAN [ 524 ] . LAN
Language.
the emphafis placed on the different words j inftead of
four, we will find eleven different variations : thus, xjl,
I write, with the emphafis upon the I;—2d/y, I
WRITE, with the emphafis upon the word WRITE.
Let any one pronounce thefe with the different em¬
phafis neceffary, and he will be immediately fatisfied
that they are not only diftinft from each other with
refpedt to meaning, but alfo with regard to found j
and the fame mult be underftood of all the other parts
of this example.
3. I do write.
4. I bo write.
5. / do tVRlTE.
6. Write I do.
7. Write I do.
8. Wrj'te 1 r>o.
9. Write do I.
10. Write bo I.
11. Write do I.
None of the Latin tenfes admit of more variations
than the two above‘mentioned : nor do almoft any
of the Englifii admit of fewer than in the above ex¬
ample ; and feveral of thefe phrafes, which muft be
confidered as exaft tranfiations of fome of the tenfes
of the Latin verb, admit of many more. Thus the
imperfeft of the fubjundtive mood, which in Latin
admits of the above two variations, admits in Englilh
of the following :
1. 7 might have written. 4. Written might have I.
2. Written I might have. 5. 7 written might have.
3. Have written I might. 6. Have written might I.
And if we likewife confider the variations which may
be produced by a variation of the emphafiSj they will be
as under :
1. I might have written.
2. I might have written.
3. 7 might hare written.
4. 7 might have written.
5. Written I might have.
6. Written I might have.
7. Written I might have.
8. Written I might have.
9. Have written I might.
10. Have written 1 might.
11. Have written I might.
12. Have written I might.
13. Written might have I.
14. Written might have I.
15. Written might have I.
16. Written might have I.
17. I written night have.
J 8- 7 written might have.
19. 1 written might have.
20. 1 written might have.
2 T. Have written might I.
22. Hove written might 7.
23. Have written might I.
24. Have written might I.
flill remains in this refpedl as 12 to 1.—Yet even this Language,
conceffion is greater than ought to have been made : —-v——■*
For as the difficulty of forming a fufficient variety of
words for all the different modifications which a verb
may be made to undergo is too great for any rude peo¬
ple to overcome we find, that every nation which
has adopted this mode of infledlion, not excepting the
Greeks themfelves, has been obliged to remain fatis¬
fied with fewer words than would have been neceffary
even to effedl this purpofe, and make the fame wmrd
ferve a double, treble, or even quadruple office, as in
the Latin tenfe which gave rile to thefe obfervations :
So that, however in phyfical neceffity,. this may not
be chargeable upon the particular mode of conftruc-
tion, yet in moral certainty it muft always be the cafe 5
and therefore we may fafely conclude, that the mode
of varying verbs by inflexion affords lefs variety in the
arrangement of the words of the particular phrafes,
than the method of varying them by the help of auxi¬
liaries.
Eiit if there fhould ftill remain any lhadew of doubt
in the mind of the reader, whether the method of va¬
rying the verbs by inJlcBion is inferior to that by auxi- prec^on 0£.
I lanes, with regard to diverfity of founds, or variety,
of expreffion ; there cannot be the leaft doubt, but which the
that with refpedt to preeifion, diftin&nefs, and accu- Enghfh is
racy, in expreffing any idea, the latter enjoys a fupe-ta
riority beyond all comparifon.—Thus the Latin verb ja^clJag”
Amo, may be Engliffied either by the words, 7 love, °
or 7 do love, and the emphafis placed upon any of the
words that the circumftances may require ; by means
of which, the meaning is pointed out with a force and
energy which it is altogether impoffible to produce by
the ule of any fingle word. The following line from
Shakefpeare’s Othello may ferve as an example :
   —Excellent wretch !
Perdition catch my foul, but 7 DO love thee :
In which the ftrong emphafis upon the word Do, gives
it a force and energy which conveys, in an irxefiltible
manner, a moft pe/Peft knowledge of the fituation of
the mind of the fpeaker at the time—That the whole
energy, of the expreffion depends upon this feemingly
infignincant word, we may be at once fatisfied of, by
keeping it aw ay in this manner :
In all 24 variations, inftead of two.—If we likewife
confider, that the Latins were obliged to employ the
fame word, not only to exprefs “ I might have written,
but alfo, “ I could, I would, or lyZ'^/d have written f’’
each of which would admit of the fame variations as
the word might; we have in all ninetyJix different ex-
preffions in Engliffi for the fame phrafe which in Latin
admits only of two, unlefs they have recourfe to other
forced turns of expreffion, which the defedts of their
verbs in this particular has compelled them to in¬
vent.
But if it fliould be objedled, that the laft circum-
flance w^e have taken notice of as a defedt, can only
be confidered as a defedl of the Latin language, and
is not to be attributed to the injleBion of their verbs,
feeing they might have had a particular tenfe for each
of thefe different words might, could, would, and Jhould;
we anfwer, that, even admitting this excufe as valid $
the fuperiority of the analogous language, as fuch,
2.
• ' -  Excellent wretch !.
Perdition catch my foul, but 7 love thee.
How poor—how tame—how infignificant is this, when
compared' with the other ! Here nothing remains but
a tame affertion, uffiered in with a pompous exclama¬
tion which could not here be introduced with any de¬
gree of propriety. Whereas, in the way that Sbake-
fpeare has left it to us, it has an energy which nothing
can furpafs ; for, overpowered with the irrefiftible
force of Defdemona’s charms, this ftrong exclamation
is extorted from the foul of Othello in fpite of him-
felf. Surprifed at this tender emotion, which brings
to his mind all thofe amiable qualities for which he
had fo much efteemed her, and at the fame time fully
impreffed with the firm perfuafion of her guilt, he burfts
out into that feemingly inconfiftent exclamation, Ex¬
cellent wretch ! and then he adds in the warmth of his
furprife,— thinking it a thing moft aftonifhing, that
any warmth of affe&ion iliould ftiil remain in his
brealE
LAN [ <25 ] LAN
Language, breaft, he even confirms it with an oath,— "Perdition
'—sr— catch my foul, but I DO love thee.—“ In fpite of all the
falsehoods with which I know thou haft deceived me
 in fpite of all the crimes of which I know thee
guilty—in fpite of all thofe reafons for which I ought
to hate thee—in fpite of myfelf,—ftill I find that I
love—yes, I DO love thee.” We look upon it as a
thing altogether impoflible to transfufe the energy of
this expreflion into any language whofe verbs are regu¬
larly infledted.
In the fame manner we might go through all the
other tenfes, and ftiow that the fame fuperiority is
to be found in each. Thus, in the perfeB tenfe of the
Latins, inftead of the fimple amavi, we fay I HAVE
LOVED } and by the liberty we have of putting the
emphafis upon any of the words which compofe this
phrafe, we can in the moft accurate manner fix the
precife idea which we mean to excite } for if we lay,
I have loved, with the emphafis upon the word I, it
at once points out the perlon as the principal objedt
in that phrafe, and makes us naturally look for a con¬
trail in fome other perfon, and the other parts of the
phrafe become fubordinate to it ",—“ HE has loved thee
much, but I have loved thee infinitely more.” The
Latins too, as they were not prohibited from joining
the pronoun with their verb, were alfo acquainted with
this excellence, which Virgil has beautifully ufed in
this verfe :
— Nos patriam fugimus ;
Tu, Tityre, lentus in umbra, Sec.
But we are not only enabled thus to diftinguifh the
perfon in as powerful a manner as the Latins, but can
alfo with the fame facility point out any of the other
circumftances as principals ; for if we fay, with the
emphafis upon the word have, “ I HAVE lovedf it as
naturally points out the time as the principal objedt,
and makes us to look for a contraft in that peculiarity,
I HAVE : “ I have loved indeed ;—my imagination has
beeh led aftray—my reafon has been perverted 5—but,
flow that time has opened my eyes, I can fmile at
thofe imaginary diftreffes which once perplexed me.”
—In the fame manner we can put the emphafis upon
the other word of the phrafe loved,—I have loved.”
—Here the paflion is exhibited as the principal circum*
fiance j and as this can never be excited without fome
objedt, we naturally wifh to know the objedt of that
paflion—“ Who ! what have you loved P"1 are the na¬
tural queftions we would put in this cafe. “ I have
LOVED Eliza.” In this manner we are, on all
occafions, enabled to exprefs, with the utmoft preci-
iion, that particular idea which we would wifh to ex¬
cite, fo as to give an energy and perfpicuity to the
language, which can never be attained by thofe lan¬
guages whofe verbs are conjugated by infledtion : and
if to this we add the inconvenience which all infledted
languages are fubjedt to, by having too fmall a num¬
ber of tenfes, fi)' as to be compelled to make one
word on many occafions fupply the place of two,
three, or even four, the balance is turned ftill more in
our favour.—ft hus, in Latin, the fame word AM ABO
Hands for Jhall or will love, fo that the reader is left to
guefs from the context which of the two meanings it
was moft likely the writer had in view.—In the fame
manner, may or can love are expreffed by the fame
word AMEM 5 as are alfo might, could, would, or Jhould, Language^
love, by the Angle word aMaREM, as we have already v ^
obferved j fo that the reader is lelt to guefs which of
thefe four meanings the writer intended to exprefs :
which occafions a perplexity very different from that
clear precifion which our language allows of, by not
only pointing out the different words, but alio by al¬
lowing us to put the emphafis upon any of them we
pleafe, which fuperadds energy and force to the preci¬
fion it would have had without that afliftance. 15’
Upon the whole, therefore, after the moft candid ^erne-
examination, we muft conclude, that the method ofco°-u"a_
conjugating verbs by utfleclion is inferior to that whichting verbs
is performed by the help of auxiliaries;—becaule itb> hiflec-
does not afford luch a diverfity of iounds,—nor al-
low fuch variety in the arrangement of expreflion Vs
for the fame thought,—nor give fo great diftimftion perfoirneci
and precifion in the meaning.—It is, however, at-by auxilia-
tended with one confiderable advantage above theries.
other method : for as the words of which it is formed
are neeeffarily of great length, and more fonorous,
than in the analogous languages, it admits of a more
flowing harmony of expreflion ; for the number of
monofyllables in this laft greatly checks that pompous
dignity which naturally refults from longer words*
Whether this Angle advantage is fufticient to counter¬
balance all the other defe&s with which it is attended,
is left to the judgment ©f the reader to determine
but we may remark, before we quit the fubjeft, that
even this excellence is attended with fome peculiar in¬
conveniences, which ftiall be more particularly pointed
out in the fequel.
But perhaps it might ftill be ©bjefled, that although
the comparifons we have made above may be fair, and
the conclufion juft, with regard to the Latin and En~
glifh languages •, yet it does not appear clear, that on
that account the method of conjugating verbs by in-
fleffion is inferior to that by auxiliaries ; for although it
be allowed that the Latin language is defeftive in point
of tenfes ; yet if a language were formed which had
a fufticient number of inflefted tenfes to antwer every
purpofe 5 if it had, for inftance, a word properly
formed for every variation of each tenfe : one for /
love, another for I do h.ve ; one for /fball, another for
I will love ; one for / might, another for / could, and
would, and Jhould love; and fo on through all the
other tenfes j that this language would not be liable to
the obje&ions we have brought againft the infleftion
of verbs; and that of courfe the obje&ions we have
brought are only valid againft thofe languages which
have followed that mode and executed it imperfeftly.
—We anfwer, that although this would in fome mea-
fure remedy the evil, yet it would not remove it entire¬
ly. For, in the firft place, unlefs every verb, or every
fmall number of verbs, were conjugated in one way,
having the found of the words in each tenle, and di»
vifion of tenfes, as we may fay, different from all the
other conjugations,—it would always occafion a fame-
nefs of found, which would in fome meafure prevent
that variety of founds fo proper for a language. And
even if this could be effe&ed, it would not give fuch a
latitude to the expreflion as auxiliaries allow j for al¬
though there ftrould be two words, one for 1 might, and
another far I could love j yet as thefe are Angle words,
they cannot bs varied j whereas, by auxiliaries, either
LAN [ 526 ] .LAN
e- of thefe can be varied 24 different ways, as has been
Ihown above. In the laft place, no Angle word can
ever exprefs all that variety of meaning which we can
do by the help of our auxiliaries and the emphafis. I
have loved, if expreffed by any one word, could only
denote at all times one diftinft meaning *, fo that to
give it the power of ours, three diilimft words at leaft
would be neceffary. However, if all this were done 5
that is, if there were a diltinft conjugation formed for
every 40 or 50 verbs *,—if each of the tenfes were
properly formed, and all of them different from every
other tenfe as well as every other verb ; and thefe all
carried through each of the different perfons, fo as to
be all different from one another j—and if likewife there
were a diflinft word to mark each of the feparate
meanings which the fame tenfe could be made to af-
fume by means of the emphafis \ and if all this infi¬
nite variety of words could be formed in a diflinct
manner, different from each other, and harmonious ;
this language would have powers greater than any that
could be formed by auxiliaries, if it were poffible for
the human powers to acquire fuch a degree of know¬
ledge as to be able to employ it with facility. But
how could this be attained, fince upwards of ten thou-
fand words would be neceffary to form the variations
of any one verb, and a hundred times that number
would not include the knowledge of the verbs alone of
iuch a language ? (e)—How much, therefore, ought
we to admire the Ample perfpicuity of our language,
which enables us, by the proper application of ten or
twelve feemingly trifling words, the meaning and ufe
of which can be attained with the utmoft eafe, to ex¬
prefs all that could be expreffed by this unwieldy ap¬
paratus ? What can equal the fimplicity or the power
of the one method, but the well known powers of the
24 letters, the knowledge of which can be obtained
with fo much eafe:—and their pow-ers know no limits ?
—or, what can be compared to the fancied perfection
of the other, but the tranfeript of it which the Chi-
nefe feem to have formed in their unintelligible lan¬
guage ?
Having thus confidered pretty fully the advantages
and defefts of each of thefe two methods of varying
verbs, we cannot help feeling a fecret with arife in our
mind, that there had been a people fagacious enough
to have united the powers of the one method with
thofe of the other •, nor can we help being furprifed,
that among the changes which took place in the feve-
ral languages of Europe after the downfal of the Bo¬
rman monarchy, fome o! them did not accidentally
Humble on the method of doing it. From many con¬
curring circumitances, it feems probable that the great-
eft part, if not all the Gothic nations that overran
Italy at that time, had their verbs varied by the help
of auxiliaries \ and many of the modern European
languages which have fprung from them, have fo far
borrowed from the Latin, as to have fome of the tenfes
of their verbs infle&ed : yet the Englifti alone ha\e in' Language,
any inftance combined the joint powers of the two ; —y—**-'
which could only be done by forming inflections for the
different tenfes in the fame manner as the Latins, and
at the fame time retaining the original method of va¬
rying them by auxiliaries } by which means either the
one or the other method could have been employed as
occaflon required. We have luckily two tenfes formed
in that way 5 the prefent of the indicative, and the aorilt
of the pnjh In almuft all our verbs thefe can be de¬
clined either with or without auxiliaries. Thus the
prefent, without an auxiliary, is, / love, I write, Ifpeak$
with an auxiliary, I do write, I do love, I do /peak. In
the fame manner, the paft tenle, by inflection, is, /
loved, I wrote, I [poke $ by auxiliaries, I did love, I did
/peak, I did write. Every author, who knows any
thing of the power of the Englifli language, knows the
ufe which may be made of this diftincdion. What a
pity is it that wre fhould have ftopt Ihort fo foon ! how
blind was it in many other nations to imitate the defeCts
wdthout making a proper ufe of that beautiful language
W'hich is now numbered among the dead ! 20
After the verbs, the next moft conflderable varia-Analogous
tion we And between the analogous and tranfpoJitivean^
languages is in the nouns ; the latter varying the dif-P°^ve
ferent cafes of thefe by infield ion ; whereas the former cor^pa4d
exprefs all the different variations of them by the help with re
of other words preAxed, called prepojitions. Now, ifipc dl to th®
wre conAder the advantages or difadvantages of eitherca^es
of thefe methods under the fame heads as we have doner,ouru‘
the verbs, we Aiall And. that with regard to the Arft
particular, viz. variety of founds, almoft the fame re¬
marks may be made as upon the verbs *, for if we
compare any particular noun by itfelf, the variety of
found appears much greater between the different cafes
in the tranfpojitivc, than between the tranflation of
thefe in the analogous language. Thus REX, REGIS,
REGI, REGEM, &c. are more diftind from one another,
in point of found, than the tranflation of thefe, a king,
of a king, to a king, a king, &c. But if w e proceed one
ftep further, and conAder the variety which is produ¬
ced in the language in general by the one or the other
of thefe methods, the cafe is entirely reverfed. For
as it would have been impoffible to form diftinCl varia--
tions, different from one another, for each cafe of every
noun, they have been obliged to reduce all their nouns
into a fewr general claffes, called declenjions, apd to 21
give to all thofe included under each clafs the fame ter- The for-
mination in every cafe •, which produces a like Amila- mer fupe-
rity of found with what we already obferved was oc‘nor^n ^
caAoned to the verbs from the fame caufe •, whereas in p0U11l/
the analogous languages, as there is no neceffity for
any conftraint, there is almoft as great a variety of
founds as there are of nouns. The Latins have only
Ave different declenAons ; fo that all the great number
of words of this general order muft be reduced to the
very fmall diverAty of founds which thefe few claffes
admit
(e) J his aflertion may perhaps appear to many very much exaggerated : but if aYiy fhould think fo, we
only beg the favour that he will fet himfelf to mark all the variations of tenfes, mode, perfon, and number,
"which an Englifti verb can be made to affume, varying each of thefe in every way that it will admit, both as
to the diverAty of expreflion and the emphaAs j he will foon be convinced that we have here laid nothing more
than enough.
LAN [ 527 ] LAN
Language, admit of j and even the founds of thefe few claffes are God the love of. »And as thefe oblique cafes, as the Language,
‘ v ^ not fo much diverfified as they might have been, as Latins called them except the accufative, are clearly' v—'
many of the different cafes in the different declenjions diftinguifhed from one another, and from the nomina-
have exactly the fame founds, as we (hall have occafion tive, by the prepofition which accompanies them, we
to remark more fully hereafter. We might here pro- are not confined to any particular arrangement with re¬
duce examples to {how the great Jimilarity of founds gard to thefe as with the accufative, but may place
between different nouns in the Latin language, and va- them in what order we pleafe, as in Milton’s elegant
rietij in the Englifh, in the fame way as we did of the invnnatinn ar rW J-iprnnninrr nf PararUTt. T •
but as every reader in the leaft acquainted with
thefe two languages can fatisfy himfelf in this particu¬
lar, without any further trouble than by marking down
* any number of Latin nouns, with their tranflations into
Englifh, we think it unneceffary to dwell longer on this
particular.
But if the inflexion of nouns vis a difadvantage
to a language in point of diverfity of founds, it is very
2a much the reverfe with regard to the variety it allows
I Inferior in the arranging the words of the phrafe. Here, in-
with re- deed, the tranfpofitive language fliines forth in all its
gard to the glory> and the
analogous muff yield the palm with-
ment of out t^ie faialleft difpute. For as the nominative cafe
words in a (or that noun which is the caufe of the energy ex-
fentence; prefled by the verb) is different from the accufative (or
but that noun upon which the energy exprefled by the verb
is exerted), thefe may be placed in any fituation that
the wriler fhall think proper, without occafioning the
fmalleft confufion : whereas in the analogous languages,
as thefe two different ftates of the noun are expreffed
by the fame word, they cannot be diftinguifhed but by
their pofition alone : fo that the noun which is the ef¬
ficient caufe muft always precede the verb, and that
which is the paflive fubjedt muft follow ; which great¬
ly cramps the harmonious flow of compofition.—Thus
the Latins, without the fmalleft perplexity in the mean¬
ing, could fay either Brutum amavit Cafjius, or CaJJius
amavit Brutum, or Brutum CaJJius amavit, or Caff us
Brutum amavit. As the termination of the word Caf-
Jius always points out that it is in the nominative cafe,
and therefore that he is the perfon from whom the en¬
ergy proceeds *, and in the fame manner, as the termi¬
nation of the word Brutum points out that it is in the
accufative cafe, and confequently that he is the objeft
upon whom the energy is exerted j the meaning con¬
tinues ftill diftindt and clear, notwithftanding of all
thefe feveral variations : whereas in the Englifh lan¬
guage, we could only fay, Caff us loved Brutus, or, by
a more forced phrafeology, Caff us Brutus loved: Were
we to reverfe the cafe, as in the Latin, the meaning
alfo would be reverfed ; for if we fay Brutus loved Caf-
fus, it is evident, that inftead of being the perfon be¬
loved, as before, Brutus now becomes the perfon from
whom the energy proceeds, and Caffus becomes the
object beloved.—In this refpedt, therefore, the analo¬
gous languages are greatly inferior to the tranfpofitive $
and indeed it is from this Angle circumftance alone that
they derive their chief excellence.
But although it thus appears evident, that any
language, which has a particular variation of its nouns
to diftinguifh the accufative from the nominative cafe,
has an advantage over thofe languages which have
none •, yet it does not appear that any other of their
cafes adds to the variety, but rather the reverfe ; for,
in Latin, we can only fay Amor Dei; in Englifti the
fame phrafe may be rendered, either, the love of God
'—of God the love,—or, by a more forced arrangement,
invocation at the beginning of Paradife Loft :
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With lofs of Eden, till one greater Man
Reftore us, and regain the blifsfui feat,
Sing, heavenly Mufe.
In this fentence the tranfpofition is almoft as great as
the Latin language would admit of, and the meaning
as diftinft as if Milton had begun with the plain lan¬
guage of profe, thus,—Heavenly mufe, fing of man’s
firft difobedience,” &c.
Before we leave this head, we may remark, that the
little attention which feems to have been paid to this
peculiar advantage derived from the ufe of an accufa¬
tive cafe different from the nominative, is fomewhat fur-
prifing. The Latins, who had more occafion to attend
to this with care than any other nation, and even the
Greeks themfelves, have in many cafes overlooked it,
as is evident from the various inftances we meet with in
their languages where this is not diftinguilhed. For all
nouns of the neuter gender both in Greek and Latin
have in every declenfion their nominative and accufa¬
tive fingular alike. Nor in the plural of fuch nouns
is there any diftin£Hon between thefe two cafes j and
in Latin all nouns whatever of the third, fourth, and
fifth declenfions, of which the number is very confi-
derable, have their nominative and accufative plural
alike. So that their language reaps no advantage in
this refpedl from almoft one-half of their nouns. Nor
have any of the modern languages in Europe, however
much they may have borrowed from the ancient lan¬
guages in other refpefts, attempted to copy from them
in this particular ; from which perhaps more advantage
would have been gained, than from copying all the
other fuppofed excellencies of their language.—But to
return to our objeft. ^
It remains that we confider, whether the inflexion greatly fu-
of nouns gives any advantage over the method of defi-Perior as
ning them by prepofitions, in point of diftindtnefs
precifion of meaning ? But in this refpe£t, too, the ana-jntr-
logons languages muft come off victorious. Indeed this 41
is the particular in which their greateft excellence con-
fifts ; nor was it, we believe, ever difputed, but that, in
point of accuracy and precifion, this method muft ex¬
cel all others, however it may be defective in other re-
fpeCts. We obferved under this head, when fpeaking of
verbs, that it might perhaps be pofiible to form a lan¬
guage by inflection which ftiould be capable of as great
accuracy as in the more Ample order of auxiliaries : but
this would have been fuch an infinite labour, that it
was not to be expeCted that ever human powers would
have been able to accomplifti it. More eafy would it
have been to have formed the feveral inflections of the
nouns fo different from one another, as to have render¬
ed it impoflible ever to miftake the meaning. Yet even
this has not been attempted. And as we find that thofe
languages
LAN [52
Language, languages which have adopted the method of infle&ing
their verbs are more imperfect in point of preciiion
than the other, fo the fame may be laid of indexing
the nouns : for, not to mention the energy which the
analogous languages acquire by putting the accent
upon the noun, or its prepofition (when in an oblique
cafe), according as the fubjeil may require, to exprefs
which variation of meaning no particular Variety of
words have been invented in any indexed language,
they are not even complete in other relpefts. The La¬
tin, in particular, is in many cafes defective, the fame
termination being employed in many in dances for dif¬
ferent cafes of the fame noun. Thus the genitive and
dative lingular, and nominative and vocative plural, of
the firft declenlion, are all exactly alike, and can on¬
ly be didinguidied from one another by the formation
of the fentence ;—as are alfo the nominative, voca¬
tive, and ablative lingular, and the dative and ablative
plural. In the fecond, the genitive lingular, and no¬
minative and vocative plural, are the fame , as are al¬
fo the dative and ablative lingular, and dative and ab¬
lative plural ; except thole in UM, whofe nominative,
accufative, and vocative lingular, and nominative, accu-
fative, and vocative plural, are alike. The other three
declenlions agree in as many of their cafes as thefe do;
which evidently tends to perplex the meaning, unlefs
the hearer is particularly attentive to and well acquaint¬
ed with the particular conflru&ion "of the other parts
of the fentence ; all of which is totally removed, and
the cleareft certainty exhibited at once, by the help of
prepofitions in the analogous languages.
It will hardly be neceffary to enter into fuch a mi¬
nute examination of the advantages or difadvantages
attending the variation of adjeBives; as it will ap¬
pear evident, from what has been already faid, that
the endowing them with terminations fimilar to, and
eorrefponding with, fubjlantives, muft tend Hill more
to inereafe the fimilarity of founds in any language,
than any of thofe particulars we have already taken
notice of; and were it not for the liberty which they
have, in tranfpofitive languages, of feparating the ad-
jeflive from the fubllantive, this muft have occafioned
fuch a jingle of fimilar founds as could not fail to have
been moft difgufting to the ear : but as it would have
been impoflible in many cafes, in thofe languages where
the verbs and nouns are infle&ed, to have pronounced
the words which ought to have followed each other,
unlefs their adje&ives could have been feparated from
the fubftantives ; therefore, to remedy this inconveni¬
ence, they were forced to devife this unnatural method
of infle&ing them alfo; by which means it is eafy to
recognife to what fubftantive any adje&ive has a re¬
ference, in whatever part of the fentence it may be
r ,ed. In thefe languages, therefore, this influftion,
toth as to gender, number, and cafe, becomes abso¬
lutely neceflary ; and, by the diverfity which it admit¬
ted in the arranging the words of the feveral phrafes,
might counterbalance the jingle of fimilar founds which
it introduced into the language.
Having thus examined the moft ftriking particu¬
lars in which the tranfpofitive and analogous lan¬
guages differ, and endeavoured to (how the general ten¬
dency of ev ry one of the particulars Separately, it
would, not be fair to difmifs the fubjeeft without con-
fidering each of thefa as a whole, and pointing out
8 ]
L A N
54 -
TSefe two
diffV ent
idioms of
language
.compared
as to their
general ef¬
fects.
their general tendency in that lightfor we all know, Language,
that it often happens in human inventions, that every W*"-'
part which compofes a whole, taken feparately, may
appear extremely fine; and yet, when all thefe parts
are put together, they may not agree, but produce
a jarring and confulion very different from what we
might have expedded. We therefore imagine a few
remarks upon the genius of each of thefe two cliftindl
idioms of language conftdered as a whole will not be
deemed ufelefsi
Although all languages agree in this refpedl, that The tfanf-
they are the means of conveying the ideas of one man pofitive idi.
to another; yet as there is an infinite variety of ways«mfittelt
in which we might wifh to convey thefe ideas, feme- lor loI^n*
times by the eafy and familiar mode of converfation,^™.1^*'
and at other times by more Solemn addreffes to the ♦
underftanding, by pompous declamation, &c. it may
fo happen, that the genius of one language may be
more properly adapted to the one of thefe than the
other, while another language may excel in the oppo¬
site particular. This is exactly the cafe in the t\v®
general idioms of which we now treat. Every par¬
ticular in a tranjpojitive language, is peculiarly calcu¬
lated for that Solemn dignity which is neceffary for
pompous orations. Long founding words, forme d by
the mftedhon of the different parts of Speech,—flowing
periods, in which the attention is kept avake by the
harmony of the founds, and in expectation of that
word which is to unravel the whole,—if compofed by
a fkilful artift, are admirably fuited to that Solemn dig¬
nity and awful grace which conftitute the offence of a
public harangue. On the contrary, in private conver- 2<* „
fation, where the mind wiihes to unbend itfelf with ^
eafe, thefe become fo many clogs which encumber private
and perplex. At thefe moments we wifh to transfufe'onverfa-
our thoughts with eafe and facility—we are tired with ncm am^ .
every unnecelTary fyllable—and with to be freed from ^
the trouble of attention as much as may be. Like our °
ftate robes, we would wifh to lay afide our pompous
language^ and enjoy ourfelves at home with freedom
and eafe. Here the folemnity and windings of the
tranfpojitive language are burdenfome ; while the faci¬
lity with which a fentiment can be exprefled in the ana¬
logous language is the thing that we with to acquire.
Accordingly, in Terence and Plautus, where the beau¬
ties of dialogue are moft charmingly displayed, tranf-
pofition is Sparingly uSed. In this humble, though
moft engaging Sphere, the analogous language moves
unrivalled; in this it wifties to indulge, and never tires.
But it in vain attempts to rival the tranjpojitive in dig¬
nity and pomp: The number of monofyllables inter¬
rupts the flow of harmony ; and although they may
give a greater variety of founds, yet they do not natu¬
rally poffefs that dignified gravity which fuits the other
language. This, then, muft be confidered as the ftrik¬
ing particular in the genius of thefe two different
IDIOMS, which marks their characters.
If we confider the effeCts which thefe two differ¬
ent characters of language muft naturally produce
tipon the people who employ them, we will foen per¬
ceive, that the genius of the analogous language is
much more favourable for the moft engaging purpofes
bf life, the civilizing the hutnan mind by mutual in-
tercourfe of thought, than the tratifpofitive. For as it
is chiefly by the ufe of fpeech that man is raifed above
the
LAN [ 529 ] LAN
kftiiguage. the brute creation :—as it is by this means he improves
every faculty of his mind, and to the obfervations
which he may himfelf have made, has the additional
advantage of the experience of thofe with whom he
may converfe, as well as the knowledge which the hu¬
man race have acquired by the accumulated experience
of all preceding ages ;—as it is by the enlivening glow
of converfation that kindred fouls catch fire from one
another, that thought produces thought, and each
improves upon the other, till they foar beyond the
bounds which human reafon, if left alone, could ever
have afpired to j—we muft furely confider that lan¬
guage as the moft beneficial to fociety, which moft ef-
fe&ually removes thofe bars that obftruft its progrefs.
Now, the genius of the analogous languages is fo eafy,
fo fimple and plain, as to be within the reach of every
one who is born in the kingdom where it is ufed
to fpeak it with facility \ even the rudelt among the
vulgar can hardly fall into any confiderable gramma¬
tical errors : whereas, in the tranfpojitive languages, fo
many rules are neceffary to be attended to, and fo
much variation is produced in the meaning, by the
{lighted variations in the found, that it requires a dudy
far above the reach of the illiterate mechanic ever
to attain. So that, how perfect foever the language
may be when fpoken with purity, the bulk of the na¬
tion mud ever labour under the inconvenience of rude-
nefs and inaccuracy of fpeech, and all the evils which
this naturally produces.—Accordingly, we find, that
in Rome, a man, even in the highed rank, received
as much honour, and was as much didinguidied a-
mong his equals, for being able to converfe with eafe,
as a modem author would be for writing in an eafy
and elegant dyle} and Ccefar among his contempo¬
raries was as much edeemed for his fuperiority in fpeak-
ing thq language in ordinary converfation with eafe
and elegance, as for his powers of oratory, his {kill in
arms, or his excellence in literary compofition. It is
needlefs to point out the many inconveniences which this
mulj unavoidably produce in a date. It is fufficient
to obferve, that it naturally tends to introduce a vad
didiniRion between the different orders of men j to fet
an impenetrable barrier between thofe born in a high
and thofe born in a low dation 5 to keep the latter in
ignorance and barbarity, while it elevates the former
to fuch a height as mud fubjeft the other to be eafily
led by every popular demagogue.—How far the hido-
ry of the nations who have followed this idiom of lan¬
guage confirms this obfervation, every one is left to
judge for himfelf.
Having thus confidered Language in general, and
pointed out the genius and tendency of the two mod
didinguidied IDIOMS which have prevailed} we (hall
clofe thefe remarks with a few obfervations upon the
particular nature and genius of thofe languages which
*7 are now chiedy fpoken or dudied in Europe.
Obferva- Of all the nations whofe memory hidory has tranf-
ihoF °,n mitted to us, none have been fo eminently didinguilhed
guages*11* ^or t^e*r lderary accomplilhments, as well as acquaint-
which are ance vydh the polite arts, as the Greeks : nor are we
now chiefly as yet acquainted with a language poffeffed of fo many
fpoken or advantages, with fo few defedts, as that which they
ftudied in an^ which continues dill to be known by their
roi>e‘ name.—The necefiary connexion between the progrefs
«f knowledge and the improvement of language, has
Vol. XI. Part II.
been already explained 5 fo that it will not be fur- Language,
prifing to find their progrefs in the one keep pace J
with that of the other : but it will be of utility to
point out fome advantages which that didinguidied
people poffeffed, which other nations, perhaps not lefs
didinguidied for talents or tade, have not enjoyed,
which have contributed to render their language the
mod univerfally admired in ancient as well as in mo¬
dern times. _ 28
It has been already obferved, that the original inhabi-The great
tants of Greece who were grofs favages, and whofe lan-<L’I;iedorit:y
guage of courfe would be very rude and narrow, were°}rge^ ian.
fird tamed by the Pelafgi, an eadern or an Egyptian gUage> ow-
tribe. From the ead it is well known that arts and nig to what
fciences were fpread over the red of the world, and thateaufes.
Egypt was one of the countries fird civilized. The
language, therefore, imported into Greece by the Pe¬
lafgi would be pure from the fountain head, and much
more perfeft in its dru&ure than if it had been tranf-
mitted through many nations. But this was not the
only circumdance highly fortunate for the Greek lan¬
guage. Before it had time to be fully edabliflied a-
mong the people, its afperities, which it had in com¬
mon with the other dialers of the ead, were poliflied
away by fuch a fuccefljon of poets, muficians, philo-
fophers and legiflators, from different countries, as ne¬
ver appeared in any other nation at a period fo early
as to give their genius and tade its full influence. In
this refpedf, no people were ever fo eminently didin¬
guidied as the ancient Greeks, who had their Orpheus,
their Linus, their Cecrops, and their Cadmus, who in¬
troduced their different improvements at a time when
the nation had no dandard of tade formed by itfelf.
Hence the original founds of the Greek language are
the mod harmonious, and the mod agreeable to the
ear, of any that have hitherto been invente* . They
are indeed agreeable to every perfon who hears them,
even when the meaning of the word is not underdood 5
whereas almod all other languages, till they arc under¬
dood, appear, to an ear which has not been accudomed
to them, jarring and difeordant. rI his is the funda¬
mental excellence of that judly admired language : nor
have the people failed to improve this to the utmod of
their power, by many aids of their own invention. The
Greek language is of the tranfpojitive kind : but a
people fo lively, fo acute, and fo loquacious, could ill
bear the ceremonious redraint to which that mode of
language naturally fubje£ted them : and have there¬
fore, by various methods, freed it in a great meafure
from the diffnefs which that produced. In inflecting
their nouns and verbs, they fometimes prefix a lyliable,
and fometimes add one ■, which, befides the variety that
it gives to the founds of the language, adds greatly to
the didinCtnefs, and admits of a more natural arrange¬
ment of the words than in the Latin, and of confe-
quence renders it much fitter for the eafinefs of private
converfation : and indeed the genius ef the people fo
far prevailed over the idiom of the language, as to ren¬
der it, in the age of its greated perfection, capable of
almod as much eafe, and requiring almod as little tranf-
pofition of words, as thofe languages which have been
called analogous. But as thofe nations who fpoke this
language were all governed by popular affemblies, and
as no authority could be obtained among them but by
a {kill in rhetoric and the powers of perfuafion } it
3 X became
LAN
[ 530 ]
LAN
language, became neceflary for every one, who wifhed to acquire
power or conlideration in the ftate, to improve him-
felf in the knowledge of that language, in the ufe of
which alone he could expert honours or reputation.
Hence it happened, that while the vivacity of the
people rendered it eafy, the great men ftudioufly im¬
proved every excellence that it could reap from its
powers as a tran/pq/ttivelanguage’, fo that, when brought
to its utmoft perfeftion by the amazing genius of the
great Demofthenes, it attained a power altogether un¬
known to any other language.—Thus happily cir-
camftanced, the Greek language arrived at that envied
pre-eminence which it Hill juttly retains. From the
progrefs of arts and fciences j from the gaiety and in¬
ventive genius of the people j from the number of free
ftates into which Greece was divided, each of which
invented words of its own, all of which contributed to
the general flock •, and from the natural communica¬
tion which took place between thefe Hates, which ex¬
cited in the ftrongeft degree the talents of the people j
it acquired a copioufnefs unknown to any ancient lan¬
guage, and excelled by few of the moderns.—-In point
of harmony of numbers, it is altogether unrivalled ;
and on account of the eafe as well as dignity which,
from the caufes above mentioned, it acquired, it ad¬
mits of perfection in a greater number of particular
kinds of compofition than any other language known.
-—The irrefiftible force and overwhelming impetuofity
of Demoflhenes feem not more natural to the genius
of the language, than the more flowery charms of
Plato’s calm and harmonious cadences, or the una¬
dorned fimplicity of Xenophon ; nor does the majeftic
pomp of Homer feem to be more agreeable to the ge¬
nius of the language in which he wrote, than the more
humble [trains of Theocritus, or the laughing feftivity
of Anacreon : Equally adapted to all purpofes, when
we perufe any of thefe authors, we would imagine the
language was moft happily adapted for his particular
ityle alone. The fame powers it likewife, in a great
meafure, pofiefled for converfation ; and the dialogue
feems not more natural for the dignity of Sophocles
or Euripides, than for the more eafy tendernefs of
Menander, or buffoonery of Ariftophanes.—With all
thefe advantages, however, it muff be acknowledged,
that it did not poffefs that unexceptionable clearnefs
of meaning which fome analogous languages enjoy, or
that chara&eriflic force which the emphafls properly
Varied has power to give, were not thefe defeats coun¬
terbalanced by other caufes which we lhall afterwards
point out.
The Romans, a people of fierce and warlike difpo-
fitions, for many ages during the infancy of their re¬
public, more intent on purfuing conquefts and military
glory than in making improvements on literature or
the fine arts, beftowed little attention to their language.
Of a difpofition lefs focial or more phlegmatic than
the Greeks, they gave themfelves no trouble about
rendering their language fit for converfation ; and it
remained ftrong and nervous, but, like their ideas,
was limited and confined. More difpofed to command
refpeft by the power of their arms, than by the force
of perfuafion, they defpifed the more effeminate powers
of fpeech : fo that, before the Punic wars, their lan¬
guage was perhaps more referved and uncourtly than
any other at that time known.—But after their rival
29 .
The Latin
language
inferior to
the Greek;
and why.
Carthage was deffroyed, and they had no longer that Language.
powerful curb upon their ambition j when riches flowed v~**
in upon them by the multiplicity of their conquefts j
—luxury began to prevail, the ftern aufterity of their
manners to relax, and felfifh ambition to take place of
that difinterelted love for their country fo eminently
confpicuous among all orders of men before that pe¬
riod.—Popularity began then to be courted } ambi¬
tious men, finding themfelves not poffeffed of that me¬
rit which enfured them fuccefs with the virtuous fe-
nate, amuled the mob with artful and feditious ha¬
rangues j and by making them believe that they were
poffeffed of all power, and had their facred rights en¬
croached upon by the fenate, led them about at their
pleafure, and got themfelves exalted to honours and
riches by thefe infidious arts. It was then the Ro¬
mans firit began to perceive the ufe to which a com¬
mand of language could be put. Ambitious men
then ftudied it with care, to be able to accomplifti
their ends j while the more virtuous w’ere obliged to
acquire a [kill in this, that they might be able to repel
the attacks of their adverfaries.—Thus it happened,
that in a Ihort time that people from having entire¬
ly neglected, began to ftudy their language with the
greateft affiduity ; and as Greece happened to be fub-
jeded to the Roman yoke about that time, and a
friendly intercourfe was eftabliihed between thefe two
countries, this greatly confpired to neurifh in the minds
of the Romans a taffe for that art of which they had
lately become fo much enanaoured. Greece had long
before this period been corrupted by luxury j their
tafte for the fine arts had degenerated into unneceffary
refinement j and all their patriotifm confifted in popu¬
lar harangues and unmeaning declamation. Oratory
was then ftudied as a refined art ; and all the fubtle--
ties of it were taught by rule, with as great care as
the gladiators were afterwards trained up in Rome.
But while they were thus idly trying who ftrould be
the lord of their own people, the nerves of govern¬
ment were relaxed, and they became an eafy prey to
every invading power. In this lituation they became the
JubjeBsy under the title of the allies, of Rome, and in¬
troduced among them the fame tafte for haranguing
which prevailed among themfelves. Well acquainted
as they were with the powers of their own language,
they let themfelves with unwearied afliduity to polilh
and improve that of their new' mafters : but with all
their afliduity and pains, they never were able to make
it arrive at that perfe&ion which their own language
had acquired j and in the Auguftan age, when it had
arrived at the fummit of its glory, Cicero bitterly com¬
plains of its want of copioufnefs in many particulars.
But as it was the defire of all who ftudied this lan-it could
guage with care, to make it capable of that ftately not be car-
dignity and pomp neceffary for public harangues, theyried t0 the
followed the genius of the language in this particular,dfe“
and in a great meafure negle&ed thofe leffer delicacies
which form the pleafure of domeftic enjoyment j fo
that, while k acquired more copioufnefs, more har¬
mony, and precifion, it remained ftiff and inflexible
for converfation : nor could the minute diftin&ion of
nice grammatical rules be ever brought down to the
apprehenfion of the vulgar whence the language fpo-
ken among the lower clafs of people remained rude and
unpolilhed even to the end of the monarchy. The
Huns
LAN [ 53i 1 LAN
Language. Huns who overran Italy, incapable of acquiring any
knowledge of fuch a difficult and abftruie language,
never adopted it j and the native inhabitants being
made acquainted with a language more natural and
eafily acquired, quickly adopted that idiom of fpeech
introduced by their conquerors, although they dill
retained many of thofe words which the confined na¬
ture of the barbarian language made neceffary to al¬
low them to exprefs their ideas.—And thus it was
that the language of Rome, that proud millrefs of the
world, from an original defe<ft in its formation, ali
though it had been carried to a perfection in other re-
fpefts far fuperior to any northern language at that
time, eafily gave way to them, and in a few ages the
knowledge of it was loft among mankind : while, on the
contrary, the more eafy nature of the Greek language
has ftill been able to keep lome flight footing in the
world, although the nations in which it has been
fpoken have been fubjeded to the yoke of foreign
dominion for upwards of two thoufand years, and
their country has been twice ravaged by barbarous
nations, and more cruelly deprefled than ever the
Romans were.
From the view which we have already given of the
jLatin language, it appears evident, that its idiom wras
snore ftriCily tranfpofitive than that of any other lan¬
guage yet known, and was attended with all the de-
feds to which that idiom is naturally fubjefted : nor
could it boaft of fuch favourable alleviating circum-
ftances as the Greek, the prevailing founds of the La¬
tin being far lefs harmonious to the ear j and although
the formation of the words is fuch as to admit of full
and dirtinft founds, and the words are fo modulated as
to lay no reftraint upon the voice of the fpeaker j yet, to
a perfon unacquainted with the language, they do not
convey that enchanting harmony fo remarkable in the
Greek language. The Latin is ftately and folemn; it
does not excite difguft ; but at the fame time it does
not charm the ear, fo as to make it liften with delight¬
ful attention. To one acquainted with the language,
indeed, the nervous boldnefs of the thoughts, the har¬
monious rounding of the periods, the full folemn {well¬
ing of the founds, fo diftinguiihable in the moft emi¬
nent writers in that language which have been pre-
ferved to us, all confpire to make it pleafant and agree¬
able.—In thefe admired works we meet with all its
beauties, without perceiving any of its defefts; and we
naturally admire, as perfeCl, a language which is ca¬
pable of producing fuch excellent works.—Yet with
all thefe feeming excellencies, this language is lefs co¬
pious, and more limited in its ftyle of compofition, than
many modern languages j far lefs capable of precifion
and accuracy than almoft any of thefe ; and infinitely
behind them all in point of eafinefs in converfation.
But thefe points have been fo fully proved already, as
to require no further illuftration.—Of the compofitions
in that language which have been preferved to us, the
Orations of Cicero are belt adapted to the genius of
the language, and we there fee it in its utmoft perfec¬
tion. In the Philofophical Works of that great author
we perceive fome of its defeats $ and it requires all the
powers of that great man to render his Epiflles agree¬
able, as thefe have the genius of the language to ftrug-
gle with. Next to oratory, hiftory agrees with the ge¬
nius of this language^ and Csefar, in his Commentaries,
has exhibited the language in its pureft elegance, with- Language.
out the aid of pomp or foreign ornament. Among /
the poets, Virgil has beft adapted his works to his lan¬
guage. The flowing harmony and pomp of it is well
adapted for the epic ftrain, and the corre<ft delicacy of
his tafte rendered him perfeftly equal to the talk. But
Horace is the only poet whofe force of genius was able
to overcome the bars which the language threw in his
way, and fucceed in lyric poetry. Were it not for the
brilliancy of the thoughts, and acutenefs of the re¬
marks, which fo eminently diftinguiffi this author’s
compofitions, his odes would long ere now have funk
into utter oblivion. But fo confcious have all the Ro¬
man poets been of the unfitnefs of their language for
eafy dialogue, that almoft none of them, after Plautus
and Terence, have attempted any dramatic compofitions
in that language. Nor have we any reafon to regret
that they negledled this branch of poetry, as it is pro¬
bable, if they had ever become fond of thefe, they would
have been obliged to adopt fo many unnatural contri¬
vances to render them agreeable, as would have pre¬
vented us (who of courfe would have confidered our-
felves as bound to follow them) from making that pro-
grefs in the drama which fo particularly diftinguilhes
the produdlions of modern times.
The modern Italian language, from an inattention The Italian
too common in literary fubje&s, has been ufually call-language of
ed a chid of the Latin language, and is commonly be-
lieved to be the ancient Latin, a little debafed by the0”1’ “n
mixture of the barbarous language of thofe people who
conquered Italy. The truth is, the cafe is dire£lly the
reverfe : for this language, in its general idiom and
fundamental principles, is evidently of the analogous
kind, firft introduced by thofe fierce invaders, although
it has borrowed many of its words, and fome of its modes
of phrafeology, from the Latin, with which they were
fo intimately blended that they could fcarcely be avoid¬
ed ; and it has been from remarking this flight con¬
nexion, fo obvious at firft fight, that fuperficial obferv-
ers have been led to draw this general conclufion, fo
contrary to faff.
When Italy was overrun by the Lombards, and the
empire deftroyed by thefe northern invaders, they, as
conquerors, continued to fpeak their own native lan¬
guage. Fierce and illiterate, they would not ftoop to
the fervility of fludying a language fo clogged with
rules, and difficult of attainment, as the Latin would
naturally be to a people altogether unacquainted with
nice grammatical diftinftions: while the Romans, of
neceffity, were obliged to ftudy the language of their
conquerors, as well to obtain fome relief of their griev¬
ances by prayers and fupplications, as to deftroy that
odious diftinftion which fubfifted between the con¬
querors and conquered, while they continued asdiftinft
people. As the language of their new mafters, al¬
though rude and confined, was natural in its order,
and eafy to be acquired, the Latins would foon attain
a competent fkill in it: and as they bore fuch a pro¬
portion to the whole number of people, the w'holat lan¬
guage would partake fomewhat of the general found of
the former) for, in fpite of all their efforts to the con¬
trary, the organs of fpeech could not at once be made to
acquire a perfect power of uttering any unaccuftomcd
founds; and as it behoved the language of the barba¬
rians to be much lefs copious than the Latin, whenever
3X2 they
3*
of Latin
found.
.33
parent
tongues.
L A N [ >53
Language, they found themfelves at a lofs for a word, they would
naturally adopt thofe which moft readily prefented
themfelves from their new fubjefts. Thus a language
in time was formed, fomewhat refembling the Latin
both in the general tenor of the founds and in the mean¬
ing of many words : and as the barbarians gave them¬
felves little trouble about language, and in fome cafes
perhaps hardly knew the general analogy of their own
language, it is not furprifing if their new fubjedls lliould
find themfelves fometimes at a lofs on that account; or
if, in thefe iituations, they followed, on fome occafions,
the analogy fuggefted to them by their own : which
accounts for the ftrange degree of mixture of heteroge¬
neous grammatical analogy we meet with in the Italian
as well as Spanith and French languages. The idiom
of all the Gothic languages is purely analogous j and
in all.probability, before their mixture with the Latins
and other people in their provinces, the feveral gram¬
matical parts of fpeech followed the plain fimple idea
which that fuppofes, the verbs and nouns were all pro¬
bably varied by auxiliaries, and their r jedlives retained
their fimple unalterable ftate :—but by their mixture
with the Latins, this fimple form has been in many
cafes altered : their verbs become in fome cafes infledl-
ed ; but their nouns in all thefe languages Hill retained
their original form •, although they have varied their
fe&s'of6 ^e"aclje<^vesJ and foolifiily clogged their nouns with gen-
both its der> according to the Latin idioms. From this hetero¬
geneous and fortuitous (as we may fay, becaufe injudi¬
cious) mixture of parts, refults a language pofleffing al-
moft all the defedls of each of the languages of which it
is compofed, with few of the excellencies of either : for
it has neither the eafe and precifion of the analogous,
nor the pomp and boldnefs of the tranfpojitive, lan¬
guages $ at the fame time that it is clogged with almoft
as many rules, and liable to as great abufes.
Thefe obfervations are equally applicable to the
French and Spanilh as to the Italian language. With
regard to this laft, in particular, we may obferve, that
as the natural inhabitants of Italy, before the laft in-
vafion of the barbarians, were funk and enervated by
luxury, and by that depreffion of mind and genius
which anarchy always produces, they had become fond
of feafting and entertainments, and the enjoyment of
fenfual pleafures conftituted their higheft delight j and
their language partook of the fame debility as their
body.—The barbarians too, unaccuftomed to the fe-
du£lions of pleafure, foon fell from their original bold¬
nefs and intrepidity, and, like Hannibal’s troops of
©Id, were enervated by the fenfual gratifications in
which a nation of conquerors unaccuftomed to the re-
ftraint of government freely indulged. The foftnefs
, of the air, the fertility of the climate, the unaccuftomed
flow of riches which they at once acquired, together
with the voluptuous manner of their conquered fub-
je£ts $ all confpired to enervate their minds, and render
them foft and effeminate. No wonder then, if a lan-
* guage new moulded at this juncture fhould partake of
the genius of the people who formed it *, and inftead
©f participating of the martial boldnefs and ferocity of
either of thfeir anceftors, ftiould be foftened and en¬
feebled by every device which an effeminate people
eould invent.—The ftrong confonants which termi¬
nated "the words, and gave them life and boldnefs, be.
2 ] 'LA N
ing thought too harfh for the ‘delicate ears of thefe Language.
Tons of floth, were banifhed their language j while fo- ^w
norous vowels, which could be protrafted to any length
in mufic, were fubftituted in their ftead.—Thus the 34
Italian language is formed flowing and harmonious,
but deftitute of thofe nerves which conftitute the flo^iLg and
ftrength and vigour of a language : at the fame time,harmoni-
the founds are neither enough diverfified, nor in them-ous’ is t0®
felves of fueh an agreeable tone, as to afford great f?rf,
pleafure without the aid of mufical notes) and thejpeciefof
ffnall pleafure which this affords is ftill leffened by thecompofi-
little variety of meafure which the great fimilarity oftio*.
the terminations of the words occafions. Hence it
happens that the language is fitted for excelling in
fewer branches of literature than almoft any other :
and although we have excellent hiftorians, and more
than ordinary poets, in Italian, yet they labour under
great inconveniences from the language wanting nerves
and ftatelinefs for the former, and fufficient variety of
modulation for the latter. It is, more particularly on
this account, altogether unfit for an epic poem : and
though attempts have been made in this way by two
men, whofe genius, if net fettered by the language,
might have been crowned with fuccefs j yet thefe,
notwithftanding the fame that with fome they may-
have acquired, muft, in point of poetic harmony, be
deemed defective by every impartial perfon. Nor is it
poftible that a language which hardly admits of poetry
without rhime, can ever be capable of producing a
perfeft poem of great length j and the ftanza to which
their poets have ever confined themfelves, muft always
produce the moft difagreeable effeft in a poem where un-
reftrained pomp and pathos are neceffary qualifications.
The only fpecies of poetry in which the Italian lan¬
guage can claim a fuperior excellence, is the tender
tone of elegy : and here it remains unrivalled and
alone ; the plaintive melody of the founds, and fmooth
flow of the language, being perfectly adapted to ex-
prefs that foothing melancholy which this fpecies of
poetry requires. On this account the plaintive fcenes
of the Paftor Fido of Guarini have juftly gained to that
poem an univerfal applaufe j although, unlefs on this
account alone, it is perhaps inferior to almoft every
other poem of the kind which ever appeared.—We
muft obferve with furprife, that the Italians, who have
fettered every other fpepies of poetry with the fevereft
fliackles of rhime, have in this fpecies (bowed an ex¬
ample of the moft unreftrained freedom ) the happy
effefts of which ought to have taught all Europe the
powerful charms attending it: yet with amazement we
perceive, that fcarce an attempt to imitate them has
been made by any poet in Europe except by Milton in
his Lycidas; no dramatic poet, even in Britain, having
ever adopted the unreftrained harmony of numbers to
be met with in this and many other of their beft dra¬
matic compofitions.
Of all the languages which fprung up from the mix-The excel-
ture of the Latins with the northern people on the!ency °^.
deftruftion of the Roman empire, none approach f0^e Spanifh
near to the genius of the Latin as the Spanifli does.— 6
For as the Spaniards have been always remarkable
for their military prowefs and dignity of mind, their
language is naturally adapted to exprefs ideas of
that kind. Sonorous and folemn, it admits nearly
of
LAN [ 53
tankage.' of as mucli dignity as the Latin. For converfation, it
V—' is the moft elegant and courteous language in Eu-
* rope.
The humane and generous order of chivalry was firft
invented, and kept its footing longed, in this nation j
and although it ran at lad into fuch a ridiculous ex-
cefs as defervedly made it fall into univerfal difrepute,
yet it left fuch a drong tin&ure of romantic heroiftn
upon the minds of all ranks of people, as made them
jealous of their glory, and ftrongly emulous of culti¬
vating that heroic politenefs, which they confidered
J as the highed perfection they could attain. Every
man difdained to flatter, or to yield up any point of
honour which he poffelTed ■, at the fame time, he ri-
goroufly exaCted from others all that was his due.—>
Thefe eircumftances have given riie to a great many
terms of refpeCt and courteous condefcenfion, without
meannefs or flattery, which gave their dialogue a re-
fpeCtful politenefs and elegance unknown to any other
European language. This is the reafon why the cha¬
racters fo finely drawn by Cervantes in Don Quixote
are ftill unknown to all but thofe who underhand the
language in which he wrote. Nothing can be more
unlike the gentle meeknefs and humane heroifm of the
knight, or the native fimplicity, warmth of afifeCtion,
and refpeCtful loquacity of the fquire, than the incon-
fiftent follies of the one, or the impertinent forWard-
nefs and difrefpeCtful petulance of the other, as they
are exhibited in every Englilh tranflation. Nor is it,
as we imagine, poffible to reprefent fo much familiarity,
united with fuch becoming condefcenfion in the one,
and unfeigned deference in the other, in any other Eu¬
ropean language, as is neceflary to paint thefe two ad-
" mirable characters.
Although this language, from the folemn dignity
and majeftic elegance of its ftruCture, is perhaps better
qualified than any other modern one for the fublime
ftrains of epic poetry ; yet as the poets of this nation
have all along imitated the Italians by a moft fervile
fubjeCtion to rhime, they never have produced one
poem of this fort, which in point of poefy or ftyle de-
ferves to be tranfmitted to pofterity. And in any
other fpecies of poetry but this, or the higher tragedy,
it is not naturally fitted to excel. But although the
drama and other polite branches of literature were
early cultivated in this country, and made confiderable
‘ progrefs in it, before the thirft of gain debafed their
fouls, or the defire of univerfal dominion made them
forfeit that liberty which they once fo much prized j
fince they became enervated by an overbearing pride,
and their minds enflaved by fuperftition, all the polite
arts have been negleCled : lo that, while other Euro¬
pean nations have been advancing in knowledge, and
improving their language, they have remained in a ftate
of torpid inaClivity •, and their language has not ar-
‘ rived at that perfection which its nature would admit,
or the acute genius of the people might have made us
g naturally expeCt.
The French It will perhaps by fome be thought an unpardon-
language ‘ able infult, if we do not allow the French the prefer-
deficient in ence Qf a]\ modern languages in many refpeCts. But
dignity and fat mu^ we p3y a deference to truth, as to be obli-
energyjbutj^cl to rank it among the pooreft languages in Eu¬
rope. Every other language has fome founds which
can be uttered clearly by the voice ; even the Italian,
3 ] LAN
although it wants energy, ftill pofleffes diftin&nefs of Languagc-
articulation. But the trench is almoft incapable of
either of thefe beauties j for in that language the vow¬
els are fo much curtailed in the pronunciation, and the
words run into one another in fuch a manner as necef-
farily to produce an indiftinCltiefs which renders it in¬
capable of meafure or harmony. From this caufe, it
is in a great meafure incapable of poetic modulation,
and rhime has been obliged to be fubftituted in its
ftead j fo that this pooreft of all contrivances which
has ever yet been invented to diftinguifti poetry from
profe, admitted into all the modern languages when
ignorance prevailed over Europe, has ftill kept fome
footing in the greateft part of thefe, rather through a
' deference for eftabliftied cuftoms than from any necef-
fity. Yet as the French language admits of fo little
poetic modulation, rhime is in fome meafure necejfary
to it j and therefore this poor deviation from profe has
been adopted by it, and dignified with the name of Poet¬
ry. But by their blind attachment to this artifice,
the French have negle&ed to improve, fo much as they
might have done, the fmall powers for harmony of
which their language is poffeffed j and by being long
accuftomed to this falfe tafte, they have become fond
of it to fuch a ridiculous excefs, as to have all their
tragedies, nay even their comedies, in rhime. While
the poet is obliged to enervate his language, and check
the flow of compofition, for the fake of linking his
lines together, the judicious a£tor finds more difficulty
in deftroying the appearance of that meafure, and pre¬
venting the clinking of the rhimes, than in all the red
of' his talk.— After this, we will not be furprifed to
find Voltaire attempt an epic poem in this fpecies of
poetry ; although the more judicious Fenelon in his
Telemayue had Ihown to his countrymen the only fpe¬
cies of poefy that their language could admit of for
any poem which afpired to the dignity of the epic
ftrain.—Madam Defhouliers, in her Idyllic, has fhown
the utmoft extent of harmony to which their language
can attain in fmaller poems : indeed in the tendernefs
of an elegy, or the gaiety of a fong, it may fucceed ;
but it is fo deftitute of force and energy, that it can
never be able to reach the pindaric, or even perhaps
the lyric ftrain,—as the ineffe&ual efforts even of the
harmonious Rouffeau, in his tranflation of the Pfalms
of David, of this ftamp, may fully convince us.
With regard to its powers in other fpecies of com¬
pofition, the fententious rapidity of Voltaire, and the
more nervous dignity of Rouffeau, afford us no fmall
prefumption, that, in a fkilful hand, it might acquire
fo much force, as to tranfmit to futurity hiftorical
fa&s in a ftyle not altogether unworthy of the fubjeft..
In attempts of pathetic declamation, the fuperior abi¬
lities of the compofer may perhaps on forae cccafions
excite a great idea j but this is ever cramped by the
genius of the language : and although no nation in
Europe can boaft of fo many orations where this gran¬
deur is attempted ; yet perhaps there are few who can¬
not produce more perfeft, although not more laboured,
cbmpofitions of this kind.
But notwithftanding the French language labours
under all thefe inconveniences ; although it can neither
equal the dignity or genuine politenefs of the Spanilh,
the nervous boldnefs of the Englilh, nor the melting
foftnefs of the Italian j although it is deftitute of
poetic
Language.
admirably
fitted for
light con-
verfation.
38
The excel¬
lencies and
defedVs of
the Englifli
tongue.
LAN [ 534 ] LAN
poetic harmony, and fo much cramped in found as to be
abiolutely unfit for almoft every fpecies of mufical com-
pofition (f) ; yet the fprightly genius of that volatile
people has been able to furmount all thefe difficulties,
and render it the language moft generally efteemed,
and moft univerfally fpoken of any in Europe j for
this people, naturally gay and loquacious, and fond to
excefs of thofe fuperficial aceomplithments which en¬
gage the attention of the fair fex, has invented fueh
an infinity of words capable of expreffing vague and
unmeaning compliment, now dignified by the name of
politenefs, that, in this ftrain, one who ufes the French
can never be at a lofs ; and as it is eafy to converfe
more, and really fay tefs, in this than in any other lan¬
guage, a man of very moderate talents may diftinguifti
himfelf much more by ufing this than any other that
has ever yet been invented. On this account, it is
peculiarly well adapted to that fpecies of converlation
which muft ever take place in thole general and pro-
mifcuous companies, where many perfons of both fexes
are met together for the purpoies of relaxation or
amufement \ and muft of courfe be naturally admitted
into the courts of princes, and affemblies of great per-
fonages, who, having fewer equals with whom they
can aflbeiate, are more under the neceffity of converfing
with ftrangers, in whofe company the tender ftimulus
of triendlhip does not fo naturally expand the heart to
mutual truft or unreftrained confidence. In thefe cir-
cumftances, as the heart remaineth difengaged, conver-
fation muft neceffarily flag j and mankind in this fitua-
tion will gladly adopt that language in which they
can converfe moft eafily without being deeply intereft-
ed. On thefe accounts the French now is, and pro¬
bably will continue to be, reckoned the moft polite
language in Europe, and therefore the moft generally
ftudied and known: nor ftiould we envy them this
diftin&ion, if our countrymen would not weaken and
enervate their own manly language, by adopting too
many of their unmeaning phrafes.
Ihe Englifli is perhaps poffeffed of a greater de¬
gree of excellence, blended with a greater number of
defefts, than any of the languages we have hitherto
mentioned. As the people of Great Britain are a
bold, daring, and impetuous race of men, fubjeft to
ftrong paffions, and from the abiolute freedom and
independence which reigns amongft all ranks of people
throughout this happy ifle, little folicitous about con¬
trolling thefe paffions j—our language takes its ftreng- Language,
eft charafteriftical diftinftion from the genius of the v—~l
people ; and, being bold, daring, and abrupt, is ad¬
mirably well adapted to exprefs thofe great emotions
which fpring up in an intrepid mind at the profpeft
of interefting events. Peculiarly happy too in the full
and open founds of the vowels, which forms the cha-
rafteriftic tone of the language, and in the ftrong ufe
of the alpirate H in almoit all thofe words which are
ufed as exclamations, or marks of ftrong emotions up¬
on interefting occaftons, that particular clafs of words
called tnlerjtBions have, in our language, more of that
fulnefs and unreftrained freedom of tones, in which
their chief power confifts, and are puftied forth from
the inmoft receffes of the foul in a more forcible and
unreftrained manner, than in any other language what¬
ever. Hence it is more peculiarly adapted for the
great and interefting fcenes of the drr.ma than any
language that has yet appeared on the globe. Nor
has any other nation ever arrived at that perfection
which the Englilh may juftly claim in that refpeft ;
for how'ever faulty our dramatic compofitions may be
in fome of the critical niceties which relate to this art,
—in nervous force of diCtion, and in the natural ex-
preffion of thofe great emotions which conftitute its
foul and energy, we claim, without difpute, an un¬
rivalled fuperiority. Our language too, from the
great intercourfe that we have had with almoft all the
nations of the globe by means of our extenfive com¬
merce, and from the eminent degree of perfection
which we have attained in all the arts and fciences, has
acquired a copioufneft; beyond what any other modern
language can lay claim to j and even the moft partial
favourers of the Greek language are forced to acknowr-
ledge, that in this refpeCt, it muft give place to the
Englifli. Nor is it lefs happy in that facility of con-
ItruCHon which renders it mere peculiarly adapted to
the genius of a free people, than any other form of
language. Of an idiom purely analogous, it has de¬
viated lefs from the genius of that idiom, and poffefles
more of the chat afteriftic advantages attending it, than
any other language that now exifts : for, while others,
perhaps by their more intimate connexion with the
Romans, have adopted fome of their tranfpofitions, and
clogged their language with unneceffary fetters, we
have preferved ourfelves free from the contagion, and
ftill retain the primitive fimplicity of our language. Our
verbs
(f) An author of great difcernment, and well acquainted with the French language, has lately made the
fame remark ; and as the loftinefs of his genius often prevents him from bringing down his illuftrations to the
level of ordinary comprehenfion, he has on this and many other occafions been unjuftly accufed of being fond of
paradoxes.—But as mufic never produces its full effeft but when the tones it aflumes are in unifon with the
idea that the words naturally excite, it of neceffity follows, that if the words of any languge do not admit of
that fulnefs of found, or that fpecies of tones, which the paffion or afieftion that may be defcribed by the words
would naturally require to excite the fame idea in the mind of one w ho was unacquainted with the language, it
wftll be imploffible for the mufic to produce its full effeft, as it will be cramped and confined by the found of the
words 5—and as the french language does not admit of thofe full and open founds which are neceflary for pathe¬
tic expreffion in mufic, it muft of courfe be unfit for mufical coropofition.—It is true indeed, that in modern
times, in which fo little attention is beftowed on the Ample and fublime charms of pathetic expreffion, and a
fantaftical t ngling of unmeaning founds is called tnujic—where the fenfe of the w’ords is loft in fugues, quavers,
and unneceffary repetition of particular fyllables,—all languages are nearly fitted for it 5 and among thefe the
French: nor is it lefs to be doubted, that, in the eafy gaiety of a long, this language can properly enough
admit of all the muficai expreflion which that fpecies of compofttion may require.
LAN
r 535 1
LAN
Language, verbs are all varied by auxiliaries (except in the in-
fiance we have already given, which is fo much in our
favour) ; our nouns remain free from the perplexing
embarraflment of genders, and our pronouns mark this
diftin&ion where neceffary with the moft perfect ac¬
curacy } our articles alfo are of courfe freed from this
unnatural encumbrance, and our adjeRi-ves preferve
their natural freedom and independence. From thefe
caules our language follows an order of conftnnffion
fo natural and eafy, and the rules offyntax are fo few'
and obvious, as to be within the reach of the moft or¬
dinary capacity. So that from this, and the great
clearnefs and diftin&nefs of meaning with which this
mode of conftru&ion is neceffarily accompanied, it is
much better adapted for the familiar intercourfe of
private fociety, and liable to fewer errors in ufing it,
than any other language yet known and on this ac¬
count we may boaft, that in no nation of Europe do
the lower clafs of people fpeak their language with
fo much accuracy, or have their minds fo much en¬
lightened by knowledge, as in Great Britain. —
What then lhall we fay of the difcernment of thole
grammarians, who are every day echoing back to one
another complaints of the poverty of our language on
account of the feV and fimple rules which it requires
in fyntax ? As juftly might we complain of an inven¬
tion in mechanics, which, by means of one or two
fimple movements, obvious to an ordinary capacity,
little liable to accidents, and eafily put in order by the
rudeft hand, Ihould poffefs the whole powers of a com¬
plex machine, which had required an infinite appara¬
tus of wheels and contrary movements, the knowledge
of which could only be acquired, or the various ac¬
cidents to which ,it was expofed by ufing it be re¬
paired, by the powers of the ingenious artift, as com¬
plain of this charafleriflic excellence of our language
as a defefl.
But if wre thus enjoy in an eminent degree the ad¬
vantages attending an analogous language, wre likewife
feel in a confiderable meafure the defeats to w'hich it is
expofed j as the number of monofyllables with which
it always muft be embarrafled, notwithftanding the
great improvements which have been made in our lan¬
guage finee the revival of letters in Europe, prevents
in fome degree that fwelling fulnefs of found which fo
powerfully contributes to harmonious dignity and
graceful cadences in literary compofitions. And as
the genius of the people of Britain has always been
more difpofed to the rougher arts of command than to
the fofter infinuations of perfuafion, no pains have been
taken to correct thefe natural defedds of our language;
but, on the contrary, by an inattention, of which we
have hardly a parallel in the hiftory of any civilized na¬
tion, we meet with many inftances, even within this
laft century, of the harmony of found being facrificed
to that brevity fo defirable in converfation, as many
elegant words have been curtailed, and harmonious fyl*
lables fuppreffed, to fubftitute in their (lead others,
fhorter indeed, but more barbarous and uncouth. Nay,
fo little attention have our forefathers beftowed upon
die harmony of founds in our language, that one would
be tempted to think, on looking back to its primitive
ftate, that they had on fome occafions ftudioufly de-
bafed it. Our language, at its firft formation, feems
to have laboured under a capital defe<d in point of
found, as fuch a number of S’s enter into the forma- Language.
tion of our words, and fuch a number of letters and *1U
combinations of other letters affume a fimilar found, as
to give a general hifs through the whole tenor of our
language, which muft be exceedingly difagreeable to
every unprejudiced ear. We would therefore have na¬
turally expefted, that at the revival of letters, when
our forefathers became acquainted with the harmoni¬
ous languages of Greece and Home, they would have
acquired a more correct tafte, and endeavoured, if
polfible, to diminilh the prevalence of this difgufting
found. But fo far have they been from thinking of
this, that they have multiplied this letter exceedingly.
The plurals of almoft all our nouns were originally
formed by adding the harmonious fyllable en to the
lingular, which has given place to the letter r; and
inftead of houfen formerly, we now fay houfes. In
like manner, many of the variations of our verbs were
formed by the fyllable cth, which we have likewife
changed into the fame difagreeable letter •, fo that,
inftead of loveth, moveth, writeth, xvalhctk, &c. we
have changed them into the more modilh forms of loves,
moves, writes, walks, &c. Our very auxiliary verbs
have fuffered the fame change ; and inftead of hath
and doth, we now make ufe of has and does. From
thefe caufes, notwithftanding the great improvements
which have been made in language, within thefe few
centuries, in other refpetts 5 yet, with regard to the
pleafingnefs of found alone, it was perhaps much more
perfect in the days of Chaucer than at prefent ; and
although cuftom may have rendered thefe founds fo fa¬
miliar to our ear, as not to affeft us much •, yet to an
unprejudiced perfon, unacquainted with our language,
we have not the fmalleft doubt but the language of
Bacon or Sidney Avould appear more harmonium than
that of Robertfon or Hume. This is indeed the funda¬
mental defeft of our language, and loudly calls for re¬
formation.
But notwithftanding this great and radical de-
fed! with regard to pleafingnels of founds, which muft
be fo ftrongly perceived by every one who is unac¬
quainted with the meaning of our words ; yet to thofe
who underftand the language, the exceeding copiouf-
nefs which it allows in the choice of words proper for
the occalion, and the nervous force with the perfpi-
cuity and graceful elegance the emphalis beftows upon
it, make this defedl be totally overlooked ; and we
could produce fuch numerous works of profe, which
excel in almoft every different ftyle of compofition, as
would be tirefome to enumerate : every reader of tafte
and difcernment will be able to recoiled! a fufficient
number of writings which excel in point of ftyle, be¬
tween the graceful and becoming gravity le confpicu-
ous in all the works of the author of the Whole duty of
Man, and the animated and nervous didtion of Ro¬
bertfon in his hiftory of Charles the Fifth.—the more
flowery ftyle of’ Shaftefbury, or the Attic fimplicity
and elegance of Addifon. But although we can equal,
if not furpafs, every modern language in works of
profe, it is in its poetical powers that our language
ihines forth with the greateft luftre. The brevity to
which we muft here neceffarily-confine ourfelves, pre¬
vents us from entering into a minute examination of
the poetical powers of our own, compared with other
languages} otherwife it would be eafy to (how, that
every
L A N [ 530 ] LAN
•Language, every other modern language labours under great re-
^ ftraints in this refpeft which ours is freed from j—that
our language admits of a greater variety of poetic
movements, and diverfity of cadence, than any of the
admired languages of antiquity j that it diftinguifhes
with the greateil accuracy between accent and quan¬
tity, and is poffefled of every other poetic excellence
which their languages were capable of: fo that we
are poffefled of all the fources of harmony which they
could boaft j and, befides all thefe, have one fuper-
added, which is the caufe of great variety and more
forcible expreflion in numbers than all the reft ; that
is, the unlimited power given by the emphafis over
quantity and cadence 5 by means whereof, a neceffary
union between found and fenfe, numbers and meaning,
in verfification, unknown to the ancients, has been
brought about, which gives our language in this re-
fpeft a fuperiority over all thofe juftly admired lan¬
guages. But as we cannot here further purfue this
fubjeft, we ftiall only obferve, that thefe great and
diftinguilhing excellencies far more than counterba¬
lance the inconveniences that we have already men¬
tioned and although, in mere pleafantnefs of founds,
or harmonious flow of fyllables, our language may be
inferior to the Greek, the Latin, Italian, andSpanilh;
yet in point of manly dignity, graceful variety, intui¬
tive diftinflnefs, nervous energy of expreflion, uncon-
ftrained freedom and harmony of poetic numbers, it
will yield the palm to none. Our immortal Milton,
flowly rifing in graceful majefty, ftands up as equal, if
not fuperior, in thefe refpefts, to any poet, in any other
language that ever yet exifted;—while Thomfon,
with more humble aim, in melody more fmooth and
flowing, foftens the foul to harmony and peace:—the
plaintive moan of Hammond calls forth the tender
tear and fympathetic figh j while Gray’s more footh-
ing melancholy fixes the fober mind to filent contem¬
plation :—more tender ftill than thefe, the amiable
Shenftone comes j and from his Doric reed, ftill free
from courtly affectation, flows a ftrain fo pure, fo
Ample, and of fuch tender harmony, as even Arcadian
ihepherds would be proud to own. But far before
the reft, the daring Shakefpeare fteps forth confpicu-
ous, clothed in native dignity j and prefling foward
with unremitting ardour, boldly lays claim to both
dramatic crowns held out to him by Thalia and Mel¬
pomene :—his rivals, far behind, look up, and envy
him for thefe unfading glories j and the aftoniflied na¬
tions round, with diftant awe, behold and tremble at
his daring flight. Thus the language, equally obe¬
dient to all, bends with eafe under their hands, what¬
ever form they would have it affume ; and, like the
yielding wax, readily receives, and faithfully tranfmits
to pofterity, thofe impreflions which they have ftamp-
ed upon it.
Such are the principal outlines of the language of
Great Britain, fuch are its beauties, and fuch its moft
capital defeCls j a language more peculiarly circum-
ftanced than any that has ever yet appeared.—It is
the language of a great and powerful nation, whofe
fleets furround the globe, and whofe merchants are in
every port: a people admired or revered by all the
world :—and yet it is lefs known in every foreign
country than many of the other languages in Europe.
In it are written more perfeCt treatifes on every art and
3
fcience than are to be found in any other language Language,
yet it is lefs fought after or efteemed by the literati in *•"-'*
any part of the globe than almoft any of thefe. Its
fuperior pow-ers for every purpofe of language are fuf-
ficiently obvious from the models of perfection in al¬
moft every particular which can be produced in it•
yet it is neglefted, defpifed, and vilified by the people
who ufe it j and many of thofe authors who owe al-
moft the whole of their fame to the excellence of tha
language in which they wrote, look upon that very
language with the higheft contempt. Neglefted and
defpifed, it has been trodden under foot as a thing al¬
together unworthy of cultivation or attention. Yet
in fpite of all thefe inconveniences, in fpite of the
many wounds it has thus received, it ftill holds up its
head, and preferves evident marks of that comelinefs
and vigour which are its charafteriftical diftinftion.
Like a healthy oak planted in a rich and fertile foil,
it has fprung up with vigour: and although negleCIed,
and fuffered to be overrun with weeds 5 although ex-
pofed to every blaft, and unprotected from every vio¬
lence : it ftill beareth up under all thefe inconveniences,
and ftioots up with a robuft healthinefs and wild luxu¬
riance of growth. Should this plant, fo found and
vigorous, be now cleared from thofe weeds with which
it has been fo much encumbered j—(hould every ob-
ftacle which now buries it under thick (hades, and
hides it from the viewr of every paffenger, be cleared
awray ;—fliould the foil be cultivated with care, and a
ftrong fence be placed around it, to prevent the idle or
the wicked from breaking or diftorting its branches;—
who can tell with what additional vigour it would
flourifti, or what amazing magnitude and perfedlion
it might at laft attain!—How would the aftonilhed
world behold, with reverential awe, themajeftic grace-
fulnefs of that objeft which they fo lately defpifed !
Beauty of LANGUAGE conjideredin regard to Compoji*.
don. The beauties of language may be divided into
three claffes : 1. Thofe which arife from found; 2.
Thofe which refpeft fignificance ; 3. Thofe derived
from a refemblance between found and fignideation.
I. With refpeB to found. In a curfory view, you Elemevtt of
would imagine, that the agreeablenefs or difagreeable- Criticifm.
nefs of a word with refpeCl to found, (hould depend
upon the agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of its com¬
ponent fyllables : which is true in part, but not en¬
tirely : for we muft alfo take under confideration the
effeCt of fyllables in fucceffion. In thje firft place.
Syllables in immediate fucceflaon, pronounced each of
them w ith the fame, or nearly the fame, aperture of
the mouth, produce a fucceflion of weak and feeble,
founds ; witnefs the French words dit z'/, pathedque : on
the other hand, a fyllable of the greateft aperture fuc-
ceeding one of the fmalleft, or the contrary, makes
a fucceffion which, becaufe of its remarkable difa¬
greeablenefs, is diftinguiflied by a proper name, viz.
hiatus. The moft agreeable fucceflion is, where the
cavity is increafed and diminiftied alternately, within
moderate limits : examples, Alternative, longevity, pu~
fllanimous. Secondly, words confifting wholly of fyl¬
lables pronounced (low7, or of iyllables pronounced
quick, commonly called long and foort fyllables, have,
little melody in them ; witnefs the words petitioner,
fruiterer, dvzxinefs; on the other hand, the intermix¬
ture of long and (liort fyllables is remarkably agree¬
able }
LAN [ 537 1 L A N
Language, able ; for example, degree, repent, wonderful, altitude,
1 rapidity, independent, impet unfity ■ the caule of which is
explained in Poetry, Part II.
To proceed to the mufic of periods. As the ar¬
rangement of words in fuccefiion, fo as to afford the
gxeatell pleaiure to the ear, depends on principles re¬
mote from common view, it will be neceflary to pre-
mife forae general observations upon the appearance
that obje&s make when placed in an increafing or de-
creafing feries j which appearance will vary according
to the prevalence of reiemblance or of contrail. Where
the objedls vary by fmall differences fo as to have a
mutual refemblance, we in afeending conceive the fe-
cond objedl of no greater fize than the firfl, the third
of no greater fize than the Second, and fo of the reft j
which diminifheth in appearance the fize of every ob¬
ject except the firft : but when beginning at the great-
eft object, we proceed gradually to the leaf!, refem¬
blance makes us imagine the fecund as great as the
firft, and the third as great as the fecond j which in
appearance magnifies every object except the firft. On
the other hand, in a feries varying by large differences,
where contrail prevails, the effects are direiftly oppo-
fite : a great objeft fucceeding a fmall one of the fame
kind, appears greater than ufual •, and a little object
0 See J?e- Succeeding one that is great, appears lefs than ufual *.
Jemblance. Hence a remarkable pieafure in viewing a feries aieend-
ing by large differences •, directly oppofite to what we
feel when the differences are fmall. The leaf! objeft
of a feries afeending by large ditferenees has the fame
effe£l upon the mind as if it flood Single without ma¬
king a part of the Series : but the fecond objeft, by
means of contrail, appears greater than when viewed
fingly and apart j and the effe£l is perceived in afeend¬
ing progreffively, till we arrive at the laft objefl. The
oppofite effect is produced in defeending ; for in this
direction, every objedt, except the firft, appears lefs
than when viewed Separately and independent of the
feries. We may then affume as a maxim, which will
hold in the compofition of language as well as of other
fubjedls, That a ftrong impulfe fucceeding a weak,
makes a double impreffion on the mind ; and that a
weak impulfe fucceeding a ftrong, makes Scarce any
impreffion.
After eftabliffiing this maxim, ive can be at no lofs
about its application to the fubjedt in hand. The fol-
ftruft. lowing rule is laid down by Diomedes f. “ In verbis
ferfeilx obfervandum eft, ne h majoribus ad minora defeendat
lib. ii.orati0 . melius enim d’eitur, Vir ef optimum, quam,
Vir optimus ef.” This rule is alio applicable to entire
members of a period, which, according to our author’s
expreffion, ought not, more than fingle words, to
proceed from the greater to the lefs, but from tha
lefs to the greater. In arranging the members of a
period, no writer equals Cicero : 1 he following ex¬
amples are too beautiful to be flurred over by a refe¬
rence.
Qu’cum quaeftor fueram,
Qu: um me fors conffietudoque majorum,
Q u. cu m me deor um hominu mque j udicium conj uxera t.
Again :
Hffiet honm-em quern petimus,
Habet fpem quam praepofitam nobis habemus,
Vol. XI. Part II.
Habet exiftimationem, multo fudore, labere, vigt- Language.^
liifque, colledtam. —y—J
Again :
Eripite nos ex miferlis,
Eripite nos ex faucibus eorum,
Quorum crudelitas noftro Sanguine non poteft expleri.
De Oratore, lib. i. § 52.
This order of words or members gradually increafing
in length, may, fo far as concerns the pieafure of found,
be denominated a climax in found.
With refpedf to the mufic of periods as united in a
difeourfe, this depends chiefly on variety. Hence a
rule for arranging the members of different periods
with relation to each other j That to avoid a tedious
uniformity of found and cadence, the arrangement,
the cadence, and the length of the members, ought to
be diverfified as much as poftible : and if the members
of different periods be fufficiently diverfified, the pe¬
riods themfelves will be equally fo.
II. With refpedl to fgnifcation. The beauties of
language with refpeft to Signification, may not impro¬
perly be diftinguifhed into two kinds : firft, the beauties
that arife from a right choice of words or materials for
conftru&ing the period j and next, the beauties that
arile from a due arrangement of thefe words or mate¬
rials.
I. Communication of thought being the chief end of
language, it is a rule, That perfpicuify ought not t®
be facrificed to any other beauty whatever. Nothing,
therefore, in language ought more to be ftudied, than
to prevent all obfeurity in the expreffion 5 for to have
no meaning, is but cne degree worfe than to have a
meaning that is not underftood. We fhall here give a
few examples where the obfeurity arifes from a wrong
choice of words.
Livy, fpeaking of a rout after a battle, ii Multique
in ruina majore quam fuga oppreffi obtruncatique.”
This author is frequently obicure by expred.ng but
part of his thought, leaving it to be completed by his
reader. His defeription of the fea fight, lib. 28. cap.
30. is extremely perplexed.
Unde tibi reditum certo fubtemine Parcae
Rupere. HoRAT.
Qui pedfsepe cava teftudine flevit amorem,
Hon elaboratum adpedem. Id,
Me fabulofae Vulture in Appulo,
Altricis extra limen Apuliae,
Ludo, fatigatumque y&rwffo,
Fronde nova pucrum palumbes
Texere. Id,
Purae rivus aquae, filvaque jugerum
Paucorum, ei fegt tis ctrta h e> mete,
Fulgen cm imperio fertilis Atricse
Falht forte beatwr. Id.
Cum fas atque nefas exiguo fne libidinutn
Dilcernunt avidi Id,
Ac fpem fronte lerenat. VlRG.
The rule next in order is, That the language ought
3 Y t#
Language.1'
L A N [5
Language, to correfpond to the fubjeft : heroic a£lions or fenti-
' “ raents require elevated language ; tender fentiments
ought to be expreffed in words-loft and flowing ", and
plain language, void of ornament, is adapted to fubjefts
grave and didaftic. Language may be confidered as
the drefs of thought ", and where the one is not fuited
to the other, we are fenlible of incongruity, in the
fame manner as where a judge is drefled like a fop, or
a peafant like a man of quality. Where the impreflion
made by the words refembles the imprefiion made by
the thought, the fimilar emotions mix fweetly in the
mind, and double the pleafure j but where the im-
preflions made by the thought and the words are difli-
milar, the unnatural union they are forced into is dif-
agreeable.
This concordance between the thought and the
word has been obferved by every critic, and is fo
well underftood as not to require any illuftration.
But there is a concordance of a peculiar kind that has
fcarcely been touched in works of criticifm, though
it contributes to neatnefs of compofition. It is what
follows.
In a thought of any extent we commonly find fome
parts intimately united, fome (lightly, fome disjoined,
and fome direftly oppofite to each other. To find thefe
conjunctions and disjunctions imitated in the expreflion,
is a beauty 5 becaufe fuch imitation makes the words
concordant with the fenfe. This doCtrine may be il-
luftrated by a familiar example : When we have occa-
fion to mention the intimate connexion that the foul
hath with the body, the expreflion ought to be, the
foul and body ; becaufe the article the, relative to both,
makes a connexion in the expreflion, refembling in
fome degree the connexion in the thought •, but when
the foul is diftinguifhed from the body, it is better to
fay the foul and the body ; becaufe the disjunction in the
words refembles the disjunction in the thought. We
proceed to other examples, beginning with conjunc¬
tions.
“ ‘Conftituit agmen ; et expedire tela animofque,
equitibus juflis,” &c. Livy,Y\\>. 38. § 25. Here the
words that exprefs the connected ideas are artificially
connected by fubjeCting them both to the regimen of
one verb. And the two following are of the fame kind.
“ Quum ex paucis quotidie aliqui eorum caderent aut
vulnerarentur, et qui fuperarent, fefli et corporibus et
animis eflent,” &c. Ibid. § 29.
38 ] LA N
  ~-«-JThe fiend look’d up, and knew
His mounted fcale aloft; nor more, but fled
Murm’ring, and with him fled the (hades of night.
Paradfe Lof, book iv. at the end.
There is no natural connection between a perfon’s fly¬
ing or retiring, and the fucceflion of daylight to dark-
nefs ; and therefore to conned artificially the terms
that fignify thefe things cannot have a fweet effeCt.
Two members of a thought connected by their rela¬
tion to the fame aCtion, will naturally be expreffed by
two members of the period governed by the fame verb ",
in which cafe thefe members, in order to improve their
connection, ought to be conltruCted in the fame man¬
ner. This beauty is fo common among good writers as
to have been little attended to 5 but the negleCt of it is
remarkably difagreeable : for example, “ He did not
mention Leonora, nor that her father was dead.” Bet¬
ter thus : “ He did not mention Leonora, nor her fa¬
ther’s death.”
Where two ideas are fo connected as to require but
a copulative, it is pleafant to find a connexion in the
words that exprefs thefe ideas, were it even fo flight as
where both begin with the fame letter. Thus,
“ The peacock, in all his pride, does not difplay half
the colour that appears in the garments of a Britilh
lady, when (lie is either dreffed for a ball or a birth¬
day.” Sftebl.
“ Had not my dog of a fteward run away as he did,
without making up his accounts, I had (till been im-
merfed in fin and fea-coal.” lb.
My life’s companion, and my bofom friend,
One faith, one fame, one fate (hall both attend.
DryDEN, Tranfation of JEncid.
Next, as to examples of disjunCHon and oppofition
in the parts of the thought, imitated in the expreflion ;
an imitation that is diftinguifhed by the name of anti-
thefs.
Speaking of Coriolanus foliciting the people to be
made conful :
With a proud heart he wore his humble weeds.
Coriolanus.
“ Had you rather Caefar were living, and die all
(laves, than that Caefar were dead, to live all free men ?”
Julius Ctefar.
Port acer Mneftheus adduCto conftitit arcu,
Alta petens, pariterque oculos telumque tetendit.
JEneid, v. 507.
But to juftify this artificial connexion among the
words, the ideas they exprefs ought to be intimately
connected 5 for otherwife that concordance which is
required between the fenfe and the expreflion will
be impaired. In that view, the following paffage
from Tacitus is exceptionable j where words that
fignify ideas very little conneded, are however forced
into an artificial union. “ Germania omnis h Gallis,
Rhsetiifque, et Pannoniis, Rheno et Danubio flumini-
bus; a Sarmatis Dacifque, mutuo metu aut moutibus
feparatur.”
Upon the fame account, the following paffage feems
equally exceptionable.
He hath cool’d my friends and heated mine enemies.
Shakespeare,
An artificial connection among the words, is un¬
doubtedly a beauty when it reprefents any peculiar
connection among the conftituent parts of the thought j
but where there is no fuch connection, it is a pofitive
deformity, becaufe it makes a difcordance between the
thought and expreflion. For the fame reafon, we ought
alfo to avoid every artificial oppofition of words where
there is none in the thought. This laft, termed ver¬
bal antithefis, is ftudied by low writers, becaufe of a
certain degree of livelinefs in it They do not con-
fider how incongruous it is, in a grave compofition, to
cheat the reader, and to make him expeCl a ccntraft
in the thought, which upon examination is not Found
there.
A
L AN [5
Language. A fault directly oppofite to the laft mentioned, is to
conjoin artificially words that exprefs ideas oppofed to
each other. This is a fault too grofs to be in common
pra&ice j and yet w'riters are guilty of it in fome de¬
gree, when they conjoin by a copulative things tranf-
adled at different periods of time. Hence a want of
neatnefs in the following expreflion : “ The nobility
too, whom the king had no means of retaining by fuit-
able offices and preferments, had been feized with the
genera],, difcontent, and unwarily threw themfelves into
the feale which began already too much to preponde¬
rate.” Hume. In periods of this kind, it appears
more neat to exprefs the paft time by the participle
paffive, thus : “ The nobility having been feized with
the general difcontent, unwarily threw themfelves,” &c.
or, “ The nobility, who had been feized, &c. unw’arily
threw themfelves,” &c.
It is unpleafant to find even a negative and affirma¬
tive propofition connecled by a copulative :
If it appear not plain, and prove untrue,
Deadly divorce flep between me and you.
Shakespeare,
In mirth and drollery it may have a good effeft to
conneft verbally things that are oppofite to each other
in the thought. Example : Henry IV. of France in¬
troducing the marefchal Biron to fome of his friends,
“ Here, gentlemen (fays he) is the marefchal Biron,
whom I freely prefent both to my friends and ene¬
mies.”
This rule of Undying uniformity between the thought
and expreffion may be extended to the conftru&ion of
fentences or periods. A fentence or period ought to
exprefs one entire thought or mental propofition ; and
different thoughts ought to be feparated in the expref¬
fion by placing them in different fentences or periods.
It is therefore offending againft neatnefs, to crowd in¬
to one period entire thoughts requiring more than one;
which is joining in language things that are feparated
in reality. Of errors againft this rule take the follow¬
ing examples :
“ Behold, thou art fair, my beloved, yea pleafant:
alfo our bed is green.”
Burnet, in the hiftory of his owrn times, giving Lord
Sunderland’s chara&er, fays : “ His own notions were
always good ; but he was a man of great expence.”
“ I have feen a woman’s face break out in heats, as
file has been talking againft a great lord, whom (he
had never feen in her life; and indeed never knewr a
party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth.”
Spea.
Lord Bolingbroke, fpeaking of Strada : “ I fingle
him out among the moderns, becaufe he had thefooliffi
prefumption to cenfure Tacitus, and to write hiftory
himfelf; and your lordfiiip will forgive this ffiort excur-
fion in honour of a favourite writer.”
To crowd into a fingle member of a period different
fubje&s, is ftill worfe than to crowd them into one pe¬
riod.
 Trojam genitore Adamafto
Paupere (manliffetque utinam fortuna !) profe&us.
JEneid in. 614.
From conjunctions and disjunctions in general, we
39 1 LAN
proceed to comparifons, which make one fpecies of Language.
them, beginning with fimiles. And here alfo, the in- 
timate connection that words have with their meaning
requires, that in defcribing two refembling objeCts, a
refemblance in the two members of the period ought
to be ftudied. To begin with examples of refemblances
expreffed in words that have no refemblance.
“ I have obferved of late, the ftyle of fome great
minifters very much to exceed that of any other pro¬
ductions.” Szvift. This, inftead of ftudying the re¬
femblance of words in a period that expreffes a com-
parifon, is going out of one’s road to avoid it. In¬
ftead ofwhich referable not minifters great
nor fmall, the proper word is writers or authors.
“ I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation,
which paffes fo currently with other judgments muft at
fome time or other have ftuck a little with your lord-
flip.” Shaftefl, Better thus : u I cannot but fancy,
however, that this imitation, which paffes fo currently
with others, muft at fome time or other have ftuck a
little with your lordjhipy
“ A glutton or mere fenfualift is as ridiculous as th«
other two charafters.” Id.
“ They wifely prefer the generous efforts of good will
and affettion, to the reluftant compliances of fuch as
obey by force.” Bolingb.
It is a ftill greater deviation from congruity, to af-
feCt not only variety in the words, but alfo in the con^
ftruftion.
Hume fpeaking of Shakefpeare: “ There may re¬
main a fufpicion that we overrate the grtatnefs of his
genius, in the fame manner as bodies appear more gi¬
gantic on account of their being dil proportioned and
miffiapen.” This is ftudying variety in a period where
the beauty lies in uniformity. Better thus : “There
may remain a fufpicion that we overrate the great-
nefs of his genius, in the fame manner as we overrate
the greatnefs of bodies that are difproportioned and
miffiapen.”
Next of comparifon where things are oppofed to
each other. And here it muft be obvious, that if re¬
femblance ought to be ftudied in the words which ex¬
prefs two refembling objeCfs, there is equal reafon for
ftudying oppofition in the words which exprefs con-
trailed objeCls. This rule will be beft illuftrated by
examples of deviations from it.
“ A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues; an enemy
inflames his crimes.” Spedt. Here the oppofition in
the thought is negleCled in the words; wffiich at firft
view feern to import, that the friend and enemy are
employed in different matters, without any relation to
each other, whether of refemblance or of oppofition.
And therefore the contraft or oppofition will be better
marked by expreffing the thought as follows: “ A
friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an enemy his
crimes.”
“ The wdfe man is happy when he gains his own ap¬
probation ; the fool when he recommends himfelf to
the applaufe of thofe about him.” Ib. Better : “ The
wife man is happy when he gains his own approbation,
the fool when he gains that of others.”
We proceed to a rule of a different kind. During
the courfe of a period, the feene ought to be continued
without variation : the changing from perfon to perfon,
3 Y 2 from
LAN
r. 54° ]
LAN
Language, from fubjeft to fubject, or from prrfon to fubjeft, within
the bounds of a fingle period, diitradts the mind, and
affords no time for a folid impftffion.
Hook, in his Roman hiftory, fpeaking of Eumenes,
who had been beat to the ground with a ftone, rays,
“ After a fhort time he came to himfe.lf; and the next
day ihev put him on board his fiiip, which conveyed
him firit to Corinth, and thence to the ifland of
^Egina.”
The following period is unpleafant, even by a very
flight deviation from the rule : “ That fort of inftruc-
tion which is acquired by inculcating an important
moral truth,” &c. This expreflion includes two per-
fons, one acquiring, and one inculcating ; and the
fcene is changed without neceffhy. lo avoid this
blemiflr, the thought may be exprefled thus: “ lhat
fort of initruciion which is afiorded by inculcating,”
&e.
The bad effect of fuch a change of perfon is remark¬
able in the following palfage : “ The Britons, daily
haraffed by cruel inroads from the Pidfs, were forced
to call in the Saxons for their defence, who confl quent-
ly reduced the greateft part of the iflarrd to thtir own
power, drove the Britons into the moft remote and
mountainous parts, and the reft of the country, m euf-
toms, religion, and language, became wholly Saxon.”
Swift.
The following paffage has a change from fubject to
perfon : “ This projUtution of praife is not only a deceit
upon the grots of mankind, who take their notion of
charadters from the learned j but alfo the better jort muft
by this means lofe feme part at leafl of that uefire of
fame which is the incentive to generous adtions, when
they find it promifcuoufly beflowed on the meritorious
and" undeferving.” Guardian, N° 4.
The prefent head, which relates to the choice of ma¬
terials, (ball be clofed with a rule concerning the ufe of
copulatives. Longinus obferves, that it animates a pe¬
riod to drop the copulatives ; and he gives the follow¬
ing example from Xenophon : “ Clofing their fhitlds
together, they were puthed, they fought, they flew,
they were flain.” The reafon may be what follows.
A continued found, if not loud, te nds to lay us afleep :
an interrupted found rouies and animates by its repc ated
impulfes : thus feet compofed of fyllables, being pro¬
nounced with a fenfible interval between each, make
more lively impreflions than can be made by a continued
found. A period of which the members are connedled
by copulatives, produceth an effecl upon the mind ap¬
proaching to that of a continued found 5 and therefore
the fupprefling copulatives muft animate a defcription.
It produces a different effect akin to that mentioned :
the members of a period connected by proper copula¬
tives, glide fmoothly and gently along j and are a proof
of fedatenefs and lefture in the fpeaKer : on the other
hand, one in the hurry of p flion, neglecting copula¬
tives and other particles, exprefles the principal image
only *, and for that reafon, hurry or quick a&ion is belt
exprefied without copulatives :
Veni, vidi, vici.
-Ite
Lerte citi flammas, date vela, impellite remos.
Mneid, iv. 593.
Ouis globus, O cives, caligine volvitur atra ? Language.
Ferte citi ferrum, date tela, fcandite muros. v^—^
Hoftis adeft, eja. JEneid, ix, 37.
In this view Longinus juftly compares copulatives in a
period to ftrait tying, which in a race obilrubts the free¬
dom of motion.
It follows, that a plurality of copulatives in the fame
period ought to be avoided j for if the laying afide co¬
pulatives give force and liveliuefs, a redundancy of them
muft render the period languid. The following inftance
may be appealed to, though there are but two copula¬
tives : “ Upon looking over the letters of my female
correfpondents, 1 find feveral from w omen complaining
of jealous hufbands j and at the fame time protefting
their own-innocence, and defiring my advice upon this
occafion.” Specl.
Where the words are intended to exprefs the cold-
nefs of the fpeaker, there indeed the redundancy of co¬
pulatives is a beauty :
‘ Dining one day at an alderman’s in the city, Peter
‘ obierved him expatiating after the manner of Kis bre-
4 thren in the praifes of his iuvloin of beef. “ Beef
“ (laid the lage magiftrate) is- the king of meat : beef
“ comprehends in it the quinteffence of partridge, and
“ quail, and venifon, and pheal'ant, and plum pudding,
“ and cuftard ” Tale of a Tub, § 4. And the au¬
thor {hows great delicacy of taile by varying the ex¬
preflion in the mouth of Peter, who is reprefented more
animated : “ Bread (fays he), dear brothers, is the
44 ftaff of life 4 in which bread is contained, mcluftve,
44 the quinttfiVnce of beef, mutton, veal, venifon, par-
44 tridge, plum pudding, and cuftard ”
Another cafe muft alfo be excepted. Copulatives
have a good effeft where the intention is to give an
impreflion of a great multitude confiding of many di-
vifions, for example: 4 The army was compofed of
Grecians, and Carians, and Lycians, and Pamphylians,
and Phrygians.’ I he reafon is, that a leifurely fur-
vey, which is expreffed by the copulatives, makes the
parts appear more numerous than they w ould do by- a
bafty furvey : in the latter cafe, the army appears in
one group ; in the former, we take as it were an accu¬
rate furvey of each nation, and ofieach divifion.
2. To pave the way for the rules of arrangement, it
will here be neceffary to explain the difference between
a natural ftyle and that where tranfpofition or inver-
fion prevails. In a natural ftyle, relative words are
by juxtapofition connedled with thofe to which they
relate, going before or after, according to the pecu¬
liar genius of the language. Again, a circumftance
conne&ed by a prepofition, follows naturally the word
with which it is connedled. But this arrangement may
be varied, when a different order is more beautiful : a
circumftance may be placed before the word with which
it is connedled by a prepofition *, and may be interjedl-
ed even between a relative word and that to which it
relates. -When fuch liberties are frequently taken, the
ftyle becomes inverted or tranfpofed.
^ But as the liberty of inverfion is a capital point in
the prefent fubjeft, it will be neceffary to examine it
more narrowly, and in particular to trace the feveral
degrees in which an inverted ftyle recedes more and
more from that which is natural. And firft, as ta the
placing
LAN r 5-41
Language, placing a circumftance before the word with which it
is connected, this is the eafieft of all inverfion, even fo
eafy as to be confident with a ftyle that is properly
termed natural: witnefs the following examples.
“ In the fincerity of my heart, I profefs,” &c.
“ By our own ill management, we are brought to fo
low an ebb of wealth and credit, that,” &e.
“ On Thurfday morning there was little or nothing
tranfafted in Change-alley.”
“ At St Bride’s church in Fleetftreet, Mr Woolfton
(who wrote againft the miracles of our Saviour), in the
titmofl: terrors of confcience, made a public recantation.”
The interjecting a circumftance between a relative
word and that to which it relates, is more properly
termed inverfton; becaufe, by a disjunction of words
intimately connected, it recedes farther from a natural
flyle. But this licenfe has degrees ; for the disjunc¬
tion is more violent in fome cafes than in others.
In nature, though a fubjeCt cannot exift without its
qualities, nor a quality without a fubjeCt j yet in our
conception of thefe, a material difference may be re¬
marked. We cannot conceive a quality but as belong¬
ing to fome fubjeCi : it makes indeed a part of the idea
which is formed of the fubjeCt. But the oppofite holds
not; for though we cannot form a conception of a
fubjid void of all qualities, a partial conception may
be formed of it, abftraCHng from any particular'qua¬
lity : we can, for example, form the idea of a fine A-
rabian horfe without regard to his colour, or of a white
horfe without regard to his fize. Such partial concep¬
tion of a fubjeCt is ftill more eafy with refpeCt to ac¬
tion or motion, which is an occafional attribute only,
and has not the fame permanency with colour or figure:
we cannot form an idea of motion independent of a bo¬
dy ; but there is nothing more eafy than to form an idea
of a body at reft. Hence it appears, that the degree
of inverfion depends greatly on the order in which the
related words are placed : when a fubftantive occupies
the firft place, the idea it fuggefts muft fubfift in the
mind at leaft for a moment, independent of the rela¬
tive words afterward introduced 5 and that moment may
without difficulty be prolonged by interceding a cir¬
cumftance between the fubftantive and its connexions.
This liberty therefore, however frequent, will fcarce
alone be fufficient to denominate a ftyle inverted. The
cafe is very different, where the word that occupies the
firft place denotes a quality or an adion ; for as thefe
cannot be conceived without a fubjed, they cannot
without greater violence be feparated from the fubjed
that follows 5 and Tor that reafon, every fuch fepara-
tion by means of an interjeded circumftance belongs
to an inverted ftyle.
To illuflrate this dodrine, examples are neceffary.
In the following, the word firft; introduced does not im¬
ply a relation :
 Nor Eve to iterate
Her former trefjiafs fear’d.
— Hunger and thirft at once,
Powerful perfuaders, quicken’d at the fcent
Of that alluring fruit, urg’d me fo keen.—
Moon that now meet’ft the orient fun, now fli’ft
With the fix’d ftars, fix’d in their orb that flips,
And ye five other wand’ring fires that move
3
] LAN
In myftic dance, not without fong, refound Language.
His praife. '
Where the word firft introduced imports a relation,
the disjundion will be found more violent:
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our wo,
With lofs of Eden, till one greater Man
Reftore us, and regain the blifsful feat,
Sing heav’nly mufe.
 Upon the firm opacous globe
Of this round world, whofe firft convex divides
The luminous-inferior orbs enclos’d
From chaos- and th’ inroad of darknefs old,
Satan alighted walks.
  * On a fudden open fly,
With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th’ infernal doors.
 Wherein remain’d,
For what could elfe ? to our almighty foe
Clear vidory, to our part lofs and rout.
Language would have no great power, were it con»
fined to the natural order of ideas : By inverfion a
thoufand beauties may be compaffed, which muft be
relinquiftied in a natural arrangement.
Rules. 1. In the arrangement of a period, as well
as in a right choice of words, the firft and great ob-
jed being, perfpicuity, the rule above laid down, that
perfpicuity ought not to be facrificed to any other
beauty, holds equally in both. Ambiguities occafion-
ed by a wrong arrangement are of two forts j the one
where the arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe, and the
other where the fenfe is lefs doubtful. The firft, being
the more culpable, {hall take the lead, beginning with
examples of words put in a wrong place.
“ How much the imagination of fuch a prefence
muft exalt a genius, we may obferve merely from the
influence which an ordinary prefence has over men.”
Shaftejb. The arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe:
the adverb wzere/y feems by itspofition to affed the pre¬
ceding word j whereas it is intended to affed the fol¬
lowing words, an ordinary prefence; and therefore the
arrangement ought to be thus: “ How much the ima¬
gination of fuch a prefence mult exalt a genius, we
may obferve from the influence which an ordinary pre¬
fence merely has over men.” [Or better], “ which
even an ordinary prefence has over men.”
“ Sixtus the Fourth was, if I miftake not, a great
colledor of books at leaft.” Boling. The expreflion
here leads evidently to a wrong fenfe j the adverb at
leaf, ought not to be conneded with the fubftantive
books, but with eolleBor, thus : “ Sixtus the Fourth
was a great colledor at leaft, of books.”
Speaking of Louis XIV. “ If he was not the great-
eft king, he was the beft ador of majefty at leaft that
ever filled a throne.” Id. Better thus : “ If he was
not the greateft king, he was at leaft the beft ador
of majefty,” &c. This arrangement removes the wrong
fenfe occafioned by the juxtapofition of majefy and at
leaf.
The
LAN [S42] L A N
language. The following examples are of a wrong arrangement knight, feeing his habitation reduced to fo fmal! a Langusge,
v members. ^ ^ compafs, and himfelf in a manner flmt out of his own 
“ I have confined myfelf to thofe methods for the houfe, upon the death of his mother, ordered ail the
advancement of piety, which are in the power of a apartments to be flung open, and exorcifed by his
prince limited like ours by a ftridl execution of the chaplain.” Speci. Better thus: “The knight, fee-
laws.” Swift. ' The ftru&ure of this period leads to a ing his habitation reduced to fo fmall a compafs,* and
meaning which is not the author’s, viz. power limited himfelf in a manner fhut out of his own houle oVder-
by a ftri& execution of the laws. That wrong fenfe is ed, upon the death of his mother, all the apartments
removed by the following arrangement: “ I have con- to be flung open.
fined myfelf to thofe methods for the advancement of Speaking of feme indecencies in converfation : “ As
piety, which, by a ftri£f execution of the laws, are in it is impoflible for fuch an irrational way of conver-
the power of a prince limited like ours.” fation to lafl: long among a people that make any
“ This morning, when one of Lady Lizard’s daugh- profeflion of religion, or {how of modefly, if the coun-
ters was looking over fome hoods and ribbands brought try gentlemen get into it, they will certainly be left in
by her tirewoman, with great care and diligence, I em- the lurch.” Ib. The ambiguity vaniflies in the fol-
ployed no lefs in examining the box which contained lowing arrangement   “ the country
them.” Guardian. The wrong fenfe occafioned by gentlemen, if they get into it, will certainly be left in
this arrangement, may be eafily prevented by varying the lurch.” 7
it thus : “ This morning, when, with great care and “ And fince it is neceffary that there fliould be a
diligence,^ one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was look- perpetual intercourfe of buying and felling, and deal¬
ing over fome hoods and ribbands,” &c. ing upon credit, where fraud is permitted'or connived
A great flone that I happened to find after a at, or hath no law to punifb it, the honeft dealer is
long fearch by the fea flisre, ferved me for an anchor.” always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.”
Swift. One would think that the fearch was confined Swift. Better thus : “ And fince it is neceflary that
to the fea (bore; but as the meaning is, that the great there ftiould be a perpetual intercourfe of buying and
ftone was found by the fea fiiore, the period ought to felling, and dealing upon credit, the honeft dealer,
be arranged thus : “ A great ftone that, after a long where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no
fearch, I happened to find by the fea fliore, ferved me law to punifli it, is always undone, and the knave gets
for an anchor.” the advantage.”
Next of a wrong arrangement where the fenfe is left From thefe examples, the following obfervation
doubtful 5 beginning, as in the former fort, with ex- will occur : That a circumfonce ought never to be
amples of a wrong arrangement of words in a mem- placed between two capital members of a period ; for
her‘ b7 fuch fituation it muft always be doubtful, fo far as
• Ihete forms of converfation by degrees multiplied we gather from the arrangement, to which of the two
and grew troublefome.” SpeB. Here it is left doubt- members it belongs : where it is interjefted, as it
ful whether the modification by degrees relates to ought to be, between parts of the member to which
die preceding member or to what follows: it ftiould it belongs, the ambiguity is removed, and the capital
be, Thefe forms of converfation multiplied by de- members are kept diftina, which is a great beauty in
compofition.' In general, to preferve members diftina
Nor does this falfe modefty expofe us o»/y to fuch that fignify things diftinguilhed in the thought, the
aclions as are indifereet, but very often to fuch as are beft method is, to place firft in the confequent mem-
highly criminal.” SpeB. The ambiguity is removed ber, fome word that cannot conned with what pre-
by the following arrangement : “ Nor does this falfe cedes it. * 1
modefty expofe us to fuch adions only as are indif- If it ftiall be thought, that the objedions here are
' C‘ • r T. r • • to° fcruPulous, and that the defed of perfpicuity is
i he empire of Blefufcu is an illand fituated to eafily fupplied by accurate punduation 5 the anfwer
die north-eafi: fide of Lilliput, from whence it is is, That punduation may remove an ambiguity, but
jiartea only by a channel of 800 yards wide.” Swift, will never produce that peculiar beauty which is per-
ihe ambiguity may be removed thus:   ceived when the fenfe comes out clearly and diftindly
from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards by means of a happy arrangement. Such influence
wme only.” . ^ has this beauty, that, by a natural tranfition of per-
in the following examples the fenfe is left doubtful ception, it is communicated to the very found of the
by wrong arrangement of members. . words, fo as in appearance to improve the mufic of
7 y5 nduifter who grows lefs by his elevation, like the period. But as this curious fubjed comes in more
a little fatue placed on a mighty pedejlal, will always have properly elfewhere, it is fufficient at prefent to appeal
ms jealoufy itrong about him.” Bohngb. Here, fo to experience, that a period, fo arranged as to bring
tar as can be gathered from the arrangement, it is out the fenfe clear, feems always more mufical than
doubtful, whether the objed introduced by way of finiile where the fenfe is left in any degiee doubtful,
relates to what goes before or to what follows. The The next rule is, That words exprefling things
amoigiuty is removed by the following arrangement : conneded in the thought, ought to be placed as near
“ Hie mimiler who, like a little ftatue placed on a together as poflible. This rule is derived immediately
mighty pedeftal, grows lefs by his elevation, will al- from human nature, prone in every inftance to place
uays, &c. ... . _ together things in any manner conneded : where
opeaKing of the fuperftitious pradice .of locking things are arranged according to their connexions,
cp the room wnere a perfon of diftindion dies : “ The we have a lenfe of order ^ otherwife we have a fenfe
1 .
LAN [ 543 ] LAN
Language, of diforder, as of things placed by chance : and we
w—naturally place words in the fame order in which we
would place the things they lignify. The bad effefl
of a violent feparation of words or members thus inti¬
mately connefted, will appear from the following ex¬
amples.
“ For the Englifh are naturally fanciful, and very
often difpofed, by that gloominefs and melancholy of
temper which is fo frequent in our nation, to many
wild notions and vifions, to which others are not fo
liable.” SfieSi. Here the verb or affertion is, by a pre-
ty long circumftance, violently feparated from the fub-
jt'Ct to which it refers : this makes a harlh arrangement;
the lefs excufable that the fault is eafily prevented by
placing the circumllance before the verb, after the fol¬
lowing manner : “ For the Englilh are naturally fanci¬
ful, and by that gloominefs and melancholy of temper
which is fo frequent in our nation, are often difpofed to
many wild notions,” &c.
“ From whence we may date likewife the rivallhip
of the houfe of France, for we may reckon that of Va-
** lois and that of Bourbon as one upon this occalion,
and the houfe of Auftria, that continues at this day,
and has oft coft fo much blood and fo much treafure in
the courfe of it.” Bolingbr.
“ It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in
fuch a country, whatever it might be in the abbot of
St Real’s, which was Savoy, I think } or, in Peru, un¬
der the incas, where Garcilaffo de la Vega fays it was
lawful for none but the nobility to ftudy—for men of
all degrees to inftruff themfelves in thofe affairs where¬
in they may be aftors, or judgers of thofe that aft, or
controllers of thofe that judge.” Ibid.
“ If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for
which anecdote we have, if I miltake not, the autho¬
rity of Polybius, as well as fome verfes of Nevius pre-
ferved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by Olym¬
pias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that he
would have reftored the beautiful Spaniard.” Ibid.
If any one have a curiofity for more fpecimens of this
kind, they will be found without number in the works
of the fame author.
A pronoun, which faves the naming a perfon or
thing a fecond time, ought to be placed as near as
poffible to the name of that perfon or thing. This is
a branch of the foregoing rule ; and with the reafon
there given, another occurs, viz. That if other ideas
intervene, it is difficult to recal the perfon or thing by
reference.
“ If I had leave to print the Latin letters tranf-
mitted to me from foreign parts, they would fill a vo¬
lume, and be a full defence againft: all that Mr Pa-
tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition,
will be ever able to objefl; \ ivho, by the way, are the
only enemies my predidlions have ever met with at
home or abroad.” Better thus : “ and be a full
defence againft all that can be objected by Mr Pa-
tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition j
who, by the way, are,” &c.
“ There being a round million of creatures in hu¬
man figure, throughout this kingdom, whofe whole fub-
fiftence,” &c. Swift. Better : “ There being, through¬
out this kingdom, a round million of creatures in hu¬
man figure, whofe whole fubliftenee,” &c.
The following rule depends on the communication
of emotions to related objefls ; a principle in human Language,
nature that hath an extenfive operation ; and we find
this operation, even where the objefts are not other-
wife related than by juxtapofition of the words that ex-
prefs them. Hence, to elevate or deprefs an obje6l,
one method is, to join it in the exprefiion with another
that is naturally high or low' : witnefs the following
fpeech of Eumenes to the Roman fenate.
“ Caufam veniendi fibi Romam fuiffe, praeter cupJ-
ditatem vifendi deos hominefque, quorum beneficio in ea
fortuna effet, fupra quam ne optare quidem auderet,
etiam ut coram moneret fenatum ut Perfei conatus
obviam iret.” Livy. To join the Romans with the
gods in the fame enunciation, is an artful ftroke of
flattery, becaufe it tacitly puts them on a level.
On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an
object, is done fuccefsfully by ranking it with one that
is really low : “ I hope to have this entertainment in
readinefs for the next winter ; and doubt not but it will
pleafe more than the opera or puppet Ihow.” SpeB.
“ Manifold have been the judgments w'hich Heaven
from time to time, for the chaftifement of a finfui peo¬
ple, has inflifled upon whole nations. For when the
degeneracy becomes common, it is but juft the punifti-
ment flrould be general. Of this kind, in our own
unfortunate country, was that deffruftive peftilence,
whofe mortality was fo fatal as to fweep away, if Sir
William Petty may be believed, five millions of Chri-
ftian fouls, befides women and Jews.” Arbuthnot.
“ Such alfo was that dreadful conflagration enfuing
in this famous metropolis of London, which confumed,
according to the computation of Sir Samuel More¬
land, 100,000 houfes, not to mention churches and
ftables.” Ibid.
“ But on condition it might pafs into a law, I wmuld
gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages, fubaltern and
field officers, young heirs, dancing mailers, pickpockets,
and players.” Swift.
Sooner let earth, air, fea, to chaos fall,
Men, monkeys, lap dogs, parrots, periih all.
Rcpe of the Loch.
Circumftances in a period refemble fmall ftones in a
building, employed to fill up vacuities among thofe of
a larger fize. In the arrangement of a period, fuch
under parts crowded together make a poor figure j and
never are graceful but when interfperfed among the
capital parts.
“ It is likewife urged, that there are, by computa¬
tion, in this kingdom, above 10,000 parions, whofe
revenues, added to thofe of my lords the biihops,
would fufhce to maintain, &c. Swift. Here two cir¬
cumftances, viz. by computation, and in this kingdom, are
crowded together unneceffarily. They make a better
appearance feparated in the following manner : “ It is
likewife urged, that in this kingdom there are by com¬
putation, above 10,000 parfons,” &c.
If there be room for a choice, the fooner a circum¬
ftance is introduced, the better •, becaufe circumftan¬
ces are proper for that coolnefs of mind, with which
w e begin a period as w'dl as a volume : in the progrefs
the mind warms, and has a greater reliih for matters
of importance. When a circumftance is placed at the
beginning of the period, or near the beginning, the
tranfition from it to the principal fubjefl is agreeable :
Langi
L A N [ 544 1 LAN
it is like afcending, or going upward. On the other
hand, to place it late in the period has a bad efteft ;
for after being engaged in the principal iubjedt, one
is with reludtance brought down to g ve attention to a
circumftance. Hence evidently the preference of the
following arrangement, “ Whether in any country a
choice altogether unexceptionable has been made, It ems
doubtful before this other, “ Whether a choice
altogether unexceptionable has in any country been
made,” &c.
For this reafon the following period is exceptionable
in point of arrangement. “ I have confidered former¬
ly, with a good deal of attention, the fubjedl upon
which you command me to communicate my thoughts
to you.” Boling. Which, with a flight alteration, may
be improved thus : u I have formerly, with a good deal
of attention, confidered the fubjeft,” &c.
Swift, fpeaking of a virtuous and learned education :
“ And although they may be, and too often are,
drawn by the temptations of youth, and the opportu¬
nities of a large fortune, into fome irregularities, vcrhen
they come forward into the great world; it is ever with
reludtance and compunction of mind, becaufe their bias
to virtue ftill continues.” Better : “ And although,
when they come forward into the great world, they may
be, and too often,” &c.
In arranging a period, it is of importance to deter¬
mine in what part of it a word makes the greateft
figure, whether at the beginning, during the courfe,
or at the clofe; The breaking filence roufes the at¬
tention, and prepares for a deep impreffion at the be¬
ginning : the beginning, however, mull: yield to the
clofe ; which being fucceeded by a paufe, affords time
for a word to make its deepeft impreflion. Hence the
following rule, That to give the utmoft force to a pe¬
riod, it ought, if poflible, to be clofed with that word
which makes the greateft figure. The opportunity of
a paufe fliould not be thrown away upon acceffories,
but referved for the principal objedf, in order that it
may make a full impreffion : which is an additional
reafon againfl: clofing a period without a circumftance.
There are, however, periods that admit not fuch a
ftrutture ; and in that cafe the capital word ought, if
poflible, to be placed in the front, which next to the
clofe is the moft advantageous for making an impref¬
fion. Hence, in directing our difcourfe to a man of
figure, we ought to begin with his name *, and one will
be fenfible of a degradation when this rule is neglefted,
as it frequently is for the fake of verfe. We give the
following examples.
Integer vitae, fceleriffpie purus,
Non eget Mauris jaculis, neque arcu,
Nec venenatis gravida lagittis,
Fufce, pharetra. Horat. Carm. lib. I. ode 22.
Je crams Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre
crainte.
In thefe examples, the name of the perfon addreffed to
makes a mean figure, being like a circumftance flipt
into a corner. That this criticifm is well founded, we
need no other proof than Adiifon’s tianflation of the
laft example.
Q Abner ! I fear my God, and 1 fear none but him.
Guardian, N° 117.
O father, what intends thy hand, (lie cry’d,
Againft thy only fim ? What fury, O fun,
PoilVffes thee to bend that mortal dart
Againft thy father’s head ?
Paradfe Lofl, book ii. 1. 727.
Every one muft be fenfible of a dignity in the invoca¬
tion at the beginning, which is not attained by that
in the middle. It is not meant, however, to cenfure
this paffage : on the contrary, it appears beautiful, by
diftinguifhing the rcfptH that is due to a father from
that which is due to a Ion.
The fubftance of what is faid in this and the fore¬
going fetftion, upon the method of arranging words in
a period, fo as to make the deepeft impreflion with re-
fpect to found as well as fignification, is comprehend¬
ed in the following obfervation : That order of words
in a period will always be the moft agreeable, where,
without obfeuring the fenfe, the moft important images,
the moft fonorous words, and the Jongeft members,
bring up the rear.
Hitherto of arranging Angle words, Angle mem¬
bers, and Angle circumftances. But the enumeration
of many particulars in the lame period ia often necet-
fary : and the queftion is, In what order they ftiould
be placed ? And, firft, with refpeft to the enumera¬
ting particulars of equal rank : As there is no caufe
for preferring any one before the reft, it is indifferent
to the mind in what order they be viewed ; therefore
it is indifferent in what order they be named. 2dly, If
a number of objects of the fame kind, diftering only
in fize, are to be ranged along a ftraight line, the moft:
agreeable order to the eye is of an increafing fe-
ries : in furveying a number of fubjedts, beginning
at the leaft, and proceeding to greater and greater, the
mind fwells gradually with the fucceffive objedls, and
in its progrefs has a very fenfible pleafure. Precifely
for the fame reafon, words expreflive of fuch objedts
ought to be placed in the fame order. The beauty of
this figure, which may be termed a climax in fenfe, has
efeaped Lord Bolingbioke in the firft member of the
following period : “ Let but one, great, brave, difin-
terefted, adfive man arife, and he will be received, fol¬
lowed, and almoft adored.” The following arrange¬
ment has fenfibly a better effedl : “ Let but one brave,
great, adlive, difinterefted man arife,” &c. Whether
the fame rule ought to be followed in enumerating men
of different ranks, feems doubtful: on the one hand,
a number of perfons prefented to the eye in form of
an increafing frries, is undoubtedly the moft agreeable
order 5 on the other hand, in every lift of names, we
fet the perfon of the greateft dignity at the top, and
defeend gradually through his inferiors. Where the
purpofe is to honour the perfi.ns named according to
their rank, the latter ought to be followed ; but every¬
one who regards himfelf only, or his reader, will
choofe the former order. 3d'y, As the fenfe of or¬
der diredls the eye to defeend from the principal to its
greateft acceffory, and-from the whole to its greateft
part, and in the fame order through all the parts and
ac< eflbries, till we arrive at the minuteft the tame or¬
der ought to be followed in the enumeration of iuch
particulars.
When force and livelinefs of expreffion are demand¬
ed, the rule is, to fulbend the thought as long as pof-
fible,
LAN [ 545 ] LAN
Language, fible, and to bring it out full and entire at the clofe,
w-Y——' -which cannot be done but by inverting the natural ar¬
rangement. By introducing a word or member before
its time, curiofity is raifed about what is to follow j
and it is agreeable to have our curiofity gratified at
the clofe of the period : the pleafure we feel refembles
that of feeing a ftroke exerted upon a body by the
whole colle&ed force of the agent. On the other
hand, where a period is fo conftrufted as to admit
more than one complete clofe in the fenfe, the curio¬
fity of the reader is exhaufted at the firft clofe, and what
follows appears languid or fuperfluous : his difappoint-
ment contributes alfo to that appearance when he
finds, contrary to expectation, that the period is not
yet finilhed. Cicero, and after him Quintilian, re¬
commend the verb to the laft place. This method evi¬
dently tends to fufpend the fenfe till the clofe of the
period j for without the verb the fenfe cannot be com¬
plete j and when the verb happens to be the capital
word, which it frequently is, it ought at any rate to be
the laid, according to another rule above laid down.
The following period is placed in its natural order :
Were inftruCfion an effential circumftance in epic
poetry, I doubt whether a fingle inftance could be
given of this fpecies of compofition in any language.”
The period thus arranged admits a full clofe upon the
word compofition ; after which it goes on languidly, and
clofes without force. This blemifliwill be avoided by
the following arrangement: “ Were inftruftion an ef¬
fential circumftance in epic poetry, I doubt whether,
in any language, a fingle inftance could be given of
this fpecies of compofition.”
“ Some of our moft eminent divines have made ufe
of this Platonic notion, as far as it regards the fub-
fiftence of our paflions after death, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon.” SpeB. Better thus : “ Some
of our moft eminent divines have, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon, made ufe of this Platonic no¬
tion,” &.C.
“ Men of the beft fenfe have been touched, more or
lefs, with thefe groundlefs horrors and prefages of fu¬
turity, upon furveying the moft indifferent works of na¬
ture.” Ib. Better, “ Upon furveying the moft indif¬
ferent works of nature, men of the beft fenfe,” &c.
“ She foon informed him of the place he was in j
which, notwithftanding all its horrors, appeared to him
more fweet than the bower of Mahomet, in the com¬
pany of bis Balfora.” Guardian. Better, “ She foon,
&c. which appeared to him, in the company of his Bal¬
fora, more fweet than the bower of Mahomet.”
None of the rules for the compofition of periods are
more liable to be abufed than thofelaft mentioned j wit-
nefs many Latin writers, among the moderns efpecial-
ly, whofe ftyle, by inverfions too violent, is rendered
harfti and obfeure. Sufpenfion ox the thought till the
clofe of the period, ought never to be preferred before
perfpicuity. Neither ought fuch fufpenfion to be at¬
tempted in a long period $ becaufe in that cafe the mind
is bewildered amidft a profufion of words : a traveller,
while he is puzzled about the road, relifties not the
fineft profpeft: “ All the rich prefents which Aftyages
had given him at parting, keeping only fome Median
horfes, in order to propagate the breed of them in Per-
fia, he diftributed umong his friends whom he left at
the court of Ecbatana.” Trav. of Cyrus.
Vox.. XI. Part II.
III. Beauties from a Rcfemblance between Sound and Language,
Signification. There being frequently a ftrong refem-
blance of one found to another, it will not be furprifing
to find an articulate found refembling one that is not
articulate \ thus the found of a bow firing is imitated
by the words that exprefs it:
■            The firing let fly,
Twang'd fhort and [harp, like the fhrill fwallow’s cry.
Odyjfey, xxi. 449.
The found of felling trees in a wood :
Loud founds the axe, redoubling ftrokes on ftrokes,
On all fides round the foreft hurls her oaks
Headlong. Deep echoing groan the thickets brown,
Then rujiling) crackling, crajhing, thunder down.
Iliad, xxiii. 144.
But when loud furges lafh the founding ftiore,
The hoarfe rough verfe Ihould like the torrent roar.
Pope’s EJfay on Criticifm, 369.
Dire Scylla there a feene of horror forms,
And here Charybdis fills the deep with ftorms :
When the tide rufties from her rumbling caves,
The rough rock roars j tumultuous boil the waves.
Pope.
No perfen can be at a lofs about the caufe of this
beauty j it is obvioufly that of imitation.
That there is any other natural refemblance of found
to fignification, muft not be taken for granted. There
is no refemblance of found to motion, nor of found
to fentiment. We are, however, apt to be deceived
by artful pronunciation: the fame paffage may be
pronounced in many different tones, elevated or hum¬
ble, fweet or harfti, brilk or melancholy, fo as to ac¬
cord with the thought or fentiment: luch concord
muft be diftinguiftied from that concord between found
and fenfe which is perceived in fome expreflions in¬
dependent of artful pronunciation j the latter is the
poet’s Avork, the former muft be attributed to the
reader. Another thing contributes ilill more to the
deceit: in language, found and fenfe being intimately
conne£led, the properties of the one are readily com¬
municated to the other; for example, the quality -of
grandeur, of fweetnefs, or of melancholy, though be-
longing to the thought folely, is transferred to the
words, which by that means referable in appearance
the thought that is expreffed by them. That there
may be a refemblance of articulate founds to foine
that are not articulate, is felf-evident; and that in
fa<5l there exift fuch refemblances fuccefsfully employed
by writers of genius, is clear from the foregoing ex¬
amples, and from many others that might be given.
But avc may fafely pronounce, that this natural re¬
femblance can be carried no farther } the objedls of the
different fenfes differ fo widely from each other, as to
exclude any refemblance : found in particular, whether
articulate or inarticulate, refembles not in any degree
tafte, fmell, nor motion •, and as little can it referable
any internal fentiment, feeling, or emotion. But muft
we then admit, that nothing but found can be imitated
by found ? Taking imitation in its proper fenfe, as
importing a refemblance between two objefts, th«
propofition muft be admitted : and yet in many paf-
3 Z fages
LAN [ 546 ] LAN
Language, fages that are not defcriptive of found, every one muft
be fenfible of a peculiar concord between the found of
the words and their meaning. As there can be no
doubt of the fa£l, what remains is to inquire into its
caufe.
Refembling caufes may produce effe&s that have no
refemblance j and caufes that have no refemblance may
produce refembling effe&s. A magnificent building,
for example, refembles not in any degree a heroic ac¬
tion ; and yet the emotions they produce are concor¬
dant, and bear a refemblance to each other. We are
Hill more fenfible of this refemblance in a fong, when
the mufic is properly adapted to the fentiment j there
is no refemblance between the thought and found; but
there is the ftrongelt refemblance between the emotion
railed by mufic tender and pathetic, and that raifed by
the complaint of an unfuccefsful lover. Applying this
obfervation to the prefent fubjeft, it appears, that, in
feme initances, the found even of a fingle word makes
an impreffion refembling that which is made by the
thing it fignifies : witnefs the word running compofed
of t wo Ihort fyllables j and more remarkably the words
rapiditi/, impetnojitij, precipitation. Brutal manners pro¬
duce in the fpe&ator an emotion not unlike what is
produced by a harfh and rough found $ and hence
tire beauty of the figurative expreflion, rugged man¬
ners. Again, the word little, being pronounced with
a very fmall aperture of the mouth, has a weak and
faint found, which makes an impreffion refembling
that made by a diminutive objeft. This refemblance
of effects is ft ill more remarkable where a number of
words are connefted in a period : words pronounced
in fucceflion make often a ftrong impreflion; and when
this impreffion happens to accord with that made by
the fenfe, we are fenfible of a complex emotion, pe¬
culiarly pleafant; one proceeding from the fentiment,
and one from the melody or found of the words.
But the chief pleafure proceeds from having thefe
two concordant emotions combined in perfect harmony,
and carried on in the mind to a full clofe. Except
in the fingle cafe where found is deferibed, all the ex¬
amples given by critics, of fenfe being imitated in found,
refolve into a refemblance of effefts : emotions raifed
by found and fignification may have a refemblance j but
found itfelf cannot have a refemblance to any thing but
found.
Proceeding now to particulars^ and beginning with
thofe cafes where the emotions have the ftrongeft re¬
femblance, we obferve, firff, That by a number of
fyllables in fucceffion, an emotion is fometimes raifed,
extremely fimilar to that raifed by fucceffive motion $
which may be evident even to thofe who are defeftive
in tafte, from the following faft, that the term move¬
ment in all languages is equally applied to both.- In
this manner, fucceflive motion, fuch as walking, run¬
ning, galloping, can be imitated by a fucceflion of long
or Ihort fyllables, or by a due mixture of both : for
example, flow motion may be juftly imitated in a verfe
where long fyllables prevail j efpecially when aided by
a flow pronunciation :
Illi inter fefe magna vi brachia tollunt.
Georg, iv. 174.
On the other hand, fwift motion is imitated by a fuc-
eeflion of ffiort fyllables;
Quadrupedante putrem fonitu quatit ungula cam-
pum.
Again :
Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas :
Thirdly, A line compofed of monofyllables makes an
impreflion by the frequency of its paufes, fimilar to what
is made by laborious interrupted motion :
With many a weary ftep, and many a groan,
Up the high hill he heaves a huge round ftone.
Odyjey, xi. 736.
Firft. march the heavy mules fecurely flow j
O’er hills, o’er dales, o’er craggs, o’er rocks they go.
Iliad, xxiii. 138.
Fourthly, The impreflion made by rough founds in
fucceflion, refembles that made by rough or tumultuous
motion : on the other hand, the impreflion of fmooth
founds refembles that of gentle motion, i he following
is an example of both.
Two craggy rocks proje£lirsg to the main,
The roaring winds tempeftuous rage reftrain ; .
Within, the waves in fofter murmurs glide, ,
And fflips fecure without their haulfers ride..
OdyjJey, iii. 118.'
Another example of the latter:
Soft is the ft rain when Zephyr gently blows,
And the fmooth ft ream in fmoother numbers flows.
EJJay on Criticifm, 366.
Fifthly, Prolonged motion is expreffed in an Alex¬
andrine line. The firft example fliall be of a flow mo¬
tion prolonged :
A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong ;
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length along.
Ib. 356.
The next example is of forcible motion prolonged :
The waves behind impel the waves before,
Wide-rolling, foaming high, and tumbling to the fnore.
Iliad, xiii. 1004.
The laft {hall be of rapid motion prolonged :
Not fo when fwift Camilla fcours the plain,
Flies o’er the unbending corn, and {kims along the
main. May on Criticifm, 373.
Again, fpeaking of a rock torn from the brow of a
mountain :
Still gathering force, it fmokes, and urg’d amain,
Whirls, leaps, and thunders down impetuous to the
plain. Mad, xiii. 197.
Sixthly, A period confifting moftly of long fyllables,
that is, of fyllables pronounced flow, produceth an emo¬
tion refembling faintly that which is produced by gra¬
vity and folemnity. Hence the beauty of the follow¬
ing verfe :
Olli fedato refpondet corde Latinus.
It refembles equally an object that is infipid and un«
interefting.
T»det quotidian arum harum formarum. Terence
Seventhly
LAN [ 547 ] LAN
language. Seventhly, A flow fucceflion of ideas is a circum-
U“-,Y—itance that belongs equally to fettled melancholy, and
to a period compofed of polyfyllables pronounced flow j
and hence, by limilarity of emotion, the latter is imi¬
tative of the former:
In thofe deep folitudes, and awful cells,
Where heav’nly penfive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-mufing Melancholy reigns.
Pope, Eloifa to Abelard.
Eighthly, A long fyllable made fliort, or a ftiort
fyllable made long, raifes, by the difficulty of pronoun¬
cing contrary to cuftom, a feeling flmilar to that of
hard labour :
When Ajax ftrives fome rock’s vajl weight to throw,
The line too labours, and the words move flow.
EJfmj on Criticifrn, 3 70.
Ninthly, Harfh or rough words pronounced with
difficulty, excite a feeling fimilar to that which pro¬
ceeds from the labour of thought to a dull writer.
Juft writes to make his barrennefs appear,
And rtrains from hard-bound brains eight lines a year.
Pope’s Epi/lle to Dr Arbuthnot^ 1. 181.
We ftiall clofe with one example more, which of all
makes the fineft figure. In the firft feftion mention
is made of a climax in found j and in the fecond of a
climax in fenfe. It belongs to the prefent fubjeft to
obferve, that when thefe coincide in the fame palfage,
the concordance of found and fenfe is delightful : the
reader is confcious of pleafure not only from the two
climaxes feparately, but of an additional pleafure from
their concordance, and from finding the fenfe fo juftly
imitated by the found. In this refpefl, no periods are
more perfect than thofe borrowed from Cicero in the
fir ft fedtion.
The concord between fenfe and found is not lefs
agreeable in what may be termed an anticlimax, where
the progrefs is from great to little j for this has the ef-
fedf to make diminutive objedls appear ftill more dimi¬
nutive. Horace affords a ftriking example :
Parturiunt monies, nafeitur ridiculus mus.
The arrangement here is Angularly artful: the firft
place is occupied by the verb, which is the capital
word by its fenfe as well as found : the clofe is referVed
for the word that is the meaneft in fenfe as well as in
found : and it muft not be overlooked, that the refem-
bling founds of the two laft fyllables give a ludicrous
air to the whole.
In this article we have mentioned none of the beau¬
ties of language but what arife from words, taken in
their proper fenfe. Beauties that depend upon the me¬
taphorical and figurative power of words, are treated
under the feparate articles of Figures, Personifica¬
tion, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor, &c.
See alfo Oratory.
Purity of LANGUAGE. Both the Greeks and Ro¬
mans were particularly careful of preferving the purity
of their language. It feems amongft the Romans to
have been a point which they thought worthy the atten¬
tion of the ftate itfelf j for we find the Cumeans not
-daring to make ufe of the Latin language in their
public a&s without having firft obtained leave in form. Language
Tiberius himfelf would not hazard the word monopo- ^ U ^
Hum in the fenate without making an excufe for em- . ^ (
ploying a foreign term. Seneca gives it as a certain
maxim, that wherever a general falfe tafte in ftyle and
expreflion prevails, it is an infallible fign of corrup¬
tion of manners in that people : A liberty of introdu¬
cing obfolete words, or forming new ones, is a mark,
he thinks, of an equal licentioufnefs of the moral kind.
Accordingly it is obferved, there are fcarce more than
eight or ten inftances of new words to be produced
from the moft approved Roman writers, in the courfe
of two or three centuries. If this mode of reafoning
concerning the morals of the ftate was introduced and
applied in our own country, no nation on the face of
the earth could appear more abandoned ■, for no na¬
tion is more fond of adopting new words j though our
language is fufficiently copious. This delicacy of Se¬
neca appears to be carried a little too far, and his
manner of eftimating the morals of the people rauft be
a little fallacious. The Greeks were very remarkable
for their difeernment of provincialifms, efpecially the
Athenians, whofe dialeil was inconceivably fweet and
elegant.
LANGUED, in Heraldry, expreffes fuch animals
whofe tongue, appearing out of the mouth, is borne of
a different colour from the reft of the body.
LANGUEDOC, a large and maritime province of
France 5 bounded on the north by Quercy, Rouerque,
Auvergne, and Lionnois $ on the eaft by Dauphiny
and Provence ; on the weft by Gafcony ; and on the
fimth by the Mediterranean fea and Rouffillon. It is
225 miles in length, and 100 in breadth where broad-
eft. It forms the departments of what are now called
Aude, Gard, Upper Garonne, and Herault. The
clergy are more rich and numerous here than in the reft
of France, there being three archbiftiops and 2o bilhops.
Languedoc is divided into the Upper and Low'er j and
in general it is a very pleafant country, fertile in corn,
fruits, and excellent wines ; and the inhabitants carry
on a confiderable trade. There are many curious me¬
dicinal plants, with iron mines, quarries of marble, and
turquoife ftone. There is alfo a great deal of kelp,
and on the heaths are confiderable numbers of the
kermes oak. The principal rivers are the Rhone, the
Garonne, the Aude, the Tame, the Ailier, and the
Loire. There are alfo a great number ef mineral
fprings. Thouloufe is the capital town. This pro¬
vince is famous for the royal canal, which runs through
it, joining the Mediterranean with the Atlantic ocean.
This canal was undertaken in 1666, and finiflred in
1680 5 the mathematician who undertook it made a
bafin 400 yards long, 300 broad, and 7 feet deep,
which is always kept full of water, and may be let out
by means of a fluice on the fide of the Mediterranean,
as well as by another on the fide of the Atlantic.
LANGUET, Hubert, born at Viteaux in Bur¬
gundy ip 1518, gained great reputation by his learn¬
ing and virtue in the 16th century. Having read one
of Melanfthon’s books at Bologna, he conceived fo
high an efteem for the author, that he went to Wir-
temberg purpofely to vifit him ; he arrived there in
1549, when he contradled a ftrift friendfhip with Me-
lanfthon, and embraced the Proteftant religion. In
1565, he was one of the firft counfellors of Auguftiis
3 Z 2 ele&or
LAN [ 54$ ] LAN
tanguet ele&or of Saxony, who employed him in feveral im-
portant affairs and negociations. He was afterwards
at’ "m' . admitted to the confidence of William prince of O-
range ; and died at Antwerp on the 30th of September
1581. We have many of his letters written in Latin
to Sir Philip Sydney, to Camerarius the father and fon,
and to Auguftus eleftor of Saxony, which have been
feveral times reprinted, in three volumes; and there is
alfo attributed to him a famous treatife, entitled, Vm-
dicice contra Tyrannos, and other works. His life is
written by Philibert de la Mare.
Languet, John-Bapti/i-Jofeph, the celebrated vi¬
car of St Sulpice at Paris, and a doftor of the Sor-
bonne, was born at Dijon in 1675. He was received
into the Sorbonne in 1698 j and attached himfelf to
the community of St Sulpice, to which parifh he was
of great fervice. M. de la Chetardie the vicar, con-
fcious of his talents, chofe him for his curate, in which
capacity he officiated near ten years ; and in 1714 ffic-
ceeded to the vicarage. His parith church being Imall
and out of repair, he conceived the defign of building
a church fuitable to the fize of his parith, which he
began with the fum of 100 crowns, but foon obtained
confiderable donations j and the duke of Orleans, re¬
gent of the kingdom, granted him a lottery, and laid
the firlt ftone of the porch in 1718. It was confecra-
ted in 1745, after M. Languet had fpared neither la¬
bour nor ex pence to render it one of the fineft churches
in the world both for architecture and ornament. An¬
other work which did him no lefs honour was the
Maifon de Penfant Jefus. This eftabliffiment confifts
of two parts j the firfl: compofed of about 35 poor la¬
dies of good families, and the fecond of more than
400 poor women and children of town and country.
The order and economy in this houfe, for the educa¬
tion and employment of fo many per Tons, gave Cardi¬
nal Fleury fo high an idea of the vicar of St Sulpice,
that he propofed to make him fuperintendant general
of all the hofpitals in the kingdom j which, however,
was declined. Never man took more pains than he did
to procure charitable donations and legacies, which he
diftributed with admirable difcretion : he is faid from
good authority to have difburfed near a million of livres
to the poor annually. When there vras a general dearth
in 1725, he fold, in order to relieve the poor, his houfe-
hold goods, pictures, and fome curious pieces of furni¬
ture that he had procured with difficulty j and when
the plague raged at Marfeilles, he fent large fums into
Provence for the relief of the diftreffed. M. Languet
was not only Angular in this warm, difinterefted, bene¬
volent conduCt, but alfo in other circumftances equally
rare 5 and this was in the refufal of feveral biffioprics
that were offered him : he even refigned his vicarage
in 1748 ; but continued to preach every Sunday at his
own pariffi church, and to fupport the Maifon de Ben-
fant JefuSy to his death, which happened in 1750. It
is obferved, that his piety and charity did not proceed
from poverty of talents ; for he was fenfible and lively
in converfation, and his genius often difcovered itfelf
in his agreeable repartees.
LANGUOR, among phyficians, fignifies great weak-
nefs and lofs of ftrength, attended with a dejeClion of
mind ; fo that the patients can fcaree walk or even
Hand upright, but are apt to faint away.
LANHAM. See Lavenham.
3
LANIARD (from Lanier, Fr.), a Ihort piece of Laniard
cord or line fattened to leveral machines in a fhip, and rH .
ferving to fecure them in a particular place, or to ma- ^an^U!I et«
nage them more conveniently. Such are the laniards
of the gun port, the laniard of the buoy, the laniard of
the cat hook, &c.—The principal laniards ufed in a
ffiip, however, are thofe employed to extend the ffirouds
and ttays of the malts by their communication with the
dead eyes, fo as to form a fort of mechanical power re-
fembling that of a tackle. Thefe laniards are fixed in
the dead eyes as follows: one end of the laniards is
thruft through one of the holes of the upper dead eye,
and then knotted, to prevent it from drawing out; the
other is then paffed through one of the holes in the
lower dead eye, whence, returning upward, it is infert-
ed through the fecond hole in the upper dead eye, and
next through the fecond in the lower dead eye, and fi¬
nally through the third holes in both dead eyes. The
end of the laniard being then directed upwards from
the loweft dead eye, is ftretched as ftiff as poffible by
the application of tackles j and that the feveral parts
of it may Aide with more facility through the holes of
the dead eyes, it is well fmeartd with hog’s lard or
tallow, fo that the ftrain is immediately communicated
to all the turns at once.
LANIGEROUS, an appellation given to whatever
bears wool.
LANISTA, in antiquity, is fometimes ufed to fig-
nify an executioner ; but more frequently for a mailer
gladiator, who taught the yfe of arms, and had alway
people under him ready to exhibit Ihows of that kind.
For this purpofe, they either purchafed gladiators,
or educated children in that art that had been expo-
fed.
LANIUS, the Shrike, or Butcher bird, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of accipitres. See Orni¬
thology Index.
LANNER, or Lannar. See Falco, Ornitholo¬
gy Index.
LANDSDOWNE, Lord. See Granville.
LANSQUINET, the name of a game at cards, of
French origin.
It may be played at by any indifcriminate number
of people, though a Angle pack of cards is ufed during
the deal. The dealer, who poffeffes an advantage,
fnuffles the cards, and after they have been cut by
another of the party, deals out two cards on his left
hand, turning them up, then one for himfelf, and a
fourth that he places on the table for the company,
which is called the rejouijfance. On this card any, or
all the company, the dealer excepted, may put their
money, which the dealer is compelled to anfwer. The
dealer continues turning the cards upwards, one by
one, till two of a fort come up, that is to fay, twu aces,
two deuces, &c. which, to prevent miftakes, or their
being confidered as fingle cards, he places on each
fide of his own card : and as often as two, three,
or the fourth fort of a card come up, he invariably
places, as before mentioned, on each fide of his own
card. The company has a right to take and put
money upon any fingle card, unlefs the dealer’s card
ffiould happen to be double, which is often the cafe,
by his card being the fame as one of the two hand-
cards, which he firft dealt out on his left hand : thus
he continues dealing till he brings either their cards
or
LAN [ 549 ] LAO
Lanfquinet or his own. Whilft the dealer’s own card remains un-
fi drawn, he wins j and whichever card is turned up firft,
Lamern. j0pes> jf }je deals out the two cards on his left hand,
L ’ which are ftyled the hand-cards, before his own, he is
entitled to deal again. This advantage amounts to no
more than his being exempted from lofing, when he
turns up a fimilar card to his own, immediately after
he has turned up one for himfelf.
Lanfquinet is often played without the rejouijfance,
the dealer giving every one of the party a card to put
their money upon. It is alio often played by dealing
only two cards, one for the company and the other for
the dealer.
It (hould likewife be obferved, that a limitation is
generally fixed for the fum to be placed upon any card
or number of cards, either in gold or filver, beyond
which the dealer is not obliged to anfwer.
L ANT AN A, or Indian Sack, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamra clals j and in the natural
method ranking under the 40th order, Pcrfonatce. See
Botany Index.
LANTERN, or Lanthorn, a device to carry a
candle in ; being a kind of cover ufually made of white
iron, with fafhes of fome tranfparent matter, as glafs,
horn, &c. to tranfmit the light.
Sir George Staunton informs us that fome of the Chi-
nefe lanterns were entirely made of horn, fo very thin
and tranfparent that they were at firll taken for glafs,
to which they prefer it as being cheaper, lefs liable to
accident, and more eafily repaired. Tbofe which Sir
George had the opportunity of examining, confided of
one uniform piece of horn, the feams being made invi-
lible by an art found out by the Chinefe. The horns
commonly ufed are thofe of dieep or goats, which be¬
ing bent by immerfing them in boiling water, are cut
open and flattened, after which they are eafily fepara-
ted into two or three thin plates. To make thefe laminse
or plates join readily, they are expofed to the penetra¬
ting heat of fteam till they are perfeftly foft, and the
edges that are to lap over each other are fcraped and
flanted off, fo that the joinings may be no thicker than
any other part of the plate.
Such lanterns would be extremely proper for milita¬
ry ftore-houfes ; and Rochou of the National Inftitute
was defired to attempt to make them for the marine
llore-houfes of France. While he was thus engaged, it
occurred to him that he might fupply the urgent necef-
fities of the navy without horn, by tilling up the inter-
ftices of wire cloth with fine tranlparent glue. He firft
tinned the iron wires of the fieve-eloth he made ufe of;
but afterwards found it more convenient to give it a
coating of oil paint to preferve it from ruft. The glue
he made ufe of was procured by boiling the clippings
of parchment with the air-bladders and membranes of
fea-filh, not from any conviction of their fuperiority to
other articles, but as being the cheapeit he could pro¬
cure. To this he added the juice of garlic and cyder,
in fuch proportions as he found to communicate great
tenacity. Into this tranfparent pure glue he plunged
his wire-cloth, which came out with its interftices filled
with the compound. The eafe with which lanterns
made of this lubftance are repaired in cafe of accident,
by a flight coating of glue, is given by the inventor as
a great advantage; and, according to him, they were
employed as fignal lanterns in the expedition to Ire¬
land.
Darh Lantern, one with only one opening, which,
may alio be clofed up when the light is to be entirely
hid, or opened when there is'occafion for the afliflance
of the light to difcover fome objeCt.
Magic LANTERN, an optical machine, whereby lit¬
tle painted images are reprefenled fo much magnified,
as to be accounted the effeft of magic by the ignorant.
See Dioptrics, Art. X. p. 37.
Lantern, in ArchiteElure, a little dome raifed over
the roof of a building to give light, and ferve as a
crowning to the fabric.
The term lantern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of
carpentry, placed over the ridge of a corridor or gal¬
lery, between two rows of fhops, to illumine them, like
that of the Royal Exchange, London.
Lantern, on fiiip board, a well known machine, of
which there are many in a fhip, particularly for the
purpofe of directing the courfe of other (hips in a fleet
or convoy ; fuch are the poop and top lanterns, &e.
Yeajl of LANTERNS, in China, is a celebrated feaft
held on the 15th day of the firfl: month ; fo called
from the infinite number of lanterns hung out of the
houfes and ftreets ; which, it is faid, is no lefs than
two hundred millions. On this day are expofed lan¬
terns.of all prices, whereof fome are faid to coft 2000
crowns. Some of their grandees retrench fomewhat
every day out of their table, out of their drefs, equi¬
page, &c. to appear the more magnificent in lanterns.
They are adorned with gilding, fculpture, painting,
japanning, &c. And as to their fize, it is extrava¬
gant ; fome being from 25 to 30 feet diameter : they
reprefent halls and chambers, and two or three fuch
machines together would make handfome houfes ; fo
that in China they are able to eat, lodge, receive vifits,
have balls, and adl plays in a lantern. To illumine
them, they (hould have bonfires ; but as that would
be inconvenient, they content themfelves with lighting
up in them an infinite number of torches or lamps,
which at a diftance have a beautiful effeft. In thefe
they exhibit various kinds of ftiows, to divert the peo¬
ple. Befides thefe enormous lanterns, there is a mul¬
titude of others fmaller, which ufually confifl of fix
faces or lights, each about four feet high, and one and
a half broad, framed in wood finely gilt and adorned;
over thefe they ftretch a fine tranfparent filk, curioufly
painted with flowers, trees, and fometimes human fi¬
gures : the painting is very extraordinary, and the co¬
lours extremely bright; and when the torches are light¬
ed, they appear highly beautiful and furprifing.
LanternYly. See Fulgora, Entomology Index.
LANUGO, the foft down of plants, like that grow¬
ing on the fruit of the peach tree. See Hair.
L AOCOON, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Priam and
Hecuba, or according to others of Antenor or of Capys.
As being prieft of Apollo, he was commiflioned by the
Trojans to offer a bullock to Neptune to render him
propitious. During the facrifice two enormous fer-
pents iffued from the fea, and attacked Laocoon’s two
fons. who ftood next to the altar. The father imme¬
diately attempted to defend his fons; but tlje ferpents
falling upon him fqueezed him in their complicated
wreathes, and he died in the greateft agonies. This
punilhment
Lantern
Laocoon.
LAO [ 550 1 LAO
Xaocoen. punlfhment was faid to have been inflt&ed upon him
» for dilTuading the Trojans to bring into the city the
fatal wooden horfe which the Greeks had confecrated
to Minerva, as alfo for his impiety in hurling a javelin
againft the hdes of the horfe as it entered within the
walls. According to Hyginus, he fuffered the above
punHhment for his marriage againft the confent of
Apollo, or, according to others, for his polluting the
temple, by his commerce with his wife Antiope, before
the ftatue of the god.
Laocoon, in the hiflory of the arts, is a celebrated
monument of Greek fculpture executed in marble by
Agefander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, the three fa¬
mous artifts of Rhodes. Agefander is fuppofed to have
been the father of the two latter. This remain of an¬
tiquity was found at Rome in the ruins of the palace
of Titus, in the beginning of the fixteenth century,
under the pontificate of Julius II. and afterwards depo-
fited in the Tarnefe palace. Laocoon, the prieft of
Apollo and Neptune, is here reprefented with his two
fons, with two hideous ferpents clinging round his bo-
dy, gnawing it, and inje&ing their poifon: Virgil has
given us the following defcription of the fadt ;
 Serpens amplexus uterque
Implicate et miferos morfu depafcitur artus
Corripiunt, fpirifque ligant ingentibus, et jam
Bis medium amplexi, bis collo fquamea circum
Terga dati, fuperant capite et cervicibus altis.
This fiatue exhibits the moft aftonifhing dignity and
tranquillity of mind in the midfl: of the moft excruci-
^Lib.xxxvi. ating torments : Pliny * fays of it, that it is, opus om-
c. 5. nibus piftorete et Jlatuarice artis, praferendum.
When Italy was overrun by the French during the
late revolution, this wonderful monument of ancient art
was removed along with the celebrated Apollo Belvi-
dere, &c. from the Vatican, where they had been feen
and admired for 300 years, and placed in the Mufeum
of Arts at Paris. “ A hero (fays the French account
of the latter), guided by vidtory, drew it from the Vati¬
can, and tranfporting it to the banks of the Seine, has
fixed it there for ever.”
+ W/t. of The Laocoon, Dr Gillies f obferve?, may be re-
Greece, garded as the triumph of Grecian fculpture j fince
' bodily pain, the grofleft and moft ungovernable of all
our paflions, and that pain united with anguifti and
torture of mind, are yet expreffed with fuch propriety
and dignity, as afford leffons of fortitude fuperior to
any taught in the fchools of philofophy. The horrible
Ihriek which Virgil’s Laocoon emits is a proper cir-
cumftance for poetry, which fpeaks to the fancy by
images and ideas borrowed from all the fenfes, and has
a thoufand ways of ennobling its objedt: but the ex-
preffion of this fhriek would have totally degraded the
ftatue. It is foftened, therefore, into a patient figh,
with the eyes turned to heaven in fearch of relief. The
intolerable agony of fuffering nature is reprefented in
the lower part, and particularly in the extremities of the
body ; but the manly bread ftruggles againft calamity.
The contention is ftill more plainly perceived in his
furrowed forehead j and his languiftiing paternal eye
demands afliftance, lefs for himfelf than for his mifer-
able children, who look up to him for help.
The groupe of the Laocoon is compofed of five pie¬
ces of marble, joined together with fo much art and
neatnefs, that Pliny thought the whole was of one. Laocoo*
The right arm of the father, and two of the arms of I!
the children are wanting. The deficiency is fupplied Laorrietlo<r
by arms moulded on the groupe in plafter of Paris.
LAODICALA on -the Lycus, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Phrygia, at firft called Diofpo/is, then
Rhsas. It was built by Antiochus fon of Stratonice,
and called after his confort Laodice. It was long an
inconfiderable place j but increafed toward the age of
Auguftus Gsefar, after having fuffered in a fiege from
Mithridates. The fertility of the foil, and the good
fortune of fome of its citizens, raifed it to greatnefs.
Hiero who adorned it with many offerings, left the
people his heir to more than 2000 talents. After that
benefaftor followed Zeno the rhetorician j and his fon
Polemo, as renowned a fophift as ever lived. This
perfon flourifhed at Smyrna j but was buried here by
the Syrian gate, near which were the fepulchres or
coffins of his ancestors. Laodicaea, though inland,
grew more potent than the cities on the coaft, and be¬
came one of the largeft towns in Phrygia. It was of¬
ten damaged by earthquakes, and reftored by its own
opulence or by the munificence of the Roman em¬
perors. Thefe refources failed, and the city, it is
probable, became early a fcene of ruin. About the
year 1097 it was poffeffed by the Turks, and fub*
mitted to Ducas general of the emperor Alexis. la
1120 the Turks lacked fome of the cities of Phrygia
by the Maeander, blit were defeated by the emperor
John Comnenus, who took Laodicsea, and built anew
or repaired the walls. About 1161 it was again un¬
fortified. Many of the inhabitants were then killed
with their biffiop, or carried with their cattle into cap¬
tivity by the Turks. In 1190 the German emperor,
Frederick Barbaroffa, going by Laodicrea, with his
army toward Syria on a croifade, was received fo kind¬
ly, that he prayed on his knees for the profperity of
the people. About 1196 this region with Caria was
dreadfully ravaged by the Turks. The fultan, on the
invaiion of the Tartars in 1255, gave Laodicsea to the
Romans j but they were unable to defend it, and it
foon returned to the Turks. It is now totally ruined
and deferted. Several remains of its ancient grandeur
are, however, ftill to be feen j particularly the ruins of
two theatres and an amphitheatre.—The memory of
this place is confecrated in Scripture, being one of the
feven churches to which St John in the Apocalypfe ad-
dreffes himfelf, commended by St Paul.
LAODIC2EA on the fea, in Ancient Geography, ac¬
cording to Strabo, was a town 6f Seleucis in Syria,
extremely well built, with a commodious harbour. The
country about it yielded great quantities of wine. The
city took its name from Laodice, mother of Seleucus the
founder of it.
LAOMEDON, a king of Troy, whofe hiftory is
involved in fables. He w as fon of llus king of Troy j
and married Strymo, called by fome Placia, or Leu-
cippe, by whom he had Podarces, afterwards known
by the name of Priam, and Hefione. He built the
walls of Troy, and was affifted by Apollo and Nep¬
tune, whom Jupiter had banifhed from heaven, and
condemned to be fubfervient to the will of Laomedon
for one year. When the walls were finiftied, Laomedon
refufed to reward the labours of the gods; and foon af¬
ter his territories were laid wafte by the fea or Nep¬
tune,
L A P r 5
Laomedon tune, and his fubje£ts were vifited by a peftilence fent
II by Apollo. Sacrifices were offered to the offended
divinities •, but the calamities of the Trojans increafed,
and nothing could appeafe the gods, according to the
words of the oracle, but annually to expofe to a fea
monfter a Trojan virgin. Whenever the monfter ap¬
peared, the marriageable maidens were affembled, and
the lot decided which of them was doomed to death
for the good of her country. When this calamity had
continued for five or fix years, the lot fell upon He-
fione, Laomedon’s daughter. The king was unwilling
to part with his daughter whom he loved with uncom¬
mon tendernefs, but his refufal would irritate more
ftrongly the wrath of the gods. In the midfl of his
fear and hefitation, Hercules came and offered to de¬
liver the Trojans from this public calamity, if Laome-
don would promife to reward him with a number of fine
horfes. The king confented •, but when the monfter
was deftroyed, he refufed to fulfil his engagements, and
Hercules was obliged to befiege Troy and take it by
force of arms. Laomedon was put to death after a
reign of 29 years ; his daughter Hefione was given in
marriage to Telamon, one of the conqueror’s attend¬
ants ; and Podarces was ranfomed by the Trojans, and
placed upon his father’s throne. According to Hy-
ginus, the wrath of Neptune and Apollo was kindled
againft Laomedon, becaufe he refufed to offer on their
altars as a facrifice all the firft born of his cattle, ac¬
cording to a vow he had made.
LAON, a confiderable town of the Ifle of France,
and capital of the Laonois, with a caftle and bifhop’s
fee. Its principal trade confifts in corn and wine j and
it is very advantageoufiy feated on a mountain, in E.
Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 49- 34* , , ^
LAOS, a kingdom of Afia beyond the Ganges j
bounded on the north by China j on the eaft, by
Tonquin and Cochin China j on the fouth, by Cam¬
bodia ; and on the weft, by the kingdom of Siam,
and by the territories of the king of Ava. This coun¬
try is full of forefts, and abounds in rice, fruits, and
fifh. The inhabitants are w'ell made, robuft, of an
olive complexion, and mild in their difpofition } but
very fuperftitious, and much addicted to women.
Their principal occupation is tilling the ground and
fififing. The king fhows himfelf but twice a-year,
and has large revenues from the elephants teeth found
in his dominions. Their religion is a kind of idolatry,
and much the fame as in China. Langiona is the ca¬
pital town.
LAPATHUS, Lapethus, or Lepith 'us, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Cyprus, about the middle of its
north fide, with a port or ftation for (hips, and a cog-
norainal river. It was built by a colony of Phoenici¬
ans, according to Scylax : by Belus king of Tyre, ac¬
cording to Alexander Ephefius. According to Strabo,
it was built by a colony of Spartans ; and one of the
nine kings refided here, the laft of whom w as Pififtra-
tus, who commanded the naval army of Alexander the
Great. There was a temple here dedicated to Venus.
The territory round it is called Lapithia by Diodorus
and Ptolemy \ Lapithii, the people, tainted with a de¬
gree of fatuity hence Lapathius Aenotes fatuus, (He-
fychius).—Now a village called Lapitha ; but, accord¬
ing to the Abbe Mariti, the longeft and moft extenfive
in the ifland. Befides the advantage of a fine fituation,
4
;i ] LAP
it ’furnifhes the beft produ&ions in the country j and Lapathiis
though Cyprus is in general not very abundant in H.
fruits, Lapitha feems a favoured fpot in this refpeft, ^ ~'J , •
and may be called the garden of the ifland.
LAPIDARY, an artificer who cuts precious
(tones.
The art of cutting precious (tones is of great anti¬
quity. The French have carried this art to a very
great perfeftion, but not in any degree fuperior to the
.Brilifh.
There are various machines employed in the cutting
of precious (tones, according to their quality. The
diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel of
foft fteel, turned by a mill, with diamond duft, tem¬
pered with olive oil, which alfo ferves to polifh it.
The oriental ruby, fapphire, and topaz, are cut on a
copper wheel with diamond duft tempered with olive
oil, and are poliftied on another copper wheel with
tripoli and water. The hyacinth, emerald, amethyft,
garnets, agates, and other (tones not of an equal de¬
gree of hardnefs with the other, are cut on a leaden
wheel with fmalt and water, and poliftied on a tin wheel
w’ith tripoli. The turquois of the old and new rock,
girafol, and opal, are cut and polifhed on a wooden
wheel with tripoli alfo.
The lapidaries of Paris have been a corporation
fince the year 1290. It is governed by four jurats,
who fuperintend their rights and privileges, vifit the
mafter workmen, take care of the mafterpiece of
w’orkmanfhip, bind apprentices, and adminifter the
freedom.
Lapidary is alfo ufed for a virtuofo (killed in the
nature, kinds, &c. of precious ftones ; or a merchant,
who deals in them.
LAPIDARTStyle, denotes the (tyle proper for monu¬
mental or other infcriptions.
This is a kind of medium between profe and verfe 5
the jejune and the brilliant are here equally to be avoid¬
ed. Cicero has prefcribed the rules of it : Accedat -
oportet oratio varia, vehement, plena fpintus. Omnium
fententiarum gravitate, omnium verborum ponderibus, ejl
utendum.
The lapidary ftyle, which was loft with the ancient
monuments, has been retrieved at the beginning of this
age by Count Emanuel Teforo : it is now ufed various
ways at the beginning of books-; and even epiftles de¬
dicatory are compofed in it, of which we have no ex¬
ample among the ancients.
LAPIDESCENT, any thing which has the facul¬
ty of petrifying, or turning bodies to a (tony nature.
The older naturalifts fpeak of a lapidefcent principle, a
lapidefcent fpirit, a lapidefcent juice, &c.
LAPIS, in general, is ufed to denote a (tone of any
kind.
Lapis, in Roman antiquity, a geographical mea*
fure denoting a mile ; becaufe miles were diftinguifh-
ed by ere&ing a ftone at the end of each ; from the
number marked on which, the length of way from
Rome might be known. The device is by Plutarch
afcribed to Caius Gracchus. This was more accu¬
rately executed by Auguftus, who erefted a gilt pil¬
lar in the forum, at which all the public ways of Italy,
diftinguiflied by ftones, were terminated. The fame
thing was done in the Roman provinces. Hence the
phrafes ter tins lapis, centefmus lapis, &c. for three, a
hundred.
LAP [55
hundred, &c. miles j and fometimes the ordinal num¬
ber withoutas adduodecimum, &c. at twelve miles
diilance.
Lapis Aflius, in the natural hiftory of the ancients,
the name of a ftone called alfo farcophagus, from its
power of confuming flefh. See Sarcophagus.
Lapis Bononienjis, the Bolognian ftone. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1081, 1082.
LAPIS Fungifer, a kind of earth found near Rome,
Naples, and Florence. It is found in the chalk hills
near Naples, in a ftala&itical form and of a white co¬
lour, intermixed with fine roots of Ihrubs. A piece of
it from Italy was found to contain filiceous, argillace¬
ous, and calcareous earth, together with fome magne-
fia, vegetable alkali, and oxide of iron.
Lapis La%uli. See Lazulite, Mineralogy In¬
dex.
% Lapis Lyncurius. See Lyncurius, ”) Mineral-
Lapis Mutabilis. See Hydrophanes, j” ogy Index.
LAPIS Hepaticus. See LlVER-Stone.
Lapis Lydius. See Touchstone, and Lapis Lt-
Dius, Mineralogy Index.
Lapis Objidianus. See Obsidian, Mineralogy
Index.
Lapis Nephriticus. See JADE-Stonc, Mineralogy
Index.
LAPITHiE, in Ancient Geography^ a people of
Theffaly. See the next article.
LAPITHUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Apol¬
lo, by Stilbe. He was a brother to Centaurusj and
married Orfinome, daughter of Euronymus, by whom
he had Phorbas and Periphas. The name of Lapithae
was given to the numerous children of Phorbas and
Periphas, or rather to the inhabitants of the country of
which they had obtained the fovereignty. The chief
of the Lapithae affembled to celebrate the nuptials of
Perithous, one of their number. Among them were
Thefeus, Dryas, Hopleus, Mopfus, Phalerus, Exadius,
Prolochus, Titarefius, &c. The Centaurs were alfo in¬
vited to partake the common feftivity \ and the amufe-
ments would have been harmlefs and innocent, had
not one of the intoxicated Centaurs offered violence
to Hippodamia the wife of Perithous. The Lapithte
refen ted the injury, and the Centaurs fupported their
companions 5 upon which the quarrel became univer-
fal and ended in blows and daughter. Many of the
Centaurs were flain, and they at laft were obliged to
retire. Thefeus among the Lapithae fhowed himfelf
brave and intrepid in fupporting the caufe of his
friends; and Neitor alfo was not lefs adtive in the pro-
tedtion of chaftity and innocence. Hefiod has defcrib-
ed the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithae ; as has alfo
Ovid, in a more copious manner. The invention of
bits and bridles for horfes is attributed to the Lapi¬
thae.
LAPLAND, the moft northerly country of Eu¬
rope, extending from the North cape in 71* 30' N.
Lat. to the White fea under the ardtie circle, is in¬
habited by the fame people, though the country is
lubjedl to different powers. Norwegian Lapland, un¬
der the dominion of Denmark, lies between the nor¬
thern fea, the river Pais, and the lake Enarak. Swe-
difh Lapland comprehends all the country from the
Baltic to the mountains that feparate Norway from
Sweden. It is divided into fix diftridts, denominated
2 ] LAP
march or territory; and thefe are diftinguilhed by the Lapland,
names of rivers, fuch as Aungnermanland, Elma, Peta, --y~—
Lula, Torna, and Kimi. The eaftern part, fubjedl to
the czar of Mufcovy, fituated between the lake Ena¬
rak and the White fea, is divided into three diftindt
prefedlures ; namely that of the fea coaft towards the
north, called Mourtnankoi Leporis ; the Terfkoi Lepo-
rie, upon the coaft of the White fea j and the third,
or inland, known by the name viBellamore/koi Leporie.
In Swedifh Lapland, which is the moft conliderable of
the three, the provinces or marcks are fubdivided into
fmaller diftridls called biars, confifting each of a certain
number of families $ among which the land is parcel¬
led out by government, or the prefedl of the diftridl
appointed by the king of Sweden.
Lapland may be termed a huge congeries of frightr
ful rocks and ftupendous mountains j interfperfed, how- ?
ever, with many pleafant valleys, watered by an infinite
number of rivulets that run into the rivers and lakes,
which difeharge themfelves into the gulf of Both¬
nia. The names of the principal lakes in Lapland
are the Great Uma, the Great Windel, the Oreavan,
the Stor-avan, the Great Lula j the lakes of Kartom,
Kali, Torno, Enara, and Kimi. Some of thefe ex¬
tend 60 leagues in length, and contain a great num¬
ber of iflands j Stoi’-avan is faid to contain 365 :
and Enara contains an archipelago of iflands fo
large that no Laplander has lived long enough to
vilit each particular ifland. The natives believe this
country to be the terreftrial paradife j and indeed no¬
thing could be more enchanting than fuch vaft pro-
fpefts of mountains, hills, forefts, lakes, rivers, &c.
if the country was in a moderate climate j though
even here, in fummer the rofes are feen blowing wild
on the banks of the lakes and rivers, with all the beau¬
tiful glow of colour w hich appears in thofe cultivated
in our gardens. But all the intervals between the
mountains are not engrofled by thefe agreeable pro-
fpedls j great part of the flat country is covered with
brown dulky forefts of fir and pine trees ; and thefe are
often fkirted by wide extended rnorafies, the ftagna-
ting waters of which in fummer produce myriads of
mifchievous infefts, that are more intolerable than
even the cold of wdnter.
The cold of Lapland is very intenfe during the
winter, freezing even brandy and the watery part of
fpirit of wine, if the latter is not highly redlified : all the
lakes and rivers are frozen to a prodigious thicknefaj
and the whole face of the country is covered with fnow
to the depth of four or five feet. While this continues
loefe, it is impoflible to travel : for a man’s eyes arc
not only blinded with it, but if a ftrong wind Ihouhl
rife he will be buried in the drifts of fnovv : yet Ihould
a partial thaw take place for a few hours, the furface
of this fnow is formed by the fucceeding froft into a
hard impenetrable cruft, over which the Laplander
travels in his fledge with great celerity. While the
thaw prevails, the air is furcharged with vapours, and
the climate is rainy *, but w hile the north wind blow's,
the flcy is beautifully ferene, and the air very clear.
The heat of fummer is almoft as intolerable in Lap-
land as the cold of winter. At the northern extremi- ..
ty of the country the fun never fets for three months
in fummer, and in winter there is an uninterrupted
night of the fame duration j but this is qualified in iuch
LAP [ 553 1 LAP
Lspland. a manner by a conftant revolution of dawn and twi-
light, by a ferene Iky, moon light, and aurora borea¬
lis, reflected from the white furface of the earth co-
%'ered with fnow, that the inhabitants are enabled to
hunt, filh, and proceed with their ordinary occupa¬
tions. The country abounds with excellent fprings j
and is remarkable for fome furprifing catarafts, in
which the water tumbles over frightful precipices,
and dathes among rocks with amazing impetuofity
and noife.
The foil of Lapland is generally fo chilled and
barren, that it produces little or no grain or fruit
trees of any kind. This fterility, however, is not fo
much owing to the foil, which is in many places of a
rich mould, as to want of induftry ; for in fome di-
flntts the Swedes have tilled and manured pieces of
ground that bear plentiful crops of rye. There is alfo
great plenty of berries: fuch as black currants; what
is called the Norwegian mulberry, growing upon a
creeping plant, and much efteemed as an antilcorbutic;
rafpberries, cranberries, juniper berries, and bilberries.
Xhe tops of the mountains are fo much expofed to in-
tenfe cold, and tempefts of fnow and hail, that no tree
will grow near the fummit; but in parts that are more
^Sheltered, we fee fine woods of birch, pine, and fir,
difpofed by nature as if they had been planted by art
in rows at regular diitances, without any undergrowth
or encumbrance below. Befides thefe trees, tome parts
of Lapland produce the fervice tree, the willow, the
poplar, the elder, and the cornel. Among the plants
of this country, the principal is the angelica ; which is
greatly efteemed by the natives, who ufe, it in then-
food. Here is likewife the acetofa or forrel, which
grows in great plenty, and is of much fervice on ac¬
count of its antifcorbutic properties. They have alfo
other kinds of herbs peculiar to the country, different
kinds of grafs, heath, fern, and mofs ; which are all
enumerated by Linneeus in his Flora Lappcnica. But
the vegetable which is in greateft plenty, and of the
moft extenlive ufe among them, is the lichen rangiferus.
The rein deer is wholly fuftained in winter by this ve¬
getable ; and the Laplanders themfelves boil it in
broth as a cordial and reftorative. They likewife ufe
one fort of it as a foft, eafy, and wholefome bed for
their new-born children.
Some filver and lead mines have been difcovered in
the provinces of Pitha and Lula; and two of copper,
together with excellent veins of iron, in the diftridt of
Torno ; but they are not at prefent worked with any
aonfiderable advant age. In fome places there are veins
of filver and gold mixed; but thefe mines are worked
only for a few months in the fummer, becaufe the froft
hinders the engine.-, from playing. Here are found
beautiful cryftals, of a furprifing magnitude, fo hard
and fine, that when pall Hied they referable real dia-
m inds. In fome places amethyfts and topazes are
alfo found, but paL and cloudy ; alfo a great quantity
of very curious ftones, which are too hard to be work¬
ed by the tool of the mafon. Some of thefe, found on
the banks of rivers and lakes, when they happen to
bear the leaft refemblance to the figures of animals,
the Laplanders remove to more confpicuous places,
and adore as deities. The province of Tornea affords
fome curious ftones of an octagonal ftrape, regular,
fhining, and p lifned by the hand of nature* in feme
Vol. XL Part IL
rivers they fifti for pearls, which are generally pale; Lapland,
but feme of them are as bright as the oriental pearls, —■-y'"—
and much larger and rounder. Thefe pearls are found
in muffel ihells ; and the filhery is not in the fea, but
in rivers.
Lapland, as well as Norway, is ihfefted with a great
number of gray wolves and bears, with whom the in¬
habitants wage perpetual war. The moft honourable
exploit among the Laplanders is that of killing a bear;
and the heroes adorn their caps with a fmall plate of
lead or pewter for every bear they have fiain. The
country abounds alfo with elks, beavers, and otters,
which live here unmolefted, and find plenty of fith ror
their fubfiftence. The forefts of this country furnifti
haunts to a great number of beautiful martens and
fquirrels, which laft change their colour every winter
from brown to gray. Lapland is alfe the native coun¬
try of the zibeling or fable, whofe Ikin is extremely
valuable. Here are likewife ermines, weafels, hares,
large black cats which attend the Laplanders in hunt¬
ing, and little prick-eared curs trained to the game.
But the moft; remarkable animal of Lapland is the rein
deer, for an account of which, ice Cervus, Mammalia
Index. 'I'hefe animals, fo ufeful in various relpetds to
the natives, are kept at no expence. In fummer they
feed upon graflfes and alpine plants; in winter, as al¬
ready mentioned, upon the lichen rang/erus, or rein¬
deer lichen, and its varieties, which are fo abundant
as in many parts almoft totally to cover the ground for
the fpace of feveral miles, and which the fagaeious ani¬
mal difcovers under the fnow by the peculiar aeute-
nefs of its fmell. Moft of thofe ufed for draught ar®
caftrated when very young, and are larger and fatter
than the bucks. The woods, mountains, and rivers,
are well flocked with wild fowl ; fueh as buftard, par¬
tridge, grovvfe, heathcock, phealants, lapwings, Ivvans,
wild geefe, wild ducks, and all forts of aquatic birds
that build and breed in northern climates. In the be¬
ginning of the fpring the fwans go thither in numerous
flights from the German ocean ; the lapwings follow
in fuch fwarms that they darken the iky as they pals
along, and fcream fo loud ihat they may be heard at a
great diftance. The rocks and mountains are likewife
frequented by eagles, hawks, falcons, kites, and other
birds of prey. The rivers abound with delicious fal-
mon from the gulf of Bothnia, trout, bream, and
perch of exquiiite flavour and amazing magnitude ;
arid tlv inhabitants of Wardhus, or Dandh Lapland,
are well fupplied with fifh from the northern ocean.—
With rtfpeft to infedls, the flies hatched in the mo-
raffes and woods in fummer are fo numerous, that they
often obfcure the face of day ; and fo venomous, trou-
blefome, and intolerable, that the rein deer fty to the
tops of the higheft mountains for fhelter, and the
Laplanders betake themfi Ives to the lea fide, which
is the leaft infefted by thefe peftilent vetmine.-  
M. dr Maupertuis, in his account of the voyage
he made to Lapland, in company with the other
French mathematician.- i'ent thither by the king ta
meafure a degree of the meridian, gives us to under¬
hand, that on the tops of the mountains in Torno
the flies were fo trouble fune, that even the Finland
foldiers, who are a counted the moft hardy troops in
the fervic - of Sweden, were obliged to cover their faces
with the ifcirts of their coats from the attacks of tlnf©
4 A animal^,
LAP [ 554. ] LAP
Lapland, animals, which fwarmed to fuch a degree, that the
' y~—moment a piece of fleQi appeared it was blackened all
over. Some of thefe flies are very large, with green
heads, and fetch blood from the fkin wherever they
itrike. The Laplanders fliroud themfelves in the fmoke
of a large fire kindled for that purpofe : yet even this
difagreeable expedient was not fufficient to defend the
French philofophers : they were obliged, notwithftand-
ing the exceflxve heat, to wrap up their heads in gar¬
ments made of the fldns of rein deer, called in that
country laptriudes, and to cover themfelves with a thick
rampart of fir boughs ; yet all thefe precautions proved
inefl'edtual. M. de Maupertuis obferved a lake quite
covered with little yellowifh grains, refembling millet
feed, which he fuppofed to be the chryfalifes of fome
of thefe infe&s.
The Laplanders are very low in flature, and are
likewife remarkable for having large heads. They are
alfo ill-fhaped, and their features harfh. They are,
however, ftrong, hardy, and robuft, infomuch that
they will bear incredible fatigue ^ and it is remarked
that the ftoutell Norwegian is not able to bend the
bow of a Laplander. The women are much lefs home¬
ly than the men, and many of them are noted for a
delicate and florid complexion.
Thefe people are Ample, honeft, hofpitable, and ti¬
morous : their timidity, however, refpefts war alone $
for to many other fpecies of dangers they expofe them-
fdves with furprifing intrepidity, whether in afcend-
ing and defcending mountains and precipices w ith their
fnow fhoes and in fledges, or in venturing amidft whirl¬
pools and eatarafts in little {lender boats made of thin
flr boards, faftened together with thongs of leather,
flnews of wild hearts, or tough and flexible twigs of
willow and ofier. Thefe boats are of different fizes,
from two to fix yards in length, managed with oars
and caulked with mofs fo tight as to keep out the
water. The Laplanders are partly fettled, and in part
wild and roving : the latter live in tents made of
coarfe cloth ; the former are fixed in fmall villages near
the lakes, and chiefly follow fifhing. They build their
cottages fomewhat in the fhape of a cone, by placing
a circle of large trees or poles aflant in the earth, and
clofe to each other, fo that their tops meet, and form
a fmall vent for the iffue of the fmoke j they cover the
ground w ithin with branches of trees. In fpring their
food confifts principally of the eggs of water fowl,
which are extremely plentiful in thofe parts j in fum-
mer and autumn, of the birds themfelves, and of va¬
rious others of the partridge tribe j and in winter of
the milk and flefh of the rein deer and dried fifli. They
had till lately no bread \ but in lieu thereof ufed the
inner rind of the pine tree dried and ground, and dried
filh reduced to powder. They make confedlions and
decodtions of berries, angelica, and forrel, which they
juttly reckon to be prefervatives againfl the fcurvy.
The Laplander is fecured in the pofTeflion of unin¬
terrupted health by temperance and exercife, which,
together with the feverity of the climate, brace his
nerves to a very unufual pitch of ftrength, and fortify
his conftitution in fuch a manner, that he often lives
to the age of 100, without feeling the leaft pang of
diftemper, or even perceiving his vigour in the leafi:
impaired 5 for it is not uncommon to fee a Laplander,
in extreme old age, hunting, fowling, fkating, and
performing all the fevereit exercifes with undimlmflied Laf
agility.
The fumraer garb of the men confifts of a long
coat of coarfe cloth, reaching down the middle of the
leg, and girded round the waift with a belt or girdle j
from which hang a Norway knife, and a pouch con¬
taining flints, matches, tobacco, and other necefiaries 5
the girdle itfelf being decorated with brafs rings and
chains. Their caps are made of the {kin of the north¬
ern diver, with the feathers on 5 and their ftioes of
the rein deer {kin, with the hair outwards. They
wear no linen j but the garments of the better fort are
of a finer cloth, and they delight in a variety of co¬
lours, though red, as the moft glaring, is the moft a-
greeable. In winter they are totally cafed up in coats,
caps, boots, and gloves, made of the rein deer {kins.
In the Flora Lapponica LinnEeus fays, “ Perhaps the
curious reader will wonder how the people in Lapland,
during the terrible cold that reigns there in winter,
can preferve their lives j fince almolt all birds, and
even iome wild beafts, defert it at that time. The
Laplander, not only in the day, but through the
whole winter nights, is obliged to wander about in
the woods with his herds of rein deer. For the rein
deer never come under cover, nor eat any kind of fod¬
der, but a particular kind of liverwort. On this ac¬
count the herdimen are under the neceflity of living
continually in the woods, in order to take care of their
cattle, left they fliould be devoured by wild beafts.
The Laplander eafily does without more light, as the
fnow reflecls the rays that come from the liars, and
as the aurora borealis illuminates the air every night
with a great variety of figures. No part of our body
is more eafily deftroyed by cold than the extremities
of the limbs which are moft remote from the fun of
this microcofm, the heart. The kibes that happen to
our hands and feet, fo common in the northern parts
of Sweden, prove this. In Lapland you will never fee
fuch a thing ; although, were w e to judge by the fixa¬
tion of the country, we Ihould imagine juft the contra¬
ry, elpecially as the people wear no {lockings, as we
do, not only Angle, but double and triple. The Lap¬
lander guards himfelf againft the cold in the following
manner : He wears breeches made of rein deer {kins
with the hair on, reaching down to his heels, and
fhoes made of the fame materials, the hairy part turn¬
ed outwards. He puts into his ftioes flender-eared
broad-leafed cyperus grafs (carex vejtcana, Spec. PI.
or the bladder carex). that is cut in fummer and dried.
This he firft combs and rubs in his hands, and then
'and.
places it in fuch a manner that it not only covers his
feet quite round, but his legs alfo •, and being thus
guarded, he is quite fecured againfl; the intenfe cold.
With this grafs they fluff their gloves likewife, in or¬
der to preferve their hands. As ’this grafs keeps off
the cold in winter, fo in fumroer it hinders the feet
from fweating, and at the fame time preferves them
from being annoyed by ftriking again!! Hones, &c. for
their Ihoee are very thin, being made, not of tanned
leather, but the raw hide.”
The women’s apparel differs very little from that of
the other fex : only their girdles are more ornamented
with rings, chains, needle-cafes, and toys, that fome-
times weigh 20 pounds. In winter, both men and
women lie in their furs ; in fummer they cover them¬
felves
L A P [ 55
Lapland, [elves entirely with coarfe blankets to defend them
£rom the gnats, which are intolerable. The Laplanders
are not only well dilpofed, but naturally ingenious.
They make all their own furniture, their boats, Hedges,
bows and arrows. They form neat boxes of thin birch
boards, and inlay them with the horn of the rein deer.
The Swedes are very fond of the Lapland balkets made
of the roots of trees, flit in long thin pieces, and
twifted together fo nicely that -they will hold water.
Among the manufactures of this country, we likewile
number curious horn fpoons, and moulds in which they
call the trinkets of tin which adorn their girdles. Over
and above thefe domeitic occupations, the men within
doors perform the office of cooks in dreffing victuals
for the family. The women att as taylors and em¬
broiderers •, they make clothes, ffioes, and boots, and
harnefs for the rein deer •, they fpin thread of fur, and
knit it into caps and gloves that are very foft and
warm. They draw tin into wire through a horn } and
with this they cover the thread which they ufe in em¬
broidering the figures of beafts, flowers, trees, and
ftars upon their caps and girdles.
The Laplanders make furprifing excurfions upon
the fnow in their hunting expeditions. They pro¬
vide themfelves each with a pair of fkates, or fnow
ffioes, which are no other than fir boards covered with
the rough fkin of the rein deer, turned in fuch a man¬
ner that the hair rifes againft the fnow, otherwife
they would be too flippery. One of thefe fhoes is
ufually as long as the perfon who wears it ; the other
is about a foot ihorter. The feet Hand in the middle,
and to them the ffioes are faitened by thongs or withes.
The Laplander thus equipped wields a long pole in
his hand, near the end of which there is a round ball
of wood to prevent its piercing too deep in the fnow 5
and with this he flops himfelf occafionally. By means
of thefe accoutrements he will travel at the rate of 60
miles a-day without being fatigued 5 afeending fteep
mountains, and Hiding down again with amazing
fwiftnefs.
The Laplander not only travels a-foot, but is pro¬
vided with a carriage drawn by the rein deer, in which
he journeys with Hill greater rapidity. The fledge,
called puika, is made in the form of a fmall boat, with
a convex bottom, that it may Hide the more eafily
over the fnow : the prow is iharp and pointed } but the
Hedge is Hat behind. The traveller is fwathed in this
carriage like an infant in a cradle, with a Hick in his
hand to fleer the veflel, and difengage it irom pieces
of rock or flumps of trees that may chance to encoun¬
ter it in the route. He muft alfo balance the fledge
with his body, otherwife he will be in danger of be¬
ing overturned. The traces, by which this carriage is
faflened to the rein deer, are fixed to a collar about
the animal’s neck, and run down over the breafl be¬
tween the fore and hind legs, to be connefted with the
prow of the fledge : the reins, managed by the travel¬
ler, are tied to the horns ; and the trappings are fur-
niffied with little bells, the found of which is agreeable
to the animal. With this draught at his tail, it has
been reported that the rein deer will fly like lightning
over hill and dale at the rate of 200 miles a-day. But
this reprefentation is greatly exaggerated. According
to the beft accounts, the common pace of the rein deer
is only at the rate of about four miles an hour; though,
5 ] LAP
if he be prefled, he will travel 10 or 12 Swediffi miles LapW,
(70 or 84 Englith miles) in a day, but by fuch hard
driving is generally deftroyed. It, however, fre¬
quently happens, that he will perlevere in his jour¬
ney 50 miles without intermiffion, and without taking
any refreihment, except occafionally moiftening hxs
mouth with the fnow. Before he lets out, the Lap¬
lander whifpers in his ear the way he is to follow, and
the place at which he is to halt, firmly perfuaded that
the beaft underftands his meaning : but, in fpite of
this intimation, he frequently flops ftiort long before
he has reached the journey’s end 5 and fometimes he
overffioots the mark by feveral leagues. In the begin¬
ning of winter the Laplanders mark the rnoft frequent- s
ed roads, by ftrewing them with fir boughs •, and in¬
deed thefe roads are no other than pathways made
through the fnow by the rein deer and the pulkas :
their being frequently covered with new fnow, and al¬
ternately beaten by the carriage, confolidates them into
a kind of caufeway ; which is the harder if the lurface
has felt a partial thaw, and been crufted by a fubfe-
quent frofl. It requires great caution to follow thefe
tracks •, for if the carriage deviates to the right or left,
the traveller is plunged into an abyfs of fnow. In lels
frequented parts, where there is no iuch beaten road,
the Laplander direfls his courfe by certain marks which
he has made on the trees.
The chief occupation of the Laplanders is hunting,
and this exercife they perform in various ways. In
fummer they hunt the wild beafts with fmall dogs,
trained to the diverfion. In winter they purfue them
by their tracks upon the fnow, floating with fo great ve¬
locity, that they very often run down the prey. i hey
catch ermines in traps and iometimes ■with dogs.
They kill fquirrels, martens, and lables, with blunt
darts, to avoid wounding the ikin. Foxes and bea¬
vers are flain with ffiarp-pointed darts and arrows •, in
[hooting which, they are accounted the beft marklmen
in the world. The larger beafts, fuch as bears,, wolves,
elks, and wild rein deer, they either kill with fire¬
arms purchafed in Sweden or Norway, or take in
Inares and pits dug in the forefts. Iheir particular
laws relating to the chafe are obferved with great
punctuality. The beaft becomes the property of the
man in whofe fnare or pit he is caught } and he who
dilcovers a bear’s den has the exclufive privilege of
hunting him to death. The conqueft of a bear is the
moft honourable atchievement that a Laplander can
perform 5 and the flefh of this animal they account the
greateft delicacy on earth. The bear is always de-
ipatched with a fufil, fometimes laid as a fnare, ready
cocked and primed but more frequently in the hands
of the hunter, who runs the moft imminent riik of his
life ffiould he mifs his aim of wounding the beaft
mortally. The death of a bear is celebrated by the
Laplanders as a fignal viaory. The carcafs is drawn
to the cabin or hut of the viftor by a rein deer, which
is kept (acred from any other work for a whole year
after this fervice. The bear is furrounded by a great
number of men, women, and children, reciting a par¬
ticular hymn or fong of triumph, in which they thank
the vanquilhed enemy for having allowed himielt to be
overcome without doing any mifehief to his conque¬
ror, and welcome his arrival: then they make an apo-
ftrophe to heaven, expreffing their acknowledgment to
4 A a God,
LAP [ 55$ ] LAP
J.apland. God, that he has created beads for the ufe of men,
wr—y—and endued mankind with ftrength and courage to over¬
come and attack the fiereeft of the brute creation. The
hero is faluted by the women, who {pit chewed elder-
bark in his face. He is feafted three days fucceflively,
and his cap is decorated with an additional figure
wrought in tin wire.
The manner in which the young Laplander choofes
a wife is equally remarkable and ludicrous. When he
has pitched upon a female, he employs fome friends as
mediators with the father*, and thefe being provided
with fome bottles of brandy, the fuitor accompanies
them to the hut of his future father-in-law, who in¬
vites the mediators to enter 5 but the lover is left with¬
out until the liquor be drank, and the propofal dif-
cuffed : then he is called in, and entertained with fueh
fare as the hut affords; yet without feeing his mi it refs,
who retires and goes out on this occafion. Having
obtained leave of her parents to make bis addreffes in
perfon, he puts on his belt apparel, and is admitted to
the lady, whom he. falutes with a kifs; then he pre-
fents her with the tongue of a rein deer, a piece of
beaver’s flefft, or fome other fort of provifion. She de¬
clines the offer, which is made in prefence of her fif-
ters and relations; but makes a fignal to the lover to
follow her into the fields, where {be accepts the pre-
fents. Thus encouraged, he begs her permiffion to
fileep with her in the hut : if the confents, there is no
further difficulty ; if fine difapproves of the propofal,
fhe drops her prefents on the ground. When the lov¬
ers are agreed, the youth is permitted to vifit his ina¬
morata as often as he,, {hall think proper ; but every
time he comes, he muft purchafe this pleafure with a
frefh bottle of brandy ; a perquifite fo agreeable to the
father, that he often poll pones the celebration of the
nuptials for two or three years. At length the cere¬
mony is performed at church by the prieft of the pariffi.
Even after this event, the hufband is obliged to ferve
bis father-in-law a whole year ; at the expiration of
which he retires to his own habitation with his wife
and her patrimony of rein dee., and receives prefents
from all his friends and relations. From this period he
fequefters his v. ife from the company of all {{rangers,
efpecially of the malefex, and watches over her conduft
with the morfr jealous-vigilance.
Many Lapland women are barren, and none of them
are very fruitful. A woman, immediately aftbr deli¬
very, fwallows a draught of whale fat : the child is
wafhed with fnow or cold water, and wrapped up in
a hare {kin. The mother is feldom above five days in
the ft raw, and in fourteen is generally quite recovered:
then {he carries the child to church to be baptized.
Before (he can reach the refidence of the prieft, fhe is
often o' liged to traverfelargeforefts, mountains, lakes,
and wide extended waftes of fnow. 'i he infant is fa-
llened in a hollowed piece of wood, ftretched naked
on a bed of fine mofs, covered with the, foft {kin of a
young rein deer, and flung by two ftraps to the back
of the mother, who always fuekles her own child. At
home this little cradle is hung to the roof of the hut,
and the child lulled afleep by Twinging it from one fide
to the other. The boys from their infancy praclife
the bow7; and are not allowed to break their fa ft
until they have hit the mark. The female children
3
are as early initiated in the bufinefs peculiar to their Lapland,
fex. * v—w
Thefe people, though for the moft part vigorous
and healthy, are not altogether exempted from dif-
temper. They are fubjedt to fore eyes, and even to
blindnefs, from the fmcke of their huts, and the fire
to which they are almoft continually expofed. Some
wafte away in eonfumptions ; others are afflicted with
rheumatic pains and the feurvy ; and a few are fub-
jeft to vertigo and apoplexy. For the cure of all the ir
internal disorders, they ufe no other medicine than the
decodtion of a certain fpecies of mofs ; and when this
cannot be procured, they boil the ftalk of angelica in.
the miik of the rein deer. In order to remove a fixed,
pain, they apply a large mufhroom, burning hot, to
the part affedted ; and this produces a blifter, which
is fuppoftd to draw off the peccant humour. To their
wounds they apply nothing but the turpentine that
drops from the fir tree. When they are froft bitten
(though according to the above extradf from Lin¬
naeus this feldom or never happens), we are told that
they thruft a red-hot iron into a cheefe made of rein
deer’s milk, and with the fat that drops from it anoint
the frozen member, which generally recovers. Whan
a Laplander is fuppofed to be on his death-bed, his
friends exhort him to die in the faith o{ Chrift, and
bear his fufferings with refignation, by remembering
the paffiov of our Saviour. They are not, however,
very ready to attend him in his laft moments; and as
foon as he expires, quit the place with precipitation,
apprehending fome injury from his fpirit or ghoft,
which they believe remains with the corpfe and takes
all opportunities of doing mifehief to the living. The
deceafed is wrapped up in woollen or linen, accord¬
ing to his circumftances, and depofited in a coffin by
a perfon felefted for that purpofe : but this office he
will not perform, unlefs he is firft fecured from the ill
offices of the manes, by a confecrated bvafs ring fixed
on his left arm. The Ghriltian religion in this coun¬
try has not yet difpelled all the rites of heatheniffi fu-
perftition : together with the body they put into tha
coffin an axe; a flint, and fteel, a flafk of brandy, forae
dried fiih and venifnn. With the axe the deceafed is
fuppofed to hew down the bufhes or boughs that may
obftruft his paffage in the other world : the fteel and
flint are defigned for ftriking a light, fliould he find
himfelf in the dark at the day of judgment; and on
the provifion they think he may fubftft during his
journey.
TheMufcovite Laplanders obferve other ceremonies,
that bear an affinity to the fuperftitions of the Greek
church. They not only fupply the defunft with money,
but likewife provide him with money for the porter of
paradife, and a certificate figned by the prieft:, and di-
redled to St Peter, fpeeifying that the bearer had lived
like a good Chriftian, and ought to be admitted into
heaven. At the head of the coffin they place a little
image of St Nicholas, who is greatly reverenced in all
parts of Mufcovy as a {riend to the dead. Before the
interment, the friends of the deceafed kindle a fire of
fir boughs near the ceffin, and exprefs their forrow in
tears and lamentations. They walk in proceffion feve-
ral times round the body, demanding, in a whining
tone, the reafon of his leaving them on earth. They
LAP F 557 ] LAP
Lapland, aflt whether he was out of humour with his wife $ whe-
ther he was in want of meat, drink, clothing, or other
Tieceffaries ; and whether he had not fu9ceeded in hunt¬
ing and fifhing ? Thefe, and other fuch interrogations,
to which the defunft makes no reply, are intermingled
with groans and hideous bowlings; and, between whiles,
the prieft fprinkles the corpfe and the mourners alter¬
nately with holy water. Finally, The body is convey¬
ed to the place of interment on a fledge drawn by a
rein deer; and this, together with the clothes of the
deceafed, are left as the. priefl’s perquifite. Three days
after the burial, the kin linen and friends of the defumT
are invited to an entertainment, where they eat the flefli
of the rein deer which conveyed the corpfe to the bu-
rying ground. This being a faerifice to the manes,
the bones are eolledfed into a balket, and interred.
Two thirds of the effects of the deceafed are inherited
by his brothers, and the remainder divided among
his lifters: but the lands, lakes, and rivers, are held
in coparceny by all the children of both fexes, ac¬
cording to the divifion made by Charles IX. of Swe¬
den, when he afligned a certain tradl of land to fcaeh
family.
The commerce of the Laplanders is more confider-
able than one would expeft in a defert country, inha¬
bited by a favage ignoraat people. They export
great quantities of filh to the northern parts of Both¬
nia and White Ruflia. They likewife trade with the
neighbouring countries of Norway, Sweden, Mufeo-
vy, and Finland, by felling rein deer, fine furs, baf-
kets and toys of their own manufacture, dried pikes,
end cheefe made of the rein deer’s milk. In return
for thefe commodities they receive rixdollars, woollen
cloths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, needles,
knives, fpirituous liquors, tobacco, and other necefia-
ries. The Laplanders march in caravans to the fairs
in Finland and Norway: thefe are compofed of a
long firing of 30 or 40 rein deer and pulkas tied to
one another, the foremoft being led by a Laplander
on foot. When they have chofen afpot for an encamp¬
ment, they form a large circle of their rein deer and
pulkas ready yoked ; and the animals lying down
quietly on the fnow, are fed with mofs by their ma¬
ilers. The people kindle great fires, around which,
men, women, and. children fit, and flip on dried filh:
but the more voluptuous fpread out bear Ikins un¬
der their tents, where they lie at their eafe and flnoke
tobacco.
The revenue arifing from this country is of no great
confequence : it is paid partly in rixdollars, but chiefly
in furs ; nay, fome that can procure neither, pay the
tribute in dried pikes. The produce of the mines forms
likewife a confiderable article. Fifty fquirrel Ikins, or
one fox Ikin, with a pair of Lapland Ihoes, are valued
at one rixdollar. Part of the taxes is allotted for the
maintenance of the Lapland clergy. The frightful af-
pedl of this country has been deemed a more eflfe&ual
defence than artificial bulwarks and garrifons, of which
here are none ; or than the arms and courage of the na¬
tives, who are neither warlike in themfelves, nor in the
leaft tinflured with difcipline.
The Laplanders call themfelves Salme-Same, and Sa-
tnen-Almajeh. Their country they denominate Same-
Landa, or Same aednam; the Swedes llyle it Lapland
or Lappmarhai) and the inhabitants Lappar. The na¬
tives of thofe diftrifls under the dominion of Sweden
and Denmark are Lutherans; while many of thofe
who are fubjuft: to Ruflia are ftill Pagans. Swedith
Lapland contains about eight churches, which in fome
parts lie at fo great a diftance from each other, that a
native is frequently obliged to travel three days in or¬
der to attend divine fervice. The Laplanders, before
their converfion to Chriftianity, which was not till
lately introduced amongft them, poffeffed no books or
manufcnprs, though they knew many traditional hi-
ftories aud fongs of ancient heroes and princes who
once reigm d over them ; but involved in great uncer¬
tainty, and mixed with the moft fabulous accounts.
They have now a tranflation of the New Teftament in
their language ; and many of the natives are able to
read and write.
.LAPLYSIA, or Sea-hare; a genus of marine
animals, belonging to the clafs of vermes. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
LAPS AN A, Nipplewort ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See
Botany Index.
LAPSE, in ecclefiaftical law, a flip or omiflion of
a patron to prefent a clerk to a benefice within fix
months of its being void : in which cafl, the benefice
is faid to be in lapfe, or lopfed, and the right of pr5-
fentation devolved to the ordinary.
And if the ordinary negledft to prefent during the
fame time, the right of prefentation accrues to the
metropolitan, and to the king by negledf of the me¬
tropolitan. This right of lapfe was firft eftablithed in
the r< ign of Henry II. when the bifliops firft began to
exercife univerfally the right of inftitution to churches:
and therefore when there is no right of inftitution,
there is no right of lapfe; fo that no donative can
lapfe to the ordinary, unlefs it hath been augmented
by the king’s bounty ; but no right of lapfe can ac¬
crue, when the original prefentation is in the crown.
In cafe the benefice becomes void by death, or’ceflion
through plurality of benefices, there the patron is
bound to take notice of the vacancy at his own peril j
but in cafe of a vacancy by re fignation or canonical
deprivation, or if a clerk prefented be refufed for in-
fufficiency, thefe being matters of which the bifhop
alone is prefumed to be cognizant, here the law re¬
quires him to give notice thereof to the patron, other-
wife he can take no advantage by way of lapfe ; nei¬
ther fhall any lapfe accrue thereby to the metropolitan
or the king. If the biftiop refufe or negled; to exa¬
mine and admit the patron’s clerk, without good rea-
fon afligned or notice given, he fhall have no title to
prefent by lapfe : and if the right of prefentation be
litigious or eontefted, and an attion be brought againft
the bifhop to try the title, no lapfe fhall occur till the
queflion of right be decided. If the bifhop be both
patron and ordinary, he fhall not have a double time
allowed him to collate in : and if the bifhop doth not
collate his ovrn clerk immediately to the living, and
the patron prefents, though after the fix months are
lapfed, yet the prefentation is good, and the bifhop is
bound to inftitute the patron’s clerk. If the bifhop.
fuffer the prefentation to lapfe to the metropolitan, the
patron alfo has the fame advantage if he prefents be¬
fore the archbifliop has filled up the benefice: yet the
ordinary
L A R
Lapfc ordinary cannot, after lapfe to the metropolitan, col-
late his own clerk to the prejudice of the archbifliop.
lArjen^', But if the prefentation lapfes to the king, the patron
(hall never recover his right till the king has fatisfied
his turn by prefentation ; for nullum tempus occurrit
regi.
LAPWING. See Tringa, Ornithology Index.
LAQUEARIUS, a kind of athleta among the an¬
cients, who in one hand held a laqueus, i, e. a fort of
fnare, wherewith to embarrafs and entangle his antago-
nift, and in the other a poniard to ftab him.
LAQUEUS, in Surgery, a kind of ligature fo con¬
trived, that, when ftretched by any weight or the like,
it draws up clofe. Its ufe is to extend broken, or dif-
jointed bones, to keep them in their places while they
are fet, and to bind the parts clofe together.
EAR, a town of Perlia, in the province of Ears,
with a cattle. It carries on a great trade in filk ; and
its territory abounds in oranges, lemons, and very large
tamarinds. E. Long. 54. 15. N. Lat. 27. 30.
L ARACHA, an ancient and ttrong town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Fez. It is feated at the mouth
of a river of the fame name, with a good harbour. It
was once in the potfeffion of the Spaniards 5 but the
Moors took it from them. W. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat.
35- °-
LARARIUM, was a chapel w’hich the Romans
frequently had in their houfes for the houfehold gods,
called lares. Spartian fays, that Alexander the fon of
Mammeus kept in his lararium the figure of our Sa¬
viour, together with his other idols.
LARBOARD, among feamen, the left-hand fide
of the fhip when you ftand with your face towards the
head.
LARCENY, or Theft, by contraftion for latro-
ciny, latrocimum, is diflinguiflied by the law into two
forts : the one calledJlmple larceny, or plain theft, un¬
accompanied with any other atrocious circumftance ;
and mixed or compound larceny, which alfo includes in
it the aggravation of a taking from one’s hcufe or
perfon.
I. Simple larceny, when it is the flealing of goods
above the value, of twelvepence, is called grand lar¬
ceny ; when of goods to that value, or under, is pe¬
tit larceny: offences, which are confiderably difiin-
guilhed in their punilhment, but not otherwife. See
Theft.
II. Mixed, ox compound larceny, is fueh as has all
the properties of the former, (fee Theft) 5 but is ac¬
companied with either one or both of the aggravations
of a taking from one’s houfe or perfon. Firlt therefore
of larceny from the houfe, and then of larceny from the
perfon.
1. Larceny from the houfe, though it might feem
to have a higher degree of guilt than fimple larceny,
yet is not at all diftinguilhed from the other at com¬
mon law $ unlefs where it is accompanied with the
circumftance of breaking the houfe by night ; and
then it falls under another defcription, viz. that of
burglary, (fee Burglary). But now by feveral afts
of parliament (the hiftory of which is very ingenioufiy
*itorr.375. deduced by a learned modern writer *, who hath fhown
them to have gradually arifen from our improvements in
trade and opulence), the benefit of clergy is taken from
larcenies committed in a houfe in almoft every inftance :
L A R
except that larceny of the ftock or utenfils of the Plate Larceny,
Glafs Company from any of their houfes, Sec. is made Lardizu.
only tingle felony, and liable to tranfportation for feven bala"
years. The multiplicity of the general acis is apt to v ^
create fome confufion \ but upon comparing them dili¬
gently, we may colled, that the benefit of clergy is
denied upon the following domeftic aggravations of lar¬
ceny j viz. firft, in larcenies above the value of twelve-
pence, committed, I. In a church or chapel, with or...
without violence, or breaking the fame : 2. In a booth Cmlmenf*
or tent in a market or fair, in the daytime or in the taries.
night, by violence or breaking the fame, the owner or
fome of his family being therein : 3. By robbing a
dwelling houfe in the daytime (which robbing implies a
breaking), any perfon being therein : 4. In a dwelling
houfe by day or by night, without breaking the fame,
any perfon being therein and put in fear ; which
amounts in law' to a robbery : and in both thefe laft
cafes the acceflbry before the fad is alfo excluded from
his clergy. Secondly, In larcenies to the value of five
Jhillings, committed, 1. By breaking any dwelling
houfe, or any outhoufe, fhop, or w'arehoufe thereunto
belonging, in the daytime, although no perfon be
therein 5 which alfo now extends to aiders, abettors,
and acceffories before the fad : 2. By privately ftealing
goods, wares, or merchandife in any (hop, warehoufe,
coaeh-houfe, or liable, by day or by night; though the
fame be not broken open, and though no perfon be
therein : which likewife extends to fuch as aflift, hire,
or command the offence to be committed. Laltly, in
larcenies to the value of forty Jhillings in a dwelling
houfe, or its outhoufes, although the fame be not bro¬
ken, and whether any perfon be therein or not; unlefs
committed again!! their mailers by apprentices under
the age of r 5. This alfo extends to thofe who aid or
aflift in the commiffion of any fuch offence.
2. Larceny from the perfon, is either by privately
ftealing, or by open and violent affault, which is ufual-
ly called robbery.
The offence of privately ftealing from a man’s per¬
fon, as by picking his pocket or the’like, privily, with¬
out his knowledge, was debarred of the benefit of cler¬
gy fo early as by the ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 4. But then
it mull be fuch a larceny as Hands in need of the be¬
nefit of clergy, viz. of above the value of I2d. ; elfe
the offender lhall not have judgment of death. For
the ftatute creates no new offence ; but only takes
away the benefit of clergy, which was a matter of grace,
and leaves the thief to the regular judgment of the an¬
cient law'. This feverity (for a molt fevere law it cer¬
tainly is) feems to be owing to the eafe with which
fuch offences are committed, the difficulty of guarding
agninft them, and the boldnefs with which they were
pradfifed (even in the queen’s court and prefence) at
the time when this ftatute was made : befides that this
is an infringement of property in the manual occupa¬
tion or corporal poffefiion of the owner, which was an
offence even in a Hate of nature. And therefore the
faccularii, or cutpurfes, were more feverely punilhed
than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian
law's.
As to open and violent larceny from the perfon, fee
Robbery.
LARDIZABALA, a genus of plants belonging to
the dioecia elafs, and order hexandria. It is a native
of
/
Lar*I Qa¬
bala,
Lardner.
Monthly
Review,
Jan. 1789,
L A R [ 55
of Chili, and is thus defcribed from the drawings of
La Martiniere the naturalift, who accompanied La Pe-
roufe in his voyage of difcovery.
Male Flower.—Calyx formed of fix expanding leaves,
oblong, oval, and obtufe ^ the three outermotl being
large 11. Corolla compoled of fix (harp petals, Ihorter
than the leaves of the calyx.
Female Flower.—Calyx fimilar to that of the male,
but larger. Corolla compofed of fix petals rarely en¬
tire, but commonly tvifid at their top. Stamina fix ;
filaments diftinct; anthers fix, oblong, barren. Seed-
bud ; cells from three to fix, oblong, nearly the length
of the corolla ; fiyles none j ftigmata fitting, perma¬
nent. Berries equal in number to the cells, oblong,
acuminated (divided into fix cells, containing feveral
angular feeds).
LARDNER, Nathaniel, an eminent Englifh dif-
fenting divine, was born at Hawkhurft in Kent, June
6. 1684. After a grammatical education, to which
great attention muft have been given, and in which a
no lefs rapid progrefs muft have been made, he was
fent firft to a diflenting academy in London, which
was under the care of the Rev. Dr Jofhua Oldfield ;
and thence, in his 16th year, to profecute his ttudies
at Utrecht, under the celebrated profeffors D’Uries,
Grrevius, and Burman. Here he remained fomewhat
more than three years, and then removed for a fliort
fpace to Leyden. In 1703 he returned to England,
continuing at his father’s houfe to employ himfelf by
clofe and diligent preparation for the facred profeflion
which he had in view. Qualified as he was, it was
not till 1709 that he preached his firfi: fermon, from
Romans i. 16.—“ a text (his biographer remarks) than
which there could not have been a more proper one
for a man who was deftined in the order of Divine
Providence to be one of the ableft advocates for the
authenticity and truth of the Chriftian revelation that
ever exifted.”
A few years after this, Lardner was received into
Lady Treby’s family as domeftic chaplain and tutor
to her fon, and continued in this comfortable fituation
till her ladyfhip’s death in 1721. This event threw
him into circumftances of fnme perplexity, having
preached to feveral congregations during his refidcnce
with Lady Treby without the approbation or choice of
any one congregation. Here we are told, “ that it re-
fledts no honour on the Diffenters, that a man of fuch
merit Ihould fo long have been negledled.” But it has
been obferved upon this, that the pulpit was not the
place in which Mr Lardner was calculated either to
convey improvement or acquire reputation. Dr Kip-
pis afterwards informs us, “ that his mode of elocution
was very unpleafant •, that from his early and extreme
' deafnefs he could have no fuch command of his voice
as to give it a due modulation ; and that he greatly
dropped his words.” It cannot then, as his biogra¬
pher adds, be matter of furprife that he was not po¬
pular ; nor, it may be added, can it be any reflection
on the congregations to which he occalionally preached,
that they did not choofe for their miniftry a man, who,
notwithftanding his great learning and amiable virtues,
was fo deficient as a public fpeaker, that it was impoi-
fible to hear him with any pleaiure, and fcarcely with¬
out pain.
Though Mr Lardner had no church at which he
9 ] LA R
officiated as minifier, he was engaged with fome of his Lardner
diffenting brethren in preaching a Tuefday evening
letture at the Old Jewry. Acquainted probably with
the direction of his ftudies, they appointed him to
preach on the proof of the Credibility of the Gofpel Hi-
Jlory. This he difcuffed, we are told, in two fermons j
and profecuting the fubjeft which he had taken up in
thefe difcourfes, in February 1 727, he publiflied, in two
volumes oftavo, the Firji Part of“ The Credibility of
the Gofpel Hiflory, or the Facts occasionally men¬
tioned in the New Teftament, confirmed by Paffages
of Ancient Authors who were contemporary w ith our
Saviour or his Apoftles, or lived near their Time.”
An appendix was fubjoined, relating to the time of
Herod’s death.
Thus Mr Lardner commenced author, and began
his literary career with fingular reputation. “ It is
fcarcely necefiary to fay (obfervts Dr Kippis), how
well this work was received by the learned world. Not
only was it highly approved by the Proteflant DilTent-
ers, with whom the author w'as more immediately con-
nedled, but by the clergy in general of the eftablifhed
church ; and its reputation gradually extended into fo¬
reign countries. It is indeed an invaluable perform¬
ance, and hath rendered the iroft effential fervice to
the caufe of Chriftianity. Whoever perufes tins work
(and to him that does not perufe it, it will be to his
own lofs) will find it replete with admirable inftru&ion,
found learning, and jull and candid criticifm.” Thefe
two, with the fubfequent fifteen, volumes odfavo, and
the four thin quartos entitled Jcwijh and Heathen Tef-
t{monies, occupied him, with the interruption arifing
from fome fmaller produdions, during the fpace of
forty-three years.
Dr Kippis gives us a particular account of the time
w'hen each volume was publifhed, and of the fubjefts
difcuffed in each. The following ufeful informa¬
tion which the doftor introduces, in fpeaking of
the “ Supplement to the Credibility,” deferves well to
be tranfcribed. “ I cannot avoid ftrongly recom¬
mending this work (fays he) to the attention of
all young divines. Indeed, I think that it ought to
be read by every theological Undent before he quits
the univerfity or academy in which he is educated.
There are three other works which will be found of
eminent advantage to thofe who are intended for, or
beginning to engage in, the Chriftian miniftry. Thefe
are, Butler’s Analogy, Bifhop Law’s Confiderations
on the Theory of Religion, and Dr Taylor’s Key to the
Apoftolical Writings, prefixed to his Paraphrafe on the
Epiftle to the Romans. Without agreeing with every
circumftance advanced in thefe works, it may7 be fam
of them with the greateft truth, that they tend to open
and enlarge the mind 3 that they give important views
of the evidence, nature, and defign of revelation ; and
that they difplaya vein of reafoning and inquiry which
may be extended to other objedls befiues thole imme¬
diately confidered in the books tnem’eives.—— it muft.
not be forgotten, that the Supplement, to the Credibi¬
lity has a^place in the excellent colle&ion of treatifes
in divinity which has lately been publilhed by Dr Wat-
fon bifhop of Landaff. For a colle&ion which cannot
fail of being eminently conducive to-the inftru&ion and
improvement of younger clergymen, and for the noble,
manly, and truly evangelical preface by which it is pre¬
ceded*
»
LAE. [ 560 ] LAE
Lardner ceded, tdns great prelate is entitled to the gratitude of
fi the Chriftian world.” It may not be improper to add,
Lares. t],at t]le Supplement to the Credibility was fome years ago,
publifhed feparately by the bookfellers, under the title
of The Hiflon/ of the Gofpels and Epifihs.
Applauded as Dr Lardner’s works were, he received
little recompenfe for them. Some of the latter volumes
of the Credibility were publilhed at a lofs ; and at la ft
he fold the copy-right and all the remaining printed co¬
pies to the bookfellers, for the trifling fum of 1501. His
obje£l, however, was not private emolument, bu! to fcrve
the interefts of truth and virtue; and it pleafed Divine
Providence to fpare his life, both to complete his exten-
ftve plan, and to fee the laft volume, the 4th of the
Tejlimonics, publifhed. This was in 1767. He was
leized with a decline in the fummer following ; and
was carried off in a few days at Hawkhurft the place
of his nativity, where he had a fmall paternal eftate.
He died in the 85th year of his age.
LAREDO, a fea port town of Spain, in the bay of
Eifcay, with a large fafe harbour. It is 30.miles weft
of Bilboa, and 7 2 north by weft of Burgos. ~W. Long.
3. 45. N. Lat. 43. 23.
L AREN TIN ALIA, in antiquity, a feaft held
among the Romans on the 23d day of December, but
ordered to be obferved tw ice a year by Auguftus; by
fome fuppofed to have been in honour of the Lares,
but by others, with more probability, in honour of
Acca Laurentia ; and to have been the fame with Lau-
rentalia.
LARES, among the ancients, derived by Apu-
leius {De Deo Socratis'), from /rzr, familians ; a kind
of domeftic genii, »r divinities, worftiipped in houfes,
and efteemed the guardians and protectors of families ;
fuppofed to refide more immediately in the chimney
corner.
The Lares were diftinguifhed from the Penates : as
the former were fuppofed to prefide over houfekeep-
ing, the fervants in families, and domeftic affairs ; and
the latter were the prote&ors of the maftersof families,
their wives and children. Accordingly the Lares wrere
dreffed in (hurt fuccindl habits, to (how their readinefs
to ferve ; and they held a fort of cornucopia in their
hands, as a fgnal of hofpitality and good houfekeep-
ing. According to Ovid, there were generally two of
them, who were fometimes reprefented with a dog at
their feet.
Plutarch diftinguifhes good and evil Lares, as he had
before done good and evil Genii. There are alfo
fome public, others private Lares.
Apuleius tells us the domeftic Lares were no more
than the fo: Is of departed perfons, who had lived well,
and difeharged the duties of their ftation ; whereas
thofe who had done otherwife, were vagabonds, wan¬
dering about and frightening people, called Zarate and
Lemures,
The Lares were alfo called Penates, and were wor-
fhipped under the figures of little marmoufets, or images
of wax, filvt r, or earthen ware.
The public Lares were alfo called Compitales, from
compitum, “ a crofs way and Viales, from via, “ a way
or public road as being placed at the meetings of
roads and in the high ways, and efteemed the patrons
and proteflors of travellers.
The private Lares took care of particular houles
and families: thefe they alfo called Prceftites from
preefio ;
^uodpra-Jiant oculis omnia tuta fuis. OviD. Faff,
They gave the name Urbani, i. e. “ Lares of cities,” to
thofe who had cities under their care ; and Hojlitii, to
thofe who were to keep their enemies off. There were
alfo Lares of the country, called Rurales, as appears by
feveral antique inferiptions.
The Lares were alfo genial gods, and were fuppofedl
to take care of children from their birth. It is for this
reafon that when Macrobius tells us the Egyptians had
four gods who prefided over the births of children,
viz. the Genius, Fortune, Love, and Meceffity, called
prerjhies, fome interpret him as if he had faid the E-
gyptians had Lares ; but they have mentioned that
there was a great difference between the Lares of the
Romans and the Prseftites of the Egyptians. How¬
ever, the learned Mr Bryant affirms that they were the
fame.
The ancients differ extremely about the origin of the
Lares. Varro and Macrobius fay that they were the
children of Mania ; Ovid makes them the iffue of Mer¬
cury, and the Naiad Lara or Larunda ; Apuleius allures
us they were the pofterity of the Lemures; Nigridius,
according to Arnobius, made them fometimes the guar¬
dians and protedlors of houfes, and fornetimes the fame
with the Curetes of Samothracia, which the Greeks call
Idcei daShjli. Nor was Varro more confiftent in his opi¬
nion of thefe gods ; fometimes making them the manes
of heroes, and fometimes gods of the air.
T. Tatius king of the Sabines was the firft who
built a temple to the Lares. The chimney and fire¬
place in the houfe were particularly confecrated to
them.
Tertullian tells us the cuffom of worlhipping the
Lai :es arofe from this, that they anciently interred
their dead in their houfes ; whence the credulous
people took occafion to imagine their fouls continued
there alfo, and proceeded to pay them divine honours.
To this it may be added, that the cuftom being after¬
wards introduced of burying in the high ways, they
might hence take occafion to regard them as gods of
the high ways.
The vi&im offered to the Lares in the public facrL
fices was a hog : in private, they offered them wine,
ineenfe, a crown of wool, and a little of what was left
at the table. They alfo crowned them wdth flowers,
particularly the violet, myrtle, and rofemary. Their
fymbol was a dog, which was ufually reprefented
by their fide, on account of its fidelity and the fer-
vice it does to a man in watching his houfe. They
were fometimes alfo reprefented as clothed in a dog’*
fkin.
The term Lares, according to Mr Bryant, was
formed from laren, an ancient word by which the ark
was reprefented : and he fuppofes that the Laics and
Manes were the fame domeftic deities under different
names; and that bv thefe terms the Hetrurians and
Latins denoted the dv arkitee, who were no other than
their arkite aneeftors, or the perfons prelerved in tho
laren or ark ; the genius of which was Lis, the repu¬
ted parent of the world. He obferves farther, that
they are deferibed as daemons and genii, who once lived
on earth, and were gifted with immortality. Arno-
L A R [561] L A R
li
Largs,
bms ftyle them Zares quofdam gcnios ct funSiorum
animas; and he fays, that according to Varro, they
were the children of Mania. Huetius (Demonft.
Prop. iv. p. 139.) adds, that Mania had alfo the name
of Larunda ; and (he is tfyled the mother of the dae¬
mons. By feme fhe is called Lara, and was fuppofed
to prefide over families •, and children were offered at
her altar in order to procure her favour. In lieu of
thefe they in after times offered the heads of poppies
and pods of garlic.
LARGE, a fea term applied to the wind when
it croffes the line of a fhip’s courfe in a favourable di¬
rection, particularly on the beam or quarter. Thus,
if a fhip fleers welt, then the wind in any point of the
compafs to the eaftward of the fouth or north may be
called large, unlefs when it is directly eafl, and then it
is faid to be right aft. Sailing large is, therefore, ad¬
vancing with a large wind, fo as that the Iheets are
flaekened and flowing, and the bow lines entirely dif-
ufed. This phrafe is generally oppofed to failing clofe
hauled.
LARGESS. See Largitio.
LARGITIO, in Roman antiquity, was a diflrJbu-
tion of corn, provifion, clothes, money, &c. to the
people. Gracchus, when tribune, to make himfelf po¬
pular, paffed a law for (applying the Roman citizens with
corn at a very low rate, out of the public granaries.
Claudius, another tribune, with the fame views to po¬
pular applaufe, procured it to be diftributed gratis —
Cato, to win the common people from Casfar, perfuaded
the fenate to do the fame, and 300,000 citizens flnred
in the diflribution. Caefar, after his triumph, extended
his bounty to 150,000, giving them each a tnina. The
Roman emperors enlarged ftill further the lift of thofe
who were to partake of their diftributions. Largitio
is frequently taken in a bad fenfe, to fignify a m a Iked
bribery j whereby candidates purchafed votes, when
they flood for places of honour or truft in the ftate.
The diftribution of money was called congiarium, and
the diftributors divifores waA fequejlres.
LARGS, a village on the weft coaft of Scotland,
oppoflte. to the illand of Bute j rendered memorable by
the defeat of the Norwegians here in their laft invafion
of this country.—This invaiion was made in the year
1 263, with a fleet of 160 fail and an army of 20,000
men, commanded by Haquin king of Norway, whofe
ravages on the coaft of Ayr, Bute, and Arran, reach¬
ing the Scottifh court, an army was immediately af-
fembled by Alexander III. and a bloody engagement
enfued at this village, when 16,000 of the invaders
were (lain in the battle and flight, with 5000 Scots.
Haquin efcaped to the Orkneys, where he foon after
died of grief. The intrenchments of the Norwegian
camp may ftill be traced along the fhore of this place.
The Scottifh commanders who fell in battle were bu¬
ried in a rifing field, near the village ; three or four
perfong were interred in one grave, on each fide of
w'hich was a large ftone, a third was placed acrofs the
grave, fupported at the extremities by the fide ftones,
and in this rude manner the warriors lay entombed.
Some years ago the proprietor of the field demolifhed
thefe repofitories of the dead, leaving only one (a
fpecial favour !) which ferves to give an idea of the
whole,
Vol. XI. Part II.
LARINO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the Capitanata, with abifhop’s fee. E. Long.
15. 51. N. Lat. 41. 48.
LARISSA, an ancient, rich, and celebrated town
of Greece, in the province of Janna or Theffaly, with
an archbifhop’s fee of the Greek church, a palace and
feveral handfome mofques. According to Virgil, it
was the country of Achilles. It was alfo the place
where Philip the father of Alexander the Great refid-
ed.—The inhabitants carry on a confiderable trade.
The city is agreeably feated on the river Peneus, in
E. Long. 23. 36. N. Lat. 38. 51.
LAR1X, the Larch Tree. See Pinus, Botany
Index. «
Larina
Larribun.
dar.
LARK. See Aeauda, Ornithology Index, and
BlRD-Catching. /
The lark is not only a very agreeable bird for the
cage, but will live upon almoft any food, fo that it
have once a week a frefh tuft of three leaved grafs.
The proper method of keeping them in health is this:
there muft be twro pans of food, the one containing
meat, the other oat meal and hempfeed. A very good
food is the following : boil an egg vdry hard, to
which add the crumb of a halfpenny loaf, and as much
hempfeed : let the egg be chopped very fmall, and the
hempfeed bruifed in the mortar j when thefe are mix¬
ed, the bread is to be crumbled in among the reft, and
the whole to be rolled together with a common rolling
pin, and kept for ufe. There muft be fome fine fmall
gravel ftrewed at the bottom of the cage, and renew’ed
at fartheft once in a week. This will prevent the bird’s
feet from getting hurt by being clogged with the
dung 5 and his balking in this will keep him alfo from
growing loufy, after which few come to good. There
muft be a perch in the cage, and it muft either be lined
with green bays, or made of fine matting, which the
lark is very fond of. When the bird is firft taken,
fome meat muft be ftrew^ed upon the (and in the bottom
of the cage $ for it will be fometimes alrauft famiftied
before it finds the meat in the pan.
The cock bird of this kind is known from the hen
by the loudnefs and length of his call, by his tallnefs
as he walks about the cage, and by his doubling his
notes in the evening, as if he was going with his mate
to rooft. A better rule than all others, however, is
his finging ftrong •, for the hen wood lark ling* but
very weakly.—Both the cock and hen of this kind are
fubjeft to many diforders $ the principal of thefe are
cramps, giddinefs of the head, and breeding lice,
Cleanlinefs is the beft cure for the firft and the
laft of thefe complaints •, but we know of no cure
for the other, A good ftrong bird, however, will
often laft very well five or fix years, and improve all
the time.
LARKSPUR. See Delphinium, Botany Index.
LARMIER, in ArchiteBure, a flat fquare member
of the cornice below the cimafium, and jets out fartheft $
being fo called from its ufe, which is to difperfe the
water, and eaufe it to fall at a diftance from the wall,
drop by drop, or as if by tears, the French word larm,
fignifying a tear.
LARRIBUNDAR, a fea port town of Afia, in.
Indoftan feated at the mouth of the river Sinda, or
Indus, with a harbour capable of receiving fhips of
4 B 2ocs
/
LAS r 562 ] L A T
Larribun- 200 tons burden. It is but a fmall place, confifting of
‘^r about 100 houfes built of Avood j but has a Hone lort,
Laflilude a ^ew guns* -E* Long. 67. O. N. Lat. 25. o.
w—y—LARVA, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by Lin¬
naeus to infefts in that Rate, called by other writers
eruca or caterpillar. See ENTOMOLOGY Index.
LARViE, in antiquity, derived from the Hetrufcan
word lar or lars, fignifying “ prince or lord,” denoted
the ghofts of the deceafed, confidered as wicked and
mifchievous. Hence is formed the term larvatus, i. e.
larva indulus or demoniac. The ingenious Mr Farmer
urges the etymology and ufe of this term to prove, that
the heathen demons were human ghofts.—The larvae
were alfo called temures.
LARUS, the Gull, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of anferes. See Ornithology Index.
LARYNX, in Anatomy, the upper part of the wind¬
pipe. See Anatomy, N° 116.
LASCARIS, Andreav John, furnamed Ryndace-
nus, of an ancient Greek family, went into Italy, after
the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks in 1453. He
was well receh’ed by Laurence de Medicis, a diftin-
guilhed pro'.i’&or of learned men j and Was twice fent
to Conftantinople to collect the beft Greek manufcripts,
by which means numberlefs fcarce and valuable trea-
fures of literature were carried into Italy. At his re¬
turn, Louis XII. king of France prevailed on him to
fettle in the univerfity of Paris, and fent him twice
ambaffador to Venice. Ten years after, Cardinal John
de Medicis being elefted pope, under the name of
Leo X. John Lafcaris, his old friend, went to Rome,
and had the direftion of a Greek college. He died at
Rome in 1535, at about the 90th year of his age. He
brought into the weft moft of the fine Greek manu¬
fcripts that are now extant, and compofed feme epi¬
grams in Greek and Latin.
Lascaris, Conjlantine, one of the Greeks who
Avere principally concerned in the revival of learning
in the Weft, retired into Italy in 1454, and taught
polite literature at Milan, whither he was called by
f Francis Sforza ; he afterwards went to Rome, where
he was well received by Cardinal Beffarion. He af¬
terwards taught rhetoric and the Greek tongue at
Naples 5 and ended his days at Meflina, leaving the
fenate of that city many excellent manufcripts which
he had brought from Conftantinople. He W’as inter¬
red at the public expence, and the fenate of Meffina
erefted a marble tomb to his memory. He wrote fome
grammatical works.
LASERPITIUM, Lazar-wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs $ and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, Vmbellatce. See
Botany Index.
LASH, or Lace, in the fea language, fignifies to
bind and make faft j as, to lalh the bonnet to the
eourfe, or the drabbler to the bonnets j alfo the car¬
penter takes care that the fpare yards be lalhed faft to
fche Ihip’s fide j and in a rolling fea, the gunners mind
that the guns be well lalhed, left they Ihotlld break
loofe. Lalhers are properly thofe ropes which bind faft
the tackles and the breechings of the ordnance, when
hauled or made faft within board.
LASSITUDE, or Weariness, in Medicine, a mor¬
bid fenfation, that comes on fpontaneoufly, Avithout any
previous motion, exercife, or labour. This is a frequent
4
fymptom in acute diftempers: it arifes either from an Laflitude
increafe of bulk, a diminution of proper evacuation, or II
too great a confumption of the fluids neeeflary to main-, ^at■ere•
tain the fpring of the folids, or from a vitiated fecre-
tion of that juice.
LASSUS, or Lasus, a dithyrambic poet, born at
Hermione in Peloponnefus about 500 years before
Chrift. He is reckoned among the wife men of Greece
by fome. He is particularly known by the anfwer he
gave to a man Avho alked him tvhat could beft render
life pleafant and comfortable ? Experience. He Avas
acquainted with mufic. Some fragments of his poetry-
are to be found in Athenaeus. He wrote an ode upon
the Centaurs, and a hymn to Ceres, without inferting
the letter S in the compofition.
LAST, in general, fignifies the burden or load of a
fhip. It fignifies alfo a certain meafure of fifti, corn,
wool, leather, &c. A laft of codfilh, white herrings,
meal, and alhes for foap, is twelve barrels j of corn or
rapefeed, ten quarters ; of gunpowder, twenty-four
barrels ; of red herrings, twenty cades ; of hides, tAvelvre
dozen} of leather, twenty dickers j of pitch and tar,
fourteen barrels-, of wool, twelve facks $ of ftock filh,
one thoufand ; of flax or feathers, 17001b.
LAST AGE, or Lestage, a duty exacted in fome
fairs and markets, for carrying things bought whither
one will. It fignifies alfo the ballaft or lading of a
fhip ; and fometimes is ufed for garbage, rubbilh, or
fuch like filth.
LATER AN was originally the proper name of a
man $ whence it defeended to an ancient palace in
Rome, and to the buildings fince erected in its place 5
particularly a church called St John of Lateran, which
is the principal fee of the popedom.
Councils oj' the LATEBAN, are thofe held in the bafi-
lica of the Lateran -, of thefe there have been five, held
in 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1513.
Canons Regular of the Congregation of the LATERAN,
is a congregation of regular canons 5 Avhereof that
church is the principal place or feat.
It is pretended there has been an uninterrupted fuc-
ceflion of clerks, living in community, from the time
of the apoftles ; and that a number of thefe were efta-
blifhed in the Lateran in the time of Conftantine. But
the canons were not introduced till the time of Leo I.
and thefe held the church 800 years, till the reign of
Boniface, Avho took it from them, and placed fecular
canons in their room: 150 years after, the regulars
w-ere reinftated.
A LATERE, a term ufed to denote the qualifica¬
tions of the cardinals Avhom the pope fends as legates
into foreign countries. They are called legates a la~
lere, as being his holinefs’s afliftants and counfellors in
ordinary. Thefe are the moft conliderable of the other
three kinds of legates, being fuch as the pope commif-
fions to take his place in councils *, and fo called, in re¬
gard that he never gives this office to any but his fa¬
vourites and confidants, Avho are alw ays a latere, at his
fide. A legate a latere has the power of conferring
benefices without a mandate, of legitimating baftards
to hold offices, and has a crofs carried before him as the
enfign of his authority.
De LATERE, legates who are not cardinals, but yet
are intrufted Avith an apoftolical legation. See the ar¬
ticle Legate.
LATE-wakEj
L A T
C 563 3
L A T
Lathraea.
Late-wake LATE-WAKE, a ceremony ufed at funerals in the
Highlands of Scotland. The evening after the death
, of any perfon, the relations and friends of the deceafed
meet at the houfe, attended by a bagpipe or fiddle j the
neareft of kin, be it wife, fon, or daughter, opens a me¬
lancholy ball, dancing, and greeting (i. e. crying vio¬
lently) at the fame time, and this continues till day
light; but with fuch gambols and frolics among the
younger part of the company, that the lofs which oc-
cafioned them is often more than fupplied by the con-
fequences of that night. If the corpfe remains unbu¬
ried for two nights, the fame rites are renewed. Thus,
Scythian like, they rejoice at the deliverance of their
friends out of this life of mifery.
LATEEN sail, a long triangular fail extended by
a lateen yard, and frequently ufed by xebecs, polacres,
fetees, and other veffels navigated in the Mediterra¬
nean fea.
LATH, in building, a long, thin, and narrow flip
of wood nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in
order to fuftain the covering.
LATH-Bricks, a particular fort of bricks made in
fome parts of England, of 22 inches in length and 6
in breadtli, which are ufed in the place of laths or
fpars, fupported by pillars in calls, for the drying of
malt. This is an excellent contrivance ; for befides
that they are not liable to fire, as the wooden laths are,
they retain the heat vaftly better ; fo that being once
heated, a very fmall quantity of fire will ferve to keep
them fo.
LATHE, a very ufeful engine for the turning of
wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. The inven¬
tion of the lathe is very ancient j Diodorus Siculus
fays, the firft who ufed it was a grandfon of Daedalus,
named Talus. Pliny afcribes it to Theodore of Samos ;
and mentions one Thericles, who rendered himfelf very
famous by his dexterity in managing the lathe. With
this inftrument the ancients turned all kinds of vafes,
many w hereof they enriched with figures and ornaments
in baffo relievo. Thus Virgil:
Lenta quibus torno facilijuperaddita vitis.
The Greek and Latin authors make frequent mention
of the lathe •, and Cicero calls the workmen who ufed
it vafcu/arii. It w'as a proverb among the ancients, to
fay a thing was formed in the lathe, to exprefs its de¬
licacy and juftnefs.
The lathe is compofed of tw'o wooden cheeks or
Tides, parallel to the horizon, having a groove or
opening between 5 perpendicular to thefe are two other
pieces called puppets, made to Aide between the cheeks,
and to be fixed down at any point at pleafure. Thefe
have two points, between which the piece to be turned
is fuftained \ the piece is turned round, backwards and
forwards, by means of a firing put. round it, and
faftened above to the end of a pliable pole, and
underneath to a treadle or board moved with the foot.
There is alfo a reft which bears up the tool, and keeps
it fteady.
As it is the ufe and application of this inftrument
that makes the greateft part*of the art of turning, we
refer the particular defcription thereof, as well as the
manner of applying it in various works, to that head.
See Turning.
LATHR2EA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs *, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
LATHREVE, Leidgreve, or Trithengreve, _
was an officer under the Saxon government, who had
authority over a third part of the county j and whoie
territory was therefore called trithing, otherwife a leid
or leithin, in which manner the county of Kent is ftill
divided } and the rapes in Suflex feem to anfwer to the
fame. As to the jurifdi£lion of this officer, thofe mat¬
ters that could not be determined in the hundred court,
were thence brought to the trithing •, where all the
principal men of the three or more hundreds being
afiembled by the lathreve, or trithingreve, did debate
and decide it $ or if they could not, then the lathreve
fent it up to the county court, to be there finally de¬
termined.
LATHYRUS, Chickling, a genus of plants be-
longing to the diadelphia clafs \ and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 3 2d order, Papiiionacece. See
Botany Index.
L ATIAR, in Roman antiquity, a feaft or ceremony
inftituted byTarquinius Superbus, in honour of Jupiter
Latiaris or Latialis. Tarquin having made a treaty
of alliance with the Latins, propofed, in order for per¬
petuating it, to ereft a common temple, where all the
allies, the Romans, Latins, Hernici, Volfci, &c. fhould
affemble themfelves every year, hold a kind of fair, ex¬
change merchandifes, feaft, facrifice, and make merry
together. Such was the inftitution of the Latiar. The-
founder only appointed one day for this feaft : the firft
conful added another to it, upon concluding the peace
with the Latins ; and a third was added after the
people who had retired to the Mons Sacer were return¬
ed to Rome; and a fourth, after appeafing the fedition
raifed on occafion of the plebeians afpiring to the confu-
late.
Thefe four days were called the Latin fence ; and all
things done during the courfe of the ferise, as feafts,
facrifices, offerings, &c. were czMeA Latiares.
LATICLAVE, (JLaticlaviuni), in Roman antiqui¬
ty, was an honourable diftin&ion, peculiar, in the times
of the republic, to the fenators • but whether it was
a particular kind of garment, or only an ornament upon
it, the critics are not agreed: But the more general
opinion is, that it was a broad .ftripe of purple few-ed
upon the fore part of their tunic, and round the mid¬
dle of the breaft. There were buttons fet on the latus
c/avus or laticlave, which appeared like the heads o£
large nails, whence fome think it derived its name.
 The fenators, praetors, and chief magiftrates of co-
loniss and municipal cities had a right to wear it. The
prmtexta was always wrorn over it •, but when the prae¬
tor pronounced fentence of death, the praetexta was
then put off and the laticlave retained. The laliclavi-
urn differed from the angujliclavium, but authors do not
agree in what this difference confifted ; the moft general
opinion feems to be, that the flips or ftripes of purple
were narrower in the angufticlave.
LATIMER, Hugh, bifhop of Worcefter, was bom
about the year 1480 at Thurcafton in Leicefter-
ftiire, the only fon of a yeoman of that village. At
the age of fourteen he was fent to Chrift’s college,
Cambridge, where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
divinity, and in proper time took the degree of ba¬
chelor in that fcience. At this time he was a zealous
4 B 2 Papift,
Lathrseo
H
Latimer.
Latimer,
Latin.
L A T [ 564 ] L A T
Papift, and was honoured with the office of keeper of In time became fenfible of the neceffity of its being ge¬
nerally underftood for the conveniency of commerce ;
and accordingly ufed their endeavours, that all the LaliuK»-
nations fubjeft to their empire fhould be united by one ”
^ the crofs to the univeriity : but when he was about
thirty years of age, he became a convert to the Pro-
teftant religion ; and being now one of the twelve licenf-
ed preachers from Cambridge, he promulgated his opi¬
nions with great freedom. It was not long before
he was accufed of herefy ; and being fummoned before
Cardinal Wolfey, was obliged to fubfcribe certain ar¬
ticles of faith, which he certainly did not believe.
About the year 1529 he was prefented by the king to
the re&ory of Weftkinton in Wiltlhire ; to which
place, after refiding fome time at court with his friend
and patron Dr Butts, he retired j but refuming his
former inveftives againft the Popifh doftrines, he was
again fummoned to anfwer certain interrogatories, and
again ooliged to iubferibe. In I J35 ^*e was promoted
to the bilhopric of Worcefter ; in the poffeffion of
which dignity he continued till the year 1539, when,
rather than affent to the aft of the fix articles, he re-
iigned his mitre, and retired into the country ; but
was in a thort time accufed of fpeaking againft the fix
articles, and committed to the Tower, where he con¬
tinued prifoner till the death of Henry VIII. which
happened in January 1547. On the acceffion of Ed¬
ward VI. Latimer was releafed, but not reftored to
his bilhopric, though he preached feveral times before
the king, and continued to exercife his minifterial
funftion with unremitting zeal and refolution. Young
Edward, alas ! finilhed his Ihort reign in 1353 ", and
Mary, of infamous memory, afcending the throne,
poor Latimer was immediately doomed to deftruftion,
and, together with Cranmer and Ridley, confined in
the I ow'er. In April I554> they were removed to
Oxford, that they might difpute with the learned
doctors of both univerfities. Latimer declining the
cifputation on account of his great age and infirmities,
delivered his opinion in writing 5 and refufing to fub¬
fcribe the Popilh creed, was condemned for herefy j
and in Oftober following was, together with Biftiop
Ridley, burnt alive. He behaved with uncommon for¬
titude on the occafion, and died a real martyr to the
Reformation. Plis general charafter is that of a learn¬
ed, virtuous, and brave man. His works are, 1. Ser¬
mons, 1635, fob 2. Letters j in Fox’s Afts and Mo¬
numents, vol. ii. fol. 1380. 3. An Injunftion to the
Prior and Convent of St Mary’s in Worcefterlhire.
See record at the end of Burnet’s Hiftory of the Re¬
formation, part ii. p 293.
L A J IN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium,
and afterwards at Rome j and ftill ufed in the Romilh
church, and among many of the learned.
This language is principally derived from the Greek,
and particularly from the Eolic dialeft of that tongue,
though it has a great number of wmrds which it bor¬
rowed from the languages of the Etrufci, Olci, and
other ancient people of Italy 5 and foreign commerce
and wars, in courie of time, added a great, many more.
i he Latin is a ftrong nervous language, perfeftly
fait able to the charafter of the people who fpoke it : w'e
have ftill wrorks of every kind admirably well written
in the Latin, though there are vaft numbers loft.
Fhe Latin tongue was for a while confined almoft
wholly within the walls of Rome j nor would the Ro¬
mans allow trie common ufe of it to their neighbours,
®r to the nations they fubdued: but by degrees they
3
Latin
common language j fo that at length they impofed the
ufe of it by a particular law for that purpofe. After
the tranflation of the feat of the empire from R.ome to
Conftantinople, the emperors of the eaft, being always
defirous of retaining the title of Roman emperors, ap¬
pointed the Latin to be ftill ufed ; but at length ne-
glefting the empire of the weft, they abandoned all
care of the Latin tongue, and ufed the Greek. Char¬
lemagne coming to the empire of the weft, revived this
language ; but at length it gave way, and the French
took place of the Latin j it w as, however, prodigiouf-
ly degenerated before it came to be laid afide, in which
condition it was found at the time of the Reformation,
when Vives, Erafmus, &c. began to open the way for
its recovery : fince which time the monkifti latinity has
been declining, and all endeavours have been ufed to
retrieve the pure language of the Auguftan age. See
Language.
Latin Church. See Church.
LATINS, an ancient nation of Italy. See La¬
tium.
LATINUS, k ing of the Latins in Italy, was the
fon of Faunus ; and, it is faid, began to reign about
the 1216th year before the Chriftian era. Lavinia,
his only daughter, married yEneas, after that Trojan
prince had killed Turnus king of the Rutuli. See
Rome.
LATISSIMUS, in Anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufc/es.
LATITUDE, in AJlronomy, is the diftanee of a
ftar north or fouth from the ecliptic. In geography
it fignifies the diftance of any place north or fouth
from the equator. See Astronomy, and Geography,.
pajfim.
LATITUDINARIAN, a perfon of moderation
■with regard to religious opinions, who believes there
is a latitude in the road to heaven, which may admit
people of different perfuafions.
LATIUM, in Ancient Geography, the country of the
Latins, at firft contained within very narrow bounds, but
afterwards increafed by the acceffion of various people.
The appellation, according to Virgil, is a latendot
from Saturn’s lying hid there from the hoftile purfuits
of his fon Jupiter •, and from Latium comes the name
Latini, the people (Virgil) : though Dionyfius Hali-
carnaffscus derives it from King Latihus, who reigned
about the time of the Trojan war. But whatever be
• in this, it is certain, that Lalium, when under Aineas
and his defcendants, or the Alban kings, contained
only the Latins, exclufive of the Aiqui, Volfci, Her-
niei, and other people j only that Alneas reckoned
the Rutuli, after their conqueft, among the Latins.
And this conftituted the ancient Latium, confined to
the Latins ; but afterwards, under the kings, and
after their time, it reached from the 1 iber to Circeii.
Under the confuls, the country of the vEqui, Volfci,
Hernici, &c. after long aid bloody wars, was added
to Latium, under the appellation adjeBitiom or fuperad-
ded Latium, as far as the river Liris, the eaftern boun¬
dary, and to the porth as far as the Marfi and Sa¬
bines. The various people, w hich in fucceffion occu¬
pied
L A T r 565 ! L A T
fcatium pjed Latiura, were the Aborigines, the Pelafgi, the
II. Arcades, the Siculi, the Arunci, the Rutuli •, and be-
^Latria. yoncj the V0lfci> the Ofci, the Aufones : but
who firft, who next, occupied the country, it is diffi¬
cult to fay.
L ATM US, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Ionia, or on the confines of Caria, famous for the fable
of Endymion, of whom the Moon was faid to be ena¬
moured : hence called Latmius Heros, and Latmius Ve¬
nator. In the mountain was a cave in which Endymi¬
on dwelt (Scholiaft on Apollonius Rhodius). Suppofed
by Hecataeus to be the Phtheiron Mans of Homer ; but
by others to be Grius Moris, not far fx-om Latmus
(Strabo).
L ATOM I A, properly fignifies a Jione quarry:
But the places whence ftones had been dug having
been made ufe of fometimes as dungeons, jails, or pri-
fons for criminals, it is oftentimes applied as a name
for a prifon. There was a place of confinement of
this fort at Rome, near the Tullianum 5 another at
Syracufe, in which Cicero fays Verres had (hut up
Roman citizens.
EATON A, in Mythology, a Pagan goddefs, whofe
hiftory is very obfcure. Hefiod makes her the daughter
of Titan Coe is and Phoebe his filler. She was admired
for her beauty, and celebrated for the favours which
ffie granted to Jupiter. Juno, always jealous of her huf-
band’s amours, made Latona the objefl of her ven¬
geance, and fent the ferpent Python to difturb her
peace and perfecute her. Latona wandered from place
to place in the time of her pregnancy, continually a-
larmed for fear of Python. She was driven from hea¬
ven j and Terra, influenced by Juno, refufed to give
her a place where ffie might reft and brir.-g forth. Nep¬
tune, moved wuth compaffion, ftruck with his trident
and made immoveable the ifland of Delos, which be¬
fore wandered in the TEgean, and appeared fometimes
above, and fometimes below, the furfaee of the fea.
Latona, changed into a quail by Jupiter, came to
Del os ; where ffie refumed her original ffiape, and
gave birth to Apollo and Diana, leaning againfl: a
palm tree or an olive. Her repofe was of Ihort dura¬
tion : Juno difcovered the place of her retreat, and
obliged her to fly from Delos. She wandered over
the greateft part of the world 5 and in Caria, where
her fatigue compelled her to flop, ffie was infulted and
ridiculed by the peafants, of whom ffie alked for wa¬
ter while they were weeding a marffi. Their refufal
and infolence provoked her, and ffie entreated Jupiter
to puniffi their barbarity. They were all changed in¬
to frogs. She was alfo infulted by Niobe ; who boaft-
ed herfelf greater than the mother of Apollo and Di¬
ana, and ridiculed the prefents which the piety of her
neighbours had offered to Latona. At laft, Latona,
though perfecuted and expofed to the refeqtment of
Juno, became a powerful deity, and faw her children
receive divine honours. Her worfhip was generally
eftabliffied where her children received adoration 5
particularly at Argos, Delos, &c. where ffie had tem¬
ples. She had an oracle at Egypt, celebrated for the
true and decifive anfwers which it gave. Latona, Ve¬
nus, and Diana, were the three goddeffes nioft: in ve¬
neration among the Roman women.
L ATRIA, in Theology, a religious worlhip due on¬
ly to God. See Adoration. -
The Romanifts fay, “ They honour God with the
worlhip of latria, and the faints with the worlhip of
dnlia." But the terms, however diftindt, are ufually
confounded.
The worffiip of latria, befides its inner characters,
has its external marks to diftinguiffi it j the principal
whereof is facrifice, which cannot be offered to any
other but God himfelf, as being a folemn acknowledge¬
ment or recognition of the fovereignty of God, and our
dependence on him.
Air Daille feems to own, that fome of the fathers
of the fourth century allowed the diftindlion between
latria and duha.
LATRINiE, were public houfes of office, or. necef-
faries, amongft the Romans. We do not find, in the
writings or buildings that remain of antiquity, that
they had any privies in their dwellings. The latrinse
w'ere public places where the fl >ves waffied and emp¬
tied their mailers clofe llools. We are pretty well af-
fured that the Romans had public places of conveni¬
ence, which were covered over, and had a fponge
hanging up in them for cleanlinefs. Rich men had
clofe llools, which were taken away occafionally to
the common fewers.
LATRUNCULI, a game amongft the Romans, of
much the fame nature with our chefs. The latrunculi
were properly the chefs men, called alfo latrones and
calculi. They were made of glafs, and diftinguiffied
by black and white colours. Sometimes they were
made of wax or other convenient fubftances. Some
give the invention of this game to Palamedes when at
the liege of Troy : Seneca attributes it to Chilon, one
of the feven Grecian fages ; others honour Pyrrhus
with the invention ; and others again contend that it
is of Perfian origin—but is not this Lis de iana capn-
na? Frequent allufions to this game are met with in
the Roman claffics, and a little poem was written upon
it, addreffed to Pifo, which fome fay was the work of
Ovid, others of Lucan, in the end of fome editions
of whofe works it is to be found, and to which we re¬
fer for a fuller account of the game. This game ex-
preffes fo w-ell the chance and order of war, that it is,
W'ith great appearance of probability, attributed to
fome military officer as the inventor. One Canius Ju¬
lius was fo exceedingly fond of chefs, that after he was
fentenced to death by Caligula, he was found playing,
but interrupted in his game by a call to execution j
he obeyed the fummons, but firit defired the centurion
who brought the fatal order, to bear witnefs that he
had one man upon the board more than his antagonift,
that he might not falfely brag of vidlory when he
ftiould be no more.
L ATTEN denotes iron plates tinned over, of which
tea canifters are made.
Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thinnefs,
are fmoothed by rutting them in an acid liquor, as
common w'ater made eager with rye. \Vith this liquor
they fill certain troughs, and then put in the plates,
which they turn once or twice a day, that they may
be equally rudedover. After this they are taken out,
and well fcoured with fand ; and, to prevent their rutt¬
ing again, are immediately plunged into pure water,
in which they are to be left till the inftant they are to
be tinned or blanched \ the manner of doing which is
this: They flux the tin in a large iron crucible, which
L A T f 566 ] LAV
Lafcten, hag the figure of an oblong pyramid with four faces,
Latnmo. ^ 0£ ^vhich two oppofite ones are lefs than the two others.
The crucible is heated only from below, its upper part
being luted with the furnace all round. The crucible
is always deeper than the plates which are to be tin¬
ned are long ; they always put them in downright,
and the tin ought to fwim over them j to this purpofe
artificers of different trades prepare plates of different
fhapes, though Mr Reaumur thinks them all excep¬
tionable. But the Germans ufe no fort of preparation
of the iron to make it receive the tin, more than the
keeping it always fteeped in water till the time $ only
when the tin is melted in the crucible, they cover it
with a layer of a fort of fuet, which is ufually two
inches thick, and the plate muft pafs through this be¬
fore it can come to the melted tin. The firft ufe
of this covering is to keep the tin from burning $
for if any part fliould take fire, the fuet would foon
moiften it, and reduce it to its primitive flate again.
The blanchers fay, this fuet is a compounded matter.
It is indeed of a black colour j but Mr Reaumur fup-
pofed that to be only an artifice to make it a fecret,
and that it is only coloured with foot or the fmoke of a
chimney : but he found it true fo far, that the com¬
mon unprepared fuet was not fufticient j for after fe-
veral attempts, there was always fomething wanting
to render the fuccefs of the operation certain. The
whole fecret of blanching, therefore, was found to lie
in the preparation of this fuet; and this at length he
difcovered to confift only in the firft frying and burn¬
ing it. This fimple operation not only gives it the co¬
lour, but puts it in a condition to give the iron a dif-
pofition to be tinned, which it does furpvifingly.
The melted tin muft alfo have a certain degree of
heat: for if it is not hot enough, it will not ftick to the
iron ; and if it is too hot, it will cover it with too thin
a coat, and the plates will have feveral colours, as red,
blue, and purple, and upon the whole will have a caft
of yellow. To prevent this, by knowing when the
fire has a proper degree of heat, they might try with
fmall pieces of iron ; but, in general, ufe teaches them
to know the degree, and they put in the iron when
the tin is at a different ftandard of heat, according
as they would give it a thicker or thinner coat. Some¬
times alfo they give the plates a double layer, as they
would have them very thickly covered. This they do
by dipping them into the tin when very hot the firft
time, and when lefs hot the fecond. The tin which
is to give the fecond coat muft be frelh covered with
fuet •, and that with the common fuet, not the pre¬
pared.
LATTEN Brafs, plates of milled brafs reduced to
different thicknefs, according to the ufes they are in¬
tended for.
LATTIMO, in the glafs trade, a name for a fine
milk-white glafs. There are feveral ways of making
it, but the beft of all is this: take 400 weight of cry-
ftal frit, 60 pounds of calcined tin, and two pounds
and a half of prepared manganefe; mix thefe well with
the frit, and fet them in a pot in a furnace to melt
and refine. At the end of 18 hours this will be puri¬
fied; then caft it into water, purify it again afterwards
in the furnace, and make a proof of it. If it be too
clear, add 15 pounds more of calcined tin ; mix it
well with the metal, and let it ftand one day to puri¬
fy ; it will then be of a whitenefs furpaffing even that Lattim*
of fnow, and is fit to work into veffels. II
LATUS Primarium, a right line drawn through , Lava,_r
the vertex of the fe&ion of a cone, within the fame, and ’ ^
parallel to the bafe.
LATUS Tranfverfum of the hyperbola, is the right
line between the vertices of the two oppofite fe&ions,
or that part of their common axis lying between the
two oppofite cones.
LAVA, a ftream of melted minerals which runs
out of the mouths, or burfts out through the fides, of
burning mountains, during the time of an eruption.
See ./Etna, Vesuvius, Hecla ; and fee alfo Volcano,
Geology Index.
The lava at its firft difcharge is in a ftate of pro¬
digious ignition, greatly fuperior to any thing we can
have an idea of from the fmall artificial furnaces made
by us. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lava of Vefuvius, at the place whence it iffued (in
the year 1767), “ had the appearance of a river of
red hot and liquid metal, fueh as we fee in the glafs
houfes, on which were large floating cinders half
lighted, and rolling over one another with great pre¬
cipitation down the flde of the mountain, forming on
the whole a moft beautiful and uncommon cafcade.”
Now, if we confider the materials of which the lava
conlifts, which undoubtedly are the common matters
to be found everywhere in the earth, namely, ftones,
metallic ores, clay, fand, &c. we fliall find that our
hotteft furnaces would by no means be able to bring
them into any degree of fufion ; fince the materials
for glafs cannot be melted without a great quantity
of very fufible halts, fuch as alkalies, nitre, &c. mixed
along with them. The heat of a volcano muft there¬
fore be immenfe ; and befides its heat, it is fometimes t
attended with a very uncommon circumftance ; for Sir Excefllve
William Hamilton informs us, that “ the red-hot112^
ftones thrown up by Vefuvius on the 31ft of Marchlava&*
1766, were perfectly tranfparent •n and the like re¬
mark he makes on the vaft ftream of lava which iffued
from the fame volcano in 1779. This we cannot look
upon to be the mere effeft of heat; for mere heat with
us will not make a folid body tranfparent; and thefe
ftones, we are fure, were not in a ftate of fufion, or the
refiftance of the air would have broke them all to pieces,
even fuppofing them, which is very improbable, to have
been in that ftate detached from the reft of the lava.
For ths tranfparency, therefore, (according to feme
authors) we muft have recourfe to ele&ricity; which
in feme of our experiments hath the property of render¬
ing opaque bodies tranfparent *. Indeed it is fcarcely # gee
poflible but the lava and every other matter thrown out tricity In-
of a volcano muft be in the higheft degree eleflrical, if^-
the fire itfelf takes its rife from eleftricity. 3
The lava, after having once broke out, does not Probably
conftantly continue running from the fame vent, but in a highly
often has intermiflions, after which it will burft out elei^rified
fometimes at the fame place, and fometimes at another. ^ale a^°‘
No real flame ever appears to come from the lava.
In the day time its progrefs is marked by a thick Their gene-
white fmoke, from which the light of the red-hot mat-ral appear-
ter being refledled in the night time, makes it appear ape¬
like flame. But if, during its progrefs, it meets with
trees or other combuftible fubftances, which it fre¬
quently does, a bright flame immediately iffues from
its
LAV
[ ]
LAV
Xa*a. its furfaee, as hath alfo been remarked by Sir William
u—V-—' Hamilton.—This liquid fubftance, after having run
pure for about 100 yards (more or lefs, no doubt,
according to different circumftances), begins to colled
cinders, Hones, and a fcum is formed on the furface.
Our author informs us, that the lava which he obfer-
ved, with its fcum, had the appearance of the river
Thames, as he had feen it after a hard froft and a
great fall of fnow, when beginning to thaw, carrying
down valt maffes of fnow and ice. In fome places it
totally difappeared, and ran in a fubterraneous paffage
formed by the fcum for feveral paces } after which it
came out pure, having left the fcum behind, though
a new one was quickly formed. -I his lava at the far-
thefl extremity from its fource did not appear liquid,
but like a heap of red-hot coals, forming a wall in
fome places 10 or 12 feet high, which rolling from tne
top foon formed another wall, and fo on.——This was
the appearance alfo put on by tne lava which iflued in
the great eruption of 17^3 Icelandj with this differ¬
ence, that the wall was at one time 210 feet high,
and the general thicknefs of it was more than 100 :
(See Hecla). While a lava is in this Hate, Sir vVil-
liam is of opinion, that it is very pradicable to divert
it into another channel, in a manner fomewhat fimilar
to what is pradifed with rivers. This he was after¬
wards told had been done with fuccefs during the great
eruption of iEtna in 1669: that the lava was direding
its courfe towards the walls of Catania, and advancing
very flowlv, when they prepared a channel for it round
the walls of the town, and turned it into the fea. A
fucceflion of men, covered with flieep {kins wetted,
were employed to cut through the tough flanks of la¬
va, till they made a paffage for that in the centre,
which was in perfed fufion, to difgorge itfelf into the
channel prepared for it. But this, it is evident, can
only take place infmall dreams of this burning matter j
with that above mentioned it would have been impof-
4 1 Able. It hath been alfo obferved of the lavas of iEt-
^0"°dtea!‘ na, that they do not conftantly fall down to the low-
fcend to the places, but will fometimes a(cend in fuch a manner
lowed as to make the valleys rife into hills. On this Sir Wil-
places. i;am Hamilton has the following note : “ Having heard
the fame remark with regard to the lavas of Vefuvius,
I determined, during an eruption of that volcano, to
watch the progrels of a current of lava, and I was foon
enabled to comprehend this feeming phenomenon,
though it is, I fear, very difficult to explain. Certain
it is, that the lavas, while in their molt fluid Hate, fol¬
low always the laws of other fluids j but when at a
great diftance from their fource, and confequently en¬
cumbered with fcorise and cinders, the air likewife ha¬
ving rendered their outward coat tough, they will
fometimes (as I have feen) be forced up a Imall afcent,
the frefh matter puftung forward that which went be¬
fore it, and the exterior parts of the lava acting always
as conductors (or pipes, if I may be allowed the ex-
preffion) for the interior parts, that have retained their
fluidity from not being expofed to the air.”
From the year 1767 to 1779, this gentleman made
many curious obfervations on the lavas of Vefuvius.
He found, that they conftantly formed channels in
the mountain as regular as if they had been made by
art; and that, whilft in a ftate of perfeCl fufion, they
continued their courfe in thofe channels, which were
fometimes full to the brim, and at others more or lefs
fo according to the quantity of ftiatter thrown out. ^
Thefe channels, after fmall eruptions, were generally
from two to five or fix feet wide, and feven or eight
in depth. They were often hid from the fight by a
quantity of fcoriae that had formed a cruft over them,
and the lava, having been conveyed in a covered way
for fome yards, came out again frefti into an open
channel. Our author informs us, that he had walked
in fome of thefe fubterraneous galleries, which were
exceedingly curious, the fides, top, and bottom, being
exceedingly Tmooth and even : others were incrufted
with what he calls very extraordinary fcoriae, beauti¬
fully ramified white falts in the form of dropping fta-
laftites, &c.
On viewing a ftream of lava while in its fluid ftate
in the month of May 1779, he perceived the opera¬
tion of it in the channels above defcribed in great
perfeftion. After quitting them, it fpread itfelf in the
valley, and ran gently like a river that had been fro¬
zen, and had mailes of ice floating upon it. The wind
happening then to ftiift, our traveller was fo incom¬
moded by the fmoke, that the guide propofed to crofs
it, which was inftantly put in execution without any
other inconvenience than the violent heat with which the
legs and feet were affe&ed. The cruft was fo tough,
that their weight made no impreffion upon it, and the
motion fo flow that they were in no danger of falling.
This circumftance, according to Sir William, points
out a method of efcape fhould any perfon happen to
be enclofed betwixt two lavas, but ought never to be
tried except in cafes of real neceffity ; and indeed, if
the current of melted matter was very broad, muft un¬
doubtedly be attended with extreme danger, both from
the heat of the upper cruft and the chance of its break¬
ing and falling down with the paffenger into the burn¬
ing liquid below. That which Sir William Hamilton
croffed was about 50 or 60 feet broad.
Having paffed this burning ftream, our travellers
walked up along the fide of it to its very fource.
Here they faw it boiling and bubbling violently up
out of the ground, with a hilling and crackling noife
like that which attends the playing off an artificial
fire work. A hillock of about 15 feet high was form¬
ed by the continual fplalhing up and cooling of the
vitrified matter. Under this was an arched hollow, red
hot within, like a heated oven j the lava which ran
from it being received into a regular channel raifed
upon a fort of wall of fcoriae and cinders, almoft per¬
pendicularly, of about the height of 8 or 10 feet, and
much refembling an ancient aquedufl. On quitting
this fountain of lava, they went quite up to the crater,
■where as ufual they found a little mountain throw¬
ing up Hones and red-hot fcoriae with loud explofions
but the fmoke and fmell of fulphur were fo intoler¬
able, that they were obliged to quit the place with
precipitation.
By the great eruption in Auguft 1779, the curious
channels above mentioned were entirely deftroyed, the
cone of the mountain was covered with a ftratum of
lava full of deep cracks, from whence continually if-
fued a fulphureous fmoke that tinged the fcoriae and
cinders with a deep yellow, or fometimes white tint.
The lava of this eruption appeared to be more per-
feftly vitrified than that of any former one he had ob¬
ferved.
Lava.
LAV [ 568 1 v LAV
ferved, Tlie pores of the freft) lava were generally
full of a perfe6t vitrifioation, and the fcoriae them-
felves, viewed through a magnifying glafs, appeared
like a confufed heap of lilaraems of foul vitrification.
Wlren a piece of tke folid lava had been cracked in its
fall, without feparating entirely, fibres of perfect glafs
were always obferved reaching from fide to fide with¬
in the cracks. The natural fpun glafs which fell in
fome places along with the afhes of this eruption, and
which has likewife been obferved in other places, he
is of opinion muff have proceeded from an operation of
the kind juft mentioned j the lava cracking and fepara¬
ting in the air at the time of its emiflion from the cra¬
ter, and by that means fpinning out the pure vitrified
matter from its pores or cells j the wind at the fame
time carrying off the filaments of glafs as fall as they
were produced.
Our author obferved a kind of pumice ftone flick¬
ing to fome very large fragments of the new' lava. On
clofe infpeftion, however, he found that this fub-
ftance had been forced out of the minute pores of the
folid lava itfelf 5 and was a collection of fine vitreous
fibres or filaments confounded together at the time of
their being preffed out by the contraction of the large
fragments of lava in cooling, and which had been bent
downwards by their own weight, “ rl his curious fub-
ftance (fays he) has the lightnefs of a pumice, and re-
fembles it in every refpeCt, except that it is of a dark¬
er colour.”
When the pores of this lava were large, and filled
with pure vitrified matter, the latter was fometimes
found blowm into bubbles on the furface } probably by
the air which had been forced out at the time the la¬
va contracted itfelf in cooling ; and from thefe thin
bubbles it appeared, that this kind of volcanic glafs
has much the fame tranfparcncy with our common
glafs bottles, and like them is of a dirty yellow co¬
lour 5 but when large pieces of it were broken off
with a hammer, they appeared perfectly black and
epaque.
In the lava of this eruption it was obferved, that
many detached pieces were in the fhape of a barley¬
corn or plum ftone, fmal! at each end, and thick in
the middle. Some of thefe did not weigh above an
ounce ; but others could not be lefs than 60 pounds.
Our author took them to be drops from the liquid
fountain of fire, which might naturally acquire fuch a
form in their fall. There were alfo many other cu¬
rious vitrifications, different from any he had feen be-
mixed with this huge (bower of fcoriae and maffes
of lava.
< In treating of Mount Etna, M. Houel makes men¬
tion of a piece of lava which, after having been once
ejeCfed oy the volcano, was (wallowed up, and thrown
out a fecond time. The intenfe heat to which, it was
then fubjeCfted, had fuch an effeCi upon it, that it ap¬
peared all full of chinks to a confiderable depth, and
which run at right angles to one another. He had alfo
an opportunity of obferving to great advantage fome
$>f the hollow channels formed bf the lavas of Etna, fi.
smilar to thofe deferibed by Sir William Hamilton, but
on a much larger fcale. Here the great eruption of
water in 1755 had overturned, in a vertical direction,
a huge tube of^this kind for the length of half a mile.
The tuoe itfelr appeared to be compofed of enormous
maffes, fomewhat refembling planks; each two feet Lava,
thick and twelve or fifteen in breadth, continued in
a ftraight line through the whole of that (pace. At the
fame time by the aCtion of the lava a kind of walls had
been formed, from ten to fixteen feet in height, and
curved at the top. Some of thefe walls appear rolled
together like paper } and M. Houel is of opinion, that
thefe various appearances on the furface of the lava
when cooled, muft have arifen from particles heteroge¬
neous to the leal lava j and which detach themfelves
from it, riling to the furface under a variety of forms
proportioned to the fpaces of time taken up in cool¬
ing. Thefe crufts are formed of different kinds of fco¬
riae and dirty lava, mixed with fand or allies. At the
fame place are alfo found great numbers of fmall pieces
like thole of ice heaped upon one another after having
floated for fome time on a river. Beneath thefe the
pure lava is met with, and which has evidently been in
a ftate of perfect fulion. This is extremely denfe j
and by looking narrowly into its chinks, the compoi
fition of the whole appears to be merely homogeneous.
It is curious (fays he) to obferve, fo near one fpeeies
of lava which is very pure, another which has likewife
arrived at the fame plaice in a fluid ftate, and has there
undergone fo great a change as fcarce to retain an ap¬
pearance of its original ftate. It is, however, like iron
drofs, in grains of unequal fizes. We find it alfo at
various diftances, fuch as one, two, or more hundred
fathoms. It is fometimes found in large pieces like
tables, covered over with lharp points, fome longer,
and others Ihorter. All thefe pieces are quite detach¬
ed from one another, as if they had been brought thi¬
ther and fcattered from a tumbril. The matter of
which the cruft of the lava is formed, feems to have
iffued from it in the fame manner in which froth rifes
upon folution of foap in water. It appears afterwards
to have fwelled, burft, and affumed its prefent form,
prefenting to the view various fpaces filled with fmall
loofe Hones. A great number of new lavas were like¬
wife obferved, all of them putting forth various kinds
of efflorefcences in great quantity.
The hardnefs, denfity, and folidity of lavas, no doubt
proceed from the degree of heat to which they bav©
been expofed, and which feems to be greater or lefs ac¬
cording to their quantity. Hence the Icelandic volca¬
noes, which pour forth the greateft quantities of lava,
produce it alfo in the greateft degree of liquefaction,
and Dr Van Troil obferves, that what he faw muft
have been liquefied to an extreme degree.
The compofition of the lavas of different volcanoes,obferva-
and even of different parts of thofe of the fame volca-tiom on the
no, is extremely different. Sir William Hamilton is different
of opinion that this difference in compofition contributes c.0K1P0j?r
not a little to the facility or difficulty with which they
afterw ards receive earth capable of vegetation. “ Some w. Kamil-
(tays he) have been in a more perfeCI ftate of vitrifi-t«n
cation than others, and are confequently lefs liable to
the impreffions of time. 1 have often obferved on
Mount Wfuvius, when I have been clofe to a mouth
from whence the lava was difgorging itfelf, that th©
quality of it varied greatly from time to time. 1 have
feen it as fluid and coherent as glafs when in fufion $
and I have feen it tarinaceous, the particles feparating
as they forced their w'ay out, juft like meal coming
from und®r the grindftone. A ftream of lava of this
V
LAV
[ 569 1
LAV
Lava, fort being lefs compact, and containing more earthy
^ particles, would certainly be much fooner fit for vege-
6 tation than one compofed of the more perfedt vitrified
By Mr matter.” Mr Bergman, who has accurately analyzed
Bergman. j[ome Icelandic lavas, informs us, that one kind is very
coarfe, heavy, and hard, full of bladders, almoit black,
intermixed with white grains refembling quartz, which
in fome places have a figure not very unlike a fquare.
This black matter is not attradled by the magnet } but
if a piece of it is held againft a compafs, the needle
vifibly moves. When tried in the crucible, it yields
from ten to twelve pounds of iron in every hundred
weight. It does not diflfolve in the lead; with fal foda?,
and very difficultly with borax, and fcarce at all with
urinous fait. It feems to contain a great deal of
clay in its compofition, which may be extracted by
all acid folvents. This laft he is likewife, from expe¬
riments, affured is the cafe with the lava of Solfaterra
in Italy.
The white lava, which poifeffes more or lefs of thofe
tranfparent grains or rays with which lavas are gene¬
rally chequered, does not feem to be of the nature of
quartz, as it cannot be attacked by fal fodae j it is,
however, foluble with fome difficulty by borax and fu-
fible urinous fait, or microcofmic acid. Thefe effects
are perfectly fimilar to thofe produced upon the dia¬
mond, ruby, fapphire, topaz, and hyacinth. The
chryfolite, garnet, tourmalin, and fchoerl, can neither
be diffiolved by fal fodae, though they are fomewhat at¬
tacked by it when reduced to a fine powder ; and up¬
on the two laft-mentioned ones it produces a flight
effervefcence; on which account, fays Mr Bergman, it
is poffible that the precious ftones found upon Mount
Vefuvius, which are fold at Naples, are nearer related
to the real precious Hones than is generally imagined.
He found no fuch grains in a finer kind of lava, quite
porous within, and entirely burnt out, and confiderably
lighter than the former ones.
The Iceland agate is of a black or blackifh brown
colour, a little tranfparent at the thin edges like glafs,
and gives fire with Heel. It cannot eafily be melted by
itfelf, but becomes white, and flies in pieces. It can
hardly be dilfolved in the fire by fufible urinous fait $
but it fucceeds a little better with borax, though with
fome difficulty. With fal fodse it diffolves very little,
though in the firft moments fome ebullition is perceiv¬
ed, and the whole mafs is afterwards reduced to pow¬
der. Hence Mr Bergman concludes, that this agate
hath been produced by an exceffive fire out of the black
lava formerly mentioned.
In the Iceland pumice-ftone, quartz and cryftals
are often found, particularly in the black and reddifh
brown kind. The ftones thrown out of the volcano,
whether gray, or burnt brown, feemed to confift of a
hardened clay, mixed with a filiceous earth. They
were fprinkled with rays and grains refembling quartz,
and fome few flakes of mica. They fufed with great
difficulty in the fire 5 with fal fodae they fhowed fome
effervefcence at firft, but which ceafed in a fhort time.
The parts refembling quartz produced no motion at
all •, from whence Mr Bergman concludes, that the
black lava already mentioned proceeds principally from
this mafs. Several other ftones which were fent him
from Iceland, Mr Bergman fuppofed to have no con-
Vol. XL Part II.
nexion with the eruptions, but to have been produced Lava,
fome other way.
In Mr Ferber’s travels through Italy, we are in- jyjr
formed, that he has feen fpecies of lava fo exadtly re-perber.
fembling blue iron flags, that it was not to be diftin-
guifhed from them but with great difficulty. The fame
author tells us likewife, “ that the Vicentine and Ve-
ronefe lavas and volcanic affies contain enclofed feveral
forts of fire-ftriking and flint horn-ftones, of a red,
black, white, green, and variegated colour, fuch as
jaipers and agates j that hyacinths, chryfolites, and
pietre objidianey defcribed by Mr Arduini in his Gior-
nale d'Italia, are found at Leonedo; and that chal¬
cedony or opal pebbles, and noduli with encloied water
drops, {chaicedonii opalii enhydn'), are dug out of the
volcanic cineritious hills near Vicenza. *
M. Dolomieu confiders the chemical analyfis of la-M. Dolo-
va as but of little account. When fubjedied to the mieu’s «pi-
force of fire a fecond time, they are all of them redu-nl0IU
cible to the fame kind of glafs j from which it has been
concluded, that all volcanic produdts have been form¬
ed of the fame kind of materials, and that the fubter-
raneous fire has always adted on and varioufly modi¬
fied the fame kind of ftone. But an analyfis by fire,
he juftly obferves, is of all others the moft fallacious.
The fubftances are all fufible, and we have no proper
methods of meafuring the intenfity of our fire \ lo
that the fame fubftance which to-day may come out
of our furnaces untouched, may to-morrow be found
completely altered, even though the fire employed
fliould not appear to us to be any more violent than the
former. Analyfes by different menftrua have not been 9
more fuccefsful. Mr Bergman has indeed analyzed Berfman’s
fome lavas with acids, and gives with aftonifhing pre-
cifion the following refult, viz. that a hundred partsia
of lava contain forty-nine of filiceous earth, thirty-five
of argillaceous earth, four of calcareous earth, and
twelve of iron. Thefe experiments, however, our au¬
thor obferves, give us no information with regard to
lavas in general. They only ffiow the compofition of
the particular fpecimens that he tried $ and even after
the defcriptions that he has given, we are a good deal
at a lofs to difcover the fpecies of lava which he fub-
jedled to analyfis. “ It would be as ridiculous (fays
M. Dolomieu), to apply this analyfis to every volcanic
product, as it would be to believe that the component
parts of a fiffile rock were the fame with thofe of every
rock compofed of laminae or thin ftrata,” For thefe
reafons he is of opinion, that, in order to underftand
the nature of lavas, we ffiould confider not only that of
volcanoes themfelves, but of the bafes on which they
reft. Had this been done, we would have found that
the volcanic fires generally exift in beds of argillaceous 10,
fchiftus and horn-ftone ; frequently in a fpecies of por- Of the feat
phyry, the gluten of which is intermediate betwixt»ot'v°kaHic
horn-ftone and petrofilex ; containing a large quantity fiics*
of fchoerl, feldt-fpar, and greenifh quartz or chryfolite,
in little rounded nodules. Thefe fubftances, he tells
us, W'ould have been found in thofe mountains which
are called primitive, and in ftrata buried under beds
of calcareous ftone j and, among other things, would
have convinced us, that the fluidity of lavas does not
make them lofe the diftindtive charadlers of their bafes.
In the mountains called Primitive, thofe rocks which
4 C are
L A V
Lava.
[ 57° 1
LAV
II
Materials
abundant in
the earth at
volcanic
fires.
are a0tgne<3 as the bafes- of the more common lavas
are found intermixed with micaceous ones, with gneifs,
granite, &c. and they generally ret! on maffes of gra¬
nite. Hence lavas mull contitt of all thefe matters,
and the fre muff aft upon them all whenever it meets
with them. Our author has conftantly obferved, that
volcanoes fituated at the greatei! diftance from the
centre of the chain or group of mountains on which
they are eftablithed, produce lavas of a more homoge¬
neous compofition, and lefs varied, and which contain
mot! iron and argillaceous earth. Thofe, on the con¬
trary, placed nearer the centre, are more divevfified in
their products ; containing fubiiances of an infinite
variety, of different kinds. The feat of the fire, how¬
ever, he obferves, does not long continue among the
granites, the inflammation being either extinguilhed,
or returning to the centre of the fchitlus rocks in its
neighbourhood.
From this knowledge of the materials of which lavas
are compofed we acquire alfo a confioerable know-
great depths matters that are found in greatefi quantity
fliown b> in the bowels of the earth. The excavations made by
mines, &e. on the furface of the earth, are mere
fcratches in comparifon of the depths of volcanic fires;
and as he confiders the mountains themlelves as the
productions of thofe fires, it thence follows, that by
attentively examining the materials of which they are
compofed, we may thence determine what kind of
fubitances are mol! common at thefe great depths in
the earth.
Thus our author thinks it probable, that fchoerls
and porphyries, though rare on the furface, are very
common in the internal parts of the earth. As an in-
ftance of the truth of his obfervations, our author in¬
forms us, that he was convinced, from no other circum-
ftance hut merely infpedfing the lavas of Mount i£tna,
that in fome parts of the ifland of Sicily, there exift-
ed granites, porphyries, with fchitlus and argillaceous
horn-ftones. In this opinion he perfificd, notwithftand-
ing the generally oppofite fentiments of the inhabi¬
tants themfelves. He fearched in vain three-fourths
of the ifland ; and at laid found that all the mountains,
forming the point of Sicily called Pelorus, contain
rocks of the kind above mentioned. He then faw that
the bafe of thefe mountains was produced under Mount
./Etna on one fide, and under the Lipari iflands on the
other. “ "We mu ft, therefore, (fays he) believe, that
thefe mountains have furnifhed the materials on which
the volcanoes have, for thoufands of years, exerted
their power.”
Ey travelling among thofe elevations called the Nep¬
tunian Mountains, or Mans Pe/orus, he was enabled to
difcover the reafon why the produfls of iEtna and the
Lipari iflands differ from one another. This, he fays,
is the unequal diftribution of the granite and fchiftus
rocks among them. The iflands reft almoft immedi¬
ately on the granite, or are feparated from it by a very
thin ftratum of argillaceous rock which contains por¬
phyry ; but the Sicilian volcano is fttuated on the pro¬
longation of the fchiftus rock, which it muft pierce
before it reaches the granite ; and accordingly very
little of its lava feems to have granite for its balls'. If
the feat, of the fire was ftill more diftant from the
centre of the mountains, their lavas would be more ho-
Biogeneous 5 b^faufe the fehift, which fucceeds to the
horn-ftcne, Is lefs various, and hardly includes any bo- Lava,
dies foreign to its own fubftance. Thus the lavas, in
the extinguilhed • volcanoes of the Val c!i Noto, which
lie 15 leagues to the fouth-eaft of ALtna, contain nei¬
ther granite nor porphyry ; but have for their bafes
Ample rocks, with particles of chryfolite and fome
fchoerls.
To the granites which extend to Metazzo, oppo¬
fite to Lipari, he afcribes the formation of pumice; as
they contain an immenfe quantity of fcaly and mica¬
ceous rock'-, black and white, with foffil granites os*
gneifs, the balls of which is a very fufible feldt-fpar ;
and thele he fuppofes to be the proper materials of the
pumsce, having found pieces of them almoft untouch¬
ed in pumice-ftones. There are beds of almoft pure
feldt Ipar ; to the femivitrification of which he afcribes
an opaque enamel like lava mentioned in other parts of
his works. Few porphyries, however, he acknow¬
ledges, are to be met with among the Neptunian
mountains, though thefe ftor.es abound in the lavas of
-/Etna. “ They are not diftant (fays he) from the gra¬
nites ; and thole I have found have neither the hard-
nefs nor perfeftion of thofe pieces which I gathered
in the gullies, and which had been apparently walhed
out of the anterior parts of the mountain by water.
Eut though the porphyries I faw here bear no propor¬
tion to thofe in the products of iEtna, 1 was fufficient-
ly convinced of their exiftenct, and their analogy with
thofe of volcanoes, by difeovering that the centre of
thefe mountains contains a great number of them. Por¬
phyries, in genera], are very rare on the furface of the
earth. Nature generally conceals them from us by
burying them under calcareous ftrata, or by enclofing
them in fchiftus rocks with which they are almoft al¬
ways mixed : but we are indebted to the labour of
volcanoes for informing us that they are among the
moft common fubftances in the bowels of the earth ;
and they are never fo much difguifed by the fubterra-
nean fire as to be miftaken in the lavas of which they
form the balls.”
For an account of volcanic productions, fee Mi¬
neralogy Index. I9 •
The quantity of matter thrown out from vol-Vafl: quan-
canoes-under the name of lava is prodigious. Af-1-ticsot lava
ter the great eruption of iEtna, in 1669, Borelli UucA'n'uJo
went from Pifa to Sicily to obferve the effeCts of
it. The matter thrown out at that time amounted
to 93,830,750 cubical paces ; fo that had it been
extended in length on the furface of the earth, it
would have reached more than four times round
the whole earth. All this matter, however, was-
not lava, but confifted alfo of fand, ftene, gravel
&.c. The lava he computed at 6,300,000 paces,
which formed a river, according to our author, fome-
times two miles broad ; but according to others it was
fix or feven miles broad, and fometimes 2.0 or 30 yards
in depth. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lavas of fEtna are very commonly 15 or 20 miles in
length, fix or feven in breadth, and 50 feet deep. The
moft conftderable is fcarce lefs than 30 miles long and
15 broad. The moft: conftderable lavas of Vefuvius
do not exceed feven miles in length. The fame au¬
thor, however, tells us, that the lava which iffued
from Vefuvius in 1767, was fix miles long, two in
breadth, and in moft places 6o or 70 feet deep. In
one
LAV [ 571 1 LAV
t,ava. one place it liad ran along a hollow way made by cur-
rents of rain not lefs than 200 feet deep and 100
wide } and this vaft hollow it had in one place fill¬
ed up. He fays, he could not have believed that fo
great a quantity of matter could have been thrown out
in fuch a (hort time, if he had not examined the whole
courfe of it himfelf. Even this quantity, however,
great as it is, appears very trilling in comparifon of
that thrown out in Iceland in the year 1783, which
covered a fpace of ground 00 miles in length and 42
in breadth, to the depth of more than 100 feet. Dr
Van Troil, in his Letters on Iceland, tells us, that he
and his companions travelled over a trail of lava up¬
wards of 300 miles in length : and in 1728, we are told
that an eruption of lava took place, which continued
for two years to run into a great lake, which it almoft
filled up.
m I;L „ As the lavas are thrown out from the volcanoes in
fleauire a. . . . . r
long time the higheft degree of ignition, it may eahly be lup-
tp cool. pofed that fuch vail bodies will retain their heat
for a long time. It would indeed be well worth
obferving, what length of time is required to cgol a
Java perfeifly $ as from thence we might in fome
meafure judge how far thofe philofophers are in the
right, who argue concerning the length of time required
to cool an ignited globe of the fize of our earth or larger.
Sir William Hamilton tells us, that in the month of
April 1771, he thruft flicks into fome of the crevices
of the lava which had ilTued from Vefuviusin October
1767, and they immediately took fire. On Mount
./Etna, in 1769, he obferved the lava that had been
difgorged three years before to fmoke in many parts.
No particular obfervation, however, hath been made in
what proportion the heat of lavas is gradually loft.
Sir William Hamilton informs us of a curious faff
relating to a lava in the ifland called Lacco. Here is
a cavern (hut up with a door; and this cavern is made
life of to cool liquor, and fruit, which it does in a
Ihort time as effeftually as ice. Before the door was
6oid and opened, he felt the cold ©n his legs very fenfibly j but
noxious va- when it was opened, the cold rulhed out fo as to give
l>ours pro- jflm pain ; and within the grotto it was intolerable,
old T* ^ was n°t fonfible of wind attending this cold; though
Vl*S upon Mount /Etna and Vefuvius, where there are ca¬
verns of this kind, the cold is evidently occafioned by
a fubterraneous wind : the natives call fuch places ne/z-
taroli. From old lavas there alfo frequently happens
an eruption of noxious vapours called mofctes. f hefe
Hkewife break out from wells and fubterraneous places
in the neighbourhood of a volcano before an eruption.
Our author tells us, that the vapour affe&s the noftrils,
throat, and ftomach, juft as the fpirit of hartftiorn or
any ftrong volatile fait ; and would foon prove fatal if
you did not immediately withdraw from it. Thefe
mofetes, he fays, are at all limes to be met with under
the ancient lavas of Vefuvius, particularly the great
eruption o'
Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the lavas of
/Etna and Vefuvius are much the fame, but thofe of
/Etna rather blacker and more porous than thofe of
Vefuvius. Some kinds of lava take a fine polilh, and
are frequently manufactured into boxes, tables, &c.
In Naples, the inhabitants commonly make ufe of it
for paving the ftreets, and even the fubterraneous cities
cf Pompeii and Herculaneum have been paved with
Tiles of
lava.
the fame fubftanee. A fine large cubic piece of lava
is preferved in the hall of the Britilh Mufeum.
LAVANDULA, Lavender, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 42d order, Verticiliatce. bee
Botany Index.
LAVATER, John Gaspard Chp.istian, bed
known by his writings on phyfiognomy, was born at
Zurich in Switzerland, in 1741. He was brought
up a Proteftant minifter, and entered into holy orders
in 1761 He was for fome time pallor of the or¬
phans church in that city *, but from the year 1778, he
was deacon and paftor of St Peter’s church in the
fame place. The eloquence of his difcourfes in the
pulpit procured for him an early reputation, as well as
the ardent zeal and Chriftian benevolence with which
he difcharged the duties of his office. Though not
much converfant with books, he had a very extenfive
knowledge of human nature, and a moft acute difcern-
ment. His theological writings in profe and verfe are
little known, but his works on phyfiognomy have ex¬
tended his fame throughout every part of Europe. We
are informed by himfelf, that he felt an early propen-
fity to ftudy the human face, and frequently drew fuch
features as made a peculiar impreffion upon his mind $
but his choice of phyfiognomy was fixed by the fuggef-
tior. of Dr Zimmerman, who, having heard his remarks
on the lingular countenance of a foldier whom they faw
palling by as they ftood together at a window, urged
him to purfue and methodife his ideas. He foon ac¬
quired a full conviction of the reality of phyfiognomical
fcience, and of his own difcoveries in it. His firft vo¬
lume on this fubjeft appeared at Leipzig in 1776, and
the 20 feCtions of which it was compofed he modeftly
denominated fragments. With him it appeared to be
an axiom, “ that the powers and faculties of the mind
have reprefentative figns in the folid parts of the coun¬
tenance.” This notion he extended to all animated
nature, firmly believing that internal qualities invaria¬
bly denote themfelves by external marks or tokens.
Two more volumes foon appeared in fucceffion, con¬
taining a wonderful affemblage of curious obfervalions,
refined reafoning, delicate feeling, and philanthropic
fentiments, with a number of engravings highly finilhed
and Angularly expreffive. This work was well tranila-
ted into the French and Etiglilh languages, and was
for fome time the favourite topic of literary difcuflion.
So much was its author admired, that no foreigner of
diftin&ion palled through Zurich without obtaining an
interview with Lavater, and alking his opinion of fome
charafter from a (hade or miniature. His huge vo¬
lumes, however, are now feldom looked at except for
the fake of the plates, and his phyfiognomical notions
appear to be configned to oblivion with other fciences
of a chimerical nature. One of the belt known of his
mifcellaneous publications is his Aphorifms on Man,
which contain originality both of fentiment and ex-
preffion, with deep and philofophital views of human
nature.
Lavater was zealoufly attached to the Chriftian reve¬
lation, and tranflated Bonnet’s Enquiry into the Evi¬
dences of Chriftianity, into the German language.
This book he dedicated to the celebrated J; wiffi philo-
fopher, Mofes Mendelfohn, with a challenge either to
refute it publicly, or profefs his conviftion of the truth
4 C 3
V
LAV [ 572 1 L A U
L&vater of its arguments. This challenge he afterwards con-
Lavltor to have been inconfiderate, and that his zeal had
^ °'y' inifled him. His popularity at Zurich was fo extreme¬
ly great, that in his walks it was no uncommon thing
to fee the people flocking around him, and killing his
hand in token of refpecl. He had a moft exemplary
moral character, and his zeal in doing good was fcarce-
ly ever furpafled. He was mild and moderate in con-
verfation, although naturally full of fire and fenfibilityj
he was candid in his eftimate of fuch as differed from
him in opinion ; he always rofe early, and never took
his breakfaft till he thought he had earned it. He was
the determined enemy of tyranny in every lhape, be¬
ing poflefled of the genuine Swifs zeal for liberty. He
was therefore a friend to the French revolution at its
commencement ; but the rapine, plunder, and blood-
fhed which afterwards difgraced it, made him one of its
bitterefl antagonifts. On the day when the unfortu¬
nate city of Zurich was flormed by Maffena in 1799,
he received a wound in the bread from a Swifs foldier
in the flreets, to whom he had formerly been a bene¬
factor. He never wholly recovered from the effefts of
this wound ; and he brought on a train of dangerous
fymptoms by attending for more than an hour, in the
open air, a man who was condemned to be fhot as a
Ipy. The aftivity and vigour of his mind, however,
continued till a fhort time before his death, which took
place on the 2d of January, i8ci.
LAVATERA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
polyadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 37th order, Columnferce. See BotaNY
Index.
LAVATORY, or LavaDERO, a name given to
certain places in Chili and Peru, where gold is got out
of earth by wafhing.
M. Frezier gives us the following defeription of the
lavatories of Chili :—They dig deep into the earth, in
fuch places as they have reafon to expe£tgoldin ; and,
in order to facilitate this digging, turn a ftream of wa¬
ter upon the fpot, loofening the earth as much as pofli-
ble all the time, that the current may have the greater
effeft, and tear up the earth more ftrongly. When
they are got to the earth they want, they turn off the
ftream, and dig dry.
The earth that they now get, is carried on mules,
and difeharged into a bafin, made fomewhat in the
manner of a fmith’s bellows ; into which a little rivu¬
let of water runs with a great deal of rapidity, diffolv-
ing the parts of the earth, and carrying every thing
away with it, ^excepting the particles of gold, which,
by their great weight, precipitate to the bottom of the
bafin, and mix with fine black fand, where they
are almoft as much hidden as they were before in the
earth.
Sometimes they find very confiderable pieces in la-
vatorieSy particularly pieces of twenty-four ounces each.
There are feveral lavatories, where they find pepitas,
or pieces of virgin gold, of a prodigious fize. A-
mong others, they tell of one that weighed 512
ounces, bought by the count de la Moncloa, viceroy
of Peru.
Nine or ten leagues to the eaft of Coquimbo, are
ihe lavatories of Andacoll, the gold whereof is 23
carats fine.—Their works here always turn to great
profitj excepting when the water fails them.—-The
3
natives maintain that the earth is creative, that is, Lavatory
it produces gold, continually j becaufe, after having II
been wafhed 60 or 80 years, they find it impreg- , L,'ud'
nated afrefli, and draw almoft as much out of it as at
firft.
LAUBACH, a handfome and ftrong town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Auftria, and in Carniola, with
a biftiop’s fee, a eaftle, and very handfome houfes. It
is feated on a river of the fame name, wherein are the
largeft crawfifti in Europe. E. Long. 14.45. N. Lat.
46. 20.
LAUD, William, archbilhop of Canterbury in
the 17th century, was born at Reading in 1573, and
educated in St John’s college, Oxford, of which he
was afterwards a fellow and grammar reader. In
1610, he went into orders. In 1611, he was ele&ed
prefident of St John’s college ; but his election being
difputed, it was confirmed by his majefty. The fame
year he was {worn the king’s chaplain. In 1621,
he was nominated bifhop of St David’s. In 1628, he
was tranflated to the bifliopric of London. In 1630,
he was elefttd chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford.
In 1633, he attended the king into Scotland, and w-as
fworn a privy counfellor for that kingdom. During
his flay in Scotland, he formed the refolution of bring¬
ing that church to an exadf conformity with the church
of England. In the fame year, he fuccetded Archbi¬
lhop Abbot in the fee of Canterbury j and foon after
came out his majefty’s declaration about lawful fports
on Sundays, which the archbilhop was charged with
having revived and enlarged, and that with the vexa¬
tious profecutions of fuch clergymen as refufed to
read it in their churches. In 1634-5, the archbilhop
was put into the great committee of trade and the
king’s revenue $ on the 4th of March following, he
was appointed one of the commiffioners of the trea-
fury •, and on the 6th of March 1635 he received
the ftaff of lord high treafurer of England. In order
to prevent the printing and publilhing what he thought
improper books, he procured a decree to be paffed in
the ftar-chamber, on the 11th of July 1637, whereby
it was enjoined that the mafter printers Ihould be re¬
duced to a certain number, and that none of them Ihould
print any books till they were licenfed either by the
archbilhop or the bilhop of London, or fome of their
chaplains, or by the chancellors or vice ohancellors of
the two univerfities. A new parliament being firm-
moned, met on the 13th of April 1640; and the con¬
vocation the day following : but the commons launch¬
ing out into complaints againft the archbilhop, and in¬
filling upon a redrefs of grievances before they granted
any fupply, the parliament was diffolved on the 7th of
May. The convocation, however, continued fitting j.
and made 17 canons, which were fuppofed to be form¬
ed under the immediate direftion of the archbilhop.
In the beginning of the long parliament he was at¬
tacked on account of thofe canons : and they being
condemned by the houfe of commons on the 16th of
December 1640, “ as containing many things con¬
trary to the king’s prerogative, to the fundamental
law's and ftatutes of this realm, to the rights of par¬
liament, to the property and liberty of the fubje£l, and
tending to fedition, and of dangerous confequence
he was, on the 18th of December, accufed by the
commons of high treafon, and lent to the Tower*
» Being
LAV
[ 573 1
L A U
Laud
II
Lauder.
Being tried before the houfe of lords, for endeavouring
to fubvert the laws, and to overthrow the Proteftant
religion, he was found guilty, and beheaded on Tower-
hill on January loth following, in the ']2d year of his
age. This learned prelate, notwithftanding his being
charged with a defign to bring in Popery, wrote an
Anfwer to Dr Fiiher, which is efteemed one of the belt
pieces that has been printed againft that religion. He
was temperate in his diet, and regular in his private
life : but his fondnefs for introducing new ceremonies,
in which he {bowed a hot and indifereet zeal, his en¬
couraging of fports on Sundays, his illegal and cruel
feverity in the ftar-chamber and high commiffion
courts, and the fury with which he perfecuted the dif-
fenters, and all who prefumed to contradict his fenti-
ments, expofed him to popular hatred. Befides his
Anfwer to Fifher, he publifhed feveral fermons, and
other works.
LAUDANUM. See Opium, Materia Medica
Index.
LAUDATIO, in a legal fenfe, was anciently the
teftimony delivered in court of the accufed perfon’s
good behaviour and integrity of life. It refembled
the cuftom, which prevails in our trials, of calling per-
fons to fpeak to the character of the prifoner. The
leaft number of the laudciorfs among the Romans was
ten.
LAUDER, William, a native of Scotland, was
educated at the univerfity of Edinburgh, where he fi-
nilhed his Itudies with great reputation, and acquired
a confiderable knowledge of the Latin tongue. In
May 22. 1734, he- received a teftimonial from the
heads of the univerfity, certifying that he was a fit
perfon to teach humanity in any fchool or college
whatever. In 1739 he publilhed at Edinburgh an edi¬
tion of Johnfton’s Pfalms. In 1742, he was recom¬
mended by Mr Patrick Gumming and Mr Colin Mac-
laurin, profeflfors of church hiftory and mathematics,
to the mafterlhip of the grammar fchool at Dundee,
then vacant. Whether he fucceeded in his applica¬
tion or not, is uncertain : but a few years afterwards
we find him in London, contriving to ruin the reputa¬
tion of Milton •, an attempt which ended in the de-
ftruCtion of his own. His reafon for the attack pro¬
bably fprung from the virulence of a violent party-fpi-
rit, which triumphed over every principle of honour
and honefly. He began firft to retail part of his de¬
fign in the Gentleman’s Magazine, 1747 i an^ find¬
ing that his forgeries were not detected, was encou¬
raged in 17?! to colleCt them, with additions, into a
volume, entitled, “ An Efiay on Milton’s Ufe and Imi¬
tation of the Moderns in his Paradife Loft,” 8vo. 'ihe
fidelity of his quotations had been doubted by feveral
people ; and the falfehood of them -was foon after de-
jmonftrated by Dr Douglas, in a pamphlet, entitled,
“ Milton Vindicated from the Charge of Plagiarifm
brought againft him by Lauder, and Lauder himfelf
convicted of feveral Forgeries and grofs Impofitions on
the Public: In a Letter humbly addrefled to the Right
Honourable the Earl of Bath, 1751,” 8vo. Uhe ap¬
pearance of this DeteCtion overwhelmed Lauder with
confufion. He fubfcribed a confeflion, dictated by a
learned friend, wherein he ingenuoufly acknowledged
his offence, which he profeffed to have been occafioned
by the injury he had received from the difappointment
of his expectations of profit from the publication of
Johnfton’s Pfalms. This misfortune he afcribed to a
couplet in Mr Pope’s Dunciad, Book iv. ver. 3* an(i ^
from thence originated his rancour againft Milton. He
afterwards imputed his conduCt to other motives j aba¬
ted the few friends who continued to countenance him j
and, finding that his character was not to be retrieved,
quitted the kingdom, and went to Barbadoes, where
he fome time taught a fchool. His behaviour there
w as mean and defpicable j and he palled the remainder
of his life in univerfal contempt. “ He died (fays Mr
Nicholas) fome time about the year 1771? as ray friend
Mr Reed was informed by the gentleman who read the
funeral fervice over him.”
LAUDICOENI, amongft the Romans, applauders,
wdio for reward entered the rehearfal-rooms, attended
the repetition of plays, and w'ere in waiting when ora¬
tions w ere pronounced, in order to raife or increafe the
acclamation and applaufe.
LAUDOHN, Field Marshal, a celebrated ge¬
neral in the Imperial fervice, born in 17I6, was a na¬
tive of Livonia, and defcended from a Scottifh family.
He made his firft campaigns under Marlhal Munich, in
the war of 1738, between the Ruffians and Turks; and
was at the taking of Oczakow, Choczim, and Staw-
utzchame, where the Turks wrere entirely defeated.
Frederick the Great refufed, in 1741, to take young
Laudohn into his fervice, faying he did not like his
countenance j though this monarch, who was confider-
ed as the greateft general of his age, afterwards faid,
that he often admired the pofitions of other generals,
but that he had ever dreaded the battles of Laudohna
In 17<;6, when but juft entered into the fervice of the
houfe of Auftria, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel,
he made fuch a rapid progrefs, that within lefs than a
year he was a general of artillery, and within three
years commander in chief of the whole army. Pie
refcued Olmutz, when befieged by the Pruffians; beat
the king himfelf at PVankfort on the Oder •, at Zorn-
dorf, took General Fouquet prifoner j carried Glatz
and Schweidnitz by affault ; and flopped the progrefs
of Frederick in a w:ar which might have proved fatal
to the houfe of Auftria. In 1778, when elevated to
the rank of marftial, at the head of 60,000 men, he
hindered Henry, brother to the king of Pruflia, from
joining his army to that of the king. At Dubicza,.
Novi, Grandifca, and Belgrade, in the late war between
the emperor and the Turks, he had but to prefent
himfelf before the place, and fay with Csefar, Veni, vide,
•vici. But at his head quarters in Moravia, he was
feized with a fever, in confequence of an operation he
underwent for an obftrutftion in the urethra. His im¬
patience under the medical applications, the impetuous
ardour of his chara&er, and the knowledge, above all,
of his importance in the war, contributed to irritate his
mind, and promote the violence of the fever. He re-
ftfted the application of cataplafms, before and after the
incifions were made, with a fatal obftinacy, which raifed
the inflammation to fuch a height, that he expired un¬
der the acceflion of the fever on the 14th of July 1790,.
in the 74th year of his age.
LAUDS, Laudes, the fecond part of the ordinary
office of the breviary, faid after matins j though, here¬
tofore, it ended the office of the night.
The laudes eonfift principally of pfalms, hymns,
&c..
Lauder
11
Lauds.
L A U
Lauds
1!
laughter.
&c. whence they took their name, from Ians, laudis,
“ praife.”
LAVENHAM, or Lakham, 6i miles from Lon¬
don, is a pleafant and pretty large town of Suffolk, on
a branch of the river Eret, from whence it rifes gra¬
dually to the top of a hill, where are its church, which
is a very handfome Gothic Itrudlure, and in which are
f'everal ancient monuments’, and a fpacious market¬
place, encompaffed with nine ftreets or divilions, in a
very healthy free air. It had formerly a very confi-
derable trade in blue cloth ; and had three guilds or
companies, with each their hall. It has ftill a confi-
derable manufactory of ferges, lhalloons, fays, (tuffs,
and fpinning fine yarn for London 5 and many hun¬
dred loads of wool are delivered every year from its
wool-hall. It is governed by 6 capital burgeffes, who
are for life, and choofe the inferior officers. The
church, and its (teeple, which is 137 feet high, are
reckoned the fined in the county. Its tenor bell,
though not much more than a ton, has -as deep a note
as a bell of twice that weight. Here is a free fchool
and a bridewell, part of which is a workhoufe where
the poor children, &c. of the pariffi are employed in
fpinning hemp, flax, and yarn ; befides which, here are
other confiderable charities. The tenants of the ma¬
nor and the other inhabitants were always exempted
from ferving at any court held for its hamlet. The
tenure of land called Borough Englifh exids here.
LAVENDER. See Lavandula, Botany, and
Materia Medica Index.
LAVER, in fcripture hidory, a facred utenfil pla¬
ced in the court of the Jewiffi tabernacle, confiding of a
bafon, whence they drew water by cocks, for waffling
the hands and feet of the officiating priefts, and alfo the
entrails and legs of the viClims.
LAVERNA, in antiquity, the goddefs of thieves
and cheats among the Romans, who honoured her with
public worffiip, becaufe (lie was fuppofed to favour thofe
who wiffied that their defigns might not be difcovered.
Varro fays, that (lie had an altar near one of the gates
of Rome ; hence called porla lavernalis.
LAUGER1A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
among thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LAUGHTER, an affeftion peculiar to mankind,
occafioned bv fomething that tickles the fancy.
In lauohter, the eyebrows are raifed about the
middle, and drawn down next the nofe ; the eyes are
almoft (hut ; the mouth opens and (hows the teeth, the
corners of the mouth being drawn back and raifed
up *, the cheeks feem puffed up, and almoft hide the
eyes •, the face is ufually red ; the noftrils are open j
and the eves wet.
Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves,
which fending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue,
palate, and muffles of the cheek, parts of the mouth,
prsecord'a, &c. there hence arifes a fympathy, or con-
fent, between all thefe parts; fo that when one of
them is acled upon, the others are proportionahly af-
fcifted. Hence a favoury thing feen, or f elt, affeeffs
the glands, and parts of ffie mouth ; a thing feen, or
be vd, that is (hameful, affeefs the chetks with blufhes ;
on the contrary, if it pleaff and tickle the fancy, it af-
£e£ts the prsecordia, and muffles of the mouth and face,
r 574 1
L A u
with laughter; if it caufe fadntfs and melancholy, it Laughter.
like wife affeils the pnecordia, and demonihates itfelf 
by caufing the glands of the eyes to emit tears. Dr
Willis accounts for the pleafure of kiffing from the
fame caufe ; the branches of this fifth pair being fpread
to the lips, the praecordia, and the genital parts ; ivhence
arifes a (ympathy between thofe parts.
The affection of the mind by which laughter is pro¬
duced is (eemingly lb very different from the other
paffions with which we are endowed, that it hath en¬
gaged the attention of very eminent perfons to find it
out.— 1. Aiiftotle, in the fifth chapter of his Puetics,
obftrves of comedy, that “ it imitates thofe vices or
meanneffes only which partake of the ridiculous : now
the ridiculous (fays he) confiffs of fome fault or tur¬
pitude not attended with great pain, and not deftruc-
tive.” 2. “ The paffion of laughter (fays Mr Hobbes)
is nothing elfe but fudden glory arifing from fome
fudden conception of fome eminency in ourfelves, by
comparifon with the infirmity of others, or with our
own formerly. For men (continues he) laugh at
the follies of themfelves paft, when they come fud-
denly to remembrance, except when we bring with
them any iudden diftionour.” 3. Akenfide, in the
third book of his excellent poem, treats of ridicule
at confiderable length. He gives a detail of ridi¬
culous chara&ers ; ignorant pretenders to learning,
boaftful (bldiers, and lying travellers, hypocritical
churchmen, conceited politicians, old women that talk
of their charms and virtue, ragged philofophers who
rail at riches, virtuofi intent upon trifles, romantic
lovers, wits wantonly fatirical, fops that out of vanity
appear to be difeafed and profligate, daftards who are
affiamed or afraid without reafon, and fools who are
ignorant of what they ought to know. Having finifti-
ed the detail of charadters, he makes fome general re¬
marks on the caufe of ridicule ; and explains himfflf
more fully in a profe definition illuftrated by examples.
The definition, or rather defeription, is in thefe words:
“ That which makes objefts ridiculous, is ibme ground
of admiration or efteem connected with other more ge¬
neral circumitances comparatively worthlefs or deform¬
ed : or it is fome circumftance of turpitude or defor¬
mity connedted with what is in general excellent or
beautiful; the inconfiffent properties exiiting either in
the objedts themfelves, or in the apprehmiion of the
perfon to whom they relate ; belonging always to the
fame order or clafs of being ; implying lentiment and
defign, and exciting no acute or vehement commotion
of the heart.” 4. Hutchefon has given another ac¬
count of the ludicrous quality, and ffems to think that
it is the contraft or oppofition of dignity and meannefs
which occafions laughter.
All thele opinions are refuted by Dr Beattie in his
Effay on Laughter and Ludicrous Compofition, where
he has treat'd the fubjedl in a mafterly manner. “ To
provoke laughter (fays he), is not effential either to wit
or hum'ur. For though that unexpedled difeovery of
refembfmee between ideas fuppofed diffimilar, which is
called wit—and that comic exhibition of lingular cha-
radlers, fentimems, and imagery, which is denominated
humour,—do frequently raife laughter, they do not raife
it always. Addifon’s potm to Sir Godfrey Km Her, in
which the Britifh kings aie likened to heathen gods,
is exquifitely witty, and yet not laughable. Pope’s
„ Effay
L A U
[ 575 1
L A U
taupfoter. Eday on Man abounds in ferlous wit 5 and examples
‘—“"V--' of ferious humour are not uncommon in Fielding’s
Hiftory of Parfon Adams, and in Addifon’s account
of Sir Roger de Coverley, Wit, when the fubject is
grave, and the allufions fublime, raifes admiration in-
itead of laughter : and if the comic Angularities of a
good man appear in eircumftances of real dillrefs, the
imitation of thefe Angularities in the epic or dramatic
comedy will form a
fpecies
of humour, which,, if it
fnould force a fmiie, will draw forth a tear at the fame
time. An inquiry, therefore, into the diifinguilhing
chara&ers of wit and humour has no neceffary connec¬
tion with the prefent fubjedf.
li Some authors have treated of ridicule, without
marking the diftinotion between ridcu/ous and ludicrous
ideas. But I prefume the natural order of proceeding
in this inquiry, is to begin with afeertaining the na¬
ture of what is purely ludicrous. Things ludicrous and
things ridiculous have this in common, that both ex¬
cite laughter •, but the former excite pure laughter, the
latter excite laughter mixed with diiapprobation and
contempt. My deAgn is to analyze and explain that
quality in things or ideas, which makes them provoke
pure laughter, and entitles them to the name of ludi¬
crous or laughable.
“ When certain objects, qualities, or ideas, occur to
our fenfes, memory, or imagination, we fmiie or laugh
at them, and expeft that other men fliould do the
fame. To fmiie on certain occaAons is not lefs natural,
than to weep at the Aght of diftrefs or cry out when we
feel pain
“ There are different kinds of laughter. As a boy,
paffing by night through a churchyard, Angs or whif-
ties in order to conceal his fear even from himfelf;
fo there are men, who, by forcing a fmiie, endeavour
fometimes to hide from others, and from themfelves
too perhaps, their malevolence or envy. Such laugh¬
ter is unnatural. The found of it offends the ear ; the
features diftorted by it feem horrible to the eye. A
mixture of hypocrify, malice, and cruel joy, thus dif-
played on the countenance, is one of the moft hateful
lights in nature, and transforms the “ human face di¬
vine” into the vifage of a Aend. Similar to this is the
fmile of a wicked perfon pleaAng himfelf with the hope
of accomplithing his evil purpofes. Milton gives a
ill iking pifture of it in that well-known paffage :
He ceas’d ; for both Teem’d highly pleas’d \ and Death
Grinn’d horrible a ghaftly fmiie, to hear
His famine fliould be Ail’d, and bleft his maw
Deftin’d to that good hour. 
But enough of this. Laughter that makes a man a Aend
or a monfter, I have no inclination to analyze. My
inquiries are conAned to that fpecies of laughter which
is at once natural and innocent.
“ Of this there are two forts. The laughter occa-
Aoned by tickling or gladnefs is different from that
which arifes on reading the Tale of a Tub. The
former may be called animal laughter : the latter (if
it were lawful to adopt a new word which has become
very common of late) I Ihould term fentimentah Smiles
admit of Amilar divlAons. Not to mention the fcornful,
the envious, the malevolent fmiie, I would only re¬
mark, that of the innocent and agreeable fmiie there
axe two forts. The one proceeds from the rifible emo¬
tion, and has a tendency to break out into laughter.
The other is the effedl of good humour, complacency,
and tender affedtion. This laft fort of fmiie renders a
countenance amiable in the higheft degree. Hi mer
aferibes it to Venus in an epithet which
Dryden and Pope, after Waller, improperly tranflate
laughter-loving; an idea that accords better with the
character of a romp or hoyden, than with the goddefs
of love and beauty.
“ Animal laughter admits of various degrees 5 from
the gentle impulfe excited in a child by moderate joy,
to that terrifying and even mortal convulAon which
has been known to accompany a change of fortune.
This paffion may, as well as joy and forrow, be com¬
municated by fympathy •, and I know not whether the
entertainment we receive from the playful tricks of
kittens and other young animals may not in part be
refolved into fomething like a fellow-feeling of their
vivacity.—Animal and fentimental laughter are fre¬
quently blended ; but it is eafy to diftinguifh them.
The former is often exceflive 5 the latter never, unlefs
heightened by the other. The latter is always plea¬
Ang, both in itfelf and in its caufe; the former may be
painful in both. But their principal difference is this ;
—The one always proceeds from a fentiment or emo¬
tion excited in the mind, in confequence of certain ideas
or objefts being prefented to it, of which emotion we
may be confcious even when we fupprefs laughter ;—-
the other arifes not from any fentiment or perception of
ludicrous ideas, but from fome bodily feeling, or hid¬
den impulfe on what is called the animal fpirits, pro¬
ceeding, or Teeming to proceed, from the operation of
caufes purely material. The prefent inquiry regards
that fpecies that is here diilinguilhed by the name of
fentimental laughter.
“ The pleaAng emotion, ariAng from the view of
ludicrous ideas, is known to every one by experience ;
but, being a Ample feeling, admits not of definition.
It is to be diftinguilhed from the laughter that gene¬
rally attends it, as forrow is to be diilinguilhed from
tears ; for it is often felt in a high degree by thofe
who are remarkable for gravity of countenance. Swift
feldom laughed, notwithftanding his uncommon ta¬
lents in wit and humour, and the extraordinary delight
he feems to have had in furveying the ridiculous fide -
cf things. Why this agreeable emotion ftiould be ac¬
companied with laughter as its outward fign, or forrow
exprefs itfelf by tears, or fear by trembling or palenefs,
I cannot ultimately explain, otherwife than by faying,
that fuch is the appointment of the Author of nature.
— All I mean by this inquiry is, to determine, “What
is peculiar to thofe things which produce laughter,—-
or rather, which raife in the mind that pleafing fen¬
timent or emotion whereof laughter is the external
%n* .
“ Philofophers have differed in their opinions con¬
cerning this matter. In Ariftotle’s definition quoted
above, it is clear that he means to charaifterize, not
laughable qualities in general (as fome have thought),
but the objefts of comic ridicule only j and in this
viewr the definition is juft, however it may have been
overlooked or defpifed by comic writers. Crimes
and misfortunes are often, in modern plays, and
were fometimes in the ancient, held up as objtdls
of public merriment j but if poets had that reverence
for
L A U [ 576 ] L A U
Laughter. for nature which they ought to have, they would not
V‘”“" v—"—'' {hock the common fenfe of mankind by fo ablurd a
reprefentation. The definition from Ariftotle does
not, however, fuit the general nature of ludicrous
ideas 5 for it will appear by and by, that men laugh
•at that in which there is neither fault nor turpitude
of any kind.
“ The theory of Mr Hobbes would hardly have
deferved notice, if Addifon had not fpoken of it with
approbation in the 47th-paper of the Spectator. He
jultly obferves, after quoting the words of Mr Hobbes
formerly mentioned, that “ according to this account,
when we hear a man laugh exceflively, inltead of fay¬
ing that he is very merry, we ought to tell him that
he is very proud.” It is ftrange, that the elegant au¬
thor flrould be aware of this confequence, and yet ad¬
mit the theory : for fo good a judge of human nature
could not be ignorant, that laughter is not confiiered
as a fign of pride •, perfons of Angular gravity being
/ often fufpedted of that vice, but great laughers feldom
or never. When \re fee a man attentive to the inno¬
cent humours of a merry company, and yet maintain
a fixed folemnity of countenance, is it natural for us to
think that he is the humbleft, and the only humble per-
fon in the circle ?
“ Another writer in the Spectator, N° 249. remarks,
in confirmation of this theory, that the vainejl part of
mankind are moft addi&ed to the paflion of laughter.
Now, how can this be, if the proudeft part of mankind
are alfo moft addicted to it, unlefs we fuppofe vanity
and pride to be the fame thing ? But they certainly
are different paffions. The proud man defpifes other
men, and derives his chief pleafure from the contem¬
plation of his own importance : the vain man ftands in
need of the applaufe of others, and cannot be happy
wfithout it. Pride is apt to be referved and fullen } va¬
nity is often affable, and officioufly obliging. The
proud man is fo confident of his merit, and thinks it
fo obvious to all the world, that he will fcarcely give
himfelf the trouble to inform you of it : the vain man,
to raife your admiration, fcruples not to tell you, not
only the whole truth, but even a great deal more. In
the fame perfon thefe two paffions may, no doubt, be
united ; but fome men are too proud to be vain, and
fome vain men are too confcious of their own weaknefs
to be proud. Be all this, however, as it will, we have
not as yet made any difeovery of the eaufe of laugh¬
ter : in regard to which, I apprehend, that the vain are
not more intemperate than other people j and I am fure
that the proud are much lefs fo.
“ Hutchefon’s account of the origin of laughter is
equally unfatisfatftory. Granting what he fays to be
true, I would obferve, in the firft place, what the in¬
genious author feems to have been aware of, that there
may be a mixture of meannefs and dignity where there
is nothing ludicrous. A city, confidered as a collec¬
tion of low and lofty houfes, is no laughable objeit.
Nor was that perfon either ludicrous or ridiculous,
whom Pope fo juftly chara&efifes,
u The greateft, wifeft, meaneft of mankind.”
-—But, fecondly, cafes might be mentioned, of laugh¬
ter arifing from a group of ideas or objects, where-
ln there is no difcernible oppofition of meannefs or
dignity. We are told of the dagger of Hudibras, Laughter,
that —-y—_
“ It could ferape trenchers, or chip bread,
“ Toaft cheefe or bacon, though it were
“ To bait a moufe trap, ’twou’d not care j
“ ’Twou’d make clean fhoes, or in the earth
“ Set leeks and onions, and fo forth.”
The humour of the paffage cannot arife from the mean¬
nefs of thefe offices compared with the dignity of the
dagger, nor from any oppofition of meannefs and dig¬
nity in the offices themlelves, they being all equally
mean ; and muft therefore be owing to fome peculia¬
rity in the defeription. We laugh, when a droll mi¬
mics the folemnity of a grave perfon ; here dignity and
meannefs are indeed united : but we laugh alfo (though
not fo heartily perhaps) when he mimics the peculia¬
rities of a fellow as infignificant as himfelf, and dif-
plays no oppofition of dignity and meannefs. The le¬
vities of Sancho Pai^a oppofed to the folemnity of his
mafter, and compared with his own fchemes of prefer¬
ment, form an entertaining contraft : but fome of the
vagaries of -that renowned fquire are truly laughable,
even when his preferment and his mafter are out of the
queftion. Men laugh at puns ; the wifeft and wittieft
of our fpecies have laughed at them; Queen Elizabeth,
Cicero, and Shakefpeare, laughed at them j clowns and
children laugh at them j and moft men, at one time or
other, are inclined to do the fame : but in this fort of
low wit, is it an oppofition of meannefs and dignity
that entertains us ? Is it not rather a mixture of fame-
nefs and diverfity,—famenefs in the found, and diver-
fity in the fignification ?
“ In the charaflers mentioned by Akenfide, the
author does not diftinguifh between what is laughable
and what is contemptible ; fo that we have no reafon to
think, that he meant to fpecify the qualities peculiar
to thofe things which provoke pure laughter ; and
whatever account we may make of his definition, which
to thofe who acquiefce in the foregoing reafonings
may perhaps appear not quite fatisfaftory, there is in
the poem a paffage that deferves particular notice, as
it feems to contain a more exa£t account of the ludi¬
crous quality than is to be found in any of the theo¬
ries above mentioned. This paffage we ftiall foon have
occafion to quote.”
Our author now goes on to lay down his own theory
concerning the origin of laughter, which he fuppofes
to arife from the view of things incongruous united in
the fame affemblage. “ However imperfeft (fays he)
the above-mentioned theories may appear, there is none
of them deftitute of merit 5 and indeed the moft fanci¬
ful philofopher feldom frames a theory without confult-
ing nature in fome of her more obvious appearances.
Laughter very frequently arifes from the view of dig¬
nity and meannefs united in the fame objedl j fome-
times, no doubt, from the appearance of affumed infe¬
riority, as well as of fmall faults and unimportant tur¬
pitudes j and fometimes, perhaps, though rarely, from
that fort of pride which is deferibed in the paffage al¬
ready quoted from Hobbes.
“ All thefe accounts agree in this, that the caufe of
laughter is fomething compounded j or fomething that
difpofes the mind to form a comparifon, by paffmg
from
L A U [ 577 1 L A U
Lsmglitev from one object or idea to another. That this is in faif
the cafe, cannot he proved a priori; but this holds in
all the examples hitherto given, and will be found to
hold in ail that are given hereafter. May it not then
be laid down as a principle, That laughter arifes from
the view of two or more obje&s or ideas difpofing the
mind to form a comparifon ? According to the theory
of Hobbes, this comparifon would be between the lu¬
dicrous objedt and ourfelves •, according to thofe wri¬
ters who mifapply Ariitotle’s definition, it would feem
to be, formed between the ludicrous objedl and things
or perfons in general 5 and if we incline to Hutchefon’s
theory, which is the beft of the three, we thall think
that there is a comnarifon of the parts of the ludicrous
objedl, firft with one another, and fecondly with ideas
or things extraneous,
“ Further : every appearance that is made up of
parts, or that leads the mind of the beholder to form a
comparifon, is not ludicrous. The body of a man or
woman, of a horfe, a filh, or a bird, is not ludicrous,
though iteonfifls of many parts \ and it may be com¬
pared to many other things without raifing laughter j
but the pidlure defcribed in the beginning of the
cpiltle to the Pifoes, with a man’s head, a horfe’s neck,
feathers of different birds, limbs of different beafts, and
the tail of a filh, would have been thought ludicrous
1800 years ago, if we believe Horace, and in certain
eircumfiances would no doubt be fo at this day. It
would feem then, that ‘ the parts of a laughable affem-
blage mull be in fome degree unfuitable and heteroge¬
neous.’
“ Moreover : any one of the parts of the Horatian
monfter, a human head, a horfe’s neck, the tail of a
filh, or the plumage of a fowl, is not ludicrous, in it-
felf j nor would thofe feveral pieces be ludicrous if at¬
tended to in fucceffion, without any view to their union.
For to fee them difpofed on the different Ihelves of a
mufeum, or even on the fame Ihelf, nobody would
laugh, except, perhaps, the thought of uniting them
were to occur to his fancy, or the paffage of Horace to
his memory. It feems to follow, that { the incongruous
parts of a laughable idea or objedl muft either be com¬
bined fo as to form an affemblage, or muft be fuppofed
to be fo combined.’
cs May we not then conclude, ‘ that laughter arifes
from the view of two or more inconfiftent, unfuitable,
or incongruous parts or circumftances, conlidered as
united in one complex objedt or affemblage, or as ac¬
quiring a fort of mutual relation from the peculiar
manner in which the mind takes notice of them ?’ The
lines from Akenlide formerly referred to, feem to point
at the fame dodtrine :
Where-e’er the pow’r of ridicule difplays
Her quaint ey’d vifage,j/oOT<? incongruous form^
Some ftubborn djfonance of things combin'd.
Strikes on the quick obferver.
And to the fame purpofe, the learned and ingenious
Dr Gerard, in hi- on Ta/ie : ‘ The fenfe of ri¬
dicule is gratified by an inconliflence and diffonance
of.circumtiances in the fame objedt, or in objedts near¬
ly related in the main ; or by a fimiiitude or a relation
tint xpedied between things on the whole oppofite and
unlike.’
“ .And therefore, inflead of faying, with Hutchefon,
Vol. XI. Part II.
that the caufe or objedf of laughter is an c oppofitioa Laughter,
of dignity and meanntfs ' I would fay, in more gene- v—
ral terms, that it is ‘ an op poll ton oi fuitablenefs or
unfuitablenefs, or of relation ..nd the want of relation,
united, or fuppofed to be united, in the lame affem¬
blage.’ Thus the offices afcribed to the dagger of
Hudibras fet m quite heterogeneous j but we difcover
a bond of connection among them, when we are told
that the fame weapon could occailonally perform them
all. Thus, even in that mimicry which difplays no op-
pofition of dignity and meannels, we perceive the ac¬
tions of one man joined to the features and body of
another j that is, a mixture of unluitablenefs, or want_
of relation, arifing from the difference of perfons, with
congruity and fimiiitude, arifing from the fanumfs of
the actions. And here let it be obiervt d in general,
that the greater number of incongruities that are
blended in the fame affemblage, the more ludicrous it
will probably be. If, as in Butler’s refemblance of
the morning to a boiled lobfter, there is a mixture of
dignity and meannels, as well as of likenefs and diffimi-
litude, the effect of the contraft will be more power¬
ful, than if only one of thefe oppofitions had occurred
in the ludicrous idea. The fublimity of Don Quixote’s
mind, contrafted and connedfod with his miferable
equipage, forms a very comical exhibition j but when
all this is Hill further conne&ed and contrafted with
Sancho Panqa, the ridicule is heightened exceedingly.
Had the knight of the lions been better mounted and
accoutred, he would not have made us fmile fo often ;
becaufe, the hero’s mind and circumftances being more
adequately matched, the whole group would have
united feiver inconfiftencies, and reconciled fewer
incongruities. Butler has combined a ftill greater
variety of uncouth and jarring circumftances in Ralpho
and Hudibras : but the pi&ure, though more elabo¬
rate, is lefs natural. Yet this argues no deleft of
judgment. His defign was, to make his hero not
only ludicrous, but contemptible and therefore he
jumbles together, in his equipage and perfon, a num¬
ber of mean and difgufting qualities, pedantry, igno¬
rance, naftinefs, and extreme deformity. But the
knight of La Mancha, though a ludicrous, was never
intended for a contemptible, perfonage. He often
moves our pity, he never forfeits our eiteem ; and his
adventures and fentiments are generally intetefting;
which could not have been the cafe if his ftory had not
been natural, and himfelf been endowed with great as
well as good qualities. To have given him fuch a
fhape, and fuch weapons, arguments, boots, and
breeches, as Butler has beftowed on his champion,
would have deftroyed that folemnity which is lo ftri-
king a feature in Don Quixote j and Hudibras, with
the manners and perfon of the Spanilh hero, would not
have been that paltry figure which the Englifti poet
meant to hold up to the laughter and contempt of his
countrymen. Sir Launcelot Greaves is of Don Quix¬
ote’s kindred, but a dillerent character. Smollet s de¬
fign was not to expofe him to ridicule, but rather to
recommend him to our pity and admiration. He has
therefore given him youth, ftrength, and beauty, as
well as courage and dignity of mind j has mounted him
on a generous fteed, ai d arrayed him in an elegant fuit
of armour. Yet, that the hiftory might have a comic
air, he has been careful to contraft and com eft oir
4 D Launcelot
L A U [ 578 ] LAV
Laughter Launcelot with a fquire and other afTodates of very
T I! diflimilar tempers and circumftances.
^ aunce on. (i jias ^een 0£ Gaufe 0f laughter does
not amount to an exa6l defeription, far lefs to a logi¬
cal definition ; there being innumerable combinations
of congruity and inconfiftency, of relation and contra¬
riety, of likenefs and diffimilitude, which are not lu¬
dicrous at all. If we could afcertain the peculiarities
of thefe, we ftiould be able to charadterife with more
accuracy the general nature of ludicrous combination.
But before we proceed to this, it would be proper to
evince, that of the prefent theory thus much at leaft is
true, that though every incongruous combination is not
ludicrous, every ludicrous combination is incongruous.
“ It is only by a detail of fadts or examples that
any theory of this fort can be either eftablifhed or
overthrown. By fuch a detail, the foregoing theories
have been, or may be, ftiown to be ill founded, or net
fufficiently comprehenfive. A fingle inftance of a
laughable objedt, which neither unites, nor is fuppofed
to unite, incongruous ideas, would likewife {how the
infufficiency of the prefent ; nor will I undertake to
prove (for indeed I cannot), that no fuch inflance
can be given. A complete enumeration of ludicrous
objedfs it would be in vain to attempt: and therefore
we can never hope to afcertain, beyond the poflibility
of doubt, that common quality which belongs to all
ludicrous ideas that are, or have been, or may be, ima¬
gined. All that can be done in a cafe of this kind is
to prove by a variety of examples, that the theory now
propofed is more comprehenfive, and better founded,
than any of the foregoing.” This our author after-
w'ards {hows at full length ; but as the variety of ex¬
amples adduced by him would take up too much room
to be inferted here, and as every reader mull be capable
of adducing numberlefs inftances of ludicrous cafes to
himfelf, we {hall content ourfelves with the above ex¬
planation of the different theories of laughter, referring
thofe who defire further fatisfadtion to the treatife al¬
ready quoted.
LAVINGTON East, a town of Wilts, four miles
fouth of the Devizes, and 89 miles from London. It
is called in our hiftories Stepult Lavington ; but now
Cheaping or Market Lavington, on account of its mar¬
kets, which are on Monday and Wednefday, the laft
a great corn market. It is fuppofed to have been a
market town above 200 years. Here is a charity
fchool for 36 children, who have books given them,
and the girls are taught to knit and few.
LAVINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of La-
tium, fix miles to the eaft of Laurentum, according to
an ancient map ; fo named from Lavinia, confort of
ASneas, and daughter of King Latinus, and built by
the Trojans. The firft town of Roman original in La-
tium, and the feat of the Dii Penates, (Livy) : fituated
near the river Numicus, or Numicius; between which
and the Tiber Alneas landed, according to Virgil.
Holftenius fuppofes the town to have {food on an emi¬
nence, now called il Monte de Levano.
LAUNCE. See Lance.
LAUNCESTON, a town of Cornwall in Eng-
gland, feated on the river Tamar, 214 miles from
London. It is alfo called Dunhivld, from its fitua-
tion on a down. King Henry III. made it a free
borough. It was compofed before of two other bo¬
roughs, viz. Dunivid and Newport. It has been the h&unceftos
place for cheofing knights of the {hire ever fince the li
reign of King Edward I. and the aflizes town ever ^ >trj
fince Richard II. till by a late adl of parliament the
lord chancellor or lord keeper was empowered to name
any other place in the county for it ; fince which the
fummer affizes have been held at Bodmin. It was in¬
corporated by Queen Mary in 1555. It is governed
by a mayor, recorder, and eight aldermen, has a free
fchool which was founded by Queen Elizabeth, and is
a populous trading town. In the 3 2d of Henry VIII.
an adl was made for the repair of this and other de¬
cayed Cornish boroughs ; and it endowed this town
with the privileges of a fanftuary, though it does not
appear to have ufcd them. It had a monafttry and a
noble callle, which, becaufe of its fttength, was called
cajlle terrible, and was given by King Richard I. to
bis brother, afterwards King John. Here are two
charity fchools for 48 children of both fexes, where
the girls are taught to knit, few, and make bonelace,
and are allowed what they can earn. Leland fays it
was walled in his time, and one mile in compafs. The
lower part of its ancient caflle is ufed for the gaol.
LAUNCH, in the fea language, fignifies to put
out: as, Launch the fiip, that is, Put her out of dock ;
launch aft, or forward, fpeaking of things that are
flowed in the hold, is Put them more forward ; launch
ho! is a term ufed when a yard is hoifttd high enough,
and fignifies hof no more. See alfo Lanch.
LAUNDER, in Mineralogy, a name given in De-
vonfhire, and other places, to a long and {hallow trough,
which receives the powdered ore after it comes out of
the box or coffer, which is a fort of mortar, in which it
is powdered with iron peftles. The powdered ore,
which is waflied into the launder by the water from the-
coffer, is always finefl neareit the grate, and coarfer all
the way down.
LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, a celebrated
chemical philofopher, was born at Paris on the 26th
of Auguft 1745. His father being a man of opu¬
lent circumftances, fpared no coft on the education
of his fon, who foon gave a decided preference to
the phyfical fciences. An extraordinary premium hav¬
ing been offered by the French government in the year
1764, for the beft and mod; economical method of light¬
ing the ft reels of an extenfive city, our author, although
at that time only 21 years of age, gained the gold me¬
dal j and his excellent memoir was publifhed by the
academy, of which he became a member on the 13th of
May 1768. Hfe attention was alternately occupied
with the pretended converfion of water into earth, the
analyfis of the gypfum found in the vicinity of Paris,
the congelation of water, the phenomena of thunder,
and the aurora borealis.
By undertaking journeys with Guettard into every
province of France, he was enabled to procure an im-
menfe variety of materials for a defeription of the mi-
neralogical kingdom, ferving as the foundation of a
great work on the revolutions of the globe, two ad¬
mirable {ketches of which are to be feen in the memoirs
of the French academy for 1772 and 1787*
whole time and fortune were dedicated to the cultiva¬
tion of the fciences, nor did he feem more attached to
one than to another, till an interefting event decided
his choice in favour of chemiftry. The difeovery of
LAV [ 579 3 L A U
%svoifier. gafes was juft made known to tke learned world, by
Black, Prieftley, Scheele, Cavendifti, and Macbride,
which appeared like a new creation.
About the year 1770, Lavoifier was fo ftruck with
the grandeur and importance of the difcovery, that he
turned all his attention to this fountain of truths, per¬
ceiving the powerful influence which this new fcience
would have over every phyfical refearch. He was in-
fpired with the true fpirit of indu£live philofophy, and
all his experiments had a diredl reference to general
views. He publilhed his chemical opufcules in the year
1774, containing a hiftory of whatever had been done
"before refpe&ing the gafes, and concluding with his
own grand and interefting experiments. He demon-
ftrated that metals, in calcination, derive their increafed
weight from the ^rforption of air, of which he after¬
wards proved that nitrous acid is compofed. His che¬
mical ingenuity was now fo well known, that Turgot
employed him in 1776 to infpeft the manufa&ure of
gunpow'der, which he made to carry 120 toifes inftead of
90. In the year 1778 he difcovered that all .acids con¬
tain the refpirable portion of the atmofphere as a con-
flituent principle, and to this he gave the name of oxygen.
This was the firft grand ftep towards the new chemiftry,
which was fully completed by his confirming the difco¬
very of the compofition of water, afcertained in 1783.
His Elements of Chemiftry were publilhed in 1789,
which is a beautiful model of fcientific compofition,
elegant, clear, and logical. His celebrated fyftem was
almoft univerfally adopted in a very few years, fo full
was the convidtion it carried along with it to every can¬
did, reflecting mind. The laft of Lavoifier’s philofo-
phical works was on the perfpiration of animals, firft
read to the academy on the 4th of May 1791. By a
number of the niceft experiments, he found that a man
in one day perfpires 45 ounces j that he confumes 33
ounces of vital air, or oxygen ; that 8 cubic feet of
carbonic acid gas are difcharged from his lungs j that
the weight of water difcharged from the lungs is 23
ounces, compofed of 3 of hydrogen and 20 of oxygen,
which interefting difceveries he diredled to the improve¬
ment of medicine.
There are no fewer than 40 memoirs of Lavoifier in
the volumes of the Academy of Sciences from 1772 to
1793, full of the grand phenomena of the fcience •, fuch
as the analyfis of atmofpherieal air, the formation of
elaftic fluids, the properties of the matter of heat, the
compofition of acids, the decompofition of water, &c.
&c. To the fciences, arts, and manufactures, he
rendered the molt effential fervices, both in a public
and private capacity. After Buffon and Tillet, he was
treafurer to the academy, into the accounts of which
he introduced both economy and order. He was con-
fulted by the national convention as to the moft eligi¬
ble means of improving the manufadture of affignats,
and of augmenting the difficulties of forging them.
He turned his attention alfo to political economy, and
between 1778 and 1785, he allowed 240 arpcnts in
the Vendomois to experimental agriculture, and increaf¬
ed the ordinary produce by one half. In I79I> the
conftituent affembly invited him to draw up a plan for
rendering more Ample the colledlion of the taxes, which
produced an excellent report, printed under the title of
Territorial Riches of France.
While the horrors of Robefpierre’s ufurpation con¬
tinued, he ufed to obferve to Lalande that he forefaw Lavoifter
he would be deprived of all his property, but that he ^
was extremely willing to work for his fubfiftence •, and ^
it is fuppofed that he meant to purfue the profeffion of
apothecary, as moft congenial to his ftudies. But the
unrelenting tyrant had already fixed his doom. He fuf-
fered on the fcaffold with 28 farmers-general on the 8lh
of May 1794, for no other crime but becaufe he was
opulent. A paper was prefented to the tribunal, drawn
up by Citizen Halle, containing a defcription of the
works, and a recapitulation of the merits, of Lavoifier,
fufficient to make an imprefllon on the moft obdurate
heart $ but it was not even read by thefe men, who
were the blind, ftupid, and ferocious inftruments of
cruelty and death.
A man fo rare and fo extraordinary ought to have
enjoyed the refpedl of the moft ignorant, and even the
moft wicked. To produce the contrary, it was necef-
fary that power fhould fall into the hands of a tyrant
who refpefted none, and whofe blind and fanguinary
ambition facrificed every thing to the defire of pleafing
the people.
Lavoifier was tall, and poffeffed a countenance full
of benignity, through which his genius (hone confpicu-
ous. As to his charafter, it was mild, humane, foci-
able, obliging j and he difcovered an incredible degree
of aftivity. He had great influence on account of his-
credit, fortune, reputation, and his office in the trea-
fury j but all the ufe he made of it was to do good :
yet this did not prevent jealoufy on the part of others.
In 1771 he married Marie-Anna-Pierette-Paulze, the
daughter of a farmer-general, whofe excellent accom-
plilhments formed the delight of his life, who affifted
him in his labours, and even drew the figures for his
laft work. She had the misfortune to behold her fa¬
ther, hufband, and intimate friends, affaffinated in one
day : Ihe was herfelf imprifoned, and even menaced
with a fimilar fate ; but the unlhaken fortitude of her
mind made her rife fuperior to the horrors of her con¬
dition. We learn that {he has lince given her hand to
the celebrated Count Rumford.
LAURA, in church hiftory, a name given to a col-
leftion of little cells at feme diftance from each other,
in which the hermits in ancient times lived together in
a wildernels.
Thefe hermits did not live in community, but each
monk provided for himfelf in his ditlinft cell. The
moft celebrated lauras mentioned in eeclefiaftical hi¬
ftory were in Paleftine : as the laura of St Euthy-
mus, at four or five leagues diftance from Jerufalem j
the laura of St Saba, near the brook Cedron ; the lau¬
ra of the Towers, near the river Jordan, &c.
Poet LAUREATE, an officer of the houfehold
of the kings of Britain, whofe bufinefs conftfts only in
compofing an ode annually on his majefty’s birth day,
and on the new year) fometimes alfo, though rarely,
on occafion of any remarkable vidlory.—Of the firft
inftitution of poets laureate, Mr Wharton has given
the following account in his hiftory of Englifh poetry.
“ Great ednfufion has entered into this fubjeft, on
account of the degrees in grammar, which included
rhetoric and verfification, anciently taken in our uni-
verfities, particularly at Oxford : on which occafion,
a wreath of laurel was prefented to the new graduate,
who was afterwards ufually ftyled Poeta Laureatus.
4 D 2 Thefe
L A U [ 580 ] L A U
Laureate Thefe fcholaftic laureations, however, feem to have
“"■'V—given rife to the appellation in queftion. i will give
feme inflances at Oxford, which at the fame time will
explain the nature of the ftudies for which our acade¬
mical phildlogifts received their rewards. About the
year 1470, one John Watfon, a lludent in grammar,
obtained a cunceflion to be graduated and laureated in
that fcience *, on condition that he computed one hun¬
dred Latin verfes in praife of the univerfity, and a La¬
tin comedy. Another grammarian was diitinguiihed
with the fame badge, after having fiipulated, that at
the next public aft, he would affix the fame number
of hexameters on the great gates of St Mary’s church,
that they might be feen by the whole univerfity. ft his
was at that period the moft convenient mode of publi¬
cation. About the fame time, one Maurice Byrehen-
faw, a fcholar in rhetoric, fupplicahd to be admitted
to read leftures, that is, to take a degree in that fa¬
culty ; and his petition was granted, with a provilion,
that he ffiould write one hundred verfes on the glory
of the univerfity, and not fuffer Ovid’s Art of Love,
and the Elegies of Pamphilius, to be ftudied in audi¬
tory. Nut long afterwards, one John Bulman, ano¬
ther rhetorician, having complied with the terms im-
pofed, of explaining the firll book of 'Lully’s Offices,
and likewife the firft of his Epiltles, without any pe¬
cuniary emolument, w'as graduated in rhetoric ; and a
crown of laurel was publicly placed on his head by the
hands of the chancellor of the univerfity. About the
year 1489, Skelton was laureated at Oxford, and in
the year 1493 was permitted to wear his laurel at
Cambridge, ilobert Whittington affords the laft in-
ftance of a rhetorical degree at Oxford. He w as a fe-
cular prieft, and eminent for his various treatiies in
grammar, and for his facility in Latin poetry : having
exercifed his art many years, and fubmitting to the
cuftomary demand of a hundred verfes, he was honour¬
ed with the laurel in the year 1312.
“ With regard to the poet laureate of the kings of
England, he is undoubtedly the fame that is flyled the
king's verifier, and to whom 100 (hillings were paid as
his annual ftipend in the year 1251. But when or
how that title commenced, and whether this officer
was ever folemnly crowned with laurel at his firft invef-
titure, I will not pretend to determine, after the
fearches of the learned Selden on this queftion have
proved unfuccefsful. It feems moft: probable, that the
barbarous and inglorious name of verjifier gradually
gave way to an appellation of more elegance and dig¬
nity : or rather that at length thofe only w'ere in
general invited to this appointment, who had received
academical fanftion, and had merited a crown of lau¬
rel in the univerfities for their abilities in Latin com-
pofition, particularly Latin verfification. ft'hus the
king's laureate was nothing more than ‘ a graduated
rhetorician employed in the fervice of the king.’ ft'hat
he originally wrote in Latin, appears from the ancient
title verjificator: and may be moreover collefted from
the two Latin poems, which Bafton and Gulielmus,
who appear to have refpeftively afted in the capacity
of royal poets to Richard L and Edward II. officially
compofed on Richard’s crufade, and Edward’s fiege of
Siriveling caftle.
“ Andrew Bernard, fucceflively poet laureate of
Henry VII. and VIII. affords a ftill ftronger proof
that this officer was a Latin fcholar. Ke was a na- Laureate
tive of ft’houloufe, and an Auguftine monk. Hewas^. . ^
not only the king’s poet laureate, as it is fuppofed, j
but his hiftoriographer, and preceptor in grammar to
Prince Arthur. He obtained many ecclefiattical pre¬
ferments in England. All the pieces now to be found,
which he wrote in the charafttr of poet laurt-ate, are
in Latin, ft’hefe are, An Addrefs to Henry VIII. for
the moft aufpicious beginning of the 10th year of his
reign, with an on the marriage of Francis
the dauphin of France with the king’s daughter A
New Year’s Gift for the yeai x.515 5 and, Verfes wifh-
ing profperity to his majefty’s 13th year. He has left
feme Latin hymns; and many of his Latin profe pieces,
which lit wrote in the quality of hiftoriographer to both-
monsrv hs, are remaining.
“ 1 am of opinion, that it was not cuftomary for
the royal laureate to write in Engliffi, till the reforma¬
tion of religion had begun to dimil.iffi the veneration
for the Latin language ; or, rather, till the love of
novelty, and a better fenfe. of things, had baniffied the
narrow pedantries of monaftic erudition, and taught us
to cultivate our native tongue.”
LAUREL. See Prunus and Laurus, Botany
Index.
Laurels, pieces of gold coined in the year l6l9‘,
with the king’s head laureated, which gave them the
name of laurels ; the 20s. pieces whereof were marked
w'ith XX. the 10s. X. and the 5s. pieces with V.
LAURENS Castra. See Laurentum.
LAURENTALIA, or Larentalia, called alfo
Larentitraha, Laurentales, and Larentales, feafts cele¬
brated among the Romans on the 10th of the kalends
of January, or 23ft of December, in memory of Acca
Laurentia, wife of the fhepherd Fauftulus, and nurfe of
Romulus and Remus.
Acca Laurentia, from whom tire folcmnity took its
name, is reprefented as no lefs remarkable for the beau¬
ty of her perfon, than her lafeivioufnefs; on account
of which the w as nick-named by her neighbours lupa,
“{he wolf;” which is faid to have given rife to the
tradition of Romulus and Remus being fuckled by a
wolf. She afterwards married a very rich man, who
brought her great wealth, which, at her death, ffie left
to the Roman people ; in confideration whereof they
performed to her thele honours ; though others repre-
fent the feaft as held in honour of Jupiter Latiaris.
See Larentinalia and Lares.
LAURENT!US, one of the firft printers, and,
according to fome, the inventor of the art, was born
at Haerlem about the year 137c, and executed feveral
departments of magiftracy of that eity. Ihote writ¬
ers are miftaktn who affign to him the furn-ame of
Cc/ler, or affert that the office of tedituus was heredi¬
tary in his family. In a diploma of Albert of Bava¬
ria in 1380, in which, among other citizens of Haer¬
lem, our Laurentius’s /h/^er is mentioned by the name
of Jczinnes Laurentn films, Beroldus is called erdituus,
who was furely of another family ; and in 139^ and
1398 Henrkus a Lunen enjoyed that office ; after
whofe refignation, Count Albert conferring on the ci¬
tizens the privilege of elefting their aedituus, they,
probably foon after, fixed on Laurentius : who was
afterwards calbd Cofier from his office, and not from
his family name, as he was defeended irom an illegiti¬
mate
L A U [ 581 ] L A U
Laursntius, mate brancli of tlie Gens'Erederodia. His office was
Lauren- very lucrative j and that he was a man of great proper-
tiUTn' ty, the elegance of his houfe may teftify. That he was
v the investor of printing, is afierted in the narrative of
Juniws. His firft work was an Horarium, containing
the Letters of the Alphabet, the Lord’s Prayer, the
Apoftles Creed,■ and two or three (liort Prayers ; the
next was the Speculum Salutis, in which he introduced
piElurex on wooden blocks; then Donatus, the larger
fize •, and afterwards the fame work in a lefs fize. All
thefe were printed on feparate moveable wooden types
fattened together by threads. If it be thought im¬
probable, that fo ingenious a man thould have proceed¬
ed no farther than the invention of wooden types; it
may be anfwered, that he printed for profit, not for
fame j and wooden types were not only at that time
made fooner and cheaper than meted could be, but
were fufficiently durable for the fmall impreffions of
each book he mutt neceffarily have printed.—-His prefs
was nearly lhaped like the common wine-prefles.—He
printed fome copies of tf/Zhis books both on paper and
vellum.— It has been very erroneoutty fuppofed, that
he quitted the profeffion, and died broken hearted :
but it is certain, that he did not live to fee the art
brought to perfection.—He died in 1440, aged 70;'
and w’as fucceeded either by his fon-in-law, Thomas
Peter, who married his only daughter Lucia j or by
their immediate defcendants, Peter, Andrew and Tho¬
mas 5 who w’ere old enough (even if their father was
dead, as it is likely he was) to conduCt the hufinefs,
the eldeft being at leaft 22 or 23. What books they
printed it is not eafy to determine j they having, after
the example of Laurentius (more anxious for profit
than for fame), neither added to their books their
names, the place where they were printed, nor the date
of the year. Their firfi: eflfays were new editions of Do¬
natus and the Speculum. They afterwards reprinted
the latter, with a Latin tranflation, in which they ufed
their grandfather’s wooden pictures: and printed the
book partly on wooden blocks, partly on wooden feparate
types, according to Mr Meerman, who has given an
exaCt engraving of each fort, taken from different parts
of the fame book, which was publilhed between the
years 1442 and 1450. Nor did they flop here j they
continued to print feveral editions of the Speculum,
both in Latin and in Dutch j and many other works,
particularly “ Hiftoria Alexandri Magni “ Flavii
Veda tit [for Vegetii'] Renati Epitome dc Re Militari
and “ Opera varia a Thomas Kempis.” Of each of
thefe Mr Meerman has given an engraved fpecimen.
They were all printed with feparate wooden types; and,
by their great neatnefs, are a proof that the defcendants
of Laurentius were induftrious in improving his inven¬
tion. Kempis was printed at Haerlem in 1472, and
was the laft known work of Laurentius’s defcendants,
who foon after difpofed of all their materials, and pro¬
bably quitted the employment j as the ufe offufltypes
was about that time univerfally diffufed through Hol¬
land by the fettling of Martens at Aloft, where he pur-
fued the art with reputation for upwards of 60 years.
See (Hi/Iory f) Printing.
LAURENTlUM, or Laurens Castra, in Jn-
clent Geography, a town of Latium, fuppofed to be
the royal refidence of thofe moft ancient kings Latinus,
Picus, and Faunus, (Virgil), Hither the emperor
Commodus retired during a peftilence. Its name washaurentium
from an adjoining grove of bay trees, midway between H
Oftia and Antium. Suppofed to have flood in the ^'au^nne‘r
place now called San Lorenr-o ; which feems to be con¬
firmed from the Via Laurentina leading to Rome.
LAURO, Philippo, a celebrated painter, was born
at Rome in 1623. He learned the firft rudiments of
the art from his father Balthafar, who was himfelf a
good painter. He afterwards ftudied under Angelo
Carofello, his brother-in-law ; and proved fo great a
proficient, that in a {hurt time he far furpafftd his tutor
in defign, colouring, and elegance oftafte. He applied
himfelf to painting hiftorical fubjeCls in a fmall fize,
enriching the back grounds with lively landfeapes, that
afforded the eye and the judgment equal entettain-
ment •, but though his fmall paintings are bell approved,
he finilhed feveral grand compofitions for altar pieces
that were highly efteemed. He died in 1694J and'his
works are eagerly bought up at high prices all over
Europe.
Lauro, or Lauron, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Hither Spain, where Cn. Pompeius, fon of Pompey
the Great, was defeated and flain. Now Lorigne, five
leagues to the north of Liria in Valencia.
L AURUS, the Bay Tree, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the enneandria clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 12th order, Holoracece. See
Botany Index.
LAUS, or Laos, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, feparating Lueania from the Bruttii, and run¬
ning from ealt to weft into the Tufcan fea j with a cog-
nominal bay, and a town, the laft of Lucania, a lit¬
tle above the fea; a colony from Sybaris, according,
to Strabo, Pliny, and Stephanus. Both town and
river are now called Laino, in the Calabria Citra j and
the bay called Golfo della Scalea, or di Policafro, two
adjoining towns, is a part of the Tufcan fea, extending,
between the promontory Palinurus and the mouth of
the Laus.
Laus Pompeia,. in Ancient Geography, a town of
Infubria, fituated to the eaft of Milan, between the
rivers Addua and Lamber. A town built by the Boit
after their paffing the Alps: its ancient Gaulic name
is unknown. Strabo Pompeius, father of Pompey,
leading thither a colony, gave it a new name, and con¬
ferred the Jus Lath on the ancient inhabitants who re¬
mained there. The modern Lodi is built from its
ruins, at fome diftance off. E. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat.
45. 22-
LA US ANNE, a large, ancient, and handfome
town of Switzerland, capital of the country of Vaud,
and in the canton of Berne, with a famous college and
bilhop’s fee. The townhoufe and the other public build¬
ings are magnificent. It is feated between three hills
near the lake of Geneva, in E. Long. 6.35. N. Lat. 46.
30.—The town ftands on an afcent, fo fteep that in fome
places the horfes cannot draw up a carriage without
great difficulty, and foot paffengers afcend to the up¬
per parts of the town by fteps, Here is an academy
for the ftudents of the country j the profeffors are ap¬
pointed by government j and there is a pretty good pub¬
lic library. The church, formerly the cathedral, is a
magnificent Gothic building, Handing on the molt ele¬
vated part of the town. Among other fepulchres it
contains that of Amadous VIII. duke of Savoy, ftyled
Laiifanne.
L A U ' r S3
tlse Solomon of his age ; beft known by the title of
Antipope Felix V. who exhibited the lingular example
of a man twice abdicating the fovereignty, and retir¬
ing from regal pomp to a private ftation.
The fame year that the country named Potjs de Vaud
was conquered from the houfe of Savoy, the inhabi¬
tants of Laufanne put themfelves under the prote&ion
of the canton of Berne, their bifliop having retired
from the town. At that time its privileges were con¬
firmed and augmented, and it is if ill governed by its
own magiftrates. The citizens of the principal lireet
have the privilege of pronouncing fentence in criminal
cafes. If the criminal is found, and acknowledges
himfelf guilty, the burghers of the fireet affemble j one
of the magiftrates pleads in his behalf, and another
againlt him j the court of juilice give their opinion
upon the point of law j and the majority of citizens
polfelling houfes in the principal fireet, determine the
penalty. In capital cafes there is no pardon, accord-
2 ] LAV
ing to the letter of the law, unlefs it can be obtained Laufanr.c*
within 24 hours from the fovereign council of Berne, J-avori.
though it generally happens that eight days are allow-
ed for this purpofe. When the criminal is feized
within the jurifdidlion of the town, the fadt is tried,
and the burghers pronounce fentence, from which there
is no appeal j but if he happens to be taken in the di-
ftnet of the bailiff, there is an appeal to the government
-of Berne.
LAVORI, Terra di, a province of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, bounded on the weft by the Cam-
pagna di Roma, and by Farther Abruzzo j on the
north by the Hither Abruzzo, and by the county of
Moliffa; on the eaft by Principata Ultra; and on
the fouth by the Principata Citra. It is about 63
miles in length and 35 in breadth 5 and is fertile in
corn, excellent vines, and other fruits. There are alfj
feveral mineral fprings and mines of fulphur. Naples is
the capital town.
LAW.
PART I. OF THE NATURE OF LAWS IN GENERAL.
Definition; T AW, in its moft general and comprehenfive fenfe,
^nera1’ fignifies a rule of adlion ; and is applied indiferi-
minately to all kinds of adlion, whether animate or in¬
animate, rational or irrational. Thus we fay, the laws
of motion, of gravitation, of optics, of mechanics, as
well as the laws of nature and of nations. And it is
that rule of aftion which is preferibed by fome fupe-
rior, and which the inferior is bound to obey.
Thus when the Supreme Being formed the univerfe,
and created matter out of nothing, he impreffed cer¬
tain principles upon that matter, from which it can
never depart, and without which it would ceafe to be.
When he put that matter into motion, he eftablilhed
certain laws of motion, to which all moveable bodies
muft conform. And, to defeend from the greateft
operations to the fmalleft, when a workman, forms a
clock, or other piece of mechanifm, he eftablilhes at
his own pleafure certain arbitrary laws for its diredlionj
as, that the hand (hall deferibe a given fpace in a given
time ; to which law as long as the work conforms, fo
long it continues in perfe&ion, and anfwers the end of
its formation.
If we farther advance, from mere inaflive matter
to vegetable and animal life, we (hall find them ftill
governed by laws ; more numerous indeed, but equally
fixed and invariable. The whole progrefs of plants,
from the feed to the root, and from thence to the feed
again ; the method of animal nutrition, digeftion, fe-
cretion, and all other branches of vital economy ;—
are not left to chance, or the will of the creature it-
felf, but are performed in a wondrous involuntary man¬
ner, and guided by unerring rules laid down by the
great Creator.
This then is the general fignification of law, a rule
of aftion di&ated by fome fuperior being: and, in
thofe creatures that have neither the power to think
nor to will, fuch laws muft be invariably obeyed, fo
long as the creature itfelf fubfifts $ for its exiftence de¬
pends on that obedience. But laws, in their more
confined fenfe, and in which it is our prefent bufinefs
to confider them, denote the rules, not of adtion in ge- a
neral, but of human aftion or condudl: that is, the Particular
precepts by which man, the noblelt of all fublunary
beings, a creature endowed with both reafon and free
will, is commanded to make ufe of thofe faculties in
the general regulation of his behaviour.
Man, confidered as a creature, muft neceffarily be
fubjeft to the laws of his Creator, for he is entirely a
dependent being. A being, independent of any other,
has no rule to purfue but fuch as he preferibes to him¬
felf j but a ftate of de.pendance will inevitably oblige
the inferior to take the will of him on whom he de¬
pends as the rule of his conduft j not indeed in every
particular, but in all thofe points wherein his depend-
ance confifts. This principle therefore has more or
lefs extent and effefl, in proportion as the fuperiority
of the one and the dependance of the other is greater
or lefs, abfolute or limited. And confeq-uently, as man
depends abfolutely upon his Maker for every thing, it
is neceffary that he ftiould in all points conform to his
Maker’s will. ^
This will of his Maker is called the law of nature.’L’xw of
For as God, when he created matter, and endued itnature*
with a principle of mobility, eftablhhed certain rules
for the perpetual direction of that motion \ fo, when
he created man, and endued him with free will to con-
dudl himfelf in all parts of life, he laid down certain
immutable laws of human nature, whereby that free
will is in fome degree regulated and reftrained, and
gave him alfo the faculty of reafon to difeover the pur¬
port of thofe laws.
Confidering the Creator only as a being of infinite
power.
/
Part I.
CM Laws
in general.
* See ATc-
rality.
L
power, lie was able unqueltionably to have preferibed
whatever laws he pleafed to his creature man, how¬
ever unjuft or fevere. But as he is alfo a Being of in¬
finite wifdom, he has laid down only fuch laws as were
founded in thofe relations of juftice, that exifted in the
nature of things antecedent to any pofitive precept.
Thefe are the eternal immutable laws of good and evil,
to which the Creator himfelf in ail his difpenfations con¬
forms •, and which he has enabled human reafon to dif-
cover, fo far as they are neceffary for the conduct of
human actions. Such, among others, are thefe prin¬
ciples : That we Ihould live honeftly, ftiould hurt no¬
body, and finould render to every one his due j to which
three general precepts Juftinian has reduced the whole
doftrine of law.
But if the difeovery of thefe firft principles of the
law of nature depended only upon the due exertion of
right reafon, and could not otherwife be obtained than
bv a chain of metaphyfical difquifitions, mankind would
have wanted feme inducement to have quickened their
inquiries, and the greater part of the world would have
reited content in mental indolence, and ignorance its
infeparable companion. As therefore the Creator is a
being, not only of infinite power and wifdom, but al-
fb of infinite goodnefs, he has been pleafed fo to con¬
trive the conftitution and frame of humanity, that we
ftiould want no other prompter to inquire after and
purfue the rule of right, but only our own felf-love,
that univerfal principle of aftion. For he has fo inti¬
mately connedfted, fo infeparably interwoven, the laws
of eternal juftice with the happinefs of each individual,
that the latter cannot be attained but by obferving the
former j and if the former be punctually obeyed, it
cannot bat induce the latter. In confequence of which
mutual connexion of juftice and human felicity, he has
not perplexed the law of nature with a multitude of
abftraCted rules and precepts, referring merely to the
fitnefs or unfitnefs of things, as fome have vainly fur-
mifed; but hasgraeioufly reduced the rule of obedience
to this one paternal precept, “ that man Ibould pur¬
fue his own happinefs.” This is the foundation of
what we call ethics, or natural law *. For the feveral
articles into which it is branched in our fyftems a-
mount to no more than demonftrating, that this or that
action tends to man’s real happinefs, and therefore
very juftly concluding, that the performance of it is a
part of the law of nature } or, on the other hand,
that this or that aflion is deftruClive of man’s real
happinefs, and therefore that the law of nature forbids
it.
This law of nature, being coeval with mankind, and
diClated by God himfelf, is of courfe fuperior in obli¬
gation to any other. It is binding over all the globe,
in all countries, and at all times : no human laws are
of any validity, if contrary to this, and fuch of them
as are valid derive all their force, and all their autho¬
rity, mediately or immediately, from this original.
But in order to apply this to the particular exigen¬
cies of each individual, it is ftill neceffary to have re-
courfe to reafon : whofe office it is to difeover, as was
before obferved, what the law of nature direCts in every
circumftance of life, by confidering, what method
will tend the moft effetfually to our own fubftantial
happinefs. And if our reafon Ayere always, as in our
firft anceftor before his tranfgreffion, clear and perfeft,
A W. 583
unruffled by paffions, unclouded Ty prejudice, unim- OfLaws
paired by difeafe or intemperance, the talk would bein
pleafant and eafy j we fflould need no other guide but ^ '
this. But every man now finds the contrary in his own
experience ; that his reafon is corrupt, and his under-
ftanding full of ignorance and error.
This has given manifold occafion for the benign in-
terpofition of Divine Providence j which, in compaffion
to the frailty, the imperfeCtion, and the blindneis of
human reafon, hath been pleafed, at fundry times and
in divers manners, to difeover and enforce its laws by ^
an immediate and direCt revelation. The doftrinesLaw ofRe-
thus delivered, we call the revealed or divine law, and ve^at‘on‘
they are to be found only in the Holy Scriptures. Thefe
precepts, when revealed, are found upon comparifon
to be really a part of the original law of nature, as
they tend in all their confequences to man’s felicity.
But we are not from thence to conclude, that the know¬
ledge of thefe truths was attainable by reafon in its
prefent corrupted ftate j fince we find, that, until they
were revealed, they were hid from the wifdom of ages.
As then the moral precepts of this law are indeed of
the fame original with thofe of the law of nature, fo
their intrinfie obligation is of equal ftrength and per¬
petuity. Yet undoubtedly the revealed law is of infi¬
nitely more authenticity than that moral fyftem which
is framed by ethical writers, and denominated the na¬
tural law : becaufe one is the law of nature, exprefsly
declared fo to be by God himfelf} the other is only
what, by the affiftanee of human reafon, we imagine
to be that law. If we could be as certain of the lat¬
ter as we are of the former, both would have an equal
authority : but till then they can never be put in any
competition together.
Upon thefe two foundations, the law of nature and
the law of revelation, depend all human laws; that is
to fay, no human laws Ihould be fuffered to contradift
thefe. There are, it is true, a great number of indif¬
ferent points, in which both the divine law and the
natural leave a man at his own liberty ; but which are
found heceflary, for the benefit of fociety, to bereftrain-
ed within certain limits. And herein it is that human
laws have their greateft force and efficacy : for, with
regard to fuch points as are not indifferent, human laws
are only declaratory of, and a£l in fubordination to,
the former. To inftance in the cafe of murder : this
is exprefsly forbidden by the divine, and demonftrably
by the natural, law ; and from thefe prohibitions arifes
the true unlawfulnefs of this crime. Thofe human laws
that annex a punifhment to it, do not at all increafe its
moral guilt, or fuperadd any freffl obligation in Jbro
confcienticc to abftain from its perpetration. Nay, if
any human law fflould allow or enjoin us to commit it,
we are bound to tranfgrefs that human law, or elfe we
muft offend both the natural and the divine. But with
regard to matters that are in themfelves indifferent, and
are not commanded or forbidden by thofe fuperior laws ;
fuch, for inftance, as exporting of wool into foreign
countries ; here the inferior legiflature has fcope and
opportunity to interpofe, and to make that afticn un¬
lawful which before was not fo.
If man were to live in a ftate of nature, unconnedled
with other individuals, there would be no occafion for
any other laws than the law of nature and the law
of God. Neither could any other law poffibly exift :
£03?
5®4
Of L ws
in general,
L A W.
Part I,
Law of na¬
trons.
Municipal
or civil
law.
7
'Defined.
Its firft pro.
perty.
for a law always fuppofes fome fuperior who is to make
/ it •, and in a ftate of nature we are all equal, without
any other fuperior but him who is the Author of our
being. But man was formed for lociety j and, as is
demonllrated by the writers on this fubject, is neither
capable of living alone, nor indeed has the courage to
do it. However, as it is impoflible for the whole race
of mankind to be united in one great faciety, they mull:
neceffarily divide into many ; and form feparate Hates,
commonwealths, and nations, entirely independent of
each other, and yet liable to a mutual intercourfe.
Hence arifes a third kind of law to regulate this mu¬
tual intercourfe, called 'he law of nations : which, as
none of thefe Hates will acknowledge a fuperiority in
the other, cannot be didlated by either •, but depends
entirely upon the rules of natural law, or upon mutual
compadls, treaties, leagues, and agreements, between
thefe feveral communities : in the eonHruftion alfo of
which compadts w'e have no other rule to relorfc to but
the law of nature ; being the only one to which both
communities are equally fubjedt : and therefore the
civil law very juHly obferves, that quod naturalis ratio
inter omnes homines con/iituit, vocatur jus gentium.
To the confideration, then, of the law of nature,
the revealed law, and the law of nations, fucceeds
that of the municipal or civil law •, that is, the rule by
which particular diHridts, communities, or nations, are
.governed; being thus defined by Jufiinian, “ jus ci¬
vile ejl quid quifque Jibi populus conjhtuit?'1 We call it
municipal law, in compliance with common fpeech ; far
though, flridlly, that expreffion denotes the particular
cuHoms of one fingle municipium or free town, yet it
may with fufficient propriety be applied to any one
Hate or nation which is governed by the fame laws and
cufioms.
Municipal law, thus underHood, is properly defined
to be a rule of civil condudl preferibed by the fu-
preme power in a Hate, commanding what is right, and
prohibiting what is wrong.” Let us endeavour to ex¬
plain its feveral properties, as they arife out of this de¬
finition,
j And, firH, it is a rule: not a tranfient fudden or¬
der from a fuperior to or concerning a particular per-
fon ; but fomething permanent, uniform, and univerfal.
Therefore a particular adt of the legiflature to confif-
cate the goods of Titius, or to attaint him of high trea-
fon, does not enter into the idea of a municipal law :
for the operation of this adl is fpent upon Titius only,
and has no relation to the community in general; it is
rather a fentence than a law. But an adl to declare
that the crime of which Titius is accufed fliall be
deemed high treafon ; this has permanency, uniformity,
and univerfality, and therefore is properly a rule. It
is alfo called a rule to diRinguifh it from advice or
counfel, which we are at liberty to follow or not as we
fee proper, and to judge upon the reafonablenefs or
unreafonahlenefs of the thing advifed : whereas our
obedience to the law depends not upon our approba¬
tion, but upon the Meier's will. Counfel is only
matter of perfuafion, law is matter of injundfion ; coun¬
fel adfs only upon the willing, law upon the unwilling
alfo.
It is alfo called a rule, to difiinguifh it from a com-
pacl or agreement; for a com pad! is a promife proceed¬
ing from us, law is a command diredled to us. The
language of a compadl is, il I will, or will not, do this O. Laws
that of a law is, “ i’nou lhait, or fhali not, do it.” It , cnmf
is true there is an obligation which a compadt carries v
with it, equal in point of ct nkn nee to that of a law ;
but then the original of the obligation is different. In
compacts, we ourfelves determine and prom.ft what
(hall be done, before we are obliged to do it ; in laws,
we are obliged to adt without ouitelves detei mining or
promifing any thing at all. Upon theie accounts law
is defined to be “ a rule.” ^
Municipal law is alfo “ a rule of civil ccnduB.''1 ;e or.d pre-
This diffinguifhes municipal law from the natural or PCity*
revealed : the former of w inch is the rule of moial con-
dudl •, and the latter not only the rule or moral tondudf,
but alfo of faith. Thefe regard man as a creature ;
and point out his duty to God, to hitnfelf, and t his
neighbour, confidered in the light of an individual.
But municipal or civil law regards him alio as a cilrzefi,
and bound to other duties towards his neighbour, than
thofe of mere nature and religion : duties, which he
has engaged in by enjoying the benefits of the com¬
mon union ; and w hich amount to no more, than that
he do contribute, on his part, to the fubfifience and
peace of the fociety. ;
It is likewife “ a rule preferibed." Becaufe a bare fluid pr«.
refolution, confined in the breaff of the legiflator, with-perty.
out manifefting itfelf by fome external fign, can never
be properly a law. It is requifite that this refolution
be notified to the people who are to obey it. But the
manner in which this notification is to be made, is mat¬
ter of very great indifference. It may be notified by
univerfal tradition and long practice, which fuppofes
a previous publication, and is the cafe of the common
law of England and of Scotland. It may be notified
viva voce, by officers appointed for that purpofe ; as is
done with regard to proclamations, and fuch a£ts of
parliament as are appointed to be publicly read in
churches and other affemblies. It may, lafily, be no¬
tified by writing, printing, or the like ; which is the
general courfe taken with all our a£ls of parliament.
Yet, whatever way is made life of, it is incumbent on
the promulgators to do it in the moft public and per-
fpicuous manner; not like Caligula, who (according
to Dio Caffius) wrote his laws in a very fmall charac¬
ter, and hung them up upon high pillars, the more
effeftually to enfnare the people. There is Hill a more
unreafonable method than this, which is called making
of law's ex pojl faBo : when after an action (indifferent
in itfelf) is committed, the legiflator then for the firft
time declares it to have been a crime, and infiifls a
punifhmcnt upon the perfon who has committed it.
Here it is impoflible that the party could forefee, that
an action, innocent when it was done, fliould be after¬
wards converted to guilt by a fubiequent law : he had
therefore no caufe to abflain from it; and all punifh-
ment fi r not abHaining mull of conftquence be cruel
and unjuH. All laws fhould be therefore made to com¬
mence in futuro, and be notified before their commence¬
ment ; which is implied in the term “ preferibed.” But
when this rule is in the ufual manner notified or pre¬
feribed, it is then the fubjeft’s bufinels to be thorough¬
ly acquainted therewith ; for if ignorance of what he
might know, were admitted as a legitimate excule, the
laws would be of nu effefl, but might always be eluded
with impunity.
But
Parti. L A W. 585
Of Law’s Eat farther : Municipal law is “ a rule of civil con-
in general. prefcribed by the fupreme power in a flatc.'''1 For
legiflature, as was before obferved, is the greateft a£l
Fourth pro-of fuperiority that can be exercifed by one being over
perty. another. Wherefore it is requifite to the very effence
of a law, that it be made by the fupreme power. So¬
vereignty and legiflature are indeed convertible terms;
one cannot fubfift without the other.
This wall naturally lead us into a flrort inquiry con¬
cerning the nature of fociety and civil government;
and the natural inherent right that belongs to the fove-
reignty of a Hate, wherever that fovereignty be lodged,
Ia of making and enforcing laws.
Civil fo- The only true and natural foundations of fociety are
ciety. the wants and fears of individuals. Not that we can
believe, with fome theoretical writers, that there ever
was a time when there was no fuch thing as fociety j
and that, from the impulfe of reafon, and through a
fenfe of their wants and weakneffes, individuals met
together in a large plain, entered into an original con-
traft, and chofe the tallefl: man prefent to be their go¬
vernor. This notion, of an actually exifting uncon-
txefted ftate of nature, is too wild to be ferioufly ad¬
mitted : and befides, it is plainly contradiftory to the
revealed accounts of the primitive origin of mankind,
and their prefervation 2000 years afterwards ; both
which were effedled by the means of Angle families.
Thefe formed the firft fociety among themfelves,
which every day extended its limits ; and when it
grew too large to fubfift: with convenience in that paf-
toral ftate wherein the patriarchs appear to have lived,
it neceflarily fubdivided itfelf by various migrations in¬
to more. Afterwards, as agriculture increafed, which
employs and can maintain a much greater number of
hands, migrations became lefs frequent j and various
tribes, which had formerly feparated, reunited again 5
fometimes by compulfion and conqueft, fometimes by
accident, and fometimes perhaps by compaft. But
though focietv had not its formal beginning from any
convention of individuals, actuated by their wants and
their fears ; yet it is the fenfe of their weaknefs and
xmperfe&km that keeps mankind together, that de-
monftrates the neceflity of this union, and that there¬
fore is the folid and natural foundation, as well as the
cement of fociety. And this is what we mean by the
original contraft of fociety j which, though perhaps
in no inftance it has ever been formally expreffed at
the firft inftitution of a ftate, yet in nature and reafon
muft always be underftood and implied in the very aft
of aflbciating together ; namely, that the whole (hould
proteft all its parts, and that every part (hould pay
obedience to the wrill of the whole j or, in other
words, that the community (hould guard the rights of
each individual member, and that (in return for this
proteftion) each individual (hould fubmit to the laws
of the community 5 without which fubmiflion of all, it
was impoflible that proteftion could be certainly ex-
T3 tended to any.
Govern- For when fociety is once formed, government refults
meat. of courfe, as neceflary to preferve and to keep that fo¬
ciety in order. Unlefs fome fuperior be conftituted,
whofe commands and decifions all the members are
bound to obey, they would (till remain as in a ftate of
nature, without any judge upon earth to define their
feveral rights, and redrefs their feveral wrongs. But
VOL. XI. Part II.
as all the members of fociety are naturally equal, it Of Law’s
may be afked, In whofe hands are the reins of govern- in ■?eneyal>
ment to be intruded ? To this the general anfwer is
eafy ; but the application, of it to particular cafes has
occafioned one half of thofe mifchiefs which are apt
to proceed from mifguided political zeal. In general,
all mankind will agree, that government (hould be re-
pofed in fuch perfons, in whom thofe. qualities are moft
likely to be found, the perfeftion of which is among
the attributes of him who is emphatically ftyled the
Supreme Being ; the three grand requifites, namely, oi
wifdom, of goodnefs, and of power : wifdom, todiicern
the real intereft of the community j goodnefs, to en¬
deavour always to purfue that real intereft 5 and
ftrength or power to carry this knowledge and inten¬
tion into aftion. Thefe are the natural foundations
of fovereignty, - and thefe are the requifites that ought
to be found in every well conftituted frame of govern¬
ment.
How the feveral forms of government we 'now fee
in the world at firft aftually began, is matter of great
uncertainty, and has occafioned infinite difputes. It
is not our bufinefs or intentior? to enter into any of
them. However they began, or by what right foever
they fubfift, there is and muft be in all of them a fu¬
preme, irrefiftible, abfolute, uncontrolled authority, in
which the jura fumma imperii, or the rights of fove¬
reignty, refide. And this authority is placed in thofe
hands, wherein (according to the opinion of the found¬
ers of fuch refpeftive (fates, either exprefsly given or
collefted from their tacit approbation) the qualities re- ,
quifite for fupremacy, wifdom, goodnefs, and power,
are the moft likely to be found. 14
The political writers of antiquity will not allow Different
more than three regular forms of government: the firft, forms
when the fovereign power is lodged in an aggregatethereo *
affembly confiding of all the members of a community,
which is called a democracy; the fecond, w'hen it is
lodged in a council compofed of feleft members, and
then it is ftyled an arijiocracy ; the laft, when it is in¬
truded in the hands of a Angle perfon, and then it
takes the name of a monarchy. All other fpecies of
government, they fay, are either corruptions of, or re¬
ducible to, thefe three.
By the fovereign powrer, as W'as before obferved, is
meant the making of laws ; for wherever that power
refides, all others muft conform to and be direfted by
it, whatever appearance the outward form and admi-
niftration of the government may put on. For it is at
any time in the option of the legiflature to alter that
form and adminiftration by a new edift or rule, and to
put the execution of the laws into whatever hands it
pleafes : and all the other powers of the ftate muft obey
the legiflative power in the execution of their feveral
funftions, or elfe the conftitution is at an end.
In a democracy, where the right of making laws
refides in the people at large, public virtue or goodnefs
of intention is more likely to be found than either of
the other qualities of government. Popular affemblies
are frequently fooli(h in their contrivance, and weak
in their execution •, but generally mean to do the thing
that is right and juft, and have always a degree of pa-
triotifm or public fpirit. In ariftocracies there is more
wifdom to be found than in the other forms of go¬
vernment j being compofed, or intended to be com-
4 E
586 L A W. ' Parti.
Of Laws pofed, fef the iriofl; faperlenced citizens : but there is
!a Senf‘‘,aI- lefs honefty than in a republic, and lefs ftrength than
in a monarchy. A monarchy is indeed the molt power¬
ful of any, all the finews of government being knit and
united together in the hand of the prince j but then
there is'imminent danger of his employing that llrength
to improvident or oppreffive purpofes.
Thus thefe three ipecies of government have all of
them their feveral perfections and imperfections. De¬
mocracies are n{bally the beft calculated to direct the
end of a law ; ariitocracies, to invent the means by
which that end fliall be obtained ; and monarchies, to
carry thofe means into execution. And the ancients,
as was obferved, had in general no idea of any other
permament form of government but thefe three : for
though Cicero declares himfelf of opinion, “ e(fe oplime
conjlitutam rempubheam, qiue ex tribus genenbus tills,
regah, optima, el popular i, Jit mo dice confufa yet Ta¬
citus treats this notion of a mixed government, formed
out of them all, and partaking of the advantages of
each, as a vifionary whim, and one that, if eftedted,
T>j could never be lading or fecure..
Britifh con- But, happily for uf of this ifland, the Britifh con-
JJitution. ffitution has long remained, and we trull will long con¬
tinue, a {landing exception to the truth of this obfer-
vation. For, as with us the executive power of the
laws is lodged in a {ingle perfon, they have all the ad¬
vantages of llrength and defpatch that are to be found
in the mod abfolute monarchy : and, as the legislature
of the kingdom is intruded to three diftinfl powers,
entirely independent of each other j rird, the king ; fe-
i condly, the lords fpiritual and temporal, which is an
arillocratical aflembly of perfons felebled for their pie¬
ty, their birth, their wifdom, their valour, or their pro¬
perty •, and, thirdly, the houfe of commons, freely
chofen by the people from among themfelves, which
makes it a kind of democracy^ as this aggregate body,
aftuated by different fprings and attentive to different
intere{ls, compofes the Britilh parliament, and has the
fupreme difpofal of every thing, no innovation can
be attempted by either of the three branches,, but will
be withttood by one of the other two, each branch
being armed with a negative power fufficient to repel
any new meafure which it {hall think inexpedient or
dangerous.
Here, then, is lodged the Sovereignty of the BritiSh
eonftitution ; and lodged as beneficially as is poffible
for fociety. For in no other fliape could we be fo cer¬
tain of finding the three great qualities of government
fo well and fo happily united. If the fupreme power
were lodged in any one of the three branches Sepa¬
rately, we muft be ex pofed to the inconveniences of
either abfolute monarchy, arilfocracy, or democracy ;
and fo want two of the three principal ingredients of
good polity, either virtue, wifdom, or power. If it
were lodged in any two of the branches ’7 for inftance,
in the king and houfe of lords; our laws might be pro¬
vidently made and well executed, but they might not
, always have the good of the people in view : if lodged
in the king and commons, we Ihould want that circum-
fpraftion and mediatory caution, which the wifdom of
the peers is to afford : if the fupreme rights of legilla-
fcure were lodged in the two houfes only, and the king
had no negative upon their proceedings, they might be
tempted to encroach upon the royal prerogative, or per¬
haps to abolifh the kingly oflice, and thereby weaken Of Laws
(if not totally deftroy) the ilrength of the executive ‘n ge9«rak
power. But the conftitutional government of this v"”""-
illand is fo admirably tempered and confounded, that
nothing can endanger or hurt it,, but deftroying the
equilibrium of power between one branch of the legis¬
lature and the reft. For if ever it fnould happen, that
the independence of any one of the three {hould be loft,
or that it {hould become fubfervient to the views of
either of the other two, there would foon be an end of
our eenftitution. The legiftature would be changed
from that which was originally'fet up by the general
confent and fundamental aft of the lociety, and fuch a
change, however effected, is, according to Mr Locke
(who perhaps carries his theory too far), at once an
entire diffolution of the bands of government; and the
people are thereby reduced to a ftate of anarchy, with
liberty to conftitute to themielves- a new legiflative
power.
Having thus curforily confidercjd the three ufual
fpecies of government, and our own lingular conftitu-
tion felefted and compounded from them all, we pro¬
ceed to obferve,.that, as the power of making laws eon-
ftitutes the fupreme authority, fo wherever the fupreme
authority in any ftate reftdes, it is the right of that
authority to make laws ; that is, in the words of our
definition, to preferibe the rule of civil addion. And this
may be dilcovered from the very end and inftitution of
civil ftates. For a ftate is a collective body, compofed
of a multitude of individuals, united for their fafety
and convenience, and intending to aft together as one
man. If it is therefore to aft as one man, it ought
to aft by one uniform will. But, inafmuch as poli¬
tical communities are made up of many natural per¬
fons, each of whom has his particular will and inclina¬
tion, thefe feveral wills cannot by any natural union be
joined together, or tempered and difpofed into a lafting
harmony, fo as to conftitute and produce that one uni¬
form' will of the whole. It can therefore be no other-
wife produced than by a political union ; by the con¬
fent of all perfons to-fubmit their own private wills to
the will of one man, or of one or more aflhmblies of
men, to whom the fupreme authority is intruded ; and
this will of that one man, or affembage of men, is in
different ftates, according to their different conftitu-
tions, underfteed to be law.
Thus far as to the right of the fupreme power to
make laws: but farther, it is its duty likewife. For
fince the refptclive members are bound to conform
themfelves to the will of the ftate, it is expedient that
they receive direftions from the ftate declaratory of
that its will. But it is inrpoflible, in fo great a
multitude,to give injunftions to every particular man,
relative to each particular afition, therefore the ftate
eftablilhes general rules, for the perpetual information
and direction of all perfons in all points, whether of
pofitive or negative duty : and this, in order that
every man may know what to look upon as his own,
what as another’s 5 what abfolute and what relative
duties are required at his hands ; what is to be efteenv
ed honeft, diihoneft, or indifferent j what degree every
man retains of his natural liberty, and what he has gi¬
ven up as the price of the benefits of fociety j and af¬
ter what manner each perfon is to moderate the ufe
aud exercife of thofe rights which the ftate afligns
Part I.
L A W.
5*7
Of Laws
i« general.
17
Second
branch of
the defini¬
tion, illuf«
ts-ated.
him, In order to promote and fecure the public tran¬
quillity.
From what has been advanced, the truth of the for¬
mer branch of our definition is (we truft) fufficiently
evident j that “ municipal law is a rule of civil con-
du£t, prefcribed hy the fuprcme power in ajiate” We
proceed now to the latter branch of itthat it is a rule
fo prefcribed, “ commanding what is right, and pro¬
hibiting what is wrong.”
Now, in order to do this completely, it is firft of all
neceiTary that the boundaries of right and wrong be
eftablilhed and afcertained by law. And when this is
once done, it will follow of courfe, that it is likewife
the bufinefs of the law, confidered as a rule of civil
c^nduft, to enforce thefe rights, and to reftrain or re-
drefs thefe wrongs. It remains therefore only to con-
fider, in what manner the law is faid to afcertain the
boundaries of right and wrong j and tlie methods
which it makes to command the one and prohibit the
other.
For this purpofe, every law may be faid to confifi: of
feveral parts ; one, declaratory j whereby the rights to
be obferved, and the wrongs to be efchewed, are clearly
defined and laid down : another, dire&ory j whereby
the fubjeft is intruded and enjoined to. obferve thofe
rights, and to abftain from the commiffion of thofe
wrongs: a third, remedial •, whereby a method is point¬
ed out to recover a man’s private rights, or redrefs his
private wrongs: to which may be added a fourth, ufual-
ly termed the fanBion or vindicatory branch of the law,
whereby it is fignified what evil or penalty ihall be in¬
curred by fuch as commit any public wrongs, and tranf-
grefs or negleft their duty.
TDeciara- With regard to the firft of ^ declaratory
tory part ofpart of the municipal law j this depends not fo much
the law. upon the law of revelation or of nature, as upon the
wifdom and will of the legiflator. This do&rine, which
before was (lightly touched, deferves a more particular
explication. Thofe rights, then, which God and nature
have eftablifhed, and are therefore called natural rights^
fuch as are life and liberty, need not the aid of human
laws to be more effe<aually inverted in every man than
they are; neither do they receive any additional ftrength
when declared by the municipal laws to be inviolable.
On the contrary, no human legirtature has powerTo
abridge or deftrcy them, unlefs the owner {hall him-
felf commit fome a£t that amounts to a forfeiture.
Neither do divine or natural duties (fuch as, for in-
iiance, the worrtiip of God, the maintenance of child¬
ren, and the like) receive any ftronger fan&ion from
being alfo declared to be duties by the law of the land.
The cafe is the fame as to crimes and mifdemeanors,
that are forbidden by the fuperior laws, and therefore
ftyled in fie, fuch as murder, theft, and perjury 5
which contract no additional turpitude from being de¬
clared unlawful by the inferior legirtature. For that
legirtature in all thefe cafes a£b only, as was before
obferved, h» fubordination to the Great Lawgiver,
tranfcrib'ng and publifhing his precepts. So.that,
upon the whole, the declaratory part of the municipal
law has no force or operation at all, with regard to
actions that are naturally and intrinfically right or
wrong.
But with regard to things in themfelves indifferent,
'the cafe is entirely altered. Thefe become either right
or wrong, juft or unjuft, duties or mifdemeanors, as- Of L^ws
cording as the municipal legiflator fees proper, for in generai-j
promoting the welfare of the iociety, and more effec- ir,r v
tually carrying on the purpofes of civil life. Thus
our own common law has declared, that the goods of
the wife do inftantly upon marriage become the pro¬
perty and right of the hufband ; and our ftatute law
has declared all monopolies a public offence : yet that
right, and this offence, have no foundation in nature f
but are merely created by the law, for the purpofes of
civil fociety. And fometimes, where the thing itfelf
has its rife from the law of nature, the particular cir-
cumftances and mode of doing it become right or wrong,
as the laws of the land (hall direft. Thus, for inftance,
in civil duties j obedience to fuperiors is the doftrine
of revealed as well as natural religion : but who thofe
fuperiors (hall be, and in what circumftances, or to
what degrees they (hall be obeyed, is the province of
human laws to determine. And fo, as to injuries or
crimes, it mu ft be left to our own legirtature to decide,
in what cafes the feizing another’s cattle (hall amount
to the crime of robbery 5 and where it (hall be a jufti-
fiable atftion, as when a landlord Lakes them by way of
diftrefs for rent. . . I9
Thus much for the declaratory part of the municipal Dire&ory
law: and the direBory (lands much upon the fame part,
footing j for this virtually includes the former, the de¬
claration being ufually collefted from the direction.
The kw that fays, “ Thou (halt not deal,” implies a
declaration that dealing is a crime. And we have feen,
that, in things naturally indifferent, the very effence of
right and wrong depends upon the direction of the laws
to do or to omit them.
The remedial part of a law is fo neceffary a confe- Remedial'
quence of the two former, that laws mult be very part,
vague and .imperfect without it. tor in vain would
rights be declared, in vain dire&ed to be obferved, if
there vrere no method of recovering and afferting thofe
rights when wrongfully withheld or invaded, ihis
is what we mean properly, when we (peak of the pra-
teflion of the law. Ayhen, for inftance, the declaratory
part of the law has faid, that “ the field or inheritance
which belonged to Titius’s father is verted by his
death in Titius,” and the dire&ory part has. “ forbid¬
den any one to enter on another’s property without the
leave of the owner j” if Gaius after this will prefume
to take poffeffion of the land, the remedial part of the
law will then interpofe its office ; will make Gaius re-
ftore the poffeffion to Titius, and alfo pay him damages
for the invafion.
With regard to the fandion of laws, or the evil
that may attend the breach of public duties j it is ob¬
ferved, that human legiflators have for the moil part;
chofen to make the fan&ion of their laws rather vin¬
dicatory than remuneratory, or. to coiifift rather ia
punifhments than in aftual particular rewards : Be-
caufe, in the firft place, the quiet enjoyment and
protection of all our civil rights and liberties, which
are the fure and general confequence of obedience t»
the municipal law, are in themfelves the beft and moft
valuable of all rewards: becaufe alfo, were the exercife
of every virtue to be enforced by the propofal of par¬
ticular rewards, it were impoffible for any (late to
furnith (lock enough for fo profufe a bounty ; and far¬
ther. becaufe the dread of evil is a much more h r<.ible
4 £ 2 principle
«
5*8
L A W.
Part T.
Of Laws principle of human atlions than the profpefl of good.
in generai. pQr reafons, though a prudent bellowing of
~^ rewards is fometimes of exquifite ufe, yet we find that
thofe civil laws, which enforce and enjoin our duty, do
feldom, if ever, propofe any privilege or gift to fuch
as obey the law ; but do conftantly come armed with
a penalty denounced againlt tranfgreffors, either ex-
prefsly defining the nature and quantity of the punilh-
ment, or elfe leaving it to the discretion of the judges,
and thofe who are intrufted with the care of putting
21 the laws in execution.
Vindica- Of all the parts of a law the molt effectual is the vin-
tory part, dicatot'y. For it is but loft labour to fay, “ Do this, or
avoid that,” unlefs we alfo declare, “ This fliall be the
confequence of your noncompliance.” We mult there¬
fore obferve, that the main ftrength and force of a law
confifts in the penalty annexed to it. Herein is to be
found the principal obligation of human laws.
Legillators and their laws are faid to compel and
oblige: not that, by any natural violence, they fo con-
ftrain a man as to render it impoflible for him to aft
otherwife than as they direft, which is the ftrift fenfe
of obligation •, but becaufe, by declaring and exhibit¬
ing a penalty againft offenders, they bring it to pa-fs
that no man can eafily choofe to tranfgrefs the law j
fince, by reafon of the impending correftion, compli¬
ance is in a high degree preferable to difobedience.
And, even where rewards are propofed as well as pu-
nifliments threatened, the obligation of the law feems
chiefly to confift in the penalty : for rewards, in their
nature, can only perfuade and allure $ nothing is com-
pulfory but puniftiment.
It has been held true, and very juflly, by the prin¬
cipal of our ethical writers, that human laws are bind¬
ing upon men’s confciences. But, if that were the
only or moil forcible obligation, the good only would
regard the laws, and the bad would let them at de¬
fiance. And, true as this principle is, it mull Hill
be underftood with fome reftriftion. It holds, we ap¬
prehend, as to rights ; and that, when the law has de¬
termined the field to belong to Titius, it is a matter of
confcience no longer to withhold or to invade it. So
alfo in regard to natural duties, and fuch offences as are
mala in fe : here we are bound in confcience, becaufe
we are bound by fuperior laws, before thofe human
laws were in being, to perform the one and abftain
from the other. But in relation to thofe laws which
enjoin only pofitive duties, and forbid only fuch things
as are not mala in fe, but mala prohibita merely, with¬
out any intermixture of moral guilt, annexing a pe¬
nalty to noncompliance 5 here confcience feems to be
no farther concerned, than by direfting a fubmiflion
to the penalty, in cafe of our breach of thofe laws :
for otherwife the multitude of penal laws in a Hate
would not only be looked upon as an impolitic, but
would alfo be a very wicked, thing $ if every fuch law
were a fnare for the confcience of the fubjeft. But in
thefe cafes the alternative is offered to every man ;
either abltain from this, or fubmit to fuch a penalty
and his confcience will be clear whichever fide of the
alternative he thinks proper to embrace. Thus, by the
ftatutes for preferving the game, a penalty is denounced
againff every unqualified perfon that kills a hare, and
againft every perfon who poffeffes a partridge in Au-
guft. And fo too, by other ftatutes, pecuniary pe¬
nalties are inflifted for exercifing trades without ferv- Of Laws
ing an apprenticelhip thereto, for erecting cottages is) genera!,
without annexing four acres of land to each, for not '
burying the dead in woollen, for not performing Ita-
tute work on the public roads, and for innumerable
other pofitive mifdemeanors. Now thefe prohibitory
laws do not make the tranfgrefiion a moral offence, or
fin : the only obligation in confcience is to fubmit to
the penalty, if levied. It mult, however, be obferved,
that we are here fpeaking of laws that are Amply and
purely penal, where the thing forbidden or enjoined is
wholly a matter of indifference, and where the penalty
inflifted is an adequate compenfation for the civil in¬
convenience fuppofed to rife from the offence. But
where difobedience to the law involves in it alfo any
degree of public mifchief or private injury, there it falls
within our former diliinftion, and is alfo an offence
againft confcienee.
We have now gone through the definition laid down
of a municipal law } and have Ihown that it is “ a
rule—of civil conduft—-prefcribed—-by the fupreme
power in a ftate—commanding what is right, and pro¬
hibiting what is wrong in the explication of which
we have endeavoured to interweave a few7 ufeful prin¬
ciples, concerning the nature of civil government, and
the obligation of human laws. Before we conclude this
part, it may not be amifs to add a few obfervations
concerning the interpretation of laws. 22
When any doubt arofe upon the conftruftion of the Of the in-
Roman laws, the ufage was to ftate the cafe to theterprtta.
emperor in w'riting, and take his opinion upon it.1*0110^
This was certainly a bad method of interpretation. aws*
To interrogate the legiflature to decide particular dif-
putes, is not only endlefs, but affords great room for
partiality and oppreflion. The anfwers of the emperor
were called his refcripts, and thefe had in fucceeding
cafes the force of perpetual laws •, though they ought
to be carefully diftinguifhed, by every rational civilian,
from thofe general conftitutions which had only the
nature of things for their guide. The emperor Ma-
crinus, as his hiftorian Capitolinus informs us, had once
refolved to abolilh thefe refcripts, and retain only the
general edifts : he could not bear that the hafty and
crude anfwers of fuch princes as Commodus and Cara-
calla Ihould be reverenced as laws. But Juftinian
thought otherwife, and he has preferved them all. In
like manner the canon laws, or decretal epilllts of the
popes, are all of them refcripts in the ftiifteft fenfe.
Contrary to all true forms of reafoning, they argue
from particulars to generals.
The faireft and moft rational method to interpret
the will of the legiflator, is by exploring his intentions
at the time when the law was made, by figns the moft
natural and probable. And thefe figns are either the
words, the context, the fubjeft-matter, the effefts and
confequence, or the fpirit and reafon ©f the law. Let
us take a fhort view of them all.
I. Words are generally to be underftood in their 2.,
ufual and moft known fignification j not fo much re¬
garding the propriety of grammar, as their general
and popular ufe. Thus the law mentioned by Puffen-
dorf, which forbade a layman to lay hands on a prieft,
was adjudgqd to extend to him who had hurt a prieft
with a weapon. Again : Terms of art, or technical
terms, muft be taken according to the acceptation of
the
Parti. - LAW. x 589
01 Laws Uie learned In each art, trade, and fclence. So in the
in general. of fettlement, where the crown of England is li-
1——u tQ prinCefs Sophia, and the heirs of her
body being Proteftants,” it becomes neceffary to call
in the afiiltance of lawyers, to afcertain the precife
idea of the words “ heirs of her body j” which in a
legal fenfe comprife only certain of her lineal defcend-
ants. Laftly, Where words are clearly repugnant in
two laws, the latter law takes place of the elder j leges
pojieviores priores contraries abrogant, is a maxim of
univerfal law, as well as of our own conftitutions. And
accordingly it was laid down by a law of the twelve
tables at Rome, ^uod populus pojiremum jujjit, id jus re¬
turn ejlo.
24 2. If words happen to be ftill dubious, we may
eltablifli their meaning from the context; with which
it may be of lingular ufe to compare a word or a fen-
tence, whenever they-are ambiguous, equivocal, or in¬
tricate. Thus the proeme, or preamble, is often called
in to help the conftruftion of an aft of parliament. Of
the fame nature and ufe is the comparifon of a law with
other laws that are made by the fame legillator, that
have fome affinity with the fubjeft, or that exprefsly
relate to the fame point. Thus, when the law of Eng¬
land declares murder to be felony without benefit of
clergy, we muft refort to the fame law of England to
learn what the benefit of clergy is : and, when the com¬
mon law cenfures fimoniacal contracts, it affords great
light to the fubjeft to confider what the canon law has
adjudged to be fimony.
25 3. As to the fubj'eB-matter, words are always to be
underitood as having a regard thereto j for that is al¬
ways fuppofed to be in the eye of the legiflator, and
all his expreffions direfted to that end. Thus, when a
law of Edward III. forbids all ecclefiaftical perfons to
purchafe provifions at Rome, it might feem to prohibit
the buying of grain and other viftual j but when we
confider that the ftatute was made to reprefs the ufurpa-
tions of the papal fee, and that the nominations to be¬
nefices by the pope were called provifions, we (hall fee
that the reftraint is intended to be laid upon fuch pro¬
vifions only.
26 4. As to the effefts and confequence, the rule is,
That where words bear either none, or a very abiurd
fignification, if literally underftood, we muft a little
deviate from the received fenfe of them. Therefore-
<*■ the Bolognian law, mentioned by Puffendorf, which
enafled “ that whoever drew blood in the ftreets Ihould
be puniffied with the utmoft feverity,” was held after
long debate not to extend to the furgeon who opened
the vein of a perfon who fell down in the ftreet with
a fit.
27 5. But, laftly, The moft univerfal and effeflual way
of difeovering the true meaning of a law, when the
words are dubious, is by confidering the reafon and
fpirit of it, or the caufe which moved the legiflator to
enafl it. For when this reafon ceafes, the law itfelf
ought likewife to ceafe with it. An inftance of this is
given in a cafe put by Cicero, or whoever was the au¬
thor of the rhetorical treatife inferibed to Herennius,
There was a law, That thofe who in a ftorm forfook Of Laws
the (hip ftiould forfeit all property therein, and the fliip ,‘n Renerah
and lading ffiould belong entirely to thofe who ftaid in
it. In a dangerous tempeft, all the mariners lorfook
the (hip, except only one lick paffenger, who by reafon
of his difeafe was unable to get out and efcape. By
chance the Ihip came fafe to port. The lick man kept
poffeffion, and claimed the benefit of the law. Now
here all the learned agree, that the fick man is not
within the reafon of the law j for the reafon of making
it was, to give encouragement to fuch as Ihould venture
their lives to lave the vefl'el : but this is a merit which
he could never pretend to, who neither ftaid in the Ihip
upon that account, nor contributed any thing to its pre-
fervation. 2S
From this method of interpreting laws by the rea-Equity,
fon of them, arifes what we call equity : which is thus
defined by Grotius, “ the correflion of that, wherein
the law (by reafon of its univerfality) is deficient.”
For fince in laws all .cafes cannot be forefeen or expref-
fed, it is neceffary, that, when the general decrees of
the law come to be applied to particular cafes, there
fhould be fomewhere a power Veiled of defining thofe
circumftances, which (had they been forefeen) the le¬
giflator himfelf would have exprefled. And thefe are
the cafes which, according to Grotius, lex non exaffe
definite fed arbitrio boni viripermitiit.
Equity thus depending, effentially, upon the parti¬
cular circumftances of each individual cafe, there can
be no eftablithed rules and fixed precepts of equity laid
down, without deftroying its very effence, and reducing
it to a pofitive law. And, on the other hand, the li¬
berty of confidering all cafes in an equitable light muft
not be indulged too far *, left thereby we deftroy all
law, and leave the decifion of every queftion entirely
in the breaft of the judge. And law, without equity,
though hard and difagreeable, is much more defirable
for the public good, than equity without law •, which
would make every judge a legiilator, and introduce
infinite confufion : as there would then be almoft as
many different rules of a£lion laid down in our courts,
as there are differences of capacity and fentiment in the
human mind.
Having thus confidered the nature of laws m gene-p]ar. ofthe
ral, we (hall proceed to give a view of the particular-.wo follow*
law of our own country *, I. Of England 5 2. Of Scot-ing parts,
land. The Englilh law, however, being too extenfive
to admit of detail in a body, we can only here give fuch
a fketch of it as may be fufficient to ftiow the connexion
of its parts \ but the principal of thele parts themfelves
are explained at large, under their proper names, in the
general alphabet.—A contrary method is followed with
regard to the law of Scotland. T his being lels exten¬
five, is given in a body, with all its parts not only in
regular connection, but fufficiently explained; thffe
parts, again, not being explained in the order of the
alphabet, but marked with numerical references to their
explanations in the fyftem.
4
PART
L A W.
59®
Law of
England,
PART II. THE LAW OF ENGLAND.
Part li.
Law of
England,
3°
Common
law.
INTRODUCTION.
THE municipal law of England, or the rule of civil
condudf prefcribed to the inhabitants of that kingdom,
may with fufficient propriety be divided into two kinds :
the /<w non fcripta, the unwritten or common law j and
the lex fcripta, the written or ftatute law.
The lex non fcripta, or unwritten law, includes not
only general cuftoms, or the common law properly fo
called ; but alfo the particular cuftoms of certain parts
of the kingdom, and likewife thefe particular laws that
are by cuftom obferved only in certain courts and jurif-
didtions.
In calling thefe parts of the law leges non fcrlpt.ce,
we would not be underftood as if all thofe laws were at
prefent merely oral, or communicated from the former
ages to the prefent folely by word of mouth. It is
true indeed, that in the profound ignorance of letters
which formerly overfpread the whole weftern world,
all laws were entirely traditional ; for this plain reafon,
that the nations among which they prevailed had but
little idea of writing. Thus the Britifti as well as the
Gallic druids committed all their laws as well as learn¬
ing to memory ; and it is faid of the primitive Saxons
here, as well as their brethern on the continent, that
leges fola tnemoria et ufu retinebant. But, with us at
prefent, the monuments and evidences of our legal cuf¬
toms are contained in the records of the feveral courts
of juftice, in books of reports end judicial decifions,
and in the treatifes of learned fages of the profeffion,
preferved and handed down to us from the times of
higheft antiquity. However, we therefore ftyle thefe
parts of our law leges non fcrlptce, becaufe their original
inftitution and authority are not fet down in writing,
as ads of parliament are *, but they receive their
binding power, and the force of laws, by long and
immemorial ufage, and by their univerfal reception
throughout the kingdom : in like manner as Aulus
Gellius defines the jus non fenptum to be that w hich
is tacito et ilhterato hominum confenfu et moribus ex-
prejfum.
Our ancient lawyers, and particularly Fortefcue,
infill with abundance of warmth, that thefe cuftoms
are as old as the primitive Britons, and continued down
through the feveral mutations of government and in¬
habitants to the prefent time, unchanged and unadul¬
terated. This may be the cafe as to fome. But in
general, as Mr Selden in his notes obferves, this after-
lion muft be underftood with many grains of allowance $
an ' ought only to fignify, as the truth feems to be,
that there never was anv formal exchange of one fy-
ftem of laws for another: though doubtlefs, by the
intermixture of adventitious nations, the Romans, the
PicT, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans, they
muft infenfibly have introduced and incorporated many
of their own cuftoms with thofe that were before efta-
blifhrdj thereby, in all probability, improving the
texture and wifdom of the whole, by the accumulated
wifdom of divers particular countries. Our laws, faith
Lord Bacon, are mixed as our language j and as our
2
language is fo much the richer, the laws are the more
complete.
And indeed our antiquarians and firft hiftorians do
ail pofitively affure us, that our body of law's is of this
compound nature. For they tell us, that in the
time of Alfred the local cuftoms of the feveral provin¬
ces of the kingdom were grown fo various, that he
found it expedient to compile his dome book, or liber
judicialis, for the general ufe of the whole kingdom.
This book is faid to have been extant fo late as the
reign of Edward IV. but is now unfortunately loft. It
contained, we may probably fuppofe, the principal
maxims of the common law, the penalties for mifde-
meanors, and the forms of judicial proceedings. Thus
much may at leaft be collefted from that injunftion to
obferve it, which w'e find in the laws of King Edward
the Elder, the fon of Alfred. Omnibus qui reipublicee
prafunt etiam atque etiam rnando, ut omnibus ecquos fe
preebeant judices perinde ac in judicial! libra fenptum ha-
betur : nec quiquam formident quin jus commune audac-
ter libereque dicant.
But the irruption and eftablifhment of the Danes in
England, which followed foon after, introduced new
cuftoms, and caufed this code of Alfred in many pro¬
vinces to fall into difufe, or at leaft to be mixed and
debafed with other laws of a coarfer alloy. So that,
about the beginning of the nth century, there were
three principal fyftems of laws prevailing in different
diftri6ls. I. The Mercen Lage, or Mercian laws,
which were obferved in many of the inland counties,
and thofe bordering on the principality of Wales, the
retreat of the ancient Britons •, and therefore very pro¬
bably intermixed with the Britifti or Druidical cu¬
ftoms. 2. The Wef Saxon Lage, or laws of the Weft
Saxons, which obtained in the counties to the fouth
and weft of the iftand, from Kent to Devonfhire, Thefe
were probably much the fame with the laws of Alfred
above mentioned, being the municipal law @f the far
moft confiderable part of his dominions, and particular¬
ly including Berkftiire, the feat of his peculiar refi-
dence. 3. The Dane Lage, or Danifh law, the very
name of which fpeaks its original and compofition.
This was principally maintained in the reft of the mid¬
land counties, and alfo on the eaftern coaft, the part
moft expofed to the vifits of that piratical people. As
for the very northern provinces, they were at that time
under a diftindl government.
Out of thefe three laws, Roger Hoveden and Ra¬
mil phus Ceftrenfis inform us, King Edward the Con-
feffor extracted one uniform law, or digeft of laws, t®
be obferved throughout the whole kingdom ; though
Hoveden and the author of an old manufeript chronicle
affure us likewife, that this work was projected and
begun by his grandfather King Edgar. And indeed a
general digeft of the fame nature has been eonftantly
found expedient, and therefore put in practice hy other
great nations, which were formed from an affemblage
of little provinc es, governed by peculiar cuftoms. As
in Portugal, under King Edward, about the beginning
of the 15th century, In Spain, under Alonzo X. wh®
about
Part IT,
L A
Law of about the year 1250 executed tbe plan of his father
_ England, gj. Ferdinand, and collected all the provincial cuftoms
L ^ into one uniform law, in the celebrated code entitled
Las Partidas. And in Sweden, about the fame era, a
univerfal body of common law was compiled out of
the particular cuiloms eftablifhed by the laghman of
every province, and entitled the Land's Lagh, being
analogous to the common law of England.
Both thefe undertakings of King Edgar ane Edward
the Confeff.r, feem to have been no mere than a new
edition, or frefn promulgation, of Alfred’s code or
dome book, with fuch additions and improvements as
the experience of a century and a half had fuggelfed.
For Alfred is generally ftyled by the fame hiitorians
the tegum Anglicanarum conditor, as Edward the Con-
feflbr is the rejlitutor. Thefe, however, are the laws
which our hiftories fo often mention under the name
of the laws of Edward the Confcffor ; which our ancef-
tors ftruggled fo hardly to maintain, under the firfl
princes of the Norman line ; and which fubfequent
princes fo frequently promifed to keep and to rellore,
as the moil popular a6l they could do, when preffed
by foreign emergencies or domeftic difeontents. Thefe
are the laws, that fo vigoroufly withilood the repeated
attacks of the civil law ; which eflablifhed in the 1 2th
century a new Roman empire over the moft of the
Rates on the continent : Rates that have loft, and
perhaps upon that account, their political liberties j
while the free conftitution of England, perhaps upon
the fame account, has been rather improved than de-
bafed. Thefe, in ftiort, are the laws which gave rife
and origin to that colledtion of maxims and cuftoms
which is now known by the name of the common law :
A name either given to it, in contradiftinflion to other
laws, as the ftatute law, the civil law, the law merchant,
and the like ; or, more probably, as a law common
to all the realm, theyW commune or fo/cright, mention¬
ed by King Edward the Elder, after the abolition of
the feveral provincial cuftoms, and particular laws be¬
fore mentioned.
But though this is the moft likely foundation of this
collesftion of maxims and cuftoms, yet the maxims and
cuftoms fo collefted, are of higher antiquity than me¬
mory or hiftory can reach: nothing being more difficult
than to afeertain the precife beginning and firft fpring
ox an ancient and long eftabliffied cuftom. Whence it
is, that in our law' the goodnefs of a cuftom depends
upon its having been ufed time out of mind; or, in the
folemnity of our legal phrafe, time whereof the memory
of man runneth not to the contrary. This it is that
gives it its weight and authority; and of this nature are
the maxims and cuftoms which compofe the common
law, or Jex non feripta, of this kingdom.
Of three This unwritten, or common law, is properly di¬
kinds. ftinguiffiable into three kinds: I. General cuftoms;
which are the univerfal rule of the whole kingdom,
and. form the common law in its ftrufter and more
ufual fignification. 2. Particular cuftoms; which for
the moft part affedt only the inhabitants of particular
3j diftrifts. 3. Certain particular laws; which by cuftom
Firft branch are adopted and ufed by feme particular courts, of
of the un- pretty general and extenfive jurifdiction.
lawUen I. As to general cuftoms, or the common law pro-
General Perty called; this is that law, by which proceedings
cuiloms. and determinations in the king’s ordinary courts of juf-
w.
59*
tice are guided and diredled. This, for the moft part,
fettles the courfe in which lands defeend by inheritance;
the manner and form of acquiring and transferring pro¬
perty ; the folemnities and obligation of contrafts ; the
rules of expounding wills, deeds, and adts of parlia¬
ment ; the refpedtive remedies of civil injuries; the fe¬
veral fpecies of temporal offences, with the manner and
degree of puniffiment, and an infinite number of minu¬
ter particulars, which diffufe themfelves as extensively
as the ordinary diftribution of common juftice requires.
Thus, for example, that there ftiall be four fuperior
courts of record, the chancery, the king’s bench, the
common plea», and the exchequer ;—that the eldeft fon
alone is heir- to his anceftor ;—that property may be
acquired and transferred by writing ;—that a deed is of
no validity unlefs fealed and delivered —that wills {hall
be conftrued more favourably, and deeds more ftridl-
ly ;—that money lent upon bond is recoverable by ac¬
tion of debt;—that breaking the public peace is an of¬
fence, and puniffiable by fine and imprilonment:—all
thefe are doctrines that are nut fet down in any writtert
ftatute or ordinance ; but depend merely upon imme¬
morial ufage, that is, upon common law, for their fup-
port.
Some have divided the common law into two prin¬
cipal grounds or foundations : 1. Eftabliftied cuftoms;
fuch as that, where there are three brothers, the eldeft
brother ffiall be heir to the fecond, in exclufion of the
youngeft ; and, 2. Eftabliftied rules and maxims ; as,
“ that the king can do no wrong, that no man ftiall
“ be bound to accufe himfelf,” and the like. But
thefe feem to be one and the fame thing. For the
authority of thefe maxims refts entirely upon general
reception and ufage ; and the only method of proving
that this or that maxim is a rule of the common law,
is by ftiowing that it hath been always the cuftom to
obferve it.
But here a very natural, and very material, queftioa
arifes : How are thefe cuftoms or maxims to be known,
and by whom is their validity to be determined ? The
anfwer is, By the judges in the feveral courts of jufticc.
They are the depofitory of the laws; the living oracles
who muft decide in all cafes of doubt, and who are
bound by an oath to decide according to the law of
the land. Their knowledge of that law is derived from
experience and ftudy ; from the viginti annorum lucu-
brationes, which Fortefcue mentions ; and from being
Law of
England,
long perfonally accuftomed to the judicial deeifions of
their predeceffors. And indeed thefe judicial decifions
are the principal and moft authoritative evidence, that
can be given, of the exiftence of fueh a cuftom as ffiall
form a part of the common law. The judgment itfelf,
and all the proceedings previous thereto, are carefully
regiftered and preferved under the name of records^ in
public repofitories fet apart for that particular purpofe ;
and to them frequent recourfe is had, when any criti¬
cal queftion arifes, in the determination of which for¬
mer precedents may give light or affiftance. And
therefore, even fo early as the Conqueft, we find the
preeteritorum memoria eventorum reckoned up as one of
the chief qualifications of thofe who. were held to be
lefbus patrice optime injlituti. For it is an eftabliftied
rule, To abide by former precedents, where the fame
points come again in litigation, as well to keep the
fcale of juftice even and fteady, and not liable to waver
with
59 2 LAW. Part II.
Law of witli every new judge’s opinion ; as alfo becaufe the
. Engbnd. ^ jaw jn t|iat cape j^glng folemnly declared and determi¬
ned, what before was uncertain, and perhaps indiffer¬
ent, is now become a permanent rule, which is not in
the bread of any fubfequent judge to alter or vary from
according to his private fentiments : he being fworn
to determine, not according to his own private judge¬
ment, but according to the known laws and cuftoms of
the land •, not delegated to pronounce a new law, but
• to maintain and expound the old one. Yet this rule
admits of exception, where the former determination is
molt evidently contrary to reafon j much more if it
be contrary to the divine law. But even in fuch cafes
the fubfequent judges do not pretend to make a new
law, but to vindicate the old one from mifreprefenta-
tion. For if it be found that the former decifion is
manifeftly abfurd or unjuft, it is declared, not that
fuch a fentence was bad law, but that it was not law j
that is, that it is not the eftablilhed cuftom of the
realm, as has been erroneoufly determined. And hence
it is that our lawyers are with juftice fo copious in their
encomiums on the reafon of the common law : that
they tell us, that the law is the perfe&ion of reafon,
that it always intends to conform thereto, and that
what is not reafon is not law. Not that the particular
reafon of every rule in the law, can at this diftance of
time be always precifely affigned j but it is fufficient
that there be nothing in the rule flatly contradictory to
reafon, and then the law will prefume it to be well
founded. And it hath been an ancient obfervation in
the laws of England, that whenever a Handing rule of
law, of which the reafon perhaps could not be remem
bered or difcerned, hath been wantonly broke in upon
by flatutes or new refolutions, the wifdom of the rule
hath in the end appeared from the inconveniences that
have followed the innovation.
The doCtrine of the law then is this : That prece¬
dents and rules muft be followed, unlefs flatly abfurd
or unjufl: j for though their reafon be not obvious at
firft view, yet we owe fuch a deference to former times
as not to fuppofe they afted wholly without confidera-
tion. To illuftrate this doClrine by examples. It has
been determined, time out of mind, that a brother of
the half blood {hall never fueceed as heir to the eftate
of his half brother, but it {hall rather efcheat to the
king, or other fuperior lord. Now this is a pofitive
law, fixed and eftablilhed by cuftom j which cuftom is
proved by judicial deeiuons ; and therefore can nq-
ver be departed from by any modern judge without a
breach of his oath and the law. For herein there is
nothing repugnant to natural juftice •, though the arti¬
ficial reafon of it, drawn from the feodal law, may not
be quite obvious to every body. And therefore on ac¬
count of a fuppofed hardftiip upon the half brother, a
modern iudge might wifh it hr;d been otherwife fettled,
yet it is not in his power to alter it. But if any court
were now' to determine, that an elder brother of the Law of
half blood might enter upon and feize any lands that Englan(l.
were purchafed by his younger brother, no fubfequent
judges would fcruple to declare that fuch prior deter¬
mination was unjuft, was unreafonable, and therefore
was not law'. So that the law, and the' opinion of the
judge, are not always convertible terms, or one and the
fame thing fince it fometimes may happen that the
judge may miftake the law. Upon the whole, however,
we may take it as a general rule, “ That the deciftons
of courts of juftice are the evidence of what is common
lawg” in the fame manner as in the civil law, what the
emperor had once determined was to ferve for a guide
for the future.
The decilions therefore of courts are held in the
higheft regard, and are not only preferved as authentic
records in the treafuries of the feveral courts, but are
handed out to public view in the numerous volumes of
reports which furniih the lawyers library. Thefe re¬
ports are hiftories of the feveral cafes, with a ftiort
fummary of the proceedings, which are preferved at
large in the record j the arguments on both tides, and
the reafons the court gave for its judgment : taken,
down in fhort notes by perfons prefent at the determi¬
nation. And thefe ferve as indexes to, and alfo to
explain, the records •, which always, in matters of
confequence and nicety, the judges direct to be
fearched. The reports are extant in a regular feries
from the reign of King Edward II. inclufive ; and
from his time to that of Henry VIII. were taken by
the prothonotaries, or chief feribes of the court, at the
expence of the crown, and publithed annually, whence
they are known under the denomination of the year
books. And it is much to be wiftied that this beneficial
cuftom had, under proper regulations, been continued
to this day j for though King James I, at the inftance
of Lord Bacon, appointed two reporters, with a hand-
fome ftipend, for this purpofe ; yet that wife inftitution
was foon ncgle61ed, and from the reign of Henry VIII.
to the prefent time this talk has been executed by ma¬
ny private and contemporary bands ; who fometimes
through hafte and inaccuracy, fometimes through mif¬
take and want of {kill, have publiihed very crude and
imperfe<51 (perhaps con trad i ft or y) accounts of one and
the fame determination. Some of the moft valuable of
the ancient reports are thofe publilhed by Lord Chief
juftice Coke j a man of infinite learning in his profef-
fion, though not a little infefted with the pedantry and
quaintnefs of the times he lived in, which appear itrong-
ly in all his works. However, his writings are fo high¬
ly efteemed, that they are generally cited without the
author’s name (a).
Befides thefe reporters, there are alfo other authors,
to w'hom great veneration and refpeft are paid by the
ftudents of the common law. Such are Glanvil and
Brafton, Britton and Fleta, Littleton and Fitzherbert,
* with
(a) His reports, for inftance, are ftyled, k«,t “ the reports and in quoting them we ufually fay,
I or 2 Rep. not I or 2 Coke’s Rep. as in citing other authors. The reports of Judge Croke are alfo cited
in a peculiar manner, by the name of thofe princes in whofe reigns the cafes reported in his three vo¬
lumes wrere determined j viz Queen Elizabeth, King James, King Charles I. : as well as by the number of
each volume. For fometimes we call them I, 2, and 3 Cro. j but more commonly Cro. Eliz. Cro. Jac. and
Cro. Car.
Part II.
L A W.
Law of with foiue others of ancient date, whofe treatifes are
Logiantl. _ cj(-e(j as authority 5 and are evidence that cafes have
—v formerly happened in which fuch and fuch points were
determined, which are now' become fettled and firft
principles. One of the laft of thefe methodical writers
in point of time, whofe works are of any intrinfic au¬
thority in the courts of juftice, and do not entirely de¬
pend on the ftrength of their quotations from older au¬
thors, is the fame learned judge we have juft mention¬
ed, Sir Edward (Sokej who hath written four volumes
of Inftitutes, as he is pleafed to call them, though they
have little of the inftitutional method to warrant fuch
a title. The firft volume is a very extenfive comment
upon a little excellent treatife of tenures, compiled by
Judge Littleton in the reign of Edward IV. This
comment is a rich mine of valuable common law learn¬
ing, colledled and heaped together from the ancient
reports and year books, but greatly defective in me¬
thod (b). The fecond volume is a comment upon ma¬
ny old afts of parliament, without any fyftemntical or¬
der ; the third a more methodical treatife of the pleas
of the crown; and the fourth, an account of the feveral
Ipecies of courts (c).
And thus much for the firft ground and chief cor-
ner-ftone of the laws of England; which is generally
immemorial cuftom, or common law, from time to time
declared in the decifions of the courts of juftice j which
decifions are preferved among the public records, ex¬
plained in the reports, and digefted for general ufe
in the authoritative writings of the venerable fages of
the law.
The Roman law, as praftifed in the times of its li¬
berty, paid alfo a great regard to cuftom ; but not fo
much as our law : it only then adopting it when the
written law was deficient; though the reafons alleged
n the Digeft will fully juftify our pra&ice in making
>t of equal authority with, when it is not contradicted
by, the written law. a For fince (fays Julianus) the
written law binds us for no other reafon but becaufe it
is approved by the judgment of the people, therefore
thole laws which the people have approved without
writing ought alfo to bind every body. For where is
the difference whether the people declare their affent
to a law by a fuffrage, or by an uniform courfe of ail¬
ing accordingly.” Thus did they reafon while Rome
had fome remains of her freedom 5 but when the im¬
perial tyranny came to be fully eftabliftied, the civil
laws fpeak a very different language, ^uod principi
placuit legis habet vigorem, cum populus ei et in eum omne
fuum imperium et potejlatem confer at, fays Ulpian. Im-
perator folus et conditor et interpres legis exijlimatur,
fays the Code. And again, Sacrilegii inflar ejl refcripto
pnncipis obviari And indeed it is one of the charac-
teriftic marks of Britifti liberty, that the common law
depends upon cuftom : which carries this internal evi¬
dence of freedom along with it, that it probably was
introduced by the voluntary confent of the people.
Vol. XL Part II.
593
II. The fecond branch of the unwritten laws of Law cf
England are particular cuftom4, or laws which affcdl £t>g^andq
only the inhabitants of particular diffriffs. ?
Thefe particular cuftoms, or foine of them, are Second
without doubt the remains of that multitude of local branch of
cuftoms before mentioned, out of which the commontiie jinwnt'
law, as it now ftands, was collefted r.t firft by King
Alfred, and afterwards by King Edgar and Edwardcuft0ms.
the Confeffor : each diftriff: mutually facrificing fome
of its own fpecial ufages, in order that the whole
kingdom might enjoy the benefit of one uniform and
univerfal fyltem of law's. But, for reafons that have
been now long forgotten, particular counties, cities,
towns, manors, and lordftiips, were very early indulged
with the privilege of abiding by their own cuftoms,
in contradiftinftion to the reft of the nation at large ;
which privilege is confirmed to them by feveral affs of
parliament.
Such is the cuftom of gavelkind in Kent and fome
other parts of the kingdom (though perhaps it was
alfo general till the Norman conqueft); which ordains
among other things, that not the eldeft fon only of
the father {hall fucceed to his inheritance, but all the
fons alike •, and that, though the anceftor be attainted
and hanged, yet the heir (hall fucceed to his eftate,
without any efcheat to the lord.—Such is the cuftom
that prevails in divers ancient borough?, and therefore
called borough Englijh, that the youngeft fon (hall in¬
herit the eftate, in preference to all his elder brothers.
—Such is the cuftom, in other boroughs, that a widow
{hall be entitled, for her dower, to all her hufband’s
lands; whereas at the common law' fhe {hall be endow¬
ed of one-third part only.—Such alfo are the fpecial
and particular cuftoms of manors, of which every one
has more or lefs, and which bind all the copyhold te¬
nants that hold of the faid manors.—Such likewife is
the cuftom of holding divers inferior courts, with power
of trying caufes, in cities and trading towns j the
right of holding which, when no royal grant can be
ftiown, depends entirely upon immemorial ami' efta-
bliihed ufage.—Such, laftly, are the many particular
cuftoms within the city of London, w’ith regard to trade,
apprentices, widows, orphans, and a variety of other
matters. All thefe are contrary to the general law of
the land, and are good only by fpecial ufage $ though
the cuftoms of London are alfo confirmed by aft of
parliament.
To this head may moft properly be referred a parti¬
cular fyftem of cuftoms ufed only among one fet ®f the
king’s fubjefts, called the cuflom of merchants, or lex
mercatoria : which, however different from the general
rules of the common law, is yet ingrafted into it, and
made a part of it} being allow’ed for the benefit of
trade, to be of the utmoft validity in all commercial
tranfaftions $ for it is a maxim of law, that cuihbet in
fua arte credendum eft.
The rules relating to particular cuftoms regard ei- 34
4 F ther
(b) It is ufually cited either by the name of Co. Lilt, or as 1 Inft.
(c) Thefe are cited as a, 3, or 4 Inft. without any author’s name : An honorary diftinftion, which, we ob¬
served, is paid to the works of no other writer $ the generality of reports and oth r Irafts being quoted in the
of the compiler, as 2 Ventris, 4 Leonard, 1 Siderhn, and the like.
594 . . L .
Law of tlier the.proof of their exiftence j their legality when
. England. proVed ; or their ufual method of allowance. And firft
we will confider the rules of proof.
As to gavelkind and borough Englilh, the law takes
particular notice of them ; and there is no occafion to
prove, that fuch cuftoms actually exift, but only that
the lands in quehion are fubjedl thereto. All other pri¬
vate cuftoms muft be particularly pleaded ; and as well
the exiftence of fuch cuftoms muft be fhown, as that the
thing in difpute is within the cuftoms alleged. The
trial in both cafes (both to (how the exiftence of the
cuftom, as, “ That in the manor of Dale lands fhall
defcend only to the heirs male, and never to the heirs
female j” and alfo to fhow “ that the lands in queftion
are within that manor”) is by a jury of twelve men,
and not by the judges ; except the fame particular cuf-
tom has been before tried, determined, and recorded,
in the fame court.
The cuftoms of London differ from all others in
point of trial: for if the exiftence of the cuftom be
brought in queftion, it fhall not be tried by a jury, but
by a certificate from the lord mayor and aldermen by
the mouth of their recorder j unlefs it be fuch a cuftom
as the corporation is itfelf interefted in, as a right of
taking toll, &c. for then the law permits them not to
certify on their own behalf.
When a cuftom is actually proved to exift, the next
inquiry is into the legality of it j for if it is not a good
cuftom, it ought to be no longer ufed. Malus ufus
abo/endus ef, is an eftabliftied maxim of the law. To
make a particular cuftom good, the following are ne-
3' ceffary requifites:
Rules in I. That it have been ufed fo long, that the me-
eitabething rnory of man runneth not to the contrary. So that
if any one can fhow the beginning of it, it is no
good cuftom. For which reafon, no cuftom can pre¬
vail againft an exprefs afl of parliament j fince the ita-
tute itfelf is a proof of a time when fuch a cuftom did
not exift.
2. It muft have been continued. Any interruption
would caufe a temporary ceafing : the revival gives it
a new beginning, which will be within time of me¬
mory, and thereupon the cuftom will be void. But
this muft be underftood with regard to an interruption
of the right : for an interruption of the poffeflion only
for io or 20 years, wdll not deftroy the cuftom. As
if the inhabitants of a parifh have a cuftomary right of
watering their cattle at a certain pool, the cuftom is not
deftroyed, though they do not ufe it for io years j it
only becomes more difficult to prove : but if the right
be anyhow difcontinued for a day, the cuftom is quite
at an end.
3. It muft have been peaceable, and acquiefced in \
not fubjedt to contention and difpute. For as cuftoms
owe their original to common confent, their being im-
memorially difputed, either at law or otherwife, is a
proof that fuch confent was wanting.
4. Cuftoms muft be reafonable ; or rather, taken ne¬
gatively, they muft not be unreafonable. Which is
not alwrays, as Sir Edward Coke fays, to be under¬
ftood of every unlearned man’s reafon j but of artificial
and legal reafon, w arranted by authority of law. Upon
which account a cuftom may be good, though the par¬
ticular reafon of it cannot be afligned •, for it fufficeth,
if no good legal reafon can be afligned againft it.
^uftoins.
A. W. Pan 11.
Thus a cuftom in a pariffi, that no man fliall put his Law of
beafts into the common till the third of Odtober, would England,
be good \ and yet it would be hard to Ihow the reafon u*“-V*—'
why that day in particular is fixed upon rather than
the day before or after. But a cuftom that no cattle
fliall be put in till the lord of the manor has firft put in
his, is unreafonable, and therefore bad : for peradven-
ture the lord will never put in his; and then the tenants
will lofe all their profits.
5. Cuftoms ought to be certain. A cuftom, that
lands fliall defcend to the moft worthy of the owner’s
blood, is void 5 for how ftiall this worth be determined ?
but a cuftom to defcend to the next male of the blood,
exclufive of females, is certain, and therefore good.
A cuftom to pay twopence an acre in lieu of tithes, is
good j but to pay fometimes twopence and fometimes
threepence, as the occupier of the land pleafes, is bad
for its uncertainty. Yet a cuftom, to pay a year’s im¬
proved value for a fine on a copyhold eftate, is good ^
though the value is a thing uncertain : for the value
may at any time be afcertained ; and the maxim of law
is, Id certum efl, quod cerium reddipotejl.
6. Cuftoms, though eftabliftied by confent, muft be
(when eftabliftied) computfory: and not left to the op¬
tion of every man, whether he will ufe them or no.
Therefore a cuftom, that all the inhabitants ftiall be
rated toward the maintenance of a bridge, will be good j
but a cuftom, that every man is to contribute thereto
at his own pleafure, is idle and abfurd, and indeed no
cuftom at all.
7. Laftly, Cuftoms muft be conffent with each
other. One cuftom cannot be fet up in oppofition to
another. For if both are really cuftoms, then both are
of equal antiquity, and both eftabliftied by mutual con¬
fent : which to fay of contradictory cuftoms, is abfurd.
Therefore, if one man preferibes that by cuftom he
has a right to have windows looking into another’s gar¬
den j the other cannot claim a right by cuftom to flop
up or obftruCt thofe windows: for thefe two contra¬
dictory cuftoms cannot both be good, nor both ftand
together. He ought rather to deny the exiftence of
the former cuftom.
Next, as to the allowance of fpecial cuftoms. Cuf¬
toms, in derogation of the common law, muft be con-
ftrued ftriCtly. Thus, by the cuftom of gavelkind, an
infant of 15 years may by one fpecies of conveyance
(called a deed of feoffment) convey away his lands in fee
Ample, or for ever. Yet this cuftom does not empower
him to ufe any other conveyance, or even to leafe them
for feven years : for the cuftom muft be ftriCUy pur-
fued. And, moreover, all fpecial cuftoms muft fub-
mit to the king’s prerogative. Therefore, if the king
purchafes lands of the nature of gavelkind, where all
the fons inherit equally j yet, upon the king’s demife,
his eldeft fon fttall fucceed to thofe lands-alone. And
thus much for the fecund part of the leges non fcriptcey
or thofe particular cuftoms which affeCt particular per-
fons or diftriCts only. ^
III. The third branch of them are thofe peculiarThird
laws which by cuftom are adopted and ufed only in branc h of
certain peculiar courts and jurifdibtions. And by thefetl,e unwrit-
are underftood the civil and canon laws. ten law.
It may feem a little improper, at firft view, to rank
thefe laws under the head of leges non feriptee, or un¬
written laws, feeing they are fet forth by authority in
thek
Part II. L A W. 595
Law of their pande£ls, their codes, and their inftliutions; their
England, councils, decrees, and decretals; and enforced by an
v ' immenfe number of expofitions, decihons, and trea-
tifes of the learned in both branches of the law. But
this is done after the example of Sir Matthew Hale,
becaufe it is molt plain, that it is not on account of
their being written laws, that either the canon law, or
the civil law, have any obligation within this kingdom:
neither do their force and efficacy depend upon their
own intrinlxc authority *, which is the cafe of our writ¬
ten laws or aits of parliament. They bind not the
fubje&s of England, becaule their materials were col¬
lected from popes or emperors, were digelted by Juf-
tinian, or declared to be authentic by Gregory. Thefe
conhderations give them no authority here : for the le-
gillature of England doth not, nor ever did, recognize
any foreign power, as fuperior or equal to it in this
kingdom : or as having the right to give law to any
the meanelt of its fubjefts. But all the ftrength that
either the papal or imperial laws have obtained in this
realm (or indeed in any other kingdom in Europe) is
only becaufe they have been admitted and received by
immemorial ufage and cuftom in fome particular cafes,
and fome particular courts; and then they form a
branch of the /eges non fcnptce, or cuftomary law : or
elfe, becaufe they are in fome other cafes introduced
by confent of parliament, and then they owe their va¬
lidity to the leges feriptee, or ftatute law. This is ex-
prefsly declared in thofe remarkable words of the fla-
tute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. addreffed to the king’s royal
majefty.—“This your grace’s realm, recognizing no
fuperior under God but only your grace, hath been
and is free from fubjection to any man’s laws, but only
to fuch as have been devifed, made, and ordained with¬
in this realm for the wealth of the fame j or to fuch
other as, by fufferance of your grace and your proge¬
nitors, the people of this your realm have taken at their
free liberty, by their own confent, to be ufed among
them *, and have bound themfelves by long ufe and
eruftom to the obfervance of the fame : not as to the
obf rvance of the laws of any foreign prince, potentate,
or prelate •, but as to the cultomed and ancient laws
of this realm, originally eftabliffied as laws of the fame,
by the faid fufferance, confents, and cuftom j and none
^ otherwife.”
Civil law. 1. By the civil law. abfolutely taken, is generally un-
derftood the civil or municipal law of the Roman em¬
pire, as comprifed in the Inftitutes, the Code, and the
JDigeft of the emperor Juftinian, and the novel confti-
tutions of himfelf and fome of his fucceffors ; of which
it may not be amifs to give a flrort and general ac¬
count.
The Roman law (founded firft upon the regal con-
flitutions of their ancient kings, next upon the 12 tables
of the decemviri, then upon the laws or ftatutes ena£led
by the fenate or people, the edifls of the praetor, and
the refnonfa prudentium or opinions of learned law¬
yers, and laftly upon the imperial decrees or conftitu-
tions of fucceffive emperors) had grown to fo great a
bulk, or, as Livy expreffes it, tam imtnenfus aliarum
fuper alias aeervatarum legum cumulus, that they were
computed to be many camels load by an author who
preceded Juftinian. This was in part remedied by the
colleftions of three private lawyers, Gregorius, Her-
mogenes, and Papirius j and then by the emperor Theo-
dofms the younger, by whofe orders a code was com- Lav/ of
piled, A. D. 438, being a methodical colleftion of E»g!anL ^
all the imperial conftitutions then in force : which ” y
Theodofian code was the only book of civil law re¬
ceived as authentic in the weftern part of Europe, till
many centuries after: and to this it is probable that
the Franks and Goths might frequently pay fome re¬
gard, in framing legal conftitutions for their newly
erefted kingdoms. For Juftinian commanded only in
the eaftern remains of the empire j and it was under
his aufpices, that the prefent body of civil law was
compiled and finilhed by Trebonian and other lawyers,
about the year 533.
This confifts of, 1. The Inftitutes *, which contain 3*
the elements or firft principles of the Roman law, in
four books. 2. The Digefts or Pandedts, in 50 books j
containing the opinions and writings of eminent law¬
yers, digefted in a fyftematical method. 3. A new
code, or colledtion of imperial conftitutions j the lapfe
of a whole century having rendered the former code of
Theodofius imperfedL 4. The Novels, or new con¬
ftitutions, pofterior in time to the other books, and
amounting to a fupplement to the code : containing
new decrees of fucceffive emperors, as new queftions
happened to arife. Thefe form the body of Roman
law, or corpus juris civilis, as publiftied about the time
of Juftinian: which, however, fell foon into negledc and
oblivion, till about the year 1130, when a copy of the
Digefts was found at Amalfi in Italy 5 which accident,
concurring with the policy of the Roman ecclefiaftics,
fuddenly gave new vogue and authority to the civil
law, introduced it into feveral nations, and occafioned
that mighty inundation of voluminous comments, with
which this fyftem of law, more than any other, is now
loaded.
2. The canon law is a body of Roman eeclefiafticalcacon law.
law, relative to fuch matters as that church either has,
or pretends to have, the proper jurifdiftion over. This
is compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fa¬
thers, the decrees of general councils, the decretal
epiftles and bulls of the holy fee. All which lay in
the fame diforder and confufion as the Roman civil
law: till, about the year 1151, one Gratian an Ita¬
lian monk, animated by the dilcovery of Juftinian’s
Pandects, reduced the ecclefiaftical conftitutions alfo
into fome method, in three books ; which he entitled
Concordia difcordanUum canonum, but which are gene¬
rally known by the name of Decretum Graliani, 'ihefe
reached as low as the time of Pope Alexander III. The
fubfequent papal decrees, to the pontificate of Gre¬
gory IX. were pubiilhed in much the fame method un¬
der the aufpices of that pope, about the year 1230,
in five books; entitled Decretalia Gregorii noni.. A
fixth book was added by Boniface VIII. about the
year 1298, which is called Sextus Decretalium. The
Clementine conftitutions, or decrees of Clement V.
w'ere in like manner authenticated in 13x7 by his fue-
ceffor John XXII. ; who alfo publifhed 20 conftitutions
of his own, called Extravagantes Joannis: all which
in fome meafure anfwer to the novels of the civil law.
To thefe have been fince added fome decrees of latter
popes, in five books, called Exiravagantes Communes.
And all thefe together, Gratian’s decree, Gregory’s
decretals, the fixth decretal, the Clementine conftitu-
tionsj and the Extravagants of John and his fuccsfiors,
4 F 2 form
59*5
L A W.
Part II.
Law of
England.
4°
form the corpus juris candnici, or body of the Roman
canon law.
Befides thefe pontifical colledlions, •which during the
times of popery were received as authentic in this
ifland, as well as in other parts of Chriftendom, there
is alfo a kind of national canon law, compofed of le-
gatine and provincial conftitutions, and adapted only
to the exigencies of this church and kingdom. The
legatine conilitutions were ecclefiaftical laws, enadted
in national fynods, held under the cardinals Otho and
Othohon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope
Clement IV. in the reign of King Henry III. about
the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial conftitu¬
tions are principally the decrees of provincial fynods,
held under divers archbifhops of Canterbury, from
Stephen Langton in the reign of Henry III. to Henry
Chichele in the reign of Henry V. 5 and adopted alfo
by the province of York in the reign of Henry VI.
At the dawn of the Reformation, in the reign of King
Henry VII1. it was enadted in parliament, that a re¬
view Ihould be had of the canon law ; and till fuch re¬
view fhould be made, all canons, conftitutions, ordi¬
nances and fynodals provincial, being then already
made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the
king’s prerogative, fhould ftill be ufed and executed.
And, as no fuch review has yet been perfedled, upon
this ftatute now depends the authority of the canon
law in England.
As for the canons enadfed by the clergy under
James I. in the year 1603, and never confirmed in par¬
liament, it has been folemnly adjudged upon the prin¬
ciples of law and the conftitution, that where they are
not merely declaratory of the ancient canon law, but
are introdudfory of new regulations, they do not bind
the laity, rvhatever regard the clergy may think pro¬
per to pay them.
There are four fpecies of courts, in which the civil
and canon laws are permitted under different reftric-
tions to be ufed. 1. The courts of the archbifhop and
bifhops, and their derivative ofticers ; ufually called
courts Chrtjiian, (curice Chrijlianitatisj or the eccleji-
cjiical courts. 2. The military courts. 3. The courts
of admiralty, 4. The courts of the two univerfities.
In all, their reception in general, and the different de¬
grees of that reception, are grounded entirely upon
cuftom •, corroborated in the latter inftance by adl of
parliament, ratifyi: g thofe charters which confirm
the cuftomary law of the univerfities. The more mi¬
nute confideration of them will fall under their pro¬
per articles. It will fuffice at prefent to remark a few
particulars relative to them all, which may ferve to In- Law of
culcate more ftrongly the dudtrine laid down concern- England,
ing them. y—
1. And firft, The courts of common law have the
fuperintendency over thefe courts ; to keep them with¬
in their jurifdidtions j to determine wherein they ex¬
ceed them j to reftrain and prohibit fuch excefs $ and
(in cafe of contumacy) to punifti the officer who exe¬
cutes, and in fome cafes the judge who enforces, the
fentence fo declared to be illegal.
2. The common law has referved to itfelf the expo-
fition of all fuch afts of parliament, as concern either
the extent of thefe courts, or the matters depending
before them. And therefore, if thefe courts either re-
fufe to allow thefe afts of parliament, or will expound
them in any other fenfe than what the common law
puts upon them, the king’s courts at Weftminfter will
grant prohibitions to reftrain and controul them.
3. An appeal lies from all thefe courts to the king,
in the laft refort; which proves that the jurifdi&ion
exercifed in them is derived from the crown of Eng¬
land, and not from any foreign potentate, or intrinfic
authority of their own.—And, from thefe three ftrong
marks and enfigns of fuperiority, it appears beyond a
doubt, that the civil and canon laws, though admitted
in fome cafes by cuftom in fome courts, are only fub~
ordinate and /eges fub graviori lege i and that thus ad¬
mitted, reftrained, altered, new-modelled, and amend¬
ed, they are by no means with us a diftimft independ¬
ent fpecies of laws, but are inferior branches of the
cuftomary or unwritten laws of England, properly call¬
ed the king's eccle/iajlical, the king's military, the king's
maritime, or the king's academical laws. ^
Let us next proceed to the leges fcriptce, the written The writ-
laws of the kingdom; which are ftatutes, a£ts, or ten law.
edifts, made by the king’s majefty, by and with the
advice of the lords fpiritual and temporal and commons
in parliament affembled. The oldeft of thefe now ex¬
tant, and printed in our ftatute books, is the famous
magna charta, as confirmed in parliament 9 Hen. III.
though doubtlefs there were many a&s before that
time, the records of which are now loft, and the deter¬
minations of them perhaps at prefent currently receiv¬
ed for the maxims of the old common law.
The manner of making thefe ftatutes being explain¬
ed under the articles Bill and Parliament, we ffiall
here only take notice of the different kinds of ftatutes ;
and of fome general rules with regard to their con-
ftru&ion (u).
Firft, As to their feveral kinds. Statutes are either Kinds of
(d) The method of citing thefe afts of parliament is various. Many of the ancient ftatutes are called after
the name of the place where the parliament was held that made them ; as the ftatutes of Merton and Marle-
berge, of Weftminfter, Glocefter, and Winchefter. Others are denominated entirely from their fubjeft ; as
the ftatutes of Wales and Ireland, the articulicleri, and theprerogativa regis. Some are diftinguiftied by their
initial words, a method of citing very ancient; being ufed by the Jews, in denominating the books of the
Pentateuch ; by the Chriftian church, in diftinguiftiing their hymns and divine offices ; by the Romanifts, in
defcribing their papal bulls ; and in the ffiort by the whole body of ancient civilians and canonifts, among whom
this method of citation generally prevailed, not only with regard to chapters, but inferior fedlions alfo; in
imitation of all which we ftill call fome of the old ftatutes by their initial words, as the ftatute of empto-
res, and that of CircumfpeBe agatis. But the moft ufual method of citing them, efpecially fince the time of
Edward II. is by naming the year of the king’s reign in which the ftatute was made, together with the
chapter or particular aft, according to its numeral order; as, 9 Geo, II. c. 4. For all the afts of one
1 feffion
Fart II.
Law of genti'&l c,t Jbecia!) puolic or private w
England, public act is an univerl’al rule that regards the whole
t——cornmunity : and of this the courts of law are bound
to take -notice judicially and ex officio, without the fta-
tute being particularly pleaded, or formally fet forth,
by the party who claims an advantage under it. Spe¬
cial or private afts are rather exceptions than rules,
being thofe which only operate upon particular perfons
and private concerns j fuch as the Romans entitled
natus deer eta, in con trad iftinftion to the fenatus con-
fulta, which regarded the whole community j and of
thefe the judges are not bound to take notice, unlefs
they be formally fhown and pleaded. Thus, to {how
the diftinction, the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. to prevent
fpiritual perfons from making leafes for longer terms
than 21 years or three lives, is a public aft •, it being
a rule preferibed to the whole body of fpiritual perfons
in the nation: but an aft to enable the biftiop of Chefter
to make a leafe to A. B. for 60 years, is an exception
to this rule •, it concerns only the parties and the bi-
ftiop’s fucceffors, and is therefore a private aft.
Statutes alfo are either declaratory of the common
law, or remedial of fome defefts therein. Declaratory,
where the old cuftom of the kingdom is almoft fallen
into difufe, or become difputable j in which cafe the
parliament has thought proper, in perpetuum rei tejli-
tnonium, and for avoiding all doubts and difficulties, t©
declare what the common law is and ever hath been.
Thus the ftatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. cap. 2. doth
not make any new fpecies of treafons: but only, for
the benefit of the fubjeft, declares and enumerates
thofe feveral kinds of offence which before were trea-
fon at the common law. Remedial ftatutes are thofe
which are made to fupply fuch defefts, and abridge
fuch fuperfluities, in the common law, as arife either
from the general imperfeftion of all human laws, from
change of time and circumftances, from the miftakes
and unadvifed determinations of unlearned judges, or
from any other caufe whatfoever. And this being
done, either by enlarging the common law where it
was too narrow and circumfcribed, or by reftraining it
where it was too lax and luxuriant, hath occafioned
another fubordinate divifion of remedial afts of parlia¬
ment into enlarging and retraining ftatutes. To in-
ftance again in the cafe of treafon. Clipping the cur¬
rent coin of the kingdom was an offence not fufficiently
guarded againft by the common law : therefore it was
thought expedient by ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 11. to make
it high treafon, which it was not at the common law :
fo that this was an enlarging ftatute. At common law,
alfo, fpiritual corporations might leafe out their eftates
for any term of years, till prevented by the ftatute 13
Eliz. before mentioned : this was therefore a rejlrain-
ing ftatute.
Secondly, The rules to be obferved with regard to
the conftruftion of ftatutes are principally thefe which
follow.
I. There are three points to be confidered in the
L A W. 597
A general or conftruftion of all remedial italutes ^ the old law, the Law of
43
Conftruc-
tion of
ftatutes.
rnifehief and the remedy ; that is, how the common ^England,
law flood at the making of the aft *, what the mifehief
was, for which the common law did not provide ; and
what remedy the parliament hath provided to cure this
mifehief. And it is the bufinefs of the judges fo to
eonftrue the aft, as to fupprefs the mifehief aiffi ad¬
vance the remedy. Let us inftance again in the fame
reftraining ftatute of 13 Eliz. c. 10. By the common
law, ecclefiaftical corporations might let as long leafes
as they thought proper : the mifehief was, that they
let long and unreafonable leafes, to the impoveriffiment
of their fucceffors : the remedy applied by the ftatute
was by making void all leafes by ecclefiaftical bodies
for longer terms than three lives or 21 years. Now- in
the conftruftion of this ftatute it is held, that leafes,
though for a longer term, if made by a biffiop, are
not void during the bithop’s continuance in his lee y
or, if made by a dean and chapter, they are not void
during the continuance of the dean $ for the aft was
made for the benefit and proteftion of the fucceffor.
The mifehief is therefore fufficiently fuppreffed by va¬
cating them after the determination of the intereft of
the granters ‘7 but the leafes, during their continuance,
being not within the mifehief, are not within the re¬
medy.
2. A ftatute, which treats of things or perfons of
an inferior rank, cannot by any general words be ex¬
tended to thofe of a fuperior. So a ftatute, treating
of “ deans, prebendaries, parfons, vicars, and others
having fpiritual promotion f is held not to extend to
biffiops, though they have fpiritual promotion ; deans
being the higheft perfons named, and biffiops being of
a ftill higher order.
3. Penal ftatutes muft be conftrued ftriftly. Thus
the ftatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. having enafted that thofe
who are convifted of Healing horfes ffiould not have the
benefit of clergy, the judges conceived that this did
not extend to him who Ihould fteal but one horfe, and
therefore procured a new aft for that purpofe in the
following year. And, to come nearer to our own
times, by the ftatute 14 Geo. II. c. 6. Healing ffieep or
other cattle, was made felony without benefit of clergy.
But thefe general words, “ or other cattle,” being
looked upon as much too loofe to create a capital of¬
fence, the aft was held to extend to nothing but mere
ffieep. And therefore, in the next feffions, it was
found neceffary to make another ftatute, 15 Geo. II.
c. 34. extending the former to bulls, cows, oxen, fleers,.
bullocks, heifers, calves, and lambs, by name.
4. Statutes againft frauds are to be liberally and be¬
neficially expounded. This may feem a contradiftion
to the laft rule : moft ftatutes againft frauds being in
their confequences penal. But this difference is here
to be taken : where the ftatute afts upon the offender,
and inflifts a penalty, as the pillory or a fine, it is then
to be taken ftriftly ; but. when the ftatute afts upon
the offence, by fetting afide the fraudulent tranfaftion,
here
feflion of parliament taken together made properly hut one ftatute : and therefore nhen two feffions have been
held in one year, we ufually mention Hat. or 2. Thus the bill of rights » cited, as ; W. & »*.«•.££ 2;.
ilgnifying that it is the fecond chapter or aft of the fecond ftatute, or the la-'S made in ffie econ ■•t’
parliament held in the firft year of King William and Queen Mary..
598
F^’hm! '"''re ‘l '3 ,0 *>e conftraed liberally. Upon tliis footin?
i- - -1- ’ ■ ^ie tfatute of 13 Eliz. c. 5, which voids all gifts of
goods, §£c. made to defraud creditors and others, was
held to extend by the general words to a gift made to
defraud the queen of a forfeiture.
5. One part of a ilatute mult be fo conftrued by
another, that the whole may (if poffible) itand : ut res
magis va/eat quam pereat. As if land be veiled in the
king and his heirs by a£l of parliament, faving the
right of A j and A has at that time a leafe of it for three
years ; here A fhall hold it for his term of three years,
and afterwards it (hall go to the king. For this inter¬
pretation furniflies matter for every elaufe of the fla-
tute to work and operate upon. But,
6. A laving, totally repugnant to the body of the
aft, is void. If therefore an aft of parliament veils
land in the king and his heirs, faving the right of all
perfons whatfoever ; or veils the land of A in the king,
faving the right of A: in either of thefe cafes the faving
is totally repugnant to the body of the ftatute, and (if
good) would render the ftatute of no effeft or operation ;
and therefore the faving is void, and the land veils ab-
folutely in the king.
7. Where the common law and a Ilatute differ, the
common law gives place to the Ilatute ; and an old
ilatute gives place to a new one. And this upon the
general principle laid down in the lail feftion, that
leges pojleriores priores contrarias abrogate. But this
is to be underftood only when the latter ilatute is
couched in negative terms, or by its matter neceffarily
implies a negative. As if a former aft fays, that a ju¬
ror upon fuch a trial ihall have twenty pounds a-year,
and a new ilatute comes and fays he (hall have twenty
merks ; here the latter ftatute, though it does not ex-
prefs, yet neceifarily implies, a negative, and virtually
repeals the former. For if twenty merks be made qua-
■ lification fufficient, the former ftatute which requires
twenty pounds is at an end. But if both the afts be
merely affirmative, and the fubftance fuch that both
may ftand together, here the latter does not repeal the
former, but they ihall both have a concurrent efficacy.
If by a former law an offence be indiftable at the
quarter feffions, and a latter law makes the fame offence
indiftable at the affizes 5 here the jurifdiftion of the
feffions is not taken away, but both have a concurrent
jurifdiftion, and the offender may be profecuted at
either; unlefs the new ftatute fubjoins exprefs negative
■words; as, that the offence iliall be indiftable at the
aflizes, and not eifewhere.
8. If a ftatute, that repeals another, is itfelf re¬
pealed afterwards, the firft ftatute is hereby revived,
without any formal words for that purpofe. So when
the ftatutes of 26 and 35 Henry VIII. declaring the
king to be the fupreme head of the church, were re¬
pealed by a ftatute 1 and 2 Philip and Mary, and this
latter ftatute was afterwards repealed by an aft of
I Eliz. there needed not any exprefs word of revival
in Oueen Elizabeth’s ftatute, but thefe afts of King
Henry were impliedly and virtually revived.
9. Afts of parliament derogatory from the. power of
fubfequent parliaments bind not. So the ftatute 11
Hen. VII. c. 1. which direfts, that no perfon for af¬
fixing a king de faBo (hall be attainted of treafon
by aft of parliament or otherwife, is held to be good
only as to common prqfecutions for high treafon j
Part II,
not reftrain or clog any parliamentary at- Law of
Becaufe the legiflator, being in truth the ^nKlar.d.
fovereign power, is always of equal, always of abfo- ~“V—'
lute authority : it acknowledges no fuperior upon earth,
which the prior legiftature mull have been if its ordi¬
nances could bind the prefent parliament. And upon
the fame principle Cicero, in his letters to Atticus,
treats with a proper contempt thefe reftraining claufes’
\vhich endeavour to tie up the hand of fucceeding le-
giflatures. “ When you repeal the law itfelf (fays he),
you at the fame time repeal the prohibitory claufe which
guards againft fueh repeal.”
10. Laftly, Afts of parliament that are impoffible
to be performed are of no validity ; and if there arife
out of them collaterally any abfurd confequences, ma-
nifeftly contradiftory to common reafon, they are with
regard to thofe collateral confequences void. We lay
down the rule with thefe reftriftions; though we know
ft is generally laid down more largely, that afts of par¬
liament contrary to reafon are void. But if the parlia¬
ment will pofilively enaft a thing t© be done which is
unreafonable, we know of no power that can controul
it : and the examples ufually alleged in fupport of
this fenfe of the rule do none of them prove that where
the main objeft of a ftatute is unreafonable, the judges
are at liberty to rejeft it ; for that were to let the ju¬
dicial power above that of the legiflature, which would
be fubverfive of all government. But where feme col¬
lateral matter arifes out of the general words, and hap- '
pens to be unreasonable 5 there the judges are in de¬
cency to conclude that this confequence was not fore-
feen by the parliament, and therefore they are at li¬
berty to expound the ftatute by equity, and only quoad
hoc dilregard it. I hus if an aft of parliament gives a
man power to try all caufes that arife within his ma¬
nor of Hale} yet, if a caufe ftiould ariie in which he
himfelf is party, the aft is conftrued not to extend to
that, becaufe it is unreafonable that any man fhould
determine his own quarrel. But, if we could conceive
it poffible for the parliament to enaft, that he ftiould
try as well his own caufes as thofe of other perfons,
there is no court that has power to defeat the intent of
the legiftature, when couched in fuch evident and ex¬
prefs words as leave no doubt whether it was the in¬
tent of the legiflature or not.
Thefe are the feveral grounds of the laws of England :
over and above which, equity is alfo frequently called
in to affift, to moderate, and to explain them. What
equity is, and how impoflible in its very effence to be
reduced to flated rules, hath been ftiown above. It
may be fufficient, therefore, to add in this place, that,
befides the liberality of fentiment with which our com¬
mon law judges interpret afts of parliament, and fueh
rules of the unwritten law as are not of a pofitive kind,
th ere are alfo courts of equity eftabliftied for the be¬
nefit of the fubjeft, to deleft latent frauds and conceal¬
ments, which the procefs of the courts of law is not
adapted to reach j to enforce the execution of fuch
matters of truft and confidence, as are binding in con-
fcience, though not cognizable in a court of lawr j to
deliver from (uch dangers as are owing to misfortune
or over fight j and to give a more fpecific relief, and
more adapted to the circumftances of the cafe, than
can always be obtained by the generality of the rules
of the pofitive or common law. This is the bufinefs
of
L A W.
but will
taindcr.
Cliapt I# ^
Law of of the courts of equity, which however are only con-
Englaod yerfant in matters of property. For the freedom of
Epitumif"^ our con{titution will not permit, that in criminal cafes
a power thould be lodged in any judge to conftrue the
law otherwife than according to the letter. This cau¬
tion, while it admirably protects the public liberty, can
never bear hard upon individuals. A man cannot fuf-
fer more puniihment than the law affigns, but he may
fuller lefs. The laws cannot be ftrained by partiality
to inflicd a penalty beyond what the letter will warrant -f
but, in cafes where the letter induces any apparent hard-
Ihip, the crown has the power to pardon.
The objedls of the laws of England are, I. The
rights of perfons. 2. The rights of things. 3. Pri¬
vate wrongs. 4. Public wrongs.
Chap. I. Of the Rights of Persons.
Sect. I. Of the Abfolute Rights of Individuals.
jllv. (1.) The obje&s of the Laws of England are,
I. Rights, 2. Wrongs.
(2.) Rights are the rights of perfons, or the rights
of things.
(3.) The rights of perfons are fuch as concern, and
are annexed to, the perfons of men : and, when the
perfon to whom they are due is regarded, they are
called (limply) rights ; but, when we confider the per¬
fon from whom they are due, they are then denomi¬
nated duties.
(4.) Perfons are either natural, that is, fuch as
they are formed by nature ; or artificial, that is,
created by human policy, as bodies politic or corpo¬
rations.
(5.) The rights of natural perfons are, 1. Abfolute,
or fuch as belong to individuals. 2. Relative, or fuch
as regard members of fociety.
(6.) The abfolute rights of individuals regarded by
the municipal laws (which pay no attention to duties,
of the abfolute kind), compote what is called political
or civil liberty.
(7.) Political or civil liberty is the natural liberty of
mankind, fo far reftrained by human laws, as is necef-
fary for the good of fociety.
(8.) The abfolute rights or civil liberties of Englilh-
men, as frequently declared in parliament, are princi¬
pally three : the right of perfonal fecurity, of perfonal
liberty, and of private property.
(9.) The right of perfonal fecurity conlifts in the le¬
gal enjoyment of life, limb, body, health, and reputa¬
tion.
(10.) The right of perfonal liberty conlifts in the
free power of loco motion, without illegal reftraint or
banifhment.
(II.) The right of private property confifts in every
man’s free ufe and difpofal of his own lawful acquili-
tions, without injury or illegal diminution.
(12.) Befides thefe three pr many rights, there are
others which are fecondary and fubordinate j viz. (to
preferve the former from unlawful attacks). 1. The
cenftitution and power of parliaments ; 2. The limita¬
tion of the king’s prerogative :—and (to vindicate them
when actually violated ; 3. The regular adminiftration
ef public juftice 3 4. The right of petitioning for re-
3
1 W. 599
drefs of grievances 5 5. The right of having and ufmg Law of
arms for felf-defence. England
Epitonmed.
Sect. II. Of the Parliament.
(I.) The relations of perfons are, I. Public ; 2. Pri- xlv.
vote. The public relations are thofe of magijlrates and
people. Magf rates are fuperior or Jubordwate. And
of fupreme magiftrates, in England, the parliament is
the fupreme legiflative, the king the fupreme executive.
(2.) Parliaments, in fome lhape, are of as high an¬
tiquity as the Saxon government in this illand ; and
have fublifted, in their prefent form, at leait five hun¬
dred years.
(3.) The parliament is affembled by the king’s
writs, and its fitting muit not be intermitted above
three years.
(4.) Its conflituent parts are the king’s mnjefly, the
lords fpiritual and temporal, and the commons repre-
fented by their members : each of which parts has a
negative, or neceflfary, voice in making laws.
(5.) With regard to the general law of parliament \
its power is ablolute : each houfe is the judge of its
own privileges 3 and all the members of either houfe are
entitled to the privilege of fpeech, of perfon, of their
domeftics, and of their lands and goods.
(6.) The peculiar privileges of the lords (befides
their judicial capacity), are, to hunt in the king’s fo-
refts 3 to be attended by the fages of the law 3 to make
proxies 3 to enter protefts 3 and to regulate the ele£tion
of the 16 peers of North Britain.
(7.) The peculiar privileges of the commons are, to
frame taxes for the fubje£t 3 and to determine the me¬
rits of their own eledions, with regard to the qualifi¬
cations of the eledors and eleded, and the proceedings
at eledions themfelves.
(8.) Bills are ufually twice read in each houfe, com¬
mitted, engroffed, and then read a third time 3 and
when they have obtained the concurrence of both
houfes, and received the royal affent, they become ads
of parliament.
(9.) The houfes may adjourn themfelves j but the
king only can prorogue the parliament.
(lO.) Parliaments are diifolved, 1. At the king’s
will. 2. By the demife of the crown, that is, within
fix months after. 3. By length of time, or having fat
for the fpace of feven years.
Sect. III. Of the King and his Title.
(1.) The fupreme executive power of this kingdom xlvi.
is lodged in a fingle perfon 3 the king or queen.
(2.) This royal perfon may be coniidered with re¬
gard to, 1. His title. 2. His royal family. 3. His
councils. 4. His duties. 5. His prerogative. 6. His
revenue.
(3.) With regard to his title ,• the crown of England,
by the pofitive conftitution of the kingdom, hath ever
been defcendible, and fo continues.
(4.) The crown is delcendible in a courfe peculiar
to itfelf.
('5.'I This courfe of defcent is fubjed to limitation
by parliament.
(6.) Notwithftanding fuch limitations, the crown
retains
W. Chap. I.
.(3-) The direB prerogatives regard, t. The king's Law of
digmiy, or royal character ; 2. H\s authority, or regal En=lai|.d
power : 3. His revenue, or royal income. Lpitormfed.
(4.) The king's dignity confifts in the legal attributes
of, 1. Perfonal fovereignty. 2. Abfolute perfedion.
3. Political perpetuity.
(5.) In the king's authority, or regal power, confifts
the executive part of government.
(6.) \w foreign concerns-, the as the reprefen-
tative of the nation, has the right or prerogative, 1. Of
fending and receiving ambaifadors. 2.' Of making trea¬
ties. 3. Of proclaiming war or peace. 4. Of iffuing
reprifals. 5. Of granting fafe condu&s.
(7.) In domeftic affairs $ the is, firft, a confti-
tuent part of the fupreme legiflative power } hath a ne¬
gative upon all new laws j and is bound by no ftatute,
unlefs fpecially named therein.
(8.) He is alfo confidered as the general of the king¬
dom, and may raife fleets and armies, build forts, ap¬
point havens, ereft beacons, prohibit the exportation of
arms and ammunition, and confine his fubjedts within
the realm, or recal them from foreign parts.
(9.) The king is alfo the fountain of juftice, and ge¬
neral confervator of the peace ; and therefore may eredt
courts (where he hath a legal ubiquity), profecute of¬
fenders, pardon crimes, and iffue proclamations.
(10.) He is likewife the fountain of honour, of of¬
fice, and of privilege.
(11.) He is alfo the arbiter of domejlic commerce j
(not of foreign, which is regulated by the law of mer¬
chants) 5 and is therefore entitled to the eredlion of
public marts, the regulation of weights and meafiires,
and the coinage or legitimation of money.
(12.) The king is, laftly, the fupreme head of the
church j and, as fuch, convenes, regulates, and dilfolves
fynods, nominates bilhops, and receives appeals in all
eeelefiaftical caufes.
L A
retains its defcendible quality, and becomes hereditary
in the prince to whom it is limited.
(7.) King Egbert, King Canute, and King Wil¬
liam I. have been fucceflively conftituted the common
ftocks, or anceftors, of this defcent.
(8.) At the Revolution the convention of eftates, or
reprefentative body of the nation, declared, that the
mifcondudl of King James II. amounted to an abdica¬
tion of the government, and that the throne was there¬
by vacant.
(9.) In confequence of this vacancy, and from a re¬
gard to the ancient line, the convention appointed the
next Proteftant heirs of the blood royal of King
Charles I. to fill the vacant throne, in the old order of
fucceffion ; with a temporary exception, or preference,
to the perfon of King William III.
(1 o.) On the impending failure of the Proteftant line
of King Charles I. (whereby the throne might again
have become vacant) the king and parliament extend¬
ed the fettlement of the crown to the Proteftant line of
King James I. viz. to the princefs Sophia of Hanover,
and the heirs of her body, being Proteftants : And ftie
is now the common flock, from whom the heirs of the
crown muft defcend.
Sect. IV. Of the King's Royal 'Family.
(1.) The king’s royal family confifts, firft, of the
queen : who is regnant, confort, or dowager.
(2.) The queen confort is a public perfon, and hath
many perfonal prerogatives and diftinft revenues.
(3.) The prince and princefs of Wales, and the
princefs-royal, are peculiarly regarded by the law.
(4.) The other princes of the blood-royal are only
entitled to precedence.
Sect. V. Of the Councils belonging to the King.
(1.) The king's councils are, 1. The parliament.
2. The great council of peers. 3. The judges, for
matters of law. 4. The privy council.
(2.) In privy counfellors may be confidered, 1. Their
creation. 2. Their qualifications. 3. Their duties.
4. Their powers. 5. Their privileges. 6. Their dif-
folution.
Sect. VI. Of the King's Duties.
(1.) The king's duties, are to govern his people ac¬
cording to law, to execute judgment in mercy, and to
maintain the eftablilhed religion. Thefe are his part
of the original contract between himfelf and the peo¬
ple j founded in the nature of fociety, and exprelfed in
his oath at the coronation.
Sett. VII. Of the King's Prerogative.
(1.) Prerogative is that fpecial power and pre-emi¬
nence which the king hath above other perfons, and
out of the ordinary courfe of law, in right of his regal
dignity.
(2.) Such prerogatives are either direB, or incidental.
The incidental, arifing out of other matters, are confi-
/iered as they arife : We now treat only of the direB.
Sect. VIII. Of the King's Revenue.
(1.) The king's revenue is either ordinary or extra¬
ordinary. And the ordinary is, 1. Ecclefwftical. 2. Tem¬
poral.
(2.) The king's ecclejiafical revenue confifts in,
1. The cuftody of the temporallies of vacant bifliop-
rics. 2. Corodies and penfions. 3. Extra-parochial
tithes. 4. The firft fruits and tenths of benefices.
(3.) The king's ordinary temporal revenue confifts
in, 1. The demefne lands of the crown. 2. The here¬
ditary excife; being part of the confideration for the
purchafe of his feodal profits, and the prerogatives of
purveyance and pre-emption. 3. An annual fum ifluing
from the duty en wine licenfes ; being the refidue of the
fame confideration. 4. His forefts. 5. His courts of
juftice. 6. Royal filh. 7. Wrecks, and things jetfam,
flotfam, and ligan. 8. Royal mines. 9. Treafure trove.
10. Waifs. 11. Eftrays. 12. Forfeitures for offences,
and deodands. 13. Efcheats of lands. 14. Cuftody
of ideots and lunatics.
(4.) The king's extraordinary revenue, confifts in
aids, fubfidies, and fupplies, granted him by the com¬
mons in parliament.
(5.) Heretofore thefe were ufually raifed by grants
of the (nominal) tenth or ffteenth part of the move¬
ables
Chap. I. LA
Law of ablcs in every town (In’p ; or by fcutages, hydages, and
Eng!and taUiages • which were fucceeded by fub/idies afleffed
EpiromitRd. u^(m individuals, with refpedl to their lands and goods.
(6.) A new fyflera of taxation took place about the
time of the Revolution : our modern taxes are therefore,
i. Annual. 2. Perpetual.
(7.) The annual taxes are, 1. The land tax, or the
ancient fublidy raifed upon a new affeffment. 2. The
malt tax, being an annual excife on malt, mum, cyder,
and perry.
(8.) The perpetual taxes are, 1. The cuftoms, or
tonnage and poundage of all merchandife exported or
imported. 2. The excife duty, or inland impofition
on a great variety of commodities. 3. The fait duty,
or excife on fait. 4. The poft office, or duty for the
carriage of letters. 5. The ftamp duty on paper,
parchment, Sec. 6. The duty on houfes and windows.
7. The duty on licenfes for hackney coaches and chairs.
8. The duty on offices and penlions.
(q.) Part of this revenue is applied to pay the inte-
refl: of the national debt, till the principal is difehar-
ged by parliament.
(10.) The produce of thefe feveral taxes were ori¬
ginally fe pa rate and fpecific funds, to anfwer fpecific
loans upon their refpe&ive credits ; but are now con-
folidated by parliament into three principal funds, the
aggregate, general, and South fea funds, to anfwer all
the debts of the nation : the public faith being alfo
fuperadded to fupply deficiencies, and ftrengthen the
Security of the whole.
(11.) The furpluffes of thefe funds, after paying the
intereft of the national debt, are carried together, and
denominated \\\qJinking fund : which, unlefs otherwife
appropriated by parliament, is annually to be applied
towards paying off fome part of the principal.
(12.) But, previous to this, the aggregate fund is
now charged with an annual fum for the civil iijl;
which is the immediate proper revenue of the crown,
fettled by parliament on the king at his acceffion, for
defraying the charges of civil government.
Sect.- IX. Of Subordinate Magifrates.
lii. (1.) Subordinate maglftrates, of the moft general ufe
and authority, are, 1. Sheriffs. 2. Coroners. 3. Jlift ices
of the Peace. 4. Confables. 5. Surveyors of the high¬
ways. 6. Overfeers of the poor.
(2.") The Jhenff is the keeper of each county, annual¬
ly nominated in due form by the king j and is (within
his county) a judge, a confervator of the peace, a mini-
fterial officer, and the king’s bailiff.
(3.) Coroners are permanent officers of the crown in
each county, elefted by the freeholders ; whofe office
it is to make inquiry concerning the death of the king’s
fubjefts, and certain revenues of the crown ; and alfo,
in particular cafes, to fupply the office of (heriff.
(4-) Jufices of the peace are magifirates in each
county, ftatutably qualified, and commiffioned by the
king’s majefty : with authority to conferve the peace •,
to hear and determine felonies, and other mifdemea-
nors; and to do many other a6!s committed to their
charge by particular llatutes.
(3.) Con/lablds are officers of hundreds and town-
fhtps, appointed at the leet, and empowered to preferve
Vol. XI. Part II.
w.
601
the peace, to keep watch and ward, and to apprehend
offenders.
(6.) Surveyors of the highways are officers appoint¬
ed annually in every parifh 5 to remove annoyances in,
and to direct the reparation of the public roads.
(7.) Overfeers of the poor are officers appointed an¬
nually in every parilh ; to relieve fuch impotent, and
employ fuch fturdy poor, as are fettled in each parilh,
—by birth,—by parentage,—by marriage,—or by 40
days refidence j accompanied with, 1. Notice. 2.
Renting a tenement of ten pounds annual value. 3.
Paying their affeffed taxations. 4. Serving an an¬
nual office. 5. Hiring and fervice for a year. 6. Ap-
prenticelhip for feven years. 7. Having a fufficient
eftate in the parilh.
Law of
England
Epitomifed.
Sect. X. Of the People, whether Aliens, Denizens, or
Natives.
(1.) The people are either aliens, that is, born out of Hu.
the dominions or allegiance of the crown of Great
Britain 5 or natives, that is, born within it.
(2.) Allegiance is the duty of all fubje&s ; being
the reciprocal tie of the people to the prince, in return
for the protection he affords them •, and, in natives, this
duty of allegiance is natural and perpetual : in aliens,
is local and temporary only.
(3.) The rights ef natives are alfo natural and per¬
petual : thofe oi aliens, local and temporary only un-
lefis they be made denizens by the king, or naturalized
by parliament.
Sect. XI. Of the Clergy.
(1.) The people, whether aliens, denizens, or na- Hr.
tives, are alfo either clergy, that is, all per'm in holy
orders, or in ecclefiaftical offices : or laity, which com¬
prehends the reft of the nation.
(2.) The clerical part of the nation, thus defined,
are, 1. Archbiffiops and biihops ; who are eleCled by
their feveral chapters at the nomination of the crown,
and afterwards confirmed and confecrated by each other.
2. Deans and chapters. 3. Archdeacons. 4. Rural
deans. 5. Parfons (under which are included appro-
priators) and vicars ; to whom there are generally re-
quifite, holy orders, prefentation, inftitution and induc¬
tion. 6. Curates. To which may be added, 7. Church
wardens. 8. Parilh clerks and fextons.
Sect. XII. Of the Civil State.
(1.) The laity are divifible into three Rates ; civil,
military, mssA maritime.
(2.) The civil ftate (which includes all the nation,
except the clergy, the army, and the navy, and many
individuals among them alfo), may be divided into the
nobility and the commonalty.
(3.) The nobility are dukes, marquifes, earls, vif-
counts, and barons. Thefe had anciently duties annex¬
ed to their refpe£f ive honours : they are created either
by writ, that is, by fummons to parliament ; or by the
king’s letters patent, that is, by royal grant : and they
eaijoy many privileges exclufive of their fenatorial ca¬
pacity.
4 G~ (4.) The
Iv.
6o2
L A W.
Part II.
Law of (’4.) The commonalty confift of knights of the garter,
England knights bannerets, baronets, knights of the bath, knights
Epitomifod. |3ac}aeiorS} efquires, gentlemen, yeomen, tradefmen, ar¬
tificers, and labourers.
Sect. XIII. Of the Military and Maritime States.
Ivi. (x.) The military ftate, by the Handing eonftitu-
tional law, confifts of the militia of each county, raif-
ed from among the people by lot, officered by the
principal landholders, and commanded by the lord lieu¬
tenant.
(2.) The more difciplined occafional troops of the
kingdom are kept on foot only from year to year by
parliament j and, during that period, are governed by
martial law, or arbitrary articles of war, formed at the
pleafure of the crown.
(3.) The maritime ftate confifts of the officers and
mariners of the Britiftr navy 5 who are governed by ex-
prefs and permanent laws, or the articles of the navy,
eftabliffied by aft of parliament.
Sect. XIV. Of Mafer and Servants.
Ivii. (x.) The private, economical, relations, of perfons
are thofe of, J. Majler and fervants. 2. Hvfband and
wife. 3. Parent and child. 4. Guardian and ward.
(2.) The firft relation may fubfift between a mafter
and four fpecies of fervants , (for flavery is unknown
to our laws) : viz. 1. Menial fervants j who are hired.
1. Apprentices j who are bound by indentures. 3. La¬
bourers \ who are cafually employed. 4. Stewards, bai¬
liffs, and faftors 5 who are rather in a mini/lerial ftate.
(3.) From this relation refult divers powers to the
mafter, and emoluments to the fervant.
(4.) The mafter hath a property in the fervice of
his fervant 5 and muft be anfwerable for fuch afts as
the fervant does by his exprefs, or implied, command.
(2.) Children are, 1. Legitimate ; being thofe who Law of
are born in lawful wedlock, or within a competent time IT'Enslantl,
after. 2. Baflards, being thofe who are not fo. ^pitomiie ,
(3.) The duties of parents to ZegT/zwo/e children are,
I. Maintenance. 2. Proteftion. 3. Education.
(4.) The power of parents confifts principally in cor-
reftion, and confent to marriage. Both may after death
be delegated by will to a guardian 5 and the former al-
fo, living the parent, to a tutor or mafter.
(<;.) The duties of legitimate children to parents are
obedience, proteftion, and maintenance.
(6.) The duty of parents to bafards is only that of
maintenance.
(7.) The rights of a bafard are fuch only as he can
acquire j for he is incapable of inheriting any thing.
Sect. XVII. Of Guardian and Ward.
(1.) The fourth private relation is that of guardian 1«>
and ward, which is plainly derived from the laft ; thefe
being, during the continuance of their relation, recipro¬
cally fubjeft to the fame rights and duties.
(2.) Guardians are of divers forts : 1. Guardians by
nature, or the parents. 2. Guardians for nurture, af-
figned by the ecclefiaftieal courts. 3. Guardians in fo-
cage, afligned by the common law. 4. Guardians by
ftatute, affigned by the father’s will. All fubjeft to
the fuperintendance of the court of chancery.
(3.) Pull age in male or female for all purpofes is
the age of 21 years (different ages being allowed for
different purpofes) ; till which age the perlon is an in-,
font.
(4.) An infant, in refpeft of his tender years, hath
various privileges, and various difabilities, in law j
chiefly with regard to fuits, crimes, eftates and con-
trafts.
Sect. XVIII. Of Corporations.
Sect. XV. Of Hufbar.d and Wife.
kai. (x.) The fecond private relation is that of marriage ;
which includes the reciprocal rights and duties of
hufband and wife.
(2.) Marriage is duly contrafted between perfons,
f. Confenting. 2. Free from canonical impediments,
which make it voidable. 3. Free alfo from the civil im¬
pediments,—of prior marriage,—of want of age—of
non-confent of parents or guardians, where requifite,
—and of want of reafon ; either of which make it to¬
tally void. And it muft be celebrated by a clergyman
in due form and place.
(3.) Marriage is diffolved, 1. By death. 2. By di¬
vorce in the fpiritual court : not a menfa et thoro only,
but a vinculo matrimonii, for canonical caufe exifting
previous to the contraft. 3. By aft of parliament, as
for adultery.
(4.) By marriage the hufband and wife become one
perfon in law •, which unity is the principal foundation
of their refpeftive rights, duties, and dilabilities.
Sect. XVI. Of Parent and Child.
lix. (1.) The third, and moft univerfal private relation,
is that of parent and child.
(1.) Bodies politic, or corporations, which axe arti- isr„
fcial perfons, are eftabliftied for preferving in perpetual
fucceffion certain rights 5 which, being conferred on
natural perfons only, would fail in procefs of time.
(2.) Corporations are, 1. Aggregate, confifting of
many members. 2. Sole, confifting of one perfon only.
(3.) Corporations are alfo either fpintual, erefted to
perpetuate the rights of the church •, or lay. And the
lay are, 1. Civil; erefted for many temporal purpofes.
2. Kleemofynary ; erefted to perpetuate the charity of
the founder.
(4.) Corporations are ufually erefted and named by
virtue of the king’s royal charter j but may be created
by aft of parliament.
(5.) The powers incident to all corporations are,
j. To maintain perpetual fucceflion. 2. do aft in their
corporate capacity like an individual. 3. 10 hold lands,
fubjeft to the ftatutes of mortmain. 4. To have a com¬
mon leal. 5. To make by-laws. Which laft power,
in fpiritual or eleemofynary corporations, may be exe¬
cuted by the. king or the founder.
(6.) The duty of corporations is to anfwer the ends
of their inftitution.
(7.) To enforce this duty, all corporations may be
vifited: fpiritual corporations by the ordinary -, lay cor¬
porations by the founder, or his reprefeniatives j viz.
the
Chap. II. L
Law of the civil by the king (who is the fundator incipient of
England reprefented in his court of king’s bench ; the elee-
Ep.tumi eu. by tbe endower (who is the fundator perfi-
ciens of fuch), or by his heirs or affigns.
(8.) Corporations may be diffolved, I. By aft of
parliament. 2. By the natural death of all their mem¬
bers. 3. By furrender of their franchifes. 4. By for¬
feiture of their charter. '
ixii. Chap. II. Of the Rights o/’Thincs.
Sect. I. Of Property in General.
Ixiii. (l.) All dominion over external objefts has its ori¬
ginal from the gift of the Creator to man in general.
(2.) The fuhjlance of things was, at firft, common
to all mankind $ yet a temporary property in the ufe
of them, might even then be acquired, and continued,
by occupancy.
(3.) In procefs of time a permanent property was
eftablifhed in t\ie fubjlance, as well as the ufe of things 5
which was alfo originally acquired by occupancy only.
(4.) Left th s property fhould determine by the
owner’s dereliftion or death, whereby the thing would
aga; 1 become common, focieties have eftabliftied con-
veyai rex, u)?7/.r, and heirfipx, in order to continue the
properly of the firft occupant: and, where by accident
fuch property becomes difeontinued or unknown, the
thing ufually refults to the fovereign of the ftate, by
virtue of the municipal law.
(5.) But of fome things, which are incapable of per¬
manent fubftantial dominion, there ftill fubfifts only the
fame tranfient ufufruftuary property, which originally
fubfifted in all things.
# , ~
Sect. II. Of Peal Property ; and, firf, of Corporeal
Hereditaments.
3*iv. (l-) In this property, or exclufive dominion, confift
the rights oithings; which are, 1. Things real. 2. Things
perfonal.
(2.) In things real may be confidered, 1. Their fe-
veral kinds. 2. The tenures by which they may be
holden. 3. The efates which may be acquired there¬
in. 4. Their title, or the means of acquiring and lofing
them.
(3.) All the feveral kinds of things real are reduci¬
ble to one of thefe three, viz. lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments ; whereof the fecond includes the firft, and
the third includes the firft and fecond.
(4.) Hereditaments, therefore, or whatever may come
to be inherited (being the moft comprehenlive deno¬
mination of things real), are either corporeal or incor¬
poreal.
(5.) C-jr/iorea/hereditaments confift wholly of lands,
in their large!! legal fenfe •, wherein they include not
only the face of the earth, but every other objeft of
fenfe adjoining thereto, and fubfifting either above or
beneath it.
Sect. III. Of Incorporeal Hereditaments.
hv, (1.) Incorporeal hereditaments are rights iffuing out
A \V« 503
of things corporeal, or concerning, or annexed to, or Law of
exercifable within the fame. England
(2.) Incorporeal hereditaments are, x. AdvowCons. EPltomife(i‘
2. Tithes. 3. Commons. 4. Ways. 5. Offices. 6. Dig¬
nities. 7. Franchifes. 8. Corodies or penfions. 9. An¬
nuities. 1 o. Rents.
(3.) An advowfon is a right of prefentation to an
ecclefiaftical benefice •, either appendant, or in grafs;
This may be, 1. Prefentative. 2. Collative. 3. Do¬
native.
(4.) Tithes are the tenth part of the increafe yearly
ariiing from the profits and flock of lands, and the per¬
fonal induftry of mankind. Thefe, by the ancient and
pofitive law of the land, are due of common right to
the parfon, or (by endowment) to the vicar j unlefs
fpecially difeharged, 1. By real compofition. 2. By
prefeription, either de tnodo decimandi, or de non deci-
mando.
(5.) Common is a profit which a man hath in the
land of another j being, 1. Common of pafture, which
is either appendant, appurtenant, becaufe of vicinage,
or in grofs. 2. Common of pifeary. 3. Common of
turbary. 4. Common of eftovers, or botes.
(6.) Ways are a right of paffing over another man’s
ground.
(7.) Offices are the right to exercife a public or pri¬
vate empleyment.
(8.) For dignities, which are titles of honour, fee
chap. i. feft. 1 2.
(9.) Franchifes are a royal privilege, or branch of
the king’s prerogative, fubfifting in the hands of a fub-
jeft.
(10.) Corodies are allotments for one’s fuftenance j
which may be converted into penfions, fee chap. i.
feft. 8.
(11.) An annuity is a yearly fum of money, char¬
ged upon the perfon, and not upon the lands of the
granter.
(12.) Rents are a certain profit iffuing yearly out
of lands and tenements j and are reducible to, 1. Rent-
fervice. 2. Rent-charge. 3. Rent-feck.
Sect. IV. Of the Feodal Syftem.
(1.) The doftrine of tenures is derived from the jxvi.
feodal law j which was planted in Europe by its nor¬
thern conquerors at the diflblution of the Roman em¬
pire.
(2.) Pure and proper feuds were parcels of land allot¬
ted by a chief to his followers, to be held on the con¬
dition of perfonally rendering due military fervice to
their lord.
(3.) Thefe were granted by inveftiture 5 were held
under the bond of fealty j were inheritable only by de-
feendants j and could not be transferred without the
mutual confent of the lord and vaffal.
(4.) Improper feuds were derived from the other}
but differed from them in their original, their fervices
and renders, their defeent, and other circumftances.
(5.) The lands of England were converted into
feuds, of the improper kind, foon after the Norman
conqueft ; which gave rife to the grand maxim of te¬
nure, viz. That all lands in the kingdom are holden,
mediately or immediately, of the king.
4 G 2 Sect.
604
Law of
England Sect. V. Of the Ancient Englijh Tenures.
Epitomifed.
^ (i.) The diftinfHon of tenures confided in the na¬
ture of their fervices : as, I. Chivalry, or knight-fervice ;
where the fervice was free, but uncertain. 2. Free foc-
age ; w here the fervice w as free, and certain. 3. Pure
vttlena^e ; where the fervice was bafe, and uncertain.
4. Privileged villenage, or villein foe age ; where the fer¬
vice w-as bafe, but certain.
(2.) The moft univerfal ancient tenure vras that in
chivalry, or by knight fervice; in which the tenant of
every knight’s fee was bound, if called upon, to attend
his lord to the wars. This was granted by livery, and
perfefted by homage and fealty 3 which ufually drew
after them fuit of court.
(3.) The other fruits and confequences of the te¬
nure by knight-fervice were, 1. Aid. 2. Relief.
3. Primer feifin. 4. Wardlhip. 5. Marriage. 6. Fines
upon alienation. 7. Efcheat.
(4.) Grand ferjeanty differed from chivalry princi¬
pally in its render, or fervice 3 and not in its fruits and
confequences.
(5.) The perfonal fervice in chivalry w'as at length
gradually changed into pecuniary affeffments, which
were called feutage by efcuogc.
(6.) Thefe military tenures (except the fervices of
grand ferjeanty) were, at the reftoration of King
Charles, totally abolifhed, and reduced to free focage
by a£t of parliament.
Sect. VI. Of the Modern Englifh Tenures.
Ixviii. (I-7 Free focage is a tenure by any free, certain, and
determinate fervice.
(2.) This tenure, the relick of Saxon liberty, in¬
cludes petit ferjeanly, tenure in burgage, and gavel¬
kind,
(3.) Free focage lands partake ftrongly of the feodal
nature, as vrell as thofe in chivalry : being holden 3
fubjeft to fome fervice, at the leaf! to fealty and fuit of
court 3 fubjeft to relief, to wardfhip, and to efcheat,
but not to marriage 3 fubjedt alfo formerly to aids, pri¬
mer feifin, and fines for alienation.
(4.) Pure villenage was a precarious and flavilh te¬
nure, at the abfolute will of the lord, upon uncertain
fervices of the bafeft nature.
(5.) From hence, by tacit confent or encroachment,
have arifen the modern copyholds, or tenure by copy of
court-roll: in which lands may be ftill held^at the (no¬
minal) will of the lord, (but regulated) according to
the cuftom of the manor.
(6.) Thefe are fubjeft, like focage lands, to fervices,
relief, and efcheat 3 and alfo to heriots, wardfhip, and
fine;, upon defeent and alienation.
(7.) Privileged villenage, or villein focage, is an ex¬
alted fpecies of copyhold tenure, upon bafe, but cer¬
tain, fervices 3 fubfifting only in the ancient demefnes
©f the crow n 3 whence the tenure is denominated the
tenure in ancient demrfne.
(8.) Thefe copyholds of ancient demefne have di¬
vers immunities annexed to their tenure 3 but are ftill
held by copy of court-roll, according to the cuftom of
the manor, though not at the will of the lord
A W. Part II.
(9.) Frankalmoign is a tenure by fpiritual fervices at J-^w of
large, whereby many eeclefiaitical and eleemolynary kiigiaruf
corporations now hold their lands and tenements 3 be- c ;
ing of a nature diftinCt from tenure by divine iervice
in certain.
Sect. VII. Of Freehold Efates of Inheritance.
(1.) Eftates in lands, tenements, and hereditaments, Ixix.
are fuch intereft as th.e tenant hath therein 3 toalcertain
which, may be confidered, 1. The quantity of intered.
1. The time of enjoyment. 3. The number and con¬
nexions of the tenants.
(2.) Eftates, with refpeft to their quantity of inte-
ref, or duration, are either freehold, or lefs than free¬
hold.
(3.) A freehold eftate, in lands, is fuch as is creat¬
ed by livery of feifin at common law 3 or, in tene¬
ments of an incorporeal nature, by what is equivalent
thereto.
(4.) Freehold eftates are either eftates of inheri¬
tance or not of inheritance, viz. for ife only : and in¬
heritances are, 1. Abfoluie, or fee-fmple. 2. Limited
fees.
(5,) Tenant in fee-fmple is he that hath lands, te¬
nements, or hereditaments, to hold to him and his heirs
for ever.
(6.) Limited fees are, I. Qualified, or bafe, fees.
2. Fees conditional at the common law'.
(7.) Qualified or bafe fees are thofe which, having
a qualification fubjoined thereto, are liable to be de¬
feated when that qualification is at an end.
(8.) Conditional fees, at the common law, were fuch
as were granted to the donee, and the heirs of his
body, in exclufion of collateral heirs.
(9.) Thefe were held to be fees, granted on condi¬
tion that the donee had iffue of his body 3 which con¬
dition being once performed by the birth of iffue, the
donee might immediately alien the land : but the fta-
tute de donis being made to prevent fuch alteration,
thereupon from the divifion of the fee (by conftru<Rion
of this flatute into a particular eftate and a reverfion),
the conditional fees began to be calledtail.
(10.) All tenements real, or favouring of the realty,
are fubjeft to entails.
(ir.) Eftates tail maybe, 1. General, or fpecial j
2. Male, or female 3 3. Given in frank marriage.
(12.) Incident to eftates tail are, i.Wafte. 2. Dow¬
er. 3. Curtefy. 4. Bar 3—by fine, recovery, or lineal
warranty with affets,
(13.) Eftates tail are norv, by many ftatutes and re-
folutions of the courts, almoft brought back to the flate
of conditional fees at the common law.
SECT. VIII. Of Freeholds, not of Inheritance.
(1.) Freeholds, not of inheritance, or for life only, lx*,
are, 1. Conventional, or created by the adft of the par¬
ties. 2. Legal, or created by operation of law'.
(2.) Conventional eftates for life are created by an
exprefs grant for term of one’s own life, or pur outer
vie; or by a general grant, without exprefling any term
at all.
(3.) Incident to this, and all other eftates for life,
are
3
Chap. II.
L A W.
6o.s
Law of are eftovers, and emblements : and to eftates pur outer
England ^ general occupancy was alfo incident; as fpecial oc-
pi oim <- -cilpancv fliU is, if cejluy que vie furvives the tenant.
(4.) Legal eftates for life are, 1. Tenancy in fail,
after pojjibility of iffue extinB. 2. Tenancy by the
curtefy of England. 3. Tenancy in dower.
(5.) Tenancy in tail, after pojjibility of iffue extinB,
is where an eftate is given in fpecial tail j and, before
iffue had, a perfon dies from whofe body the iffue was
to fpringj whereupon the tenant (if furviving) becomes
tenant in toil, after pojjibility of iffue extinEi.
(6.) This eftate partakes both of the incidents to an
eftate tail, and thole of an eftate for life.
(7.) Tenancy by the' curtefy of England is where a
man’s wife is feized of an eftate of inheritance j and he
by her has iffue, born alive, which was capable of in¬
heriting her eftate j in which cafe he lhall, upon her
death, hold the tenements for his own life, as tenant
by the curtefy.
(8.) Tenancy in dower is where a womants hulband
is feized of an eftate of inheritance, of which her iffue
might by any poflibility have been heir; and the huf-
band dies : the woman is thereupon entitled to dower,
or one-third part of the lands and tenements, to hold
for her natural life.
(9.) Dower is either by the common law ; by fpe¬
cial cuftom ; ad ojlium ecclefce ; or, ex ajfenfu patris.
(10.) Dower may be forfeited or barred, particular¬
ly by an eftate in jointure.
Sect. IX. Of Efates lefs than Freehold.
Ixxi. (1.) Eftates lefs than freehold are, 1. Eftates for
years. 2. Eftates at will. 3. Ertates at fujferance.
(2.) An eftate {ox years is where a man, feized of
lands and tenements, letteth them to another for a cer¬
tain period of time, which transfers the intereft of the
term ; and the leffee enters thereon, which gives him
poffeflion of the term, but not legal feifin of the,
land.
(3.) Incident to this eftate are eftovers ; and alfo
emblements, if it determines before the full end of the
term.
(4.) An eftate at w///is where lands are let by one
man to another, to hold at the will of both parties;
and the leffee enters thereon.
(5.) Copyholds are eftates held at the will of the
lord, (regulated) according to the cuftom of the
manor.
(6.) An eftate at fujferance is where one comes into
poffeftion of land by lawful title, but keeps it afterwards
without any title at all.
Sect. X. Of FJlates upon Condition.
Ixsh. (1.) Eftates (whether freehold or otherwife) may
alfo be held upon condition ; in which cafe their exift-
ence depends on the happening, or net happening, of
fome uncertain event.
(2.) Thefe eftates are, 1. On condition implied.
2. On condition exprejfed. 3. Eftates in gage. 4. E-
ftates by fatute, merchant or ftaple. 5. Eftates by
elegit.
(3.) Eftates on condition implied are where a grant
of an eftate has, from its effence and conftitution, a
condition infeparably annexed to it; though none be Law of
exprefled in words. E&giand
(4.) Eftates on condition exprejfed are where an ex- F'i"l0“lii['cI'
prefs qualification or provifion is annexed to the grant * ~
of an eftate.
(5.) On the performance of thefe conditions either
expreffed or implied (if precedent) the eftate may be
veiled or enlarged ; or, on the breach of them (if
fubfequent) an eftate already veiled may be defeated.
(6.) Eftates in gage, in vadio, or in pledge, are e-
ftates granted as a fecurity for money lent ; being,
1. In vivo vadio, or living gage; where the profits of
land are granted till a debt be paid, upon which pay¬
ment the granter’s eftate will revive. 2. In mortuo va¬
dio, in dead, or mart gage; wherein an eftate is grant¬
ed, on condition to be void at a day certain, if the
granter then repays the money borrowed ; on failure
of which, the eftate becomes abfolutely dead to the
granter.
(7.) Eftates by 7?tf/&te-merchant, or jfo/ate-ftaple,
are alfo eftates conveyed to creditors, in purfuance of
certain ftatutes, till their profits ihall difeharge the
debt.
(8.) Eftates by elegit are where, in confequence of
a judicial writ fo called, lands are delivered by the
fheriff to a plaintiff, till their profits Ihall fatisfy a debt
adjudged to be due by law’.
Sect. XI. Of EJlates in Pojfejfion, Remaindery and Re-
verjton.
(1.) Eftates, with refpe£t to their time of enjoy- Ixxiii.
meat, are either in immediate pojfejfon, or in expeffan-
cy ; which eftates in expedlancy are created at the fame
time, and are parcel of the fame eftates, as thofe upon
which they are expe&ant. Thefe are, l. Remainders.
2. Reverfons.
(2.) A remainder is an eftate limited to take effeft,
and be enjoyed, after another particular eftate is de¬
termined.
(3.) Therefore, 1. There muft be a precedent par¬
ticular eftate, in order to fupport a remainder. 2. The
remainder muft pafs out of the granter, at the creation
of the particular eftate. 3. The remainder muft veft
in the grantee, during the continuance, or at the de¬
termination, of the particular eftate.
(4.) Remainders are, 1. Veiled; where the eftate
is fixed to remain to a certain perfon, after the particu¬
lar eftate is fpent. 2. Contingent; where the eftate is
limited to take effedft, either to an uncertain perfon, or
upon an uncertain event.
(5.) An executory devife is fuch a difpofition of
lands, by will, that an eftate Ihall not veft thereby at
the death of the devifor, but only upon fome future
contingency, and without any precedent particular
eftate to fupport it.
(6.) A reverfon is the refidue of an eftate left in the
granter, to commence in poffeflion after the determina¬
tion of fome particular eftate granted : to which are in¬
cident fealty, and rent.
(7.) Where two eftates, the one lefs, the other
greater, the one in poffeflion, the other in expec¬
tancy, meet together in one and the fame perfon, and
in one and the fame right, the lefs is merged in the
greater.
* Sect,.
6o6
Law of
England
Epitomifed.
LAW.
Sect. XII. Of Ejlates, in Severalty, Joint Tenancy,
Coparcenary, end Cotnmon.
Ixxi/.
(l). Eftates, with refpeft to the number and cow*
nexions of their tenants, may be held, I. In feveral-
ty. 2. In joint tenancy. 3. In coparcenary. 4. In
common.
(2.) An eflate in fevera/ty is where one tenant holds
it in his ow n foie right, without any other perfon being
joined with him.
(3.) An eftate in joint tenancy is where an eftate is
granted to two or more perfons ; in which cafe the
law conftrues them to be joint tenants, unlefs the
words of the grant exprefsly exclude fuch conlfruc-
tion.
(4.) Joint tenants have an unity of intereft, of title,
of time and of pofleflion : they are feifed per my et per
tout: and therefore upon the deceafe of one joint te¬
nant, the whole intereft remains to the furvivor.
(5.) Joint tenancy may be diffblved, by deftreying
one of its four conftituent unities.
(6.) An eftate in coparcenary is where an eftate of
inheritance defeends from the anceftor to two or more
perfons $ who are called parceners, and all together
make but one heir.
(7.) Parceners have an unity of intereft, title, and
polfeflion j but are only feifed per my, and not per
tout: wherefore there is no furvivorlhip among parce¬
ners.
(8.) Incident to this eftate is the law of hotchpot.
("9.). Coparcenary may alfo be diffolved, by deftroy-
/ing any of its three conftituent unities.
(10.) An eftate in common is where two or more per¬
fons hold lands, poflibly by diftinft titles, and for di-
ftinft interefts ; but by unity of pofleffion, becaufe
none knoweth his own feveralty.
(11.) Tenants in common have therefore an unity
of pofleflion, (without furvivorlhip ; being feifed per
my, and not per toutj; but no neceflary unity of title,
time, or intereft,
(12.) This eftate may be created, 1. By diflblving
the conftituent unities of the twro former ; 2. By ex-
prefs limitation in a grant : and may be deftroyed,
1. By uniting the feveral titles in one tenant 5 2. By
partition of the land.
Part II,
(3.) To underftand the do&rine of defeents, we muft Law of
form a clear notion of confanguinity ; which is the con- Eng'and
nexion, or relation, of perfons defeended from the fameEpitottllfed'
flock or common anceftor ; and it is, 1. Lineal, where
one of the kinfmen is lineally defeended from the
other. 2. Collateral, where they are lineally defeend¬
ed, not one from the other, but both from the fame
common anceftor.
(4.) The rules of defeent, or canons of inheritance,
obferved by the laws of England, are thefe :
xjl, Inheritances lhall lineally defcend U) the iffue of
the perfon laft actually feifed, in infinitum ; but lhall
never lineally (fiend.
id. The male ifllie lhall be admitted before the female.
$d, Where there are two or more males in equal de¬
gree, the eldefi only lhall inherit 5 but the females all
together.
4^, The lineal defendants, in infinitum, of any perfon *
deceafed lhall reprefent their anceftor 5 that is, fhall
Hand in the fame place as the perfon himfelf would
have done, had he been living.
$th. On failure of lineal defendants, or iflue, of the
perfon laft feifed, the inheritance lhall defend to the
blood of the firfi purchafer ; fubjeft to the three pre¬
ceding rules. To evidence which blood, the two
following rules are eftablilhed.
(oth. The collateral heir of the perfon laft feifed muft
be his next collateral kinfman, of the whole blood.
•jth, In collateral inheritances, the malefiocks lhall be
preferred to the female; that is, kindred derived
from the blood of the male anceftors lhall be admit¬
ted before thofe from the blood of the female : un¬
lefs where the lands have, in faft, defeended from a
female.
SECT. XV. Of Title by Purchafi, and firfi by Efcheat.
(1.) Purchafe, or perquilition, is the pofleflion of
an eftate which a man hath by his own aft or agree¬
ment and not by tlffe mere aft of law, or defetnt from
any of his anceftors. This includes, 1. Efcheat.
2. Occupancy. 3. Prefiription. 4. Forfeiture. 5. A-
lienation.
(2.) Efcheat is where, upon deficiency of the te¬
nant’s inheritable blood, the eftate falls to the lord of the
fee.
Ixxvii.
Sect. XIII. Of the Title to Things Real, in General.
-xxv. (1.) A title to.things real is the means whereby a
man cometh to the juft poffeffion of his property.
(2.) Herein may be confidered, 1. A mere or naked
poflfeffion. 2. The right of pofleflion; which is, \fi, an
apparent, idly, an aftual right. 3. The mere right
of property. 4, The. conjunftion of aftual poflef¬
lion with both thefe rights ; which conftitutes a perfeft
title.
Sect. XIV. Of Title by Defeent.
Ixxvi. (1.) The title to things real maybe reciprocally ac¬
quired or loft, r. By defeent. 2. By purchafe.
(2.) Defeent is the means whereby a man, on the
death of his anceftor, acquires a title to the eflate, in
right of his reprefentation, as his heir at law*
(3.) Inheritable blood is wanting to, 1. Such as are
not related to the perfon lafl: feifed. 2. His maternal
relations in paternal inheritances, and vice verfa. 3. His
kindred of the half blood. 4. Monitors. 5. Baltards.
6. Aliens, and their iflue. 7. Perfons attainted of
treafon or felony. 8. Papifts, in refpeft of themfelves
only, by the ftatute law.
Sect. XVI. Of Title by Occupancy.
(1.) Occupancy is the taking poflfeflion of thole ]xxViii.
things which before had no owner.
(2.) Thus, at the common law, where tenant pur
auter vie died during the life of cefiuy que vie, he, w ho
could firit enter, might lawfully retain the pofleffion ;
unlefs by the original grant the heir was made 'nfpecial
occupant.
(3.) The law of dereh&ions and alluvions has nar¬
rowed the title of occupancy.
Sect.
Chap. II. L
Law of
EngU.nd Sect. XVII. Of Title by Prefcriplion.
Epitomifed.
hx:ix. (r0 Prefcription (as diftinguiflied from cufloni) is a
immemorial ufage of enjoying a right in fome
incorporeal hereditament, by a man, and either his an-
cellors or thofe whofe eftate of inheritance he hath : of
•which the firft is called prefcribing in his ancefors, the
latter in a que eftate.
Sect. XVIII. Of Title lij Forfeiture.
j[yvgt (i.) Forfeiture is a punithment annexed by law to
fome illegal a£l, or negligence, in the owner of things
real; whereby the eftate is transferred to another, who
is ufually the party injured.
(2.) Forfeitures are occafioned, 1. By crimes. 2. By
alienation, contrary to law. 3. By lapfe. 4. By Jimony.
5. By nonperformance of conditions. 6. By wofte. 7. By
breach of copyhold cuftoms. 8. By bankruptcy.
(3.) Forfeitures for crimes or mifdemeanors, are for,
i.Treafon. 2. Felony. 3. Mifprifion of treafon. 4. Pr*r-
tnunire. 5. Affaults on a judge, and batteries, fitting
the courts. 6. Popilh recufancy, &c.
(4.) Alienations, or conveyances, which induce a
forfeiture, are, 1. Thofe in mortmain, made to corpo¬
rations contrary to the ftatute law. 2. Thofe made to
aliens. 3. Thofe made by particular tenants, when
larger than their eftates will warrant.
(5.) Lapfe is a forfeiture of the right of prefentation
to a vacant church, by negledt of the patron to prefent
within fix kalendar months.
(6.) Simony is the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ecclefiaftical benefice, whereby that turn becomes
forfeited to the crown.
(7.) For forfeiture by nonperformance of conditions,
fee Seft. 10.
(8.) Wafte is a fpoil, or deftru&ion, in any corporeal
hereditaments, to the prejudice of him that hath the
inheritance.
(9.) Copyhold eftates may have alfo other peculiar
caufes of forfeiture, according to the cuftom of the ma¬
nor.
(10.) Bankruptcy is the aft of becoming a bank¬
rupt ; that is, a trader who fecretes himfelf, or does
certain other afts tending to defraud his creditors, fee
Seft. 22.
(11.) By bankruptcy all the eftates of the bankrupt
are transferred to the aflignees of his commiflioners, to
be fold for the benefit of his creditors.
Sect. XIX. Of Title by Alienation.
kxxi. OO Alienation, conveyance, or purchafe in its more
limited fenfe, is a means of transferring real eftates,
wherein they are voluntarily refigned by one man, and
accepted by another.
(2.) This formerly could not be done by a tenant,
without licenfe from his lord; nor by a lord, without
attornment of his tenant.
(3.) All perfons are capable of purchafing *, and all
that are in poffeflion of any eftates, are capable of con-
veying them : unlefs under peculiar difabilities by law :
as being attainted, non compotes, infants under durefs,
feme coverts, aliens, or papifts.
L W. 60
(4.) Alienations are made by common ajfuranccs; Law of
which are, 1. By deed, or matter in pais. 2. By mat-
ter of record. 3. By fpecial cuflom. 4. By devife. .1 ci I
Sect. XX. Of Alienation by Deed.
(1.) In aflurances by deed may be confidered, 1. Its Ixxxii.
general nature. 2. Its feverulfpecies.
(2.) A deed, in general, is the folemn aft me
parties ; being ufually a writing fealed and delivered j
v and it may be, 1. A deed indented, or indenture. 2.
A deed poll.
(3.) The requifites of a deed are, 1. Sufficient par¬
ties, and proper fubjeSl matter. 2. A good and laffici-
ent conjideration. 3. Writing on papir, or parchment,
duly ftaraped. 4. Legal and orderly parts : (which
are ufually, ift, the premifes ; 2dly, the habendum;
3dly, the tenendum ; 4thly, the redaendum ; Jthly, the
conditions j 6thly, the warranty, which is either lineal
or collateral ; 7thly, the covenants ; 8thly, the con-
clufion, which includes the date). 5. Reading it, if
defired. 6. Sealing, and, in many cafes, Jignitig it alfo.
7. Delivery. 8. Atteftation.
(4.) A deed may be avoided, 1. By the want of any
of the requifites before mentioned. 2. By fubfequent
matter; as, ift, Raiure, or alteration. 2dly, Defacing
its feal. 3dly, Cancelling it. qthly, Difagreement of
thofe whole confent is neceflary. jthly, Judgment of a
court of juftice.
(5.) Of the feveral fpecies of deeds, fome ferve
to convey real property, lome only to charge and dif-
charge it.
(6.) Deeds which ferve to convey real property, or
conveyances, are either by common law, or by ftatute.
And, of conveyances by common law, fome arc original
or primary, others derivative or fecondary.
(7.) Original conveyances are, 1. Feoffments. 2. Gifts.
3. Grants. 4. Leafes. 5. Exchanges. 6. Partitions.
Derivative are, 7. Releafes. 8. Confirmations. 9. Sur¬
renders. 10. Aftignments. 11. Defeasances.
(8.) A feoffment is the transfer of any corporeal \\c~
redicament to another, perfefted by livery of feijin, or
delivery of bodily poffefiion from the feoffer to the fe¬
offee ; without which no freehold eftate therein can be
created at common law.
(9.) A gift is properly the conveyance of lands in
tail.
(10.) A grant is the regular method, by common
law, of conveying incorporeal hereditaments.
(11.) A leafe is the demife, granting, or letting to
farm of any tenement, ufually for a lefs term than the
leffor hath therein; yet fometimes poffibly for a great¬
er ; according to the regulations of the reftraining and
enabling ftatutes.
(12.) An exchange is the mutual conveyance of equal
interefts, the one in confideration of the other.
(13.) A partition is the divifion of an eftate held in
joint tenancy, in coparcenary, or in common, between
the refpeftive tenants; fo that each may hold his dif-
tinft part in feveralty,
(14.) A releafe is the difcharge or conveyance of a
man’s right, in lands and tenements, to another that
hath fome former eftate in poffeffion therein.
(15.) A confirmation is the conveyance of an eftate'
or right in ffe, whereby a voidable eftate is made fure,
or a particular eftate is increafed.
(i 6.) A
60S L
Law of (16.) A fur render is the yielding up of an eftate
England £or |jfe> or years? to him that hath the immediate re-
. ^ ^ ‘ ' mainde.r or reverfion j wherein the particular eftate
may merge.
(17.) An alignment is the transfer, or making over
to another, of the whole right one has in any eftate ;
but ufually in a leafe, for life or years.
(18.) A defeasance is a collateral deed, made at
the fame time with the original conveyance ; contain¬
ing fome condition, upon which the eftate may be de¬
feated.
(19.) Conveyances by Jlatute depend much on the
doftrine of ufes and trujls : which are a confidence re-
pofed in the ferre tenant, or tenant of the land, that
he fhall permit the profits to be enjoyed, according to
the direftions of cejluy que ufe, or cejtuy que truji.
( 20.) The ftatute of ufes, having transferred all ufes
into actual poffefiion, (or, rather, having drawn the
polTeftion to the ufe,) has given birth to divers other
i'pecies of conveyance : 1. A covenant to ftand feized
to ufe. 2. A bargain and fale enrolled. 3. A leafe
and releafe. 4. A deed to lead or declare the ufe of
other more direft conveyances. 5. A revocation of
ufes ; being the execution of a power, referved at the
creation of the ufe, of recalling at a future time the ufe
or eftate fo creating. All which owre their prefent
operation principally to the ftatute of ufes.
(21.) Deeds which are ufed not to convey, but only to
charge real property, and dfeharge it, are, 1. Obligations.
2. Recognisances. 3. Defeasances upon both.
SECT. XXI. Of Alienation by matter of Record.
Ixxxiii. (1.) Affurances by matter of record are where the
fandtion of fome court of record is called in, to fub-
ftantiate and witnefs the transfer of real property.
Thefe are, 1. Private aciis of parliament. 2. The king's
grants. 3. Fines. 4 Common recoveries.
(2.) Private a£ls of parliament are a fpecies: of af-
furanees, calculated to give (by the tranfeendant au¬
thority of parliament) luch reafonable powers or re¬
lief as are beyond the reach of the ordinary courfe of
law.
(3.) The king's grants, contained in charters or
letters patent, are all entered on record, for the dig¬
nity of the royal perfon, and fecurity of the royal re¬
venue.
(4.) A fine (fometimes faid to be a feoffment of re¬
cord) is an amicable compofition and agreement of
an aftual, or fi&itious, fuit j whereby the eftate in
queftion is acknowledged to be the right of one of the
parties.
(5.) The parts of a fine are, r. The writ of cove¬
nant. 2. The licenfe to agree. 3. The concord.
4. The note. 5. The foot. To which the ftatute
hath added, 6. Proclamations.
(6.) Fines are of four kinds : Sur cognisance de
droit, come ceo que il ad de Jon done. 2. Sur cognisance
de droit tantum. 3. Sur concefilt. 4. Sur •done-, grant,
et render; which is a double fine.
(7.) force and efifeB of fines (when levied by
fuch as have themfelves any intereft in the eftate) are
to affure the lands in queftion to the cognizee, by
barring the refpe&ive rights of patties, privies, and
grangers.
A W. Part II.
(8.) A common recovery is by an a&ual, or fi£U- Law of
tious, fuit or action for land, brought againft the te- England
nant of the freehold 5 who thereupon vouches another, £utomifcd.
who undertakes to warrant the tenant’s title : but, up¬
on fuch vouchee’s making default, the land is recovered
by judgment at law againft the tenant ; who, in re¬
turn obtains judgment againft; the vouchee to recover
lands of equal value in recompenfe.
(9.) The force and efifetl of a recovery are to allure
lands to the recoverer, by barring tftates tail, and all
remainders and reverfions expedlant thereon ; provided
the tenant in tail either fuffers, or is vouched in, fuch
recovery.
(10.) The ufes of a fine or recovery may be direfled
by, I. Deeds to lead fuch. ufes j which are made pre¬
vious to the levying or fuffering them. 2. Deeds to
declare the ufes j which are made fubfequent.
Sect. XXII. Of Alienation by Special Cufiom.
(1.) Affurances by fpecial cufiom are confined to Ixxxi?.
the transfer of copyhold eftates.
(2.) This is efiVfted by, 1. Surrender \yy the tenant
into the hands of the lord to the ufe of another, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the manor. 2. Prejentment,
by the tenants or homage, of fuch furrender. 3. Ad¬
mittance of the furrenderee by the lord, according to
the ufes exprefied in fuch furrender.
{3.) Admittance may alfo be had upon original
grants to the tenant from the lord, and upon defeents
to the heir from the anceftor.
Sect. XXIII. Of Alienation by Devifie.
(1.) Devife is a difpofition of lands and tenements, jXxxv.
contained in the laft w ill and teftament of the owner.
(2.) This was not permitted by the common law,
as it flood fince the conqueft j but was introduced by
the ftatute law, under Henry VIII. fince made more
univerfal by.the ftatute of tenures under Charles II.
with the introdudion of additional folemiiities by the
ftatute of frauds and perjuries in the fame reign.
(3.) The confiruffion of all common ajfurances fhould
be, I. Agreeable to the intention. 2. To the words
of the parties. 3. Made upon the entire deed. 4. Bear¬
ing ftrongeft againft the contradlor. 3. Conformable
to law. 6. Rejecting the latter of two totally repug¬
nant claufes in a deed, and the former in a will. 7.
Moft favourable in a cafe of devife.
Sect. XXIV. Of Things Perfonal.
(1.) Things perfonal are comprehended under the ]Xxxvi»
general name of chattels-, which includes whatever
wants either the duration, or the immobility, attend¬
ing things real.
(2.) In thefe are to be confidered, 1. Their difiri-
bution. 2. The property of them. 3. The title to that
property.
(3.) As to the difiribution of chattels, they are, I.
Chattels real 2. Chattels perfonal.
(4.) Chattels real are fuch quantities of intereft, in
things immoveable, as are fhort of the duration of free¬
holds ■, being limited to a lime certain, beyond which
they cannot fubfift. (See Se£t. 7.)
(5.) Chattels
Chap. It. ^
Lav,-of (5.) Chattels perfona! are things moveable ; which
Eni. and may transferred from place to place, together with
tpnoir.ned. perfon 0£ the owner.
Sect. XXV. Of Property in Things Perfona!.
fexxvii. (1.) Property, in chattels perfonal, is either in/o/l
fejjion, or in aEiion.
(2.) Property in pofjejjion, where a man has the ac¬
tual enjoyment of the thing, is, 1. Abfolute. 2. ^ua/i-
fied.
(3.) property is where a man has fuch an,
cxclufive right in the thing, that it cannot ceafe to be
his, without his own a£t or default.
(4.) ^ualifed property is fuch as is not, in its na¬
ture, permanent; but may fometimes fubfiit, and at
ether times not fublift.
(5.) This may arife, t. Where the fubjeft is inca¬
pable of abfolute ownerfhip. 2. From the peculiar cir-
cumftances of the owners.
(6.) Property in aBion, is where a man hath not
the aftual occupation of the thing j but only a right to
it, arifing upon feme contraft, and recoverable by an
a£Hon at law.
(7.) The property of chattels perfonal is liable to
remainders, expeftant on eftates for life j to joint te-
aancy j and to tenancy in common.
SECT, XXVI. Of Title to Things Perfonal by Occu¬
pancy.
Isxxviii. (1.) The title to things perfonal may be acquired or
loft by, 1. Occupancy. 2. Prerogative. 3. Forfeiture.
4. Cujlom. 3. Succefjion. 6. Marriage. 7. Judgment.
8. Gift, or grant. 9. ContraB. \o. Bankruptcy. 11.
Tefament. x 2. Ad minifir alien.
■ (2.) Occupancy ftill gives the firft occupant a right
to thofe few things which have no legal owner, or
which are incapable of permanent ownerlbip. Such
as, 1. Goods of alien enemies. 2. Things found.
3. The benefit of the elements. 4. Animals ferce na-
turce. 5. Emblements. 6. Things gained by accef-
iion j or, 7. By confufion. 8. Literary property.
Sect. XXVII. Of Title by Prerogative, and Forfeiture.
Isxxlx. (1.) By prerogative is vefted in the crown, or its
granters, the property of the royal revenue, (fee
Chap. I. Se61 8.) ; and alfo the property of all game
in the kingdom, with the right of purfuing and ta¬
king it.
(2.) By forfeiture, for crimes and mifdemeanors,
the right of goods and chattels may be transferred from
one man to another; either in part or totally.
(3.') Total forfeitures of goods arife from convidlion
of, I. Treafon, and mifprifion thereof. 2. Felony.
3. Excufable homicide 4. Outlawry for treafon or
felony. 5. Flight. 6. Standing mute. 7 Aflaults
on a judge ; and batteries, fitting the courts. 8. Prce-
munire. 9. Pretended prophecies. 10. Owling. 11.
Redding abroad of artificers. 12. Challenges to fight,
for debts at play.
VOL. XI. Part II.
A W.
Sect. XXVIII. Of Title by Cujlom.
(l.") By cufom, obtaining in particular places, a Xc.
right may be acquired in chattels ; the moft ulual of
which cuftoms are thofe relating (o, 1. Hetiots. 2.
Mortuaries. 3 Heir looms,
(2.) Heriots are either heriot fervice, which dif¬
fers little from a rent; or heriot cujlom, which is a
cuftomary tribute, of goods and chattels, paya le to
the lord of the fee on the deceafe of the owner of
lands.
(3.) Mortuaries are a cuftomary gift, due to the
minifter in many parilhes, on the death of his pa-
riftiioners.
(4.) Heir looms are fuch perfonal chattels as defeend
by fpecial cuftom to the heir, along with the inheri¬
tance of his anceftor.
Sect. XXIX. Of Title by SucceJJion, Marriage, and
Judgment.
(1.) By fucceffion the right of chattels is vefted in xcjt
corporations aggregate; and likewife in fuch corporations
foie as are the heads and reprefentatives of bodies ag¬
gregate.
(2.) By marriage the chattels real and perfonal of
the wife are vefted in the hufband, in the fame degree
of property, and with the fame powers, as the wife
when foie had over them ; provided he reduces them
to pofl’efiion.
(3.) The wife alfo acquires, by marriage, a property
in her own paraphernalia.
(4.) By judgment, confequent on a fuit at law, a man
may in fome cafes, not only recover, but originally ac¬
quire, a right to perfonal property. As, 1. To penal¬
ties recoverable by a£fion popular. 2. To damages.
3, To cofts of fuit.
Sect. XXX. Of Title by Gift, G?'ant, and ContraB.
(1.) A. gift, or grant, is a voluntary conveyance of xcii,
a chattel perfonal in poffeffion, without any confidera-
tion or equivalent.
(2.) A contraB is an agreement, upon fufficient cen-
fideration, to do or not to do a particular thing : and,
by fuch contracl, any perfonal property (either in pof-
feffion or in adlion) may be transferred.
(3.) Contrafts may either be exprefs or implied $
either executed or executory.
(4.) The confderation of contrails is, 1 A good
confideration. 2. A valuable confideraiion ; which is,
1. Do, ut des. 2. Facio, ut facias. 3. Facto, ut des.
4. Do, ut facias.
(3.) The moft ufual fpecies of perfonal contracts
are, 1. Hale or exchange. 2. Bailment. 3. Hiring or
borrowing. 4. Debt.
(6.) Sale or exchange is a tranfmutation of property
from one man to another, in confideration of fome re*
compenfe in value.
(7.) Bailment is the delivery of goods in truft ; up¬
on a contraft, exprefs or implied, that the trult ftiall
be faitbfuliy performed by the bailee.
(8.^) Hiring or borrowing is a contract, whereby the
4 H poffeiuos.
Law of
England
Epiroaiif?d.
6io
L A
Law of pofleffion of chattels is transferred for a particular time,
England on concJition that the identical goods (or fometlines
I'pitoiui_c . their value) be reftored at the time appointed, toge¬
ther with (in cafe of hiring) a ftipend or price for the
ufe.
(9.) This price, being calculated to anfwer the ha¬
zard as well as inconvenience of lending, gives birth
to the do&rine of interej}, or ufury, upon loans } and,
confequently, to the doftrine of bottomry or refpotidentia,
and infnrance.
(10.) Debt is any contract, whereby a certain fum
of money becomes due to the creditor. This is, 1. A
debt of record. 2. A debt upon fpecial contract. 3. A
debt upon Jimple contract j which laft includes paper
credit, or bills of exchange, and promiffory notes.
Sect. XXXI. Of Tit/e by Bankruptcy.
(i.) Bankruptcy (as defined in Se£t. 18.) is the afl
of becoming a bankrupt.
(2.) Herein may bo confidered, 1. Who may be¬
come a bankrupt. 2. The aBs whereby he may be¬
come a bankrupt. 3. The proceedings on a commif-
fion of bankrupt. 4. How his property is transferred
thereby.
(3.) Perfons of full age, ujing the trade of merchan-
dife, by buying, and felling, and feeking their liveli¬
hood thereby, are liable to become bankrupts 5 for
debts of a fufficient amount.
(4.) A trader, who endeavours to avoid his credi¬
tors, or evade their juft demands, by any of the ways
fpecified in the feveral ftatutes of bankruptcy, doth
thereby commit an aB of bankruptcy.
(5,) The proceedings on a commiffion of bankrupt,
fo far as they affedt the bankrupt himfelf, are princi¬
pally by, 3. Petition. 2. Commiffion. 3. Declara¬
tion of bankruptcy. 4. Choice of affignees. 5. The
bankrupt’s furrender. 6. His examination. 7. His
difeovery. 8. His certificate. 9. His allowance.
10. His indemnity.
(6.) The property of a bankrupt’s perfonal eftate is,
immediately upon the a£t of bankruptcy, veiled by
conftrudtion of law in the affignees j and they, when
they have colle£ted, diftribute the whole by equal divi¬
dends among all the creditors.
Sect. XXXII. Of Title by Tef ament, and Admini-
firation.
(1.) Concerning tef aments and adminif rations, con¬
fidered jointly, are to be obferved, 1. Their original
and antiquity. 2. Who may make a teftament. 3. Its
nature and incidents. 4. What are executors and admi-
nijlrators. 5. Their office and duty.
(2.) Tef aments have fubfifted in England immemo-
rially • whereby the deceafed was at liberty to difpofe
of his perfonal eftate, referving anciently to his wife
and children their reafonable part of his effects.
(3.} The goods of intefates belonged anciently to
the king ; who granted them to the prelates to be dif-
pofed in pious ufes : but, on their abufe of this truft
jn the times of Popery, the legiflature compelled them
to delegate their power to adminifrators exprelsly pro¬
vided by law.
(4.) All perfons may make a teftament unlefs dif-
4
W. PartlF.
abied by, I. Want of difcretion. 2. Want ox free will. Law of
3. Criminal conduft. England
(5.) Tef aments are the legal declaration of a man’s Epuomifed,,
intentions, which he wills to be performed after his "J
death. Thefe are^ 1. Written. 2. Nuncupative.
(6.) An executor is he, to whom a man by his will
commits the execution thereof.
(7.) Adminifrators are, 1. Durante minore estate of an
infant executor or adminiftrator ; or durante abfentia;
or pendente lite. 2. Cum tefamento annexo ; when no ex¬
ecutor is named, or the executor refufes to aft. 3. Ge¬
neral adminiftrators; in purfuance of the ftatutes of
Edward III. and Henry VIII. 4. Adminifters de
bonis non ; when a former executor or adminiftrator dies
without completing his truft.
(8.) The office and duty of executors (and, in many
points, of adminiftrators alfo) are, 1. To bury the de¬
ceafed. 2. To prove the will, or take out adminiftra-’
tion. 3. To make an inventory. 4. To colleft the
goods and chattels. 5. To pay debts; obferving the
rules of priority. 6. To pay legacies, either general
or fnecific ; if they be veiled, and not lapfed. 7. To
diftribute the undevifed furplus, according to the fta-
tute of diftributions.
Chap. III. O/'Private Wrongs.
Sect. I. Of the Redrefs of Private Wrongs, by the mere
AB of the Parties.
(1.) Wrongs are the privation of right; and are, xcv.
1. Private. 2. Public.
(2.) Private wrongs, or civil injuries, are an in¬
fringement, or privation, of the civil rights of indivi¬
duals, confidered as individuals.
(3.) The redrefs of civil injuries is one principal ob-
jeft of the laws ol England.
(4.) This redrefs is effefted, 1. By the mere aB of
the parties. 2. By the mere operation of law. 3. By
both together, or fait in courts.
(5 ) Redrefs, by the mere aB of the parties, is that
which arifes, 1. From the foie aft of the party injured.
2. From Cat joint aft of the parties.
(6.) Of the firft fort are, 1. Defence of one’s felf, or
relations. 2. Recaption of goods. 3. Entry on lands
and tenements. 4. Abatement of nuifances. 5. Dif-
trefs j for rent, for fuit or fervice; for amercements,
for damage, or for divers ftatutable penalties; made of
fuch things only as are legally diftrainable ;—and ta¬
ken and difpofed of according to the due courfe of law.
6. Seifing of heriots, &c.
(7.) Of the fecond fort are, 1. Accord. 2. Arbi¬
tration.
Sect. II. Of Redrefs by the mere Operation of Law.
Redrefs, effefted by the mere operation of law, is, xevi.
1. In the cafe of retainer; where a creditor is executor
or adminiftrator, and is thereupon allowed to retain
his own debt. 2. In the cafe of remitter ; where one,
who has a good title to lands, &c. comes int® poffef-
fion by a bad one, and is thereupon remitted to his
ancient good title, which protefts his ill-acquired pof-
feffion.
SECTa
Chap. III.
Law of
England Sect. III. Of Courts in General.
Kpitomifed.
^'xcvii. (l.) Redrefs, that Is effected by the aB both of
law and of the partiesy is by fuit or aBion in the courts
of juftice.
(2.) Herein may be coniidered, I. The courts them-
felves. 2. The cognisance of wrongs or injuries there¬
in. And, of courts, I. Their nature and incidents.
2. Their feveral fpecies.
(3.) A court is a place wherein juftice is judicially
ndminiftered, by officers delegated by the crown ; be¬
ing a court either of record, or not of record.
(4.) Incident to all courts are a plaintiff, defendant,
and judge: and, with us, there are alfo ufually attor¬
neys *, and advocates or counfel, viz. either barrifters
or fcrjeants at law.
Sect. IV. Of the Public Courts of Common Law and
Equity.
scviii. (1.) Courts of juftice, with regard to their feveral
fpecies, are, 1. Of a public, or general, jurifdiftion
throughout the realm. 2. Of a private, or fpecial, ju-
rifdiftion.
(2.) Public courts of juftice are, 1. The courts of
common law and equity. 2. The ecclejiafiical courts.
3. The military courts. 4. The maritime courts.
(3.) The general and public courts of common law
and equity are, 1. The court of piepoudre. 2. The
court-baron. 3. The hundred court. 4. The county
court. 5. The court of common pleas. 6. The court
of king’s bench. 7. The court of exchequer. 8. The
court of chancery. (Which two laft are courts of
equity as well as law). 9. The courts of exchequer
chamber. 10. The houle of peers. To which may
be added, as auxiliaries, II. The courts of aflize and
niji prius.
Sect. V. Of Courts Ecclefafical, Military, and Mari¬
time.
xcix. (!•) Ecclefiaftical courts, (which were feparated
from the temporal by William the Conqueror), or courts
Chriflian, are, 1. The courts of the archdeacon. 2. The
court of the bifhop’s confiftory. 3. The court of
arches. 4. The court of peculiars. 5. The preroga¬
tive court. 6. The court of delegates. 7. The court
of review.
(2.) The only permanent military court is that of
chivalry the courts martial, annually eftabliftied by
aft of parliament, being only temporary.
(3.) Maritime courts are, 1. The court of admi¬
ralty and vice-admiralty. 2. The court of delegates.
3. The lords of the privy council, and others, autho¬
rized by the king’s commiflion, for appeals in prize-
caufes.
Sect. VI. Of Courts of a Special JurifdiBion.
c. Courts of a fpecial or private jurifdiftion are,
I. The foreft courts ; including the courts of attach¬
ments, regard, fwienmot, and juftice feat. 2. The
•'.,v :tr.
6l l
court of commiiTioners of fewers. 3. The court of po- baw °f
licies of affurance. 4. The court of the marftialfea and -
the palace court. 5. The courts of the principality of  
Wales. 6. The court of the duchy chamber of Lan-
cafter. 7. The courts of the counties palatine, and
other royal franchifes. 8. The {tannery courts. 9. The
courts of London, and other corporations :—lo which
may be referred the courts of requefts or courts of con-
fcience ; and the modern regulations of certain courts
baron and county courts. 10. The courts of the two
univerlities.
Sect. VII. Of the Cognisance of Private Wrongs.
(1.) All private wrongs or civil injuries are cogni- ci.
sable either in the courts ecclefafical, military, maritime,
or thofe of common law.
(2.) Injuries cognizable in the ecclefafical courts
are, 1. Pecuniary. 2. Matrimonial. 3. Ief amentary.
(3.) Pecuniary injuries, here cognizable, are, I. Sub¬
traction of tithes. For which the remedy is by fuit to
compel their payment, or an equivalent j and alfo their
double value. 2. Non-payment of ecclefiaftical dues.
Remedy : by fuit for payment. 3. Spoliation. Re¬
medy : by fuit for reftitution. 4. Dilapidations. Re¬
medy : by fuit for damages. 5. Non-repair of the
church, &c. 5 and non-payment of church-rates. Re¬
medy : by fuit to compel them.
(4.) Matrimonial iriyxx'ws are, 1. JaBitation of mar¬
riage. Remedy: by fuit for perpetual {Hence. 2. Sub-
traBien of conjugal rights. Remedy : by fuit for re¬
ftitution. 3. Inability for the marriage ftate. Reme¬
dy : by fuit for divorce. 4. Refufal of decent mainte¬
nance to the wife. Remedy : by fuit lor alimony.
(5.) Tef amentary injuries are, 1. Difputing the va¬
lidity of wills. Remedy : by fuit to eftablifti them.
2. ObfruBing of administrations. Remedy : by fuit for
the granting them. 3. SubtraBion of legacies. Re¬
medy : by fuit for the payment.
(6.) The courfe of proceedings herein is much con¬
formed to the civil and canon law : but their only com-
pulfive procefs is that of excommunication •, which is
enforced by the temporal writ oi fgnifcavit, or de ex¬
communicato capiendo.
(7.) Civil injuries, cognizable in the court military,
or court of chivalry, are, I. Injuries in point of ho¬
nour. Remedy : by fuit for honourable amends.
2. Encroachments in coat armour, &c. Remedy : by
fuit to remove them. The proceedings are in a fum-
mary method.
(8.) Civil injuries cognizable in the courts maritime,
are injuries, in their nature, of common law cognizance,
but ariftng wholly upon the fea, and not within the
precinfts of any county. The proceedings are herein
alfo much conformed to the civil law.
(9.) All other injuries are cognizable only in the
courts of common law : of which in the remainder of
this chapter.
(10.) Two of them are, however, commiflible by
thefe and other inferior courts, viz. 1. Refufal, or ne-
gleB of jufice. Remedies : by writ of procedendo, or
mandamus. 2. Encroachment of jurifliBion. Remedy :
by writ of prohibition.
L A W.
4 H a
Sect.
61 2
Law of
England
Epitoixuled.
Sect, VIII.
’L 'A W. Part IT.
(16.) Injuries to a rnajter are, I. Retaining his fer- Lt.wof
Qf Wrongs and their Remedies, refpeSling vants. Remedy : by action on the cafe j for damages,
the Rights of Ferfons, 2. Beating^ them. Remedy : by aftion on the cafe, perEpit0”>if^J
quadfervitium amifit; for damages. ’
fi.) In treating' of the cognizance of injuries by the
courts of cowrao.v. law, may be confidered* I. The in¬
juries themfelves, and their refpe£tive remedies. 2. The
purfuit of thole remedies in the feveral courts.
(2.) 1''juries between fubjeft and fuMccf, cogniz¬
able by the courts of common law, are in general re¬
medied by putting the party injured into poffeffion of
that right whei of he is unjuRly deprived.
(3,.) X ;is is effected, i. By delhery of the thing, de¬
tained to the rightful owner. 2. Where that remedy
is either impoiTible or inadequate, by giving the party
injured aJatifaSdion in damages.
(4.) The inftruments, by which tbefe remedies may
be obtained, areJuits or aBians; which are dclined to
be the legal demand, of one’s right: and thefe are,
X. Perfonal. 2. Real. 3. Mixed.
(5.) Injuries (whereof fome are with, others without,
forcej are, 1. Injuries to the. rights of perfons. 2. In¬
juries to the rights of property. And the former are,
x. Injuries to the abfelute, 2. Injuries to the relative,
rights of perfons.
(6.) The abfolute rights of individuals are, 1. Per¬
fonalfecurity. 2. Perfonal liberty. 3. Private property:
(See Chap. I. Se£f. x.) To which the injuries mult
be correfpondenL
(7.^ Injuries to perfonal fecurity are, 1. Againlt a
man’s/zb?. 2. Againlt his limbs. 3. Againlt his Z'ozz^.
4. Againlt his health. 3. A gain ft his reputation.—
The firlt mult be referred to the next chapter.
(8.) Injuries to the limbs and body are, 1. Threats.
12. A fault. 3. Battery. 4. Wounding. 5. Mayhem.
Remedy : by adtion of trefpafs, vi et armis; for da¬
mages.
(9.) Injuries to health, by any unwholeforne prac¬
tices, are remedied by a fpecial action of trefpafs, on
the cafe ; for damages.
(10.) Injuries to reputation are, 1. Slanderous and
malicious loonA. Remedy: by adtion on the cafe j
for damages. 2. Libels. Remedy: the fame. 3. Ma¬
licious profeculions. Remedy : by adtionof confpiraey,
or on the cafe ; for damages.
(11.) The foie injury to perfonal liberty is falfe im-
prifonment. Remedies : 1. By writ of, ift, Mainprize j
idly, Odio et atia j 3dly, Hornine replegiando ; 4thly, Ha¬
beas corpus; to remove the wrong. 2. By adlion of
trefpafs ; to recover damages.
(12.) For injuries to private property, fee the next
fed! ion.
( 13.) Injuries to relatives rights affedt, 1. Hifbands.
2. Parents. 3. Guardians. 4. Majlers.
(14.) Injuries to a hufband are, 1. AhduBion, or
taking away his wife. Remedy : by action of trefpafs,
de uxore rapta ct abduBa; to recover poffeffion of his
wife, and damages. 2. Criminal converfalion with her.
Remedy : by adtion on the cafe ; for damages. 3. Beat¬
ing her. Remedy : by adtion on the cafe, per quod con-
fortium amifit; for damages.
(15.) I he only injury to a parent xsv guardian is the
abduBion of their children or wards. Remedy: by ac¬
tion of trefpafs, defiliis, ve/ cufiodiis, raptis vet abduBis ;
to'recover pofleffion of them,, and damages.
Sect. IX Of Injuries to Perfonal Property.
(!'.) Injuries to the rights of property are either tu ^
thofe of perfonal or real property.
(2.) Perfonal property is either in poffcfwn or in
oEiion.
(3.) Injuries to perfonal property in poffeffion are,
r. By dfpoffhfion. 2. By damage,.while the owner re¬
mains in poffeffion.
(4.) Djpojjfjion may be effedted, 1. By an unlawful
taking.. 2. By an unlawful detaining,
(5.) For the unlawful taking of goods and chattels
perlonal, the remedy is, 1. Adtual rellitution, which
(in cafe of a wrongful dillrefs) is obtained by action ©f
replevin. 2. Satisfadtion in damages: y?, in cafe of
refcous, by adtion of refcous, poundbreach, or on the
cafe; 2diy, in cafe of other unlawful takings,, by adtion
of trefpafs or trover.
(6.) For the unlawful detaining of gooffs lawfully
taken, the remedy is alfo, 1. Adtual reltitulion ; by
adtion of replevin or detinue. 2. Satisfadtion in da¬
mages; by adtion on the cafe, for trover and conver-
lion.
(7.) For damage to perfonal property, while in the
owner’s poffeffion, the remedy is in- damages ; by ac¬
tion of trefpafs vi et armis, in cafe the adt be immedi¬
ately injurious ; or by adtion of trefnafs on the cafe, to
redrefs confequential damage.
(8i) Injuries to perfonal property, in aBion, arife by
breach of contracts, 1. Exprefs. 2. Implied.
(9.) Breaches of exprefs contracts are, 1. By non-
performance of debts. Remedy : \fi, Specific payment
recoverable by adtion of debt, idly. Damages for non¬
payment ; recoverable by action on the cafe. 2. By
nonperformance of covenants. Remedy1 : by adtion-of
covenant, ifl, to recover damages, in covenants per¬
fonal ; idly, to compel performance, in covenants real,
3. By nonperformance of promifes, or ajjhmpfits. Re¬
medy : by adtion on the cafe ; for damages.
(TO.) Implied contradts are fueh as arife, 1. From the
nature and confi itutiorr of government. 2. From reafon
and the conilrudt.ion of law.
(11.) Breaches of contradts, implied, in the nature
of government, are by the nonpayment of money wh ich
the laws have diredt'ed to be paid. Remedy : by adtion
of debt (which, in fuch cafes is frequently 2. popular
frequently a qui tarn adtion) ; to compel the fpecific
payment;—or, fometimes, by adtion on the cafe ; for
damages.
(b 2.) Breaches of contradts, implied in reaftn and
eonftrudtion of law, are by the nonperformance of Irgal
prefumptive ojfumpfits: for which the remedy is in da¬
mages; by an adtion on the cafe on the impliedw/-
fumpfils, - I. Of a quantum meruit. 2. Of a quantum
valebai. 3. Of money expended for another. 4. Of
receiving money to another’s ufe. 5. Of an infimnl u
ccmputafnt, on an account ffated (the remedy on an
account unftated being by adtion of account). 6. Q£
performing one’s duty, in any employment, with in¬
tegrity, diligence, and Hull. In fonte of which cafes
2
aa
Chap. III. LAW. 61^
Law of an a£Hon of deceit ("on the cafe, in nature of deceit) Remedy, in both cafes: by a mere writ of righty the law of
England jjgt higheit writ in the law. England
JEpitomifed. 0 Epitomtfed.
i.jirrf » * Sect. X. Of Injuries to Real Property; andy frft% of Sect. XI. Of Difpojfejfon, or Oujfer, of Chattels
DifpoJfeJJion, or Oufer, of the Freehold. real.
tiv. (i.) Injuries affecting real property are, r. Oufer.
2. Trefpafs. 3. Nffances. 4. Wqfle. 5. Subtraction.
6. Dijlurbance.
(2.) Oufier is the amotion of poSeflion j and is, 1.
From freeholds. 2. From chattels real.
(3.) Oufter from freeholds is effected by, 1. Abate¬
ment. 2. Intrnfon. 3. Dijfeifin. 4. JOifcontinuance.
5. Deforcement.
(4.) Abatement is the entry of a ftranger, after the
death of the ancestor, before the heir.
(5,) Intrifon 1$ \h& entry of a ftranger, after a par¬
ticular eftate of freehold is determined, before him in
remainder or reverlion.
(6.) Diffeijin is a wrongful putting out of him that
is feifed of the freehold.
(7.) Difcontinuance is where tenant in tail, or the
hufband of tenant in fee, makes a larger eftate of the
land than the law allowedv
(§.) Deforcement is any other detainer of the free¬
hold from him that hath the property, but who never
had the pofTeflion.
(9.) The univerfal remedy for all thefe is reftitution
©r delivery of pofl'eflion ‘7 and, fometimes, damages for
the detention. This is effected, 1. By mere entry.
2. By ait-ion pojfejfory. 3. By writ of right.
(10.) Mere entry, on lands, by him who hath the
apparent right of poflefbon, will (if peaceable') diveft
the mere pojfefjion of a wrongdoer. But forcible entries
are remedied by immediate reflitution, to be given by
a juftjce of the peace.
(11.) Where the wrongdoer hath not only mere
polTbflion, but alfo an apparent right of poffefn.on, this
may be divefted by him who hath the actual right of
pofTefiien* by means of the fiojfeffory actions of writ of
entry or aff%e.
(12.) A writ of entry is a real a&ion, which dif-
proves the title of the tenant, by fhowing the unlawful
means-under which he gained or continues poSeflion.
And it may be brought either again ft the- wrongdoer
himfeli, or in the degrees,called the per, the per and
cui, and the pojt.
(13.) An ajfi%e is a real ndtion, which proves the
title of the demandant, by fkowing his own or his an-
ceftor’s poiTeflion. And it may be brought either to
remedy abatements •, viz. the aitize of mart d'ancejiar,
Szc. : Or to. remedy recent difieidns j.viz. the aflize of
novel difkifn.
(14.) Where the wrongdoer hath gained the actual
right of poffejjion, he who has the right <sj property can
only be remedied by a writ of right, or fpme writ of a
fimilar nature. A% 1. Where fuch right oFpone’flion
is gained by the difcontinuance of tenant in tail. Re¬
medy, for the right of property ; by writ of formedon.
2. Where gained by recovery in a poffeflory a ft ion, had
againft tenants of particular eftates by their own de¬
fault, Remedy : by writuf eijeforceat. 3. Where
gained by recovery in a pofTeiTory action, had upon the
merits. 4. Where gained by the faint e of limitations',
(r.) Oufter from chattels x<ed. is, 1. From eftates by CVi
flatute and elegit. 2. From an eft ate for years.
(2.) Oufter from cfxates by ft a tute or eieglt, is ef-
fedted by a kind ofdijTeyin. Remedy : retiitution, and
damages j by aflize of novel'dijjejfin.
('3.) Oufter from an eftate for years, is effedted by
a like diffeifin, or ejediment. Remedy : refutation, and
damages $ 1. By vviXjdFljeSlione'jir'mcel 2. By writ of
quare ejecit infra tefihinum.
(4.) A writ of ejeElione frtrice, or adtmn of tfefpafs
in ejedtment, lieth where lands, &c. ate. let for a teCTn
of years, and the leffee is oufted or ejected frem his
term j in which cafe he fhall recover pblieffion of
term, and damages,
(5.) This is now the ufual method of trying titles
to land, inftead of an adtion real : viz. By, 1. T(ie
claimant’s making an adtual (or fuppofe'd) leafe upon
the land to the plaintiff. 2. The prainti'T’s adiual (br
fuppofed) entry thereupon. 3. His adtual ( r fuppof-
ed) oufter and ejedtment by the defendant. For which
injury this adtion is brought either againft the tenant,
or (more ufually) againft fome cafual or fidtitibus ejec¬
tor} in whofe Read the tenant niay be admitted defen¬
dant, on condition that the leafe, entry, and oufter, tie
confeffed, and that nothing elfe be difputed but the me¬
rits of the title claimed by the leflfor of the plaintiff.
(6.) A writ of quare ejecit infra terminum is an ac¬
tion of a fimilar nature) only not brought againft'the
wrongdoer or ejedlor himfelf, but fuch as are in poi-
feflion under his title.
Sect. XII. Of Trefpafs*
Trefpafs is an entry upon, and damage done fo, cvi.
another’s lands, by one’s felf,. or one’s cattle 5 With¬
out any lawful authority, or caufe of jollification :
which is called a 'breach of Tiis cltfs. Remedy;:1'da¬
mages j by adfion of trelpafsy. qiiare cfatiflitn 'fregh;
befides that of diftrefs, damage feafant. But, uiilefs
the title to the land came chiefly in queRidn,' or the
trefpafs was wilful or malicious, the plaintiff (if the da¬
mages be under forty (hillings) fhal! recover no more
colls than damages;.
Sect. XIII. Of Nuifance:
(1.) Nuifance, or annoyance, is any thing ‘that
worketh damage or inconvenience and it is either a
public 2C\& common nuifanee, of vvhich in the nest chap¬
ter ; or, a private nuifance, w hich is any thing done to
the hurt or annoyance of, 1. The corporeal) % The
incorporeal, hereditaments of'another.
(2.) The remedies for a private nuifance (befides
that of abatement) are, 1. Damages j by aflion on
the cafe ) -(which alfo lies for fpecial prejudice by a
public nuifancel. 2. Removal thereof amPdamagey}
by aflize of nuifance. 3. Like removal,, and damage;),
by writ of ^uod permit at prfernerep*^ ^
6i4
Law of
wEn?!a«d, StCT. XIV. OfWajle.
Epitomifetl. ^ ^
cviii. (i.) Wafte is a fpoil and cleftruftion in lands and
tenements, to the injury of him who hath, I. An im¬
mediate intereft (as, by right of common) in the lands.
5. The remainder of reverlion of the inheritance.
(2.) The remedies, for a commoner, are reftitution,
and damages ; by affize of common : Or damages on¬
ly 5 by aftion on the cafe.
(3.) The remedy, for him in remainder, or rever-
iion, is, 1. Preventive : by writ of ejlrepement at law,
or injun£lion out of chancery •, to ftay wafte* 2. Cor-
re&ive : by aflion of wafte j to recover the place waft-
ed, and damages.
Sect. XV. Of Subtrafiion,
cix. (I.) Subtraftion is when one, who owes fervices to
another, withdraws or negledts to perform them. This
may be, 1. Of rents, and other fervices, due by tenure.
2. Of thofe due by cujlom.
(2.) For fubtracfion of rents and fervices, due by
tenure, the remedy is, I. By diftrefs 5 to compel the
payment or performance. 2. By a£tion of debt.
3. By affize. 4. By writ de confuetudinibus et fervitiis ;
—to compel the payment. 5. By writ of cejfavit ;—
and, 6. By writ of right fur dfclaimer ;—to recover the
land itfelf.
(3.) To remedy the oppreffion of the land, the law
has alfo given, 1. The writ of Ne injufe vexes : 2. The
writ of mefne.
(4.) For fubtra£Hon of fervices, due by cvfom, the
remedy is, 1. By writ of SeBa cd molendinum, furnum
torrale, &c. to compel the performance, and recover
damages. 2. By aftion on the cafe j for damages
only.
Sect. XVI. Of Di/iurbance.
cx (l.) Difturbance is the hindering, or difquieting, the
owners of an incorporeal hereditament, in their regular
and lawful enjoyment of it.
(2.) Difturbances are, 1. Offranchifes. 2. Otcom¬
mons. 3. Of ways. 4. Of tenure. 5. Of patron-
(3.') Difturbance offrancbifes is remedied by a fpe-
cial aflion on the cafes j for damages.
(4.) Difturbance of common, is, 1. Intercommoning
without right. Remedy : damage •, by an aflion of
the cafe, or of trefpafs : befides diftrefs, damage fea-
fant *, to compel fatisfaftion. 2. Surcharging the com¬
mon. Remedies : diftrefs, damage feafant j to compel
. ? fatisfa&ion : a&ion on the cafe; for damages: or,
writ of admeafuremsnt of pafture ; to apportion the
common : and writ de fecunda fuperoneratione ; for the
fupernumerary cattle, and damages. 3. F.nchfure, or
obftru&ion. Remedies : reftitution of the common
and damages ; by aflize of noveldijfeifin, and by writ of
quod admittat: or, damages only ; by aftion on the
brsl t9ie3 orb 3i9flvr 10 \ soth bae
(5.) Difturbance of ways, is the obftrudHon, 1. Of
a way in grofs, by the owner of the land. 2. Of a way
appendant, by a ftranger. Remedy, for both : da¬
mages ; by action on the cafe.
Part Hi
(6.) Difturbance of tenure, by driving away te- Law of
nants, is remedied by a fpecial aftion on the cafe ; for England
damages. . , . .
(7.) Difturbance of patronage, is the hinderance of ''
a patron to prefent his clerk to a benefice ; whereof
ufurpaiion, within fix months is now become a fpe-
cies.
(8.) Difturbers may be, 1. The pfeudo-patron, by
his wrongful prefentation. 2. His clerk, by demanding
inftitution. 3. The ordinary, by refufing the clerk of
the true patron.
(9.) The remedies are, 1. By affize of darrein pre*
fentment; 2. By writ of quare impedit ;—to compel in¬
ftitution and recover damages : Confequent to which
are the writs of quare incumbravit, and quare non ad-
mi/it ; for fubfequent damages. 3. By writ of right of
advowfon ; to compel inftitution, or eftablilh the per¬
manent right.
Sect. XVII. Of Injuries Proceeding from, or jdjfeBing,
the Crown.
(I.^ Injuries to which the crown is a party are, cxi*
I. Where the crown is the aggreffor. 2. Where the
crown is the fufferer.
(2.) The crown is the aggreflbr, whenever it is in
poffeffion of any property to which tht^fubjeft hath a
right.
(3.) This is remedied, 1. By petition of right; where
the right is grounded on fafts difclofed in the petition
itfelf. 2. monfrans de droit; where the claim is
grounded on fafls, already appearing on record. The
effedt of both which is to remove the hands (or poffef¬
fion) of the king.
(4.) Where the crown is the fufferer, the king’s re¬
medies are, 1. By fuch common law aftions as are
confident with the royal dignity. 2. By inquejl of
office, to recover poffeffion : which, when found, gives
the king his right by folemn matter of record; but
may afterwards be traverfed by the fubjeft. 3. By
■writ of fcire facias, to repeal the king’s patent or
grant. 4. By information of intrufion, to give damages
for any trefpafs on the lands of the crown ; or of debt,
to recover moneys due upon contraft, or forfeited by
the breach of any penal ftatute ; ©r fometimes (in the
latter cafe) by information in rem : all filed in the ex¬
chequer ex officio by the king’s attorney general. 5. By
writ of quo warranto, or information in the nature of
fuch writ ; to feife into the king’s hands any franchife
ufurped by the fubjeft, or to ouft an ufurper from any
public office. 6. By writ of mandamus, unlefs caufe ;
to admit or reftore any perfon entitled to a franchife or
office : to which, if a falfe caufe be returned, the re¬
medy is by traverfe, or byaftion on the cafe for dama¬
ges *, and, in confequence, a peremptory mandamus,
or w’rit of reftitution.
SECT. XVIII. Of the Purfuit of Remedies by Action ;
and, Firf, of the Original Writ.
(1.) rP\\e purfuit of the feveral remedies furnifhed by cxd*
the laws of England, is, I. By aBion in the courts
of common law. 2. By proceedings in the courts of
equity.
( 2.) Of an aBion in the court of common pleas (ori¬
ginally
L A W.
L A W.
Chap. HI.
Law of ginally tlie proper court for profecuting civil fuits) the
Kn^lai d or£ierly parts are, I. The original writ. 2. The/>rocf/x.
Epironufed. ^'he pleadings. 4. The ijjue or demurrer. 5. The
l"~ ^ trial. 6. The judgment. 7. The proceedings in na¬
ture of appeal. 8. The execution.
(3.) The original writ is the beginning or foundation
of a fuit, and is either optional (called a preecipe'), com¬
manding the defendant to do fomething in certain, or
other wife (how caufe to the contrary ; or peremptory,
(called a Jifecerit tefecurum), commanding, upon fecu-
rity given by the plaintiff, the defendant to appear in
court, to (how wherefore he hath injured the plaintiff:
both iffuing out of chancery under the king’s great feal,
and returnable in bank during term time.
Sect. XIX. OfProcefs.
cxiii. (1.) Procefs is the means of compelling the defend¬
ant to appear in court.
(2.) This includes, t. Summons. 2. The writ of
attachment, or pone; which is fometimes the firft or
original precefs. 3. The writ of diftringas, or diftrefs
infinite. 4. The writs of capias ad refpondendum and
tejlatum capias: or, inftead of thefe in the king’s bench,
the bill of Middlefex, and writ of latitat:—and, in the
exchequer, the writ of quo minus. 5. The alias and
pluries writs. 6. The exigent, or writ of exigi facias,
proclamations, and outlawry. 7. Appearance and com¬
mon bail. 8. The arreft. 9. Special bail, firff to the
fheriff, and then to the aefion.
(3.) The determination in an iffue of law, or de¬
murrer, is by the opinion of the judges of the court,
which is afterwards entered on record.
Sfxt. XXII. Of the Several Species of Trial.
(i.) Trial is the examination of the matter of fa£I
put in iffue.
(2.) The fpeeies of {.rial are, 1. By the record. 2. By
infpc&ion. 3. By certificate. 4. By witnej/es. 5. By
wager of battel. 6. By wager of law. 7. By jury.
(3.) Trial by the record is had, when the exigence
of i'uch record is the point in iffue.
(4.) Trial by infpeElion or examination is had by the
court, principally when the matter in iffue is the evi¬
dent objeft of the fenfes.
(3.) Trial by certificate is had in thofe cafes, where
fuch certificate mull have been conclufive to a jury.
(6.) Trial by witneffes (the regular method in the
civil law) is only ufed on a writ of dower, when the
death of the hulband is in iffue.
(7.) Trial by wager of battel, in civil cafes, is only
had on a writ oLright •, but, in lieu thereof, the tenant
may have at his option, the trial by the grand afjixe.
(8.) Trial by wager of law is only had, where the
matter in iffue may be fuppofed to have been privily
tranfa£led between the parties themlelves, without the
intervention of other witnefifes.
Sect. XXIII. Of the Trial by Jury. )
6*5
Law of
England
Epitomifcd,
cxvt.
Sect. XX. Of Pleadings.
Pleadings are the mutual altercations of the plain¬
tiff and defendant in writing j under which are com-
prifed, 1. The declaration of court j (wherein, inci¬
dentally, of the vifne, nonfuit, retraxit, and difeonti-
nuance). 2. The defence, claim of cognizance, im¬
parlance, view, oyer, aid-prayer, voucher, or age.
3. The plea ; which is either n dilatory p\ea (1/?, to
the jurifdiftion j 2d/y, in difability of the plaintiff;
idly, in abatement), or it is a plea to the atlion ; fome-
limes confeffing the action either in whole or in part ;
(wherein of a tender, paying money into court, and fet
off) : but ufually denying the complaint, by pleading
either, \fi, the general iffue : or, idly, a fpecial bar
(wherein of jullifications, the ftatutes of limitation, &c.)
4. Replication, rejoinder, furrejoinder, rebutter, furre-
butter, &c. Therein of eftoppels, colour, duplicity,
departure, new aflignment, proteilation, averment, and
other incidents of pleading.
Sect. XXI. Of IJfue and Demurrer.
(1.) Iffue is where the parties, in a courfe of plead¬
ings, come to a point affirmed on one fide and denied
on the other 5 which, if it be a matter of law-, is called
a demurrer ; if it be a matter of fa£l, Hill it retains the
name of an iffue, of faft.
(2.) Continuance is the detaining of the parties in
court from time to time, by giving them a day certain
to appear upon. And, if any new matter arifes finee
the laft continuance or adjournment, the defendant may
take advantage of it, even after demurrer or iffue, by
alleging it in a plea puis darrein continuance.
(1.) Trial by jury h, I. Extraordinary ; as, by the cxvii.
grand affize, in writs of right j and by the grand jury,
in writs of attaint. 2. Ordinary.
(2.) The method and procefs of the ordinary trial
by jury is, 1. The writ of venire facias to the iheriff,
coroners, or elifors; with the fubfequent compullive
procefs of habeas corpora, or dfiringas. 2. The car¬
rying down of the record to the court of nfi pnus.
3. The iheriff’s returnj or panel of, ill, fpecial j 2dly,
common jurors. 4. The challenges j lil, to the array j
2dly, to the polls of the jurors ) either propter honoris
refpedium, propter defetfum, propter ajfeBum, (which is
fometimes a principal challenge, fometimes to the fa¬
vour), or propter deliftum. 3. The tales de circumjian-
tibus. 6. The oath of the jury. 7. The evidence ^
which is either by proofs, lit, written •, 2diy, parole :
—or, by the private knowledge of the jurors. 6. The
verdifl •, which may be, iff, privy j 2dly, public j
3dly, fpecial.
Sect. XXIV. Of Judgment and its Incidents.
(1.) Whatever is tranfafled at the trial in the court cxvifi,
of nijiprius, is added to the record under the name of
a pofiea : confequent upon w’hich is the judgmetit.
(2.) Judgment may be arrefted or flayed for caufes,
I. Extrinfic, or dehors the record ; as in the cafe of new
trials. 2. Intrinfic, or within it 5 as where the decla¬
ration varies from the writ, or the verdifl from the
pleadings, and iffue •, or where the cafe, laid in the de¬
claration, is not fufficient tofupport the action in point
f£}a&riO .2 .bnul -srlJ Jo yermo arfi K0." k
(3.) Where the iffue is immaterial or infufficienty
the court may award a repleader.
(4)
6i6
Law of (4.') Judgment Is the fentence of the law, pronoun-
England ce(j court upori the matter contained in the re-
Epitomifed. , J 7 r
. cord.
(5,) Judgments are, 1. Interlocutory -, which are
incomplete till perfected by a writ of inquiry. 2. Final.
(6.) Cofis, or expences of f'uit, are now the neceffary
confequence of obtaining judgment.
Sect. XXV. Of Proceedings, in the Nature of Appeals^
. (1.) Proceedings, in the nature of appeals from
judgment, are, t. A writ of attaint; to impeach the
verdidt of ajury-, which of late has been fuperfeded
by new trials. 2. A writ of audita querela; to dif-
charge a judgment by matter that has fmce happened.
3. A writ of error, from one court of record to ano¬
ther j to corredt judgments, erroneous in point of law,
and not helped by the ftatutes of amendment and jeo¬
fails.
(2.) Writs of error lie, 1. To the court of king's
bench, from all inferior courts of record ; from the
court of common pleas at Weftminfter j and from the
court of hinges bench in Ireland. 2. To the courts of
exchequer chamber, from the law fide of the courts of
exchequer; and from proceedings in the court of king's
bench by bill. 3. To the houfe of peers, from pro¬
ceedings in the court of king's bench by original, and
on writs of error; and from the feveral courts of ex¬
chequer chamber*
Sect. XXVL Of Execution.
j-cxx Execution is the putting in force of the fentence or
iudgment of the law. Which is effedted, I. Where
pofi'tffion of any hereditament is recovered : by writ
of habere facias feifnam, poffejjionem, <b‘c. 2. Where
any thing is awarded to be done or rendered, by a fpe-
cial writ for that purpofe: as, by writ of abatement,
in cafe of nuifance ; relorna habendo and capias m
wither am, in replevin; diflringas and fcire facias, in de¬
tinue. 3. Where money only is recovered ; by writ
of, 1 ft, Capias adfatisfaciendum, againfl the body of the
defendant; or in default thereof, /czre yiahj1 againft
liis bail. 2dly, Fieri facias, againft his^oo^/j- and chat¬
tels. ^dly, Levari facias, againft his goods and the
profts of his lands, qthly, Elegit, againft his goods,
and the poffeffion of his lands. 5thly, Extendi facias,
and other procefs.on ftatutes, recognizances, &c. againft
his body, lands, and goods.
Sect. XXVII. Of Proceedings in the Courts of Equity*
cxxh C1 Matters of equity which belong to the peculiar
juvifdiction of the court of chancery, are, 1. T he giiar-
dianlhip of infants. 2. The cuft dy of idiots and luna¬
tics. 3. The fupertntendance of charities. 4. Com-
mifiions of bankrupt.
(2.'I The court of exchequer and the duchy court of
Lancnjler, have alto foine peculiar caufes, in which the
intereft of the king is more immediately concerned.
(j.) Equity is the true fenfe and lound interpreta-
llon of the rules of law ; and, as fuch, is equally at¬
tended to by the judges of the courts both of common
law and equity.
Part IT.
(4.) The effential differences, whereby the Englifn Lew of
courts of equity are dift ugukLed from the courts or law,
are, 1. t he mode ot proof, by a diiccvery on the oath ^
of the party ; which gives a junfdi&ion in matters of
account, and fraud. 2. The mode of trial; by depo-
fitions taken in any part of the world. 3’ ^ m°de
of relief; by giving a more Ipecific and extenfive reme¬
dy than can be had in the courts of law ; as, by carry-
ing agreements into execution, ftaying walte or other
injuries by nnjundlion, directing the fate of encumbered
lands, &c. 4. The true cenitru&ion of fecurities for
money, by confidering them merely as a pledge. 5. Ihe
execution of trujls, or iecond ults, in a manner analo¬
gous to the law of legal eftaLes.
(5.) The proceedings in the court of chancery (to
which thofe in the exchequer, &c. very nearly conform)
are, 1. Bill. 2. Writ of fubpeena ; and, perhaps, in-
jundtion. 3. Procefs of contempt; viz. (ordinarily)
attachment, attachment with proclamations, commii-
fion of rebellion, ferjeant at arms, and fequeft rat ions,
4. Appearance. 5. Demurrer. 6. Plea. 7. Anfwer.
8. Exceptions; amendments ; crofs, or fupplemental,
bills ; bills of revivor, interpleader, &c. 9. Replica¬
tion. 10. Iffue. 11. Depofitions, taken upon inter¬
rogatories; and fublequent publication thereof. 12.
Hearing. 13. Interlocutory decree ; feigned iffue, and
trial; reference to the mailer, and report; &c. 14. Fi¬
nal decree. 15. Rehearing, or bill of review. 16. Ap¬
peal to parliament,
Chap. IV. O/Tublic Wrongs.
Sect. I. Of the Nature of Crimes, and their Punijh-
ment.
(1.) In treating of public wrongs may be confidered, cssin
I. The general nature of crimes and punifhments. 2.1 he
perfons capable oi committing crimes. 3. iheir ieve-
ral degrees of guilt. 4. The feveral fpecics of crimes,
and their refpedtive punifhments. 5* Ihe means of
prevention. 6. The method of punifhment,
(2.) A crime, or mifdemeanor, is an a£t committed,
or omitted, in violation of a public law either forbidding
or commanding it.
(3.) Crimes are diftinguifhed from civil injuries, in
that they are a breach and violation of Hswpublic rights,
due to the whole community, confidered as a commu¬
nity.
(4.) Punifhments may be confidered with regard to,
T. T he power ; 2. The end; 3- The meajure ;—of their
inftiTion.
(5.) The power, or right, of inflicting human punifh¬
ments for natural crimes, or fuch as arc mala infe, was
by the law' of nature veiled in every individual : but,
by the fundamental contraft of fociety, is now transfer¬
red to the foverc ign power; in which alfo is vefted, by
the fame contra#, the right of punilhing pofitive of¬
fences, or fuch-as are malaprohibita.
(6.) The end of human punifhments is to prevent
future offences; 1. By amending the offender himfelf.
'2 By deterring others through his example. 3. By
depriving him of the power to do future mifehief.
^7.) The meafure of human* punifhments muft be
determined by the wifdom of the fovereign power, a»d
.*• not
LAW.
Chap. IV. L u
l aw of not by any uniform tmiverfal rule : tbmvgb that wif-
(|oni may regulated, and affifted, by certain general^
u‘ ‘ ^ equitable, principles.
Sect. II. Of the Per fans capable of Committing
Crimes. ' ■! ••'-i t n<>i,!rf
Csslv. O*) All perfons are capable oi committing crimes,
tmlefs there be in them a defect of to?//: for, to, con-
fiitute a legal crime, there mail be both a villous will,
and a vitious act.
(2.) The will does not concur with the aft, 1. Where
there is a defect of underjlanding. 2. V. here no will
is exerted. 3. Where the aft is. conjlrained by force
and violence.
(3.) A vitious will may tberefore be wanting, in the
«afes of, 1. Infancy. 2. Idiocy, or lunacy. 3. Drunk-
ennefs j which doth not, how’ever, eKcufe. 4. Mis¬
fortune. 5. Ignorance, or miftake of faft. 6. Com-
pulfion, or neceffity ; which is, ift, that of civj.l fub-
jeftion4 2dly, that of durefs per minus; 3c^y»
dhoofing the leaft pernicious of two evils, where one is
unavoidable ; 4'thly, that of want, or hunger j which
is no legitimate excufe.
(4.) The king, from his excellence and dignity, is
alfo incapable of doing wrong.
Sect. III. Of Principals and Acceffories.
»xxv. (*•) The different degrees of guilt in criminals are^
I. As principals. 2. As acceffories.
(7.) A principal in a crime is, 1. He who commits
the faft. 2. He who is prefent at, aiding, and abet¬
ting, the commiffion.
(3.) An acceffory is he who doth not commit the
£i£t, nor is prefent at the com million ; but is in fome
fort concerned therein, either before or after.
(4.) Acceffories can only be in petit treafon, and
felony : in high treafon, and mifdemeanors, all are
principals.
(5.) An acceffory, before the faff, is one who, be¬
ing abfent when the crime is committed, hath pro¬
cured, counfelled, or commanded, another to commit
i-t. Ji gntbrnmirnf)'* *
• (6.)' An acceffory after the fa£t, is where a perfon,
knowing a felony to have been committed, receives,
relieves, comforts, or aflifts, the felon. Such accef¬
fory is ufually entitled to the benefit of clergy ■, where
the principal, and acceffory before the faff, are exclud¬
ed from it.
Sect. IV. Of Offences againf GOB and Religion.
csxvi. . (1.) Crimes and rr.ifdemeanovs cognizable by the
laws of England are fuch as more iramed ately offend,
I. God, and his holy religion. 2. The law oi nations.
3.. The and his government. 4, The public, or
commonwealth. 3. Individuals.
(2.) Crimes more immediately offending God and
religion are, I. dpofacij. For «hich the penalty is
incapacity, and imprifonment. 2. Herefy. Penalty,
for one fpecies thereof: the fame. 3. Offences again!!
the eftablithed church :—Either, by reviling it^ ordinan¬
ces. Penalties: fine j deprivation ; imprifonment;
forfeiture.—Or, by nonconformity to Its worfnip j
VOX.. XL Part 11.
. W. 617
1 ft, Through total irreligien. Penalty :. fine, idly, Law o;
Through Proteftant diffnting. Penalty : impended by
the toleration aft. 3dly, Through Popery, either in ,
prpfeflors of the pop^ih religion, popifti recufants, con-
vift, or popiftt piiefts. Penalties : incapacity ; double
taxes ; imprifoniuent ; fines; forfeitures ; abjuration o£
the realm ; judgment of felony, without clergy : and
judgment of high treafon. 4. Blafphemy. Penalty :
fine, imprifonment, and corporal puniihment. 5. Pro¬
fane /wearing and curjing. Penalty: fine, or houfe'of
correftion. 6. Witchcraft; or, at leaft, the pretence
thereto. Penalty ; imprifonment, and pillory. 7. Re¬
ligious impofures. Penalty : fine, imprifonment, and
corporal puniftiment. 8. Simony. Penalties : forfei¬
ture of double value ; incapacity. 9, Sabbath-breaking.
Penalty : fine. \o. Drunkennefs. Penalty: fine or
flocks, it, Lewdnefs. Penalties: fine; imprifonment;
houfs of cwrreftioa. vd beqlod Jon bns
Sect. V. Of Offences againf the Law of Nations.
(1.) The Jaw of nations a fyftem of rules, dedu- cxx,?114
dible by natural reafon, and eftablilhed by univerfal
qonfent, to regulate the intercourfe between indepen-
g-gnihosejoia moil bfis •
{2.) In England, the law of nations is adopted in
its full extent, as part of the law of the land.
(3.) Offences again!! this law are principally inci¬
dent to whole ftates or nations ; but, when committed
by private fubjefts, are then the objefts of the munici¬
pal law.
(4.) Crimes again!! the law of nations, animadverted
on by the laws of England, are, 1. Violation oi fife
condutls. 2. Infringement of the rights of embaffadors.
Penalty, in both : arbitrary. 3. Piracy. Penalty :
judgment of felony, without clergy.
- • yd liH'-ifc ic- ' i- b m r t K-E E-irg br'r,[j yrtr
Sect. VI. Of High Treafon,
(1.) Crimes and mifdemeanors more peculiarly of- cxxviii.
fending the king and his government are, 1. High trea¬
fon. 2. Felonies injurious to the prerogative. 3. Prec-
munire. 4. Other nnfpri/ons and contempts.
(2.) High treafon may, according to the ftatute of
Edward III. be committed, 1. By compafing er ima¬
gining the death of the king, or queen-coniort, or their
eldeft fon and heir : demotiftrated by fome overt aft.
2. By violating the king’s companion, his eldeft daugh¬
ter, or the wife of his eldeft fon. 3. By fome overt aft
of levying w ar again!! the king in his realm. 4. By
adherence to, the king’s enemies. 5. By counterfeiting
the king’s great or privy feal. 6. By counterfeiting
the king’s money, or importing counterfeit money. 7. By
killing the chancellor, treafurer, or king’s juftiecs, in
the execution of ihr.ir offices, p , fbiftb <
(3.) High treafons, created by fubfequent ftatutes,
are fuoh as relate, 1 To Paptfs: as, the repeated de¬
fence of the pope’s jurildiftion ; the coming from be¬
yond fea of a natural born popifti prieft ; the renoun¬
cing of allegiance, and reconciliation to the pope or
other foreign power. 2. To the coinage, or other fig-
natures of the king : as, counterfeiting (or, import¬
ing and uttering counterfeit) foreign coin, here cur¬
rent ; forging the fign-manua), privy,fignpt, or privy
feal; falsifying, &c. the current coin. 3. To the
4 I Protefani
6i8 LA
Law of Vrotejlant fuccejfion ; as, correfponding with, or
Ed'tomifed to’ t^le ^ate Preten^el',s f°tls '■> endeavouring to im-
^p.tuin. (a . peje fucce{jj0n . writing or printing in defence of
any pretender’s title, or in derogation ol the add of fet-
tlement, or of the power of parliament to limit the de-
fcent of the crown.
(4.) The punijhmgnt of high treafon, in males, is (ge¬
nerally) to be, 1. Drawn. 2. Hanged. 3. Embowel-
led alive. 4. Beheaded. 5. Quartered. 6. The head
and quarters to be at the king’s difpofal. But, in trea-
fons relating to the coin, only to be drawn, and hanged
till dead. Females, in both cafes, are to be drawn, and
burned alive.
SECT. VII. Of Felonies injurious to the Kinfs Prero¬
gative.
cxxix. (i.) Felony is that offence which occalions the total
forfeiture of lands or goods, at common law’ •, now ufual-
ly alfo punilhable with death, by hanging } unlefs
through the benefit of clergy.
(2.) Felonies injurious to the king’s prerogative (of
which fome are within, others without clergy) are,
1. Such as relate to the coin: as, the wilful uttering
of counterfeit money, &c. j (to which head fome infe¬
rior mifdemeanors affedling the coinage may be alfo
referred). 2. Confpiring or attempting to kill a privy
counfellor. 3. Serving foreign (dates, or inlifting fol-
diers for foreign fervice. 4. Embezzling the king’s ar¬
mour or fores. 5. Defertion from the king’s armies by
land or fea.
Sect. VIII. Of Prcemunire.
:xxs. (11) Praemunire, in its original fenfe, is the offence
of adhering to the temporal power of the pope, in de¬
rogation of the regal authority. Penally : outlawry,
forfeiture, and imprifonment: which hath fince been
extended to fome offences of a different nature.
(2.) Among thefe are, 1. Importing Popifh trin¬
kets. 2. Contributing to the maintenance of Popifti
feminaries abroad, or Popifti priefts in England. 3. Mo-
lefting the poffeffors of abbey lands. 4. Adding as
broker in an ufurious contradd, for more than ten per
cent. 5. Obtaining any (day of proceedings in fuits
for monopolies. 6. Obtaining an exclufive patent for
gunpowder or arms. 7. Exertion of purveyance or
pre-emption. 8. Afferting a legiflative authority in
both or either houfe of parliament. 9 Sending any
fubjedd a prifoner beyond fea. 10. Refufing the oaths
of allegiance and fupremacy. 11. Preaching, teach¬
ing, or advifed fpeaking, in defence of the right of
any pretender to the crown, or in derogation of the
power of parliament to limit the fucceflion. 12. Treat¬
ing of other matters by the affembly of peers of Scot¬
land, convened for eledding their reprefentatives in par¬
liament. 13. Unwarrantable undertakings by unlaw¬
ful fubfcriptions to public funds.
SECT. IX. Of Mifprifons and Contempts ajfeEling the
King and Government.
c-xxxi. (1.) Mifprifions and contempts are all fuch high of¬
fences as are. under the degree of capital.
(2.) Thefe are, 1, Negative, in concealing what ought
4
W. Part I!,
to be revealed. 2. Poftive, in committing what ought Law of
not to be done. England
(3.) Negative mifprifions are, 1. Mifprifion of trea- ^Pltom‘rej<
f/n. Penalty : forfeiture and imprifonment. 2. Mif- ’ ^
prifion of felony. Penalty : fine and imprifonment.
3. Concealment of treafure trove. Penalty : fine and
imprifonment.
(4.) Poftive mifprifions or high mifdemeanors and
contempts, are, 1. Mal-adminijlraticn of public trufts,
which includes the crime of peculation. Ufual penal¬
ties : banifhment j fines ; imprifonment ; difability.
2. Contempts againft the king’s prerogative. Penalty :
fine, and imprifonment. 3. Contempt againft his
petfon 006. government. Penalty: fine, imprifonment,
and infamous corporal puniftiment. 4. Contempts
againft his title. Penalties : fine, and imprifonment j
or fine, and difability. 5. Contempts againft his pa¬
laces, or courts of juftice. Penalties: fine •, imprifon¬
ment ; corporal puniftiment j lofs of right hand ; for¬
feiture.
SECT. X. Of Offences againf Public Jufice.
(1.) Crimes efpecially affedding the commonwealth cxxxii,
are offences, 1. Againft the public jufice. 1. Againft
the public peace. 3. Againft the public trade. 4. A-
gainft the public health. 5. Againft the public police
or economy.
(2.) Offences againft the public jufice, are, 1. Em-
bext&ling or vacating records, and perfonating others in
courts of juftice. Penalty : judgment of felony, ufual-
ly without clergy. 2. Compelling prifoners to become
approvers. Penalty: judgment of felony. 3. Ohf rul¬
ing the execution of procefs. 4. Ffcapes. 5. Breach
of prifun. 6. Refcue. Which four may (according
to the cireumftances) be either felonies, or mifde¬
meanors puniftiable by fine and imprifonment. 7. Re¬
turning from tranfportatwn. This is felony, without
clergy. 8. Taking rewards to help one to his ftolen
goods. Penalty : the fame as for the theft. 9. Receiving
ftolen goods. Penalties : tranfportation j fine ; and
imprifonment.—10. Theftbote. w. Common barretry
and fuing in a feigned name. 12. Maintenance. 13.
Champerty. Penalty, in thefe four : fine, and impri¬
fonment. 14. Compounding profecutions on penal fta-
tutes. Penalty: fine, pillory, and difability. \§.Con-
fpiracy ; and threats of accufation in order to extort
money, &c. Penalties: the villanous judgment *, fine 5
imprifonment j pillory $ whipping, tranfportation. 16.
Perjury, and fubornation thereof. Penalties : in¬
famy j imprifonment 5 fine, or pillory ; and fome-
times, tranfportation or houfe of correddion. 17. Bri¬
bery. Penalty: fine, and imprifonment. 18. Embra¬
cery. Penalty : infamy, fine, and imprifonment. 19.
FalfeverdiB. Penalty: the judgment in attaint. 20.
Negligence of public officers, &c. Penalty : fine, and
forfeiture of the office. 21. Opprefion by magif-
trates. 22. Extortion of officers. Penalty, in both :
imprifonment, fine, and fometimes forfeiture of the of¬
fice.
Sect XI. Of Offences againf the Public Peace.
Offences againft the public peace, are, 1. Riotous cxxxliL
affemblies to the number of twelve. 2. Appearing
armed;
Chap. IV. L A
Law of armed, or hunting in difgirife. 3. Threatening, or de-
England manging any valuable thing by letter.—All thefe are
"'r ^ ‘felonies, without clergy. 4, Deftroying of turnpikes,
&c. Penalties : whipping j imprifonment j judgment
of felony, with and without clergy. 5. jdjf 'rays. 6.
Riots, routs, and unlawful affemblies. 7. Tumultuous
petitioning. 8. Forcible entry, and detainer. Penalty,
in all four: fine, and imprifonment. 9. Going unu-
fually armed. Penalty : forfeiture of arms, and im¬
prifonment. 10. SpreadingPenalty : fine
and imprifonment. II. Pretended prophecies. Penal¬
ties : fine ; imprifonment j and forfeiture. 12. Challenges
to fight. Penalty : fine, imprifonment, and fometimes
forfeiture. 13. Libels. Penalty : fine, imprifonment,
and corporal punifliment.
Sect. XII. Of Offences againjl Public Trade.
cxsxiv. Offences againft the public trade, are, 1. Owling.
Penalties : fine j forfeiture , imprifonment j lofs of left
hand ; tranfportation j judgment of felony. 2. Smug¬
gling. Penalties : fines j lofs of goods j judgment of
felony, without clergy. 3. Fraudulent bankruptcy.
Penalty : judgment of felony without clergy. 4. V-
fury. Penalty : fine, and imprifonment. 5. Cheating»
Penalties : fine ; imprifonment •, pillory $ tumbrel,
whipping, or other corporal punifliment, tranfporta¬
tion. 6. Foreflalling. 7. Regrating. 8. EngroJJing. Pe¬
nalties, for all three : lofs of goods j fine j impri¬
fonment 5 pillory. 9. Monopolies and combinations to
raife the price of commodities. Penalties : fines ; im¬
prifonment ; pillory 5 lofs of ear j infamy ; and, fome¬
times the pains of preemunire. 10. Exercifing a trade,
not having ferved as an apprentice. Penalty : fine.
11. Tranfporting, or refiding abroad of artificers. Pe¬
nalties : fine ; imprifonment j forfeiture ; incapacity 5
becoming aliens.
Sect. XIII. Of Offences againfl the Public Health, and
Public Police or Economy.
cxxxv. (1.) Offences againft: the public health, are, 1. Ir¬
regularity, in the time of the plague, or of quarantine.
Penalties : whipping ; judgment of felony, with and
without clergy. 2. Selling unwholefome provifions. Pe¬
nalties : amercement ; pillory ; fine 5 imprifonment j
abjuration of the town.
(2.) Offences againft the public police and economy,
or domeftic order of the kingdom, are, 1. Thofe re¬
lating to clandefline and irregular marriages. Penal¬
ties : judgment of felony, with and without clergy.
2. Bigamy, or (more properly) polygamy. Penalty :
judgment of felony. 3. Wandering, by foldiers or ma¬
nners. 4. Remaining in England, by Egyptians ; or
being in their fellowfhip one month. Both thefe are
felonies, without clergy. 3. Common nuifances, ift, By
annoyances or purpreftures in highways, bridges, and
rivers ; 2dly, By offenfive trades and manufactures }
3dly, By diforderly houfes 5 4thly, By lotteries 5 5thly,
By cottages 5 6thly, By fireworks j 7thly, By evefdrop-
ping. Penalty : in all fine. 8thly, By common fcold-
ing. Penalty : the cucking ftool. 6. Idlenefs, dforder,
’vagrancy, and incorrigible roguery. Penalties : impri¬
fonment j whipping •, judgment of felony. 7. Luxury,
in diet. Penalty, diferetionary. Gaming. Penalties:
W. 619
to gentlemen, fine j to others, fine and imprifonment j Law of
to cheating gamefters, fine, infamy, and the corporal Lpg13™1
pains of perjury. 9. Defraying the game. Penalties :. pi
fines, and corporal punifliment.
Sect. XIV. Of Homicide.
(1.) Crimes efpecially affefling individuals, are, cxjcxvi,
I. Againft \\\du perfons. 2. Againft their habitations.
3. Againft their property.
(2.) Crimes againft the perfons of individuals, are,
1. By homicide, or deftroying life. 2. By other cor¬
poral injuries.
(3.) Homicide is, I. Juf fable. 2. Excufable. 3. Fe¬
lonious.
(4.) Homicide is fuff able, 1. By necefiity, and
command of law. 2. By permiuion of law •, lit, For
the furtherance of public jufticej 2dly, For prevention
of fome forcible felony.
(5.) Homicide is excufable, 1. Per infortunium, or
by mifadventure. 2. Se defendendo, or in felf-defence,
by chance-medley. Penalty, in both : forfeiture of
goods ; which however is pardoned of courfe.
(6.) Felonious homicide is the killing of a human
creature without juftification or excufe. This is, I. Kil¬
ling one's felf. 2. Killing another.
(7.) Killing one's felf or felf-murder, is where one
deliberately, or by any unlawful malicious aCI, puts an
end to his own life. This is felony 5 puniftied by igno¬
minious burial, and forfeiture of goods and chattels.
(8.) Killing another is, 1. Manfaugkter. 2. Murder.
(9.) Manfaughter is the unlawful killing of another,
without malice, exprefs or implied. This is either,
1. Voluntary, upon a fudden heat. 2. Involuntary,
in the commiflion of fome unlawful aCt. Both are fe¬
lony, but within clergy ; except in the cafe offobbing.
(10.) Murder is when a perfon, of found memory
and diferetion, unlawfully killeth any reafonable crea¬
ture, in being, and under the king’s peace ; with ma¬
lice aforethought, either exprefs or implied. This is
felony, without clergy 5 puniftied with fpeedy death,
and hanging in chains or diffedtion.
(11.) Petit treafon (being an aggravated degree of
murder) is where the fervant kills his mafter, the wife
her hufband, or the ecclefiaftic his fuperior. Penalty:
in men, to be drawn and hanged j in vromen, to be
drawn and burned.
Sect. XV. Of Offences againf the Perfons of Indivi¬
duals.
Crimes affe&ing the perfons of individuals, by other cxxxvii,
corporal injuries not amounting to homicide, are,
I. Mayhem ; and alfo fhooting at another. Penalties :
fine ; imprifonment ; judgment of felony, without cler¬
gy. 2. Forcible abduBion, and marriage or defilement,
of an heirefs ; which is felony : alfo, f eating, and de-
fowering or marrying, any woman child under the age
offxteen years j for which the penalty is imprifonment,
fine, and temporary forfeiture of her lands. 3. Rape,
and alfo carnal knowledge, of a woman child under the
age of ten years. 4. Buggery, with man or beaft.. Both
thefe are felonies, without clergy. 5. Affault. 6. Bat¬
tery ; efpecially of clergymen, q. Wounding. Penal¬
ties, in all three : fine $ imprifonment j and other cor-
4X2 poral
<520 h A
Law of poral punifhment. 8. Falfe imprijontnent. Penalties:
En. lam! gne impriionment; and (in fome atrocious cafes) the
Ipnooiit d. .rr .7JI.V vro: j
i  - pains or pnemumre, and incapacity ot cixice or pardon.
9. Kidnapping, or forcibly ftealing away the king’s fub-
j«&s. Penalty : fine j imprifonment j and pillory.
Sect. XVI. Of Offence* againfl the Habitations of In¬
dividuals.
OHaxviii. (1.) Crimes, affecting the habitations of individuals
are, 1. Arfon. 2. Burglary.
( 2.) Arfon h the malicious and wilful burning of the
houfe, or out-houfe, of another man. This is felony :
in fonae cafes within, in others without, clergy.
(3.) Burglary is the breaking and entering, by night,
into a manlion houfe : with intent to commit a felony.
This is felony, without clergy.
Sect. XVII. Of offences againjl Private Property.
*«3txix, (1.) Crimes aifefting the private/>rc/>er/,7/of indivi¬
duals are, 1. Larciny. 2. Malicious mifchief 3. For-
gery.
(2.) Larciny is, I. Simple. 2. Mixed or compound.
(i.) Simple larciny is the. felonious taking, and car¬
rying awa-*, of the perfonal goods of another. And it
is. 1. Grand Izrciny •, being above the value of twelve-
pence. Which is felony ; in fome cafes within, in
others without, clergy. 2. Petit larciny ; to the value
of twelvepence or under. Which is alfo felony, bat
not capital j being punilhed with whipping, or tranf-
portation.
(4.) Mixed, or compound, larciny, is that wherein
the taking is accompanied wifh the. aggravation of be¬
ing, 1 From the /forz/e. 2. From the/w/?/?.
(5.) Lareinies from the houfe, by day or night, are
felonies without clergy, when they are, 1. Larcinies,
above twelvepence, from a church \ or by breaking a
tent or booth in a market or fair, by day or night, the
owner or his family being therein;—or by breaking a
dwelling houfe by day, any perfon being therein ;—or
from a dwelling houfe by day, without breaking, any
perfon therein being put in fear ;—or from a dwelling
houfe by night, without breaking, the owner, or his fa¬
mily being therein and put in fear. 2. Larcinies, of
five fillings, by breaking the dwelling houfe, (hop, or
warehoufe by day, though no perfcn be therein ;•—or,
by privately ftealing in any {hop, warehoufe, coach-
houfe, or liable, by day.or night, without breaking,
and though no perfon be therein. 3, Larcinies, of
forty fhillings, from a dwelling houfe or its out-houfes,
without breaking, and though no perfon be therein.^
(6.) Larciny from the perfon is, 1. By privately
Jlealing, from the perfon of another, above the value of
twelvepence. 2. By robbery ; or the felonious and
forcible taking, from the perfon of another, in or near
the highway, goods or money of any value, by putting
him in fear. Thefe are both felonies without clergy.
An attempt to rob is alfo felony.
(7.) Malicious mifchief, by deftroying dykes, goods,
eattle, (hips, garments, fifh ponds, trees, woods, churck-
es, chapels, rneeting-houfes, houfes, out-houfes, corn,
hay, ftraw, fea or river banks, hop-binds, coal-mines (or
engines thereunto belonging), or any fences fos. enclor
3.
W. Part
fares by a£t of parliament, is felony ; and, in moft cafes, Law of
without benefit of clergy. England
(8.) Forgery fs the fraudulent making or alteration
of a writing, in prejudice of another’s right. Pe¬
nalties : fine ; imprifonment ; pillory ; lofs of nofe
and ears; forfeiture ; judgment of felony, without
clergy.
Sect. XVIII. Of the Means of Preventing Offences.
(1.) Crimes and mifdetneanors may be prevented, c^
by compelling fufpedled perfons to give fecurity :
which is effefted by binding them in a conditional re-»
cognizance to the king, taken in court, or by a magif-
trate.
(2.) Thefe recognizances may be conditioned, 1. To
keep the peace. 2. To be of good behaviour.
(3.) They may be taken by any juftice or conferva-
tor of the peace,, at his own difcretion ; or,, at the re-
queft of fuch as are entitled to demand the fame.
(4.) All perfons, who have given fufficient caufe to
apprehend an intended breach of the peace, may be
bound over to keep the peace; and all thofe, that be
not of good fame, may be bound to the good behaviour $
and may, upon refufal in either cafe, be committed to
gaol.
Sect. XIX. Of Courts of Criminql Jur fdiBion.
(1.) In the method of puniffmcnt may be confider- exit¬
ed, 1. The feveral cewrAr of criminal jurifdidlion. 2.
The feveral proceedings therein.
(2.) The criminal .courts are, 1. Thofe of a public
and general jurifdiftion throughout the realm. 2. Thofe
of a private and fpecial jurifdiblion.
(3.) criminal courts-are, 1. The high court
of parliament; which proceeds by impeachment. 2. The
court of the lord high fteward ; and the court of the
king in full parliament: for the trial of capitally m-
difted peers. 3. The court of king’s bench. 4. The
court of chivalry. 5. The court of admiralty, under
the king’s commiflion. 6. The courts of oyer and
terminer, and general gaol delivery. 7. The court of
quarter feflions of the peace. 8. The {heriff’s tourn.
9. The court left. 10. The court of the coroner.
II. The court of the clerk of the market.
(4.) P/wM/e criminal courts are, 1. The court of the
lord fteward, &c. by ftatute of Henry VII. 2. The
court of the lord fteward, &c. by ftatute of Hen-»
ry VIII. 3. The univerfity courts.
Sect. XX. Of Summary Convictions.
(1.) Proceedings in criminal courts are, I. Summary. calif
2. Regular.
(2,) Summary proceedings are fuch, whereby a man
may be cenvifted of divers offences, without any form¬
al procefs or jury, at the difcretion of the judge or
judges appointed by aft of parliament, or common
law.
(3.) Such are, 1. Trials of offences and frauds
againft the laws of excife and other branches of the
king’s revenue. 2. Convictions before juflices of the
peace upon a variety of minute offences, chiefly againft
thtj.
Chap. IV,
Law of the public police. 3
England fUperior courts of juiUce.
Spitomifed.
L A W.
Aitscliments for contempts to the king’s perfon 01* government: or
621
2. FiU'd by the ma- Law of
fter^ of the crown office (with leave of the court of EnSla,lcl
at volatlnn of fomp nrlvaie. fnhieft i!‘Plt0milecL
Sect. XXL Of Arref, s.
exliii. ('1.) Regular proceedings in the courts of common
law, are, 1. Arref. 2. Commitment and bail. 3. Pro-
fecution. 4. Proccfs. 5. Arraignment^ and. its inci¬
dents. 6. Plea and ifue. 7. Trial and conviBion.
8. Clergy. 9. Judgment, and its confequences. 10. Re-
verfal of judgment Reprieve ox pardon. 12. Exe¬
cution.
(2.) An arref is the apprehending, or retraining,
of one’s perfon ; in order to be forthcoming to anfwer
a crime whereof one is accufed or fufpefted.
(3.) This may be done, 1. By warrant. 2. By an
officer, without warrant. 3. By a private perfon,
without warrant. 4. By hue and cry.
Sect. XXII. Of Commitment and Bail.
exliv, (1.) Commitment is the confinement of one’s per¬
fon in prifon, for fafe cuftody, by warrant from pro¬
per authority ; unlefs, in bailable offences, he puts
in fufficient bail, or fecurity for his future appear¬
ance.
(2.) The magiftrate is bound to take reafonable bailj
if offered j unlefs the offender be not bailable.
(3.) Such are, 1. Perfons accufed of treafon j or,
2. Of murder; or, 3. Of manfiaughter, by indi&ment;
or if the prifoner was clearly the flayer. 4. Prifon
breakers, when committed for felony. 5. Outlaws.
6. Thofe who have abjured the realm. 7. Approvers,
and appellees. 8. Perfons taken with the mainour.
9. Perfons accufed of arfon. 10. Excommunicated per-
fons.
(4.) The magiftrate may, at his difcretion, admit
to bail, or otherwife, perfons not of good fame, char¬
ged with other felonies, whether as principals or as ac-
ceffories.
(5.) If they be of good fame, he is bound to admit
them to bail.
(6.) The court of king’s bench, or its judges in time
of vacation, may bail in any cafe whatfoever.
SECT. XXIII. Of the Several Modes of Profecution.
king’s bench) at the relation of feme private fubjeft
for other grofs and notorious mifdemeanors. All dif¬
fering from indidtments in this; that they are exhibited
by the informer, or the king’s officer ; and not on the
oath of a grand jury.
(5.) An appeal is an accufation or fuit, brought by
one private fubjedl againft another, for larciny, rape,
mayhem, arfon, or homicide ; which the king can¬
not difeharge or pardon, but the party alone can re-
leafe,
l
Sect. XXIV. Of Procefs upon an IndiElmeni.
(1.) Procefs to bring in an offender, when indifted cxivi;
in his abfence, is, in mifdemeanors, by venire facias,
diftrefs infinite, and capias : in capital-crimes, by capias
only : and, in both, by outlawry.
(2.) During this ftage of proceedings, the indidl-
ment may be removed into the court of king’s bench-
from any inferior jurildidtion, by writ of certiorari fa¬
cias: and cognizance muft be claimed in places of ex-
clufive jurifdi&ion.
Sect. XXV. Of Arraignment, and its Incidents.
(I.) Arraignment is the calling of the prifoner to the cxlviv
bar of the court, to anfwer the matter of the indict¬
ment.
(2.) Incident hereunto are, 1. The {landing mute
of the prifoner : for which, in petit treafon, and felo¬
nies of death, hs fhall undergo the peine fort et dure.
2. His confeflion ; which is- either fmple, or by way of
approvement.
Sect. XXVI. Of Plea, and its Iffue.
(1.) The plea, or de fen five matter alleged by the cxlviiir
prifoner, may be, I. A plea to the jurifdiCtion. 2. A
demurrer in paint of law. 3. A plea in abatement.
4. A fpecial plea in bar ; which is, ift, Auterfoits ac¬
quit; 2dly, Auterfoits conviB; 3dly, Auterfoits attaint^ .
4thly, A pardon. 5. The general iffue, not guilty.
(2.) Hereupon iffue is joined by the clerk of the ar¬
raigns, on behalf of the king.
(1.) Profecution, or the manner of accufing of¬
fenders, is either by a previous finding of a grand
jury; as, i. By preferment. 2. By indifimerit. Or,
without fuch finding. 3. By information. 4. By ap¬
peal.
(2,) A preferment is the notice taken by a grand
jury of any offence, from their own knowledge or ob-
fervation.
(3.) An indiBment is a written aecufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to,
and prefented on oath by, a grand jury ; expreffing,
with fufficient certainty, the perfon, time, place, and
offence.
(4.) And information is, T, At the fuit of the king
and a fubjeft, upon penal ftatutes. 2. At the fuit of
the king only. Either, 1. Filed by the attorney ge¬
neral ex officio,. for fuch imfdemeanors as affeCl the
Sect. XXVII. Of Trial, and ConviBion.
(l.) Trials of offence, by the laws of England, ^
were and are, 3. By ordeal, of either fire or water. CX
2. By the-corfned. Both thefe have been long aboliffied.
^. By battel, in appeals and improvements. 4. By the
peers of Great Britain. 5. By jury.
(2.) The method and procefs of trial by jury is,
I. The impannelling of the jury. 2. Challenges;
ift, for caule ; 2dly, peremptory. 3. Talcs de circum-
f antibus. 4^„The oath of the jury, 5. The evidence.
6. The verdiCt, either general or fpecial.
(3.) ConviBion is when the prifoner pleads, or is
found guilty : whereupon, in felonies, the profecutor
is entitled to, t. His expcnces. 2. Reftitution of his
goods.
\
Sect,. -
622
Law of
Eng! and SECT. XXVIII. Of the Benefit of Clergy.
Epitomifed.
     Clergy, or the benefit thereof, was originally
C^° derived from the uiurped jurifdi6tion of the Popifh ec-
clefiaftics; but hath fince been new-modelled by feveral
ftatutes.
(2.) It is an exemption of the clergy from any other
fecular punifiiment for felony, than imprisonment for
a year, at the court’s difcretion •, and it is extended
likewife, abfolutely, to lay peers, for the firft offence j
and to all lay-commoners, for the firft offence alfo,
upon condition of branding, imprifonment, or tranf-
portation.
(3.) All felonies are entitled to the benefit of cler¬
gy, except fuch as are now oufted by particular fta-
tutes.
(4.) Felons, on receiving the benefit of clergy,
(though they forfeit their goods to the crown), are
difcharged of all clergyable felonies before committed,
and reftored in all capacities and credits.
Sect. XXIX. Of Judgment, and its Confequences.
cli. (1.) Judgment (unlefs any matter be offered in ar-
reft thereof) follows upon convi£lion j being the pro¬
nouncing of that puniftiment which is exprefsly ordain¬
ed by law.
(2.) Attainder of a criminal is the immediate confe-
quence, 1. Of having judgment of death pronounced
upon him. 2. Of outlawry for a capital offence.
(3.) The confequences of attainder are, I. Forfei¬
ture to the king. 2. Corruption of blood.
(4.) Forfeiture to the king is, 1. Of real eftates,
upon attainder 5—in high treafon, abfolutely, till the
death of the late Pretender’s fons ;—in felonies, for the
king’s year, day, and wafte ;—in mifprifion of treafon,
affaults on a judge, or battery fitting the courts j during
the life of the offender. 2. Of perfonal eftates, upon
conviction ; in all treafon, mifprifion of treafon, felony,
excufable homicide, petit larceny, ftanding mute upon
arraignment, the above-named contempts of the king’s
courts, and flight.
(5.) Corruption of blood is an utter extinction of all
inheritable quality therein : fo that, after the king’s
forfeiture is firft fatisfied, the criminal’s lands efcheat to
Part III.
the lord of the fee • and he can never afterwards inhe- Law of
rit, be inherited, or have any inheritance derived through Englan<!
him Epitomifed.
Sect. XXX. Of Reverfal of Judgment.
(r.) Judgments, and their confequences, may be cm.
■avoided, 1. By falffying, or reverfng, the attainder.
2. By reprieve, or pardon.
(2.) Attainders may be falfified, or reverfed, 1. With¬
out a writ of error j for matter dehors the record. 2. By
writ of error ; for miftakes in the judgment, or record.
3. By act of parliament j for favour.
(3.) When an outlawry is reverfed, the party is re¬
ftored to the fame plight as if he had appeared upon
the capias. When a judgment, on conviction, is rever¬
fed, the party ftands as if never accufed.
Sect. XXXI. Of Reprieve, and Pardon.
(1.) A reprieve is a temporary fufpenfion of the
judgment, 1. Ex arbitrio judicis. 2. Ex necefjitate le-
gis ; for pregnancy, infanity, or the trial of identity of
peribn, which muft always be tried infanter.
(2.) A pardon is a permanent avoider of the judge¬
ment by the king’s majefty, in offences againft his
crown and dignity •, drawn in due form of law, allowed
in open court, and thereby making the offender a new
man.
(3.) The king cannot pardon, 1. Imprifonment of
the fubjeft beyond the feas. 2. Offences profecuted by
appeal. 3. Common nuifances. 4. Offences againft:
popular or penal ftatutes, after information brought by
a fubjeft. Nor is his pardon pleadable to an impeach*
ment by the commons in parliament.
Sect. XXXII. Of Execution.
(1.) Execution is the completion of human punilh- c]^
ment, and muft be ftri£lly performed in the manner
which the law direfts.
(2.) The warrant for execution is fometimes under
the hand and feal of the judge *, fometimes by writ
from the king j fometimes by rule of court ; but com¬
monly by the judges figning the calendar of prifoners,
with their feparate judgments in the margin.
L A W.
PART III. THE LAW OF SCOTLAND.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Municipal I* THE municipal law of Scotland, as of moft other
law. countries, confifts partly of ftatutory or written law,
which has the exprefs authority of the legiflative power •,
partly of cuftomary or unwritten law, which derives
force from its prefumed or tacit confent.
Statutory 2. Under our ftatutory or written law is compre-
Jaw. bended, (1.) Our afts of parliament: not only thofe
A6ts of par- which were made in the reign of James I. of Scot-
liament. ]anci) and from thence down to our union with Eng¬
land in 1707, but fuch of the Britifti ftatutes enafted
fince the Union as concerned this part of the united
kingdom.
3. The remains of our ancient written law were pub- Regiam
liflied by Sir John Skene, clerk regifter, in the begin-Majeftst*
ning of the laft century, by licenfe of parliament. Thetem.
books of Regiam Majejlatem, to which the whole col¬
lection owes its title, feem to be a fyltem of Scots law,
wwitten by a private lawyer at the command of David
I.; and though no exprefs confirmation of that trea-
tife by the legiflature appears, yet it is admitted to
have been the ancient law of our kingdom by exprefs
ftatutes. The borough laws, which were alfo enaCted
by the fame King David, and the ftatutes of William,
Alexander II. David II. and the three Roberts, are
univerfally allowed to be genuine. Our parliaments
have once and again appointed commiflions torevife and
amend
Ails of fe
derunt.
Authority
of the civi
and canon
laws.
Part III. L A
, Law of amend the Regiam Majejlatitn, and the other ancient
Scotland, books of our law, and to make their report: but as no
report appears to have been made, nor confequently any
ratification by parliament, none of thefe remains are re¬
ceived, as of proper authority, in our courts ; yet they
are of excellent ufe in proving and illuftrating our moft
ancient cuftoms.
4. Our written law comprehends, (2.) The a£ts of
federunt, which are ordinances for regulating the forms
of proceeding before the court of feffion in the admi-
nitfration of juftice, made by the judges, who have a
delegated power from the legillature for that purpofe.
Some of thefe a£ts dip upon matter of right, which de¬
clare what the judges apprehend to be the law of Scot¬
land, and what they are to obferve afterwards as a rule
of judgment.
5. The civil, or Roman and canon laws, though
they are not perhaps to be deemed proper parts of our
written law, have undoubtedly had the greateft in¬
fluence in Scotland. The powers exercifed by our
fovereigns and judges have been juftified upon no other
ground, than that they were conformable to the civil
or canon laws j and a fpecial ftatute was judged necef-
fary, upon the Reformation, to relcind lueh of their
conftitutions as were repugnant to the Proteftant doc¬
trine, From that period, the canon law has been little
refpefted, except in queftions of tithes, patronages,
and fome few more articles of ecclefiaftical right : but
the Roman continues to have great authority in all
cafes where it is not derogated from by ftatute or cuf-
tom, and where the genius of our law fuffers us to ap-
piy it.
Cuftomary 6. Our unwritten or cuftomary law, is that which
or common without being exprefsly enafted by ftatute, derives its
force from the tacit confent of king and people 5 which
confent is prefumed from the ancient cuftom of the
community. Cuftom, as it is equally founded in the
will of the lawgiver with written law, has therefore the
fame effe&s : hence, as one ftatute may be explained
or repealed by another, fo a ftatute may be explained
by the uniform practice of the community, and even
go into difufe by a pofterior contrary cuftom. But
this power of cuftom to derogate from prior ftatutes
is generally confined by lawyers to ftatutes concerning
private right, and does not extend to thofe which re¬
gard public policy.
Decifions of 7. An uniform traft of the judgments or decifions
the feffion. of the court of feffion is commonly confidered as part
of our cuftomary law •, and without doubt, where a par¬
ticular cuftom is thereby fixed or proved, fuch cuftom
of itfelf conftitutes lawr: but decifions. though they
bind the parties litigating, have not, in their own na¬
ture, the authority of law in fimilar cafes 5 yet, where
they continue uniform, great weight is juftly laid on
Judgments them. Neither can the judgments of the houfe of peers
efthe houfe 0f Great Britain reach farther than to the parties in the
p ers’ appeal, fince in thefe the peers aft as judges, not as
lawgivers.
Promulga- 8. Though the laws of nature are fufficiently pub-
t'on of laws liftred by the internal fuggeftion of natural light, civil
laws cannot be confidered as a rule for the conduft of
life, till they are notified to thofe whofe conduft they
are to regulate. The Scots afts of parliament were, by
our moft ancient cuftom, proclaimed in all the different
ihires, boroughs, and baron courts, of the kingdom.
\V. 623
But after our ftatutes came to be printed, that cuftom Law of
was gradually neglefted ; and at laft, the publication , Scot!“nd..
of our laws, at the market-crofs of Edinburgh, was '
declared fufficient j and they became obligatory 40
days thereafter. Britiffi ftatutes are deemed fufficient¬
ly notified, without formal promulgation ; either be-
caufe the printing is truly a publication ; or becaufe
every fubjeft is, by a maxim of the Englith law, party
to them, as being prefent in parliament either by him-
felf or bis reprefentative. After a lawr is publifhed, no
pretence of ignorance can excufe the breach of it.
9. As laws are given for the rule of our conduft,
they can regulate future cafes only j for part aftions,
being out of our power, can admit of no rule. Decla¬
ratory laws form no exception to this 5 for a ftatute,
where it is declaratory of a former law, does no more
than interpret its meaning ; and it is included in tha
notion of interpretation, that it muft draw back to the
date of the law interpreted.
10. By the rules of interpreting ftatute law received fnterpreta-
in Scotland, an argument may be ufed from the titletion of
to the aft itfelf, a rubro ad nigrum; at leaft, wherelaws-
the rubric has either been originally framed, or after¬
wards adopted by the legiflature. The preamble or
narrative, which recites the inconveniences that had
arifen from the former law ; and the caufes inducing
the enaftment, may alfo lead a judge to the general
meaning of the ftatute. But the chief weight is to be
laid on the ftatutory words.
11. Laws, being direfted to the unlearned as well
as the learned, ought to be conftrued in their molt ob¬
vious meaning, and not explained away by fubtle di-
ftinftions •, and no law is to fuffer a figurative interpre¬
tation, where the proper fenfe of the words is as com¬
modious, and equally fitted to the fubjeft of the fta¬
tute. Law's ought to be explained fo as to exclude ab-
furdities, and in the fenfe which appears moft agreeable
to ,former law's, to the intention of the lawgiver, and
to the general frame and ftrufture of the conftitution.
In prohibitory laws, where the right of afting is taken
from a perfon, folely for the private advantage of an¬
other, the confent of him, in whofe behalf the law was
made, (hall fupport the aft done in breach of it ; but
the confent of parties immediately interefted has no
effeft in matters which regard the public utility of a
ftate. Where the words of a ftatute are capable but of
one meaning, the ftatute muft be obferved, however
hard it may bear on particular perfons. Neverthelefs,
as no human fyftem of laws can comprehend all pof-
fible cafes, more may fometimes be meant by the law¬
giver than is expreffed 5 and hence certain ftatutes,
where extenfion is not plainly excluded, may be ex¬
tended beyond the letter, to fimilar and omitted cafes :
others are to be confined to the ftatutory w'ords.
12. A ftrift interpretation is to be applied, (1.) ToStrift1
correftory ftatutes, which repeal or reftrift former laws j
and to ftatutes which enaft heavy penalties, or reftrain
the natural liberties of mankind. (2.) Laws, made on
occafion of prefent exigencies in a ftate, ought not to
be drawn to fimilar cafes, after the preffure is over.
(3.) Where ftatutes eftablilh certain folemnities as re-
quifite to deeds, fuch folemnities are not fuppliable by
equivalents ; for folemnities lofe their nature, when they
are not performed /pecifically. (4.) A ftatute, which
enumerates fpecial cafes, is, with difficulty, to be ex¬
tended
J
624 LA W. Part IIL
Law of tended to cafes not expreflfed ; but, wliere a law does
,S.ro-land. no(. c|efLf.nci t0 particulars, there is greater reafon to
extend it to firailar caies. (5.) Statutes, which carry
a difpenfation or privilege to particular perfons^ or fo-
cieties, fuffer a ftri6t interpretation •, becaufe they de¬
rogate from the general law, and imply a burden upon
the reft of the community. But at no rate can a
privilege be explained to the prejudice of ihofe m
whofe behalf it was granted. As the only founda¬
tion of cuftomary law is ufage, which confifts in faff,
fuch law can go no farther than the particular ulage
has gone.
Ample. All ftatutes, concerning matters fpecially fa-
voured by law, receive an ample interpretation ; as laws
for the encouragement of commerce, or of any ufeful
public undertaking, for making effectual the wills of
dying perfons, for reftraining fraud, for the fecurity
of creditors, Stc. A ftatute, though its fubjedl matter
fhould not be a favourite of the law, may be extended
to fimilar cafes, which did not exift when the ftatute
was made *, and for which, therefore, it was not-in the
lawgiver’s power to provide.
14. Every ftatute, however unfavourable, muft re¬
ceive the interpretation neceffary to give it effedt: and,
on the other hand, in the extenfion of favourable laws,
fcope muft not be given to the imagination, in difco-
vering remote refemblances ; the extenfion muft be li¬
mited to the cafes immediately fimilar. Where there
is ground to conclude that the legiflature has omitted
a cafe out of the ftatute purpofely, the ftatute cannot
be extended to that cafe, let it be ever fo fimilar to the
cafes exprcffed.
15. The objecls of the laws of Scotland, according
to Mr Erfkine, one of the lateft writers on the fubjedt,
are, Perfons, Things, and Adlions.
Chap. I. Of Persons.
Among perfons, judges, who are invefted writh jurif-
didtion, deferve the firft confideration.
Sect. I. Of JurifdiBion and Judges in General.
clvi,
Jim (diction JurifdidtSon is a power conferred upon a judge or
magiftrate, to take cognizance of and decide caufes ac¬
cording to law, and to carry his fentences into execu¬
tion. That tradt of ground, or diftridl, within which
a judge has the right of jurifdidlion, is called his ter¬
ritory ; and every adt of juril/iidtion exercifed by a
judge without his territory, either by pronouncing len¬
ience, or carrying it into execution, is null.
Kinj the 2. The fupreme power, which has the right of en-
fountain of adting laws, falls naturally to have the right of eredt-
j.inidufhon. courts, and appointing judges, who may apply
thefe laws to particular cafes : but, in Scotland, this
right has been always intruded with the crown, as hav-’
ing the executive power,of the ftate.
DSftinAons 3. Jurifdidlion is either fupreme, inferior, or mixed,
of junfdic- That jurildidiion is fupre.me, from which there lies no
t‘on‘ appeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are thofe
whofe fentences are fubjedl to the review of the fupreme
courts, and whofe jurifdidlion is confined to a particu¬
lar territory. Mixed jurifdidlion participates of the
nature both of the fupreme and inferior : thus the
judge of the high court of admiralty, and the cojn-
miffaries of Edinburgh, have an univetfal jurifdidlion Lr.wof
over Scotland, and they can review' the decrees of
inferior admirals and commiflaries : but fince their "
owm decrees are fubjedl to the review of the courts of
feflion or jufticiary, they are, in that refpedt, inferior
courts.
4. Jurifdidlion is either civil or criminal : by the firft,
queftions of private right are decided *, by the other,
crimes are puniihed. But, in all jurifdidlion, though
merely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge to
puniih either corporally, or by a pecuniary fine, thofe
who offend during the proceedings of the court, or
who fhall afterwards obftrudl the execution of the fen-
tence.
5. Jurifdidlion is either privative or cumulative.
Privative jurifdidlion, is that which belongs only to
one court, to the exclufion of all others. Cumulative,
otherwife called concurrent, is that which may be exer¬
cifed by any one of two or more courts, in the fame
caufe. In civil cumulative jurifdidtion, the private pur-
fuer has the right of eledlion before which of the courts
he fliall fue ; but as, in criminal queftions which are
profecuted by a public officer of court, a collilion of
jurifdidlion might happen, through each of the judges
claiming the exercife of their right, that judge, by
whofe warrant the delinquent is firft cited or appre¬
hended (which is the firft ftep of jurifdidlion), acquires
thereby (jure pr<xventionis') the exclufive right of judg¬
ing the caufe.
6. All rights of jurifdidlion, being originally grant¬
ed in confideration of the fitnefs of the grantee, were
therefore perfonal, and died with himfelf. But, upon
the introdudiion of the feudal fyftem, certain jurifdic-
tions were annexed to lands, and dele-ended to heirs, as
well as the lands to which they were annexed ; but now-
all heritable jurifdiclions, except thofe of admiralty and
a fmall pittance referved to barons, are either abolilh-
ed, or refumed and annexed to the crown.
'7. Jurildidlion is either proper er delegated. Pro¬
per jurifdidlion, is that which belongs to a judge or
magiftrate himfelf, in virtue of his office. Delegated,
is that -which is communicated by the judge to another
who adls in his name, called depute ax deputy. Where
a deputy appoints one under him, he is called JubJii-
tute. No grant of jurildidlion, which is an office re¬
quiring perfonal qualifications, can be delegated by
the grantee to another, without an exprels puw'er in the
grant.
8. Civil jurifdidlion is founded, I. Ratwne domicilii, civil jurib
if the defender has his domicile within the judge’s ter-rtidfton,
ritory. A domicile i.-> the dwelling place whers a per- |vh^e£1^
fon lives with an intention to remain ; and cuftom has
fixed it as a rule, that refidence for 40 days founds ju¬
rifdidlion. If one has no fixed dwelling place, e. g. a
foldier, or a travelling merchant, a perfonal citation
againft him within the territory is fufficient to found
the judge’s iurifdidlion over him, even in civil quef¬
tions. As the defender is not obliged to appear before
a court to which he is not .fubjedl, the purfuer muft fol¬
low the defender’s domicile.
9. It is founded, 2. Rations rei Jitce, if the fnbjedl
in queftion lie w ithin the territory. If that fubjedl be
immoveable, the judge, whofe jurifdidlion is founded
in this way, is the foie judge competent, excluding the
judge of the domicile.
to. Where
Chap. I. ^ A
Law of io. Where one, who has not his domicile within the
Scotland, territory, is to be fued before an inferior court, ratione
'—’~v“ rei fit<r, the court of feflion mull be applied to, whole
letters of jurifdi£lion is univerfal, and who, of courfe, grants let-
fupperaent. ters of fupplement to cite the defender to appear be¬
fore the inferior judge. Where the party to be fued
refides in another kingdom, and has an ellate in thi«,
the court of feffion is the only proper court, as the
commune forum to all perfons refiding abroad •, and the
defender, if hiseilate be heritable, is confidered as law¬
fully fummoned to that court, by a citation at the mar¬
ket crofs of Edinburgh, and pier and fhore of Leith :
but where a liranger, not a native of Scotland, has on¬
ly a moveable eftate in this kingdom, he is deemed to
be fo little fubjeft to the jurifdidlion of our courts, that
action cannot be brought again!! him till his effects be
firft attached by an arreftment jurifiiiBioms findanda
caufa ; which is laid on by a warrant ilfuing from the
fupreme courts of feffion, or admiralty, or from that
within whofe territory the lubjeil is lituated, at the
fuit of the creditor.
Arreftment II. A judge may, in fpecial cafes, arreft or fecure
of Grangers, the perfons of fuch as have neither domicile nor eftate
within his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on the
border between Scotland and England, warrants are
granted of courfe by the judge-ordinary of either fide,
againft tbofe who have their domicile upon the op-
pofite fide, for arrefting their perfons, till they give
caution judicio JiJli; and even the perfons of citizens or
natives may be lo fecured, where there is juft reafon to
fufpe£t that they are in meditatione fugcr, i. e. that they
intend fuddenly to withdraw from the kingdom ) upon
which fufpicion, the creditor who applies for the war¬
rant muft make oath. An inhabitant of a borough-
royal, who has furniftied one who lives without the bo¬
rough in meat, clothes, or other merchandife, and who
has no fecurity for it but his own account book, may
arreft his debtor, till he give fecurity judicioJtfti.
Ground* of I2* ^ ju(^ge rany declined, i. e. his-jurifdi&ion
declinature.difowned judicially, I. Ratione caufie, from his incom¬
petency to the fpecial caufe brought before him. 2. Ra¬
tione fafpeBijudicis ; where either the judge himft If, or
his near kinfman, has an intereft in the fuit. No judge
can vote in the caufe of his father, brother, or fon, ei¬
ther by confanguinity or affinity ; nor in the caufe of
his uncle or nephew by confanguinity. 3. Ratione
privileg'd; where the party is'by privilege exempted
from their jurildi6tion.
Prorofftited I3- Prorogated jurifdiflion fijurifdiBio in confentien-
jurifdiftion. tes) is that which is, by the confent of parties, confer¬
red upon a judge, who, without fuch conlent, would
be incompetent. Where a judge is incompetent, every
ftep he takes muft be null, till his jurifdiftion be made
competent by the party’s actual fubmillion to it. It
is otherwife where the judge is competent, but may be
declined by the party upon privilege.
14. In order to prorogation, the judge muft have
jurifdidtion, fuch as may be prorogated. Hence, pro¬
rogation cannot be admitted where the judge’s jurifdic-
tion is excluded by ftatute. Yet where the caufe is of
the fame nature with thcfs to which the judge is com¬
petent, though law may have confined his jurildi£tion
within a certain fum, parties may prorogate it above
that fum unlefs where prorogation is prohibited. Pro¬
rogation is not admitted in the king’s caufes j for the
Vol. XI. Part II.
W. 625
intereft of the crown cannot be hurt by the negligence Law of
r . Scotland.
of its otimers. _ -v _. t
1 5. All judges muft at their admiflion fwear, 1. The 0aths of
oath of allegiance, and fubfcribe the aflurance } 2. I he judges,
oath of abjuration j 3. ihe oath of lupremacy j laftly,
The oath de fideli admin fratione.
16. A party who has either properly declined the Letters of
jurifdietion ef^the judge before whom he had been ci-advocation,
ted, or who thinks himfelf aggrieved by any proceed¬
ings in the cauft, may, before decree, apply to the court
of feffion to iffue letters of advocation for calling the
action from before the inferior court to themfelves.
The grounds, therefore, upon which a party may pray
for letters of advocation, are incompetency and iniqui¬
ty. Under incompetency, is comprehended not only
defeat of jurifdi£tion, but all the grounds of declining
a jurifdiftion, in itfelf competent, arifing either from
fufpicion of the judge, or privilege in the parties. A
judge is faid to commit iniquity, when he either delays
juftice, or pronounces fentence, in the exercile of his
juriidiction, contrary to law.
17. That the court of feffion may not wafte their Advocation
time in trifles, no caufe for a fum below twelve pounds how limit-
fterling can be advocated to the court of feffion from d*
the inferior judge competent : but if an inferior judge
{hall proceed upon a caufe to which he is incompetent,
the caufe may be carried from him by advocation, let
the fubjeft be ever fo inconfiderable.
Sect. II. Of the Supreme Judges and Courts of
Scotland.
dvii.
1. The king, who is the fountain of jurifdi&ion, Kang,
might by our conftitution have judged in all caules,
either in his own perfon, or by thole whom he was pleaf- and
ed to veil with jurildidlion.
2. The parliament of Scotland, as our court of thepari;ament
laft: refort, had the right of reviewing the fentences of
all our fupreme courts.
3. By the treaty of Union, 1707, the parliaments of Parliament
Scotland and England are united into one parliamento{ Greilt
of Great Britain. From this period, the Britilh houfe blltain*
of peers, as coming in place of the Scots parlia¬
ment, is become our court of the laft refort, to which
appeals lie from all the fupreme courts of Scotland :
but that court has no original jurifdiftion in civil mat¬
ters, in which they judge only upon appeal. By art. 22.
of that treaty, the Scots (hare of the reprefemation in
the houfe of peers is fixed to 16 Scots peers elective j
and in the houfe of commons, to 45 commoners, of
which 30 are elected by the freeholders of counties,
and 15 by the royal boroughs. The Scots privy coun¬
cil was alfo thereupon abolithed, and funk into that of
Great Britain, which for the future is declared to have
no other powers than the Englilh privy council had at
the time of the union.
. 4. A court was ere fled in 1425, confiding of cer- £ourt 0f
tain perfons to be named by the king, out of the three feffion.
eftates of parliament, which was veiled with the jurif-
diclion formerly lodged in the council, and got the
name of the fejfion, becaufe it was ordained to hold
annually a certain number of feflions at the places to
be fpeeially appointed by the king. This court had
a jurifdiflion, cumulative with the judge ordinary, in
fnuilzies, and other pofleffory aclions, and in debts j
626 L A W. Part III
Law of but they bad no cognizance in qaeixions of property af
^Scotland, heritable fubjefts. No appeal lay from its judgments
*-*v*~*~' to the parliament. The judges of this court ferved by
rotation, and were changed from time to time, after
having fat 40 days} and became fo negligent in the
adminillratifm of juftiee, that it was at laft thought
neceHary to transfer the jurii’di&ion of this court to a
council to be named by the king, called the ifai/y
council.
College of 5. The prefent model of the court of feflion, or col-
juftice. ]ege of juftice, was formed in the reign of James Y.
The judges, thereof, who were veiled with an univerfal
civil jurifdiflion, coniifted originally of feven church¬
men, feven laymen, and a prefident, whom it behoved
to be a prelate; but fpiritual judges were in 1584
Judges, by partly, and in 1640 totally, prohibited. The judges
whom na- oi ieiitpn have been always received by warrants from
med. tke crown> Anciently his majefty feems to have tranf-
ferred to the court itfelf the right of choofing their own
prefident; and in a federunt recorded June 26. 1593,
the kr.ig condefcended to prefent to the lords, upon
every vacancy in the bench, a lift of three perlbns, out
of which they were to choofeone. But his rnajefty foon
refumed the exercife of both rights, which continued
with the crown till the ufurpation ; when it xvas or¬
dained that the king (hould name the judges of the
feflion, by the advice of parliament. After the Refto-
ration, the nomination was again declared to be folely
in the fovereign.
Their qua- 6. Though judges may, in the general cafe, be na-
lifications- med at the age of 21 years, the lords of feflion muft
and trial, at jeaj^ ]sj0 perfon can be named lord of feflion,
who has not ferved as an advocate or principal clerk of
feflion for five years, or as a writer to the fignet for
ten : and in the cafe of a writer to the fignet, he muft
undergo the ordinary trials upon the Roman law, and
be found qualified two years before he can be named.
Upon a vacancy in the bench, the king prefents the
fucceffor by a letter addreffed to the lords, wherein he
requires them to try and admit the perfon prefented.
The powers given to them to reject the prefentee upon
trial are taken away, and a bare liberty to remonftrate
fubftituted in its place.
7. Befides the 15 ordinary judges, the king was al¬
lowed to name three or four lords of his great council,
who might fit and vote with them. Thefe extraordi¬
nary lords were fuppreffed in the reign of Geo. I,
Privileges 8. The appellation of the college of jujlice is not con-
ofthe coi- fine(l to the judges, who are diftinguilhed by the name
^U* fenators ■> but comprehends advocates, clerks of fef-
fion, waiters to the fignet, and others, as deferibed,
AEl S. 23d Feb. 1687. Where, therefore, the college
of juftice is entitled to any privilege, it extends to all
the members of the college. They are exempted from
watching, warding, and other fervices within borough;
and from the payment of minifters ftipends, and of all
cuftoms, &c. impofed upon goods carried to or from
the city of Edinburgh. Part of thefe privileges and
immun ties were lately called in queftion by the city
of Edinburgh ; but they were found by the court of
feflion (affirmed upon appeal) to be in full force.
JnrifclicHon 9' Though the jurifdiftion of the feflion be properly
of1 the fef- limited to civil caufes, the judges have always fuftained
fion. themfelves as competent to the crime of falfehood.
J
Where the falfehood deferves death or demembration, Law of
they, after finding the crime proved, remit the crimi- Scotland,
nal to the court of jufticiary. Special ftatute has given
to the court of feffion jurifdiftion in contraventions of
law-burrows, deforcements, and breach of arreftment;
and they have been in ufe to judge in battery pendente
lite, and in ufury.
10. In certain civil caufes, the jurtfdiUion of the fef¬
fion is exclufive of all inferior jurifdicHons ; as in de.
clarators of property, and other competitions of heri¬
table rights, proving of the tenor, ceftones bonorum^
reftitution of minors, reductions of decrees or of writ¬
ings, fales of the eftates of minors or bankrupts, &c.
In a fecond clafs of caufes, their jurifdiftion can be
only exercifed in the way of review', after the caufe is
brought from the inferior court; as in maritime and
confiftorial caufes, which muft be purfued in the firft
inftance before the admiral or commiffary ; and in ac¬
tions, below tw'elve pounds fterling, which muft be
commenced before the judge ordinary. In all civil ac¬
tions, which fall under neither of thefe clafles, the ju~
rifdiCtion of the feffion is concurrent, even in the firft:
inftance, with that of the judge ordinary. The feffion
may proceed as a court of equity by the rules of eon-
fcience, in abating the rigour of law, and giving aid
in proper cafes to fuch as in a court of law can have
no remedy : and this pow er is inherent in the fupreme
court of every country, where feparate courts are not
eftabliffied for law and for equity.
This court formerly met upon the 12th day of
June and rofe upon the nth day of Auguft for the
fummer feffion; but now, in confequence of an aCt
paffed in the ftffion of parliament 1790, it meets on the
12th of May and rifes on the nth of July for the fum¬
mer feffion ; the winter federunt ftill remaining as for¬
merly, viz. from the I2th of November to the nth of
March inclufive.
n. The fupreme criminal judge was flyled theJufticary
Jufticiar ; and he had anciently an univerfal civil ju-C0UIt*
rifdi£tion, even in matters of heritage. He was obli¬
ged to hold two juftice courts or ayres yearly at Edin¬
burgh or Peebles, where all the freeholders of the king¬
dom were obliged to attend. Befides this univerfal
court, fpecial juftice ayres w'ere held in all the different
{hires in the kingdom twice in the year. Thefe laft:
having gone into difufe, eight deputies were appoint¬
ed, two for every quarter of the kingdom, who fhould
make their circuits over the whole in April and Oc¬
tober.
12. The office of deputies w'as fuppreffed in 1672 ;
and five lords of feffion were added, as commiffioners of
jufticiary, to the juftice general and juftice clerk. The
jultice general, if prefent, is conftant prefident of the
court, and in his abfence the juftice clerk. The king¬
dom is divided into three diftrifts, and two of the judges
are appointed to hold circuits in certain boroughs of
each diftridt twice in the yecr; one judge may pro¬
ceed to bufinefs in the abfence of his colleague. In
trials before this court the evidence wras always taken
down in writing till the act 23d Geo. III. was paffed ;
by which the judges may try and determine all caufes
by the verdidt of an afiize upon examining the witnef-
fes viva voce, without reducing the teftimeny into writ¬
ing, urdefs it (hall appear more expedient to proceed in
Chap. I. 'LA \V.
627
Law of the former way, which they have it in their power to
Scotland. (Jq. This aft. was at firft temporary, but is now made
perpetual by 2.7th Geo. III. cap. 18.
13. By an old ftatute, the crimes of robbery, rape,
murder and wilful fire-railing (the four pleas of the
crown), are faid to be referved to the king’s court of
tufticiary j but the only crime in which, de praxi, the
juril’diftion of jufticiary became at laft exclufive of all
inferior criminal jurifdiftion, was that of high treafon.
The court of judiciary, when fitting at Edinburgh, has
a power of advocating caufes from all inferior criminal
judges, and of fufpending their fentences.
14. The circuit court can alfo judge in all criminal
caufe^ which do not infer death or demembration, up¬
on appeal from any inferior court within their diftriftj
and has a fupreme. civil jurifdiftion, by way of appeal,
in all caufes not exceeding twelve pounds fterling, in
which their decrees are not fubjeft to review ; but no
appeal is to lie to the circuit, till the caufe be finally
determined in the inferior court.
Court of 15. The court of exchequer, as the king’s cham-
eitchequer. berlain court, judged in all queftions of the revenue.
In purfuance of the treaty of Union, that court was abo-
1 ilhed, and a new court erefted, confiding of the lord
high treafurer of Great Britain, and a chief baron,
with four other barons of exchequer j which barons
are to be made of ferjeants at law, Englilh barriders,
or Scots advocates of five years danding. This court
has a privative jurifdiftion conferred upon it, as to the
duties of cudoms, excife, or other revenues appertain¬
ing to the king or prince of Scotland, and as to all ho¬
nours and edates that may accrue to the crown ; in
■which matters, they are to judge by the forms of pro¬
ceeding ufed in the Englidi court of exchequer, under
the following limitations : That no debt due to the
crown fliall affeft the debtor’s real edate in any other
manner than fuch edate may be affefted by the laws of
Scotland, and that the validity of the crown’s titles to
any honours or lands diall continue to be tried by the
court of fedion. The barons have the powers of the
Scots court transferred to them, of pafling the accounts
of dierids, or other officers who have the execution of
writs iffuing from, or returnable to, the court of ex¬
chequer, and of receiving refignations, and pading fig-
natures of charters, gifts of cafualties, &c. But though
ajl thefe mud pafs in exchequer, it is the court of fef-
iion only who can judge of their preference after they
are completed.
Admiralty 16. The jurifdiftion of the admiral in maritime
court. caufes was of old concurrent with that of the feffion.
The high admiral is declared the king’s judice general
upon the feas, on freffi water w ithin flood mark, and
in all harbours and creeks. His civil jurifdiftion ex¬
tends to all maritime caufes: and fo comprehends quef¬
tions of charter parties, freights, falvages, bottomries,
&c. He exercifes this fupreme jurifdiftion by a dele¬
gate, the judge of the high court of admiralty j and he
may alfo name inferior deputies, whofe jurildiftion is
litpited to particular diftrjfts, and whofe fentences are
fubjeft to the review of the high court. In caufes which
are declared to fall under the admiral’s cognizance,
his jurifdiftion is foie j infomueh, that the feffion itfelf,
though it may review his decrees by fufpenfion or re-
duftion, cannot carry a maritime quedion from him by
advocation. The admiral has acquired, by ufage, a ju¬
rifdiftion in mercantile caufes, even where they are not kawof
dviftly maritime, cumulative with that of the judge or- S:om^
dinary.
17. All our fupreme courts have feals or fignets, pro-Signet,
per to their leveral jurildiftions. The courts of feffion
and judiciary ufed formerly the fame fignet, which was
called the king’s, becaufe the writs iffuing from them
run in the king’s name-, and though the judiciary got
at lad a feparate fignet for itfelf, yet that of the feffion
dill retains the appellation of the king1 s fignet. In this
office are fealed fummonfes for citation, letters of execu¬
torial diligence, or for flaying or prohibiting of dili¬
gence, and generally whatever paiTes by the warrant of
the feflion, and is to be executed by the officers of
the court. All thefe muft, before fealing, be figned
by the vvriters or clerks of the fignet: But letters of
diligence, where they are granted in a depending pro-
cefs, merely for probation, though they pafs by the
fignet, muft be fubferibed by a clerk of feffion. The
clerks of the fignet alfo prepare and fubferibe all figna-
tureS of charters, or other royal grants, which pafs in
exchequer.
Sect. III. Of inferior Judges and Courts of Scotland.
clviin
1. Sheriff (from reeve governor, and ffoecr to cut or Sheriff',
divide) is the judge ordinary conftituted by the crown
over a particular divifion or county. The ffieriff’s
jurifdiftion, both civil and criminal, was, in ancient
times, nearly as ample within his own territory as that
of the fupreme courts of feffion and jufticiary was over
the whole kingdom.
2. His civil jurifdiftion now extends to all aftions
upon contrafts, or other perfonal obligations \ forth¬
comings, poindings of the ground, mails and duties;
and to all pmTeffory aftions, as removings, ejections,
fpuilzies, &c.; to all brieves iffuing from the chancery,
as of inqueft, terce, divifion, tutory, &c.; and even to
adjudications of land eftates, when proceeding on the
renunciation of the apparent heir. His prefent crimi¬
nal jurifdiftion extends to certain capital crimes, as
theft, and even murder, though it be one of the pleas
of the crown; and he is competent to mod queftions of
public police, and has a cumulative jurifdiftion with
juftices of the peace in all riots and breaches of the
peace.
3. Sheriffs have a minifterial power, in virtue of which
they return juries, in order to a trial of caufes that
require juries. The writs for elefting members of par¬
liament have been, fince the union, direfted to the ffie-
riffs, who, after they are executed, return them to the
crown oftice from whence they iffued They alfo exe¬
cute writs iffuing from the court of exchequer ; and in
general, take care of all eftates, duties, or cafualties that
fall to the crown within their territory, for which they
muft account to thp exchequer.
4. A lord of regality was a magitlrafe w ho had a Lord of re«
grant of lands from the fovereign, with royal jurifdic-gality.
tion annexed thereto. His civil jurifdiftion was equal
to that of a ftieriff; his criminal extended to the four
pleas of the crown. He had aright to repledge or re¬
claim all criminals, fubjeft to his jurifdiftion from any
other competent court, though it were the jufticiary
itfelf, to his own. He had alfo right, according to the
moft cenonon opinion, to the Angle efeheat of all de-
4 K 2 nounced
6^8
L'iw of
Scotland.
Stewart.
Bailie.
Prince of
Scotland.
Juftices of
tire peace.
L A W. Part III.
nounoed peiTons reading wilKin his jarifdiftion, even
though fuch privilege had not been ejcpreffed in the
grant of regality.
5. The lit wart was the magiftrate appointed by the
king over Inch regality lands as happened to fall to the
crown by forfeiture, &c. and therefore the llewart’s
jurifdidtion was equal to that of a regality. The two
ilewartries of Kirkcudbright, and of Orkney and Zet¬
land, make (hires and counties by themfelves, and fend
each a reprtTentative to parliament.
6. Where lands not erefted into a regality fell into
the king’s hands, he appointed a bailie over them,
whofe jurifdi&ion was equal to that of a flieriff.
7. By the late jurifdiftion a£t, 20 Geo. II. all herit¬
able regalities and bailieries, and all fuch heritable
fheriff-hips and ftewartries as were only parts of a lliire,
are diflblved 5 and the powers formerly veiled in them
are made to devolve upon fuch of the king’s courts as
thefe powers would have belonged to if the jurifdidtions
diffolved had never been granted. All iheviffsiiips and
ftewartries that were no part of a (hire, where they had
been granted, either heritably or for life, are refumed
and annexed to the crown. No high iheriff or ftevvart
can hereafter judge perfonally in any caufe. One Iheriff
or ftewart-depute is to be appointed by the king in
every fhire, who mull be an advocate of three years
(landing 5 and whofe office as (lieriff or ilewart-depute
is now by 28 Geo. II. held ad vilam aut cvlpam.
8. The appanage, or patrimony, of the prince of
Scotland, has been long erefled into a regality jurifdic-
tion, called the Principality. It is perfonal to the
king’s elded fon, upon whofe death or fucceffion it re¬
turns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, his
own chancery, from which his writs idue, and may
name his own chamberlain and other officers for re¬
ceiving and managing his revenue. The vaflals of the
prince are entitled to eledl, or to be elecled, members
of parliament for counties, equally with thofe who hold
of the crown.
9. Jutlices of the peace are magillrates named by
the fovereign over the feveral counties of the kingdom,
for the fpecial purpofe of preferving the public peace.
Anciently their power reached little farther than to
bind over diforderly perfons for their appearance before
the privy council or judiciary j afterwards they were
authorifed to judge in breaches of the peace, and in
mod of the laws concerning public policy. They may
compel workmen or labourers to ferve for a reafonable
fee, and they can condemn mailers in the wages due to
their fervants. They have power to judge in queftions
of highways, and to call out the tenants with their
cottars and fervants to perform fix days work yearly
for upholding them. It has been lately, however,
found by the court of feffion, that juftices have nojurif-
diftion whatever in common a£lions for debt. So that
it now feems fixed, that they are incompetent in fuch
aflions, except where they are declared competent by
fpecial ifatute.
10. Since the union, our juftices of the peace, over
and above the powers committed to them by the laws
cf Scotland, are authorifed to exercife whatever be¬
long to the office of an Englilh juftice, in rela¬
tion to the public peace. From that time, the Scots
and the Englilh commiffions have run in the fame
&yle5 which contains powers to inquire into and judge
in all capital crimes, witchcraft, felonies, and feveral Law of
others fpecially enumerated : with this limitation fub- Scotland,
joined, of which jufiices of the peace may lawfully in- ~ v'~~“
quire. Two juftices can conftitute a court. Special
llatute has given the cognizance of feveral matters of
excife to the juftices, in which their fentences are fi¬
nal. As to which, and the powers thereby veiled in
them, the reader mud of neceffity be referred to the
excife laws; it not falling within the plan of this
work, to enter into fo very minute a detail as that
would prove.
11. A borough is a body corporate, made up of Boroughs,
the inhabitants of a certain tra£t of ground, ere&ed by
the fovereign, with jurifdhftion annexed to it. . Bo¬
roughs are eredled, either to be holden of the fovereign
himfelf, which is the general cafe of royal boroughs ;
or of the fuperior of the lands erefled, as boroughs of
regality and barony. Boroughs royal have power, by
their charters, to choofe annually certain office bearers
or magiftrates ; and in boroughs of regality and ba¬
rony, the nomination of magiftrates is, by their char¬
ter, lodged fometimes in the inhabitants, fometimes in
the fuperior. Bailies of boroughs have jurifdidtion in
matters of debt, fervices, and queftions of pofieflion
betwixt the inhabitants. Their criminal junldihtion
extends to petty riots, and recklefs fire-raifing. The
dean of guild is that magiftrate of a royal borough
who is head of the merchant company; he has the cog¬
nizance of mercantile caufes within borough ; and the
infpe&ion of buildings, that they encroach neither on
private property, nor on the public ftreets ; and he
may direhl infuffieient houfes to be pulled down. His
jurifdi&ion has no dependence on the court of the bo¬
rough, or bailie court.
12. A baron, in the large fenfe of that word, is one Barons»
who holds his lands immediately of the crown ; and, as
fuch, had, by our ancient conftitution, right to a feat
in parliament, however fmall his freehold might have
been. The Itfier barons were exempted from the bur¬
den of attending the fervice of parliament. This ex¬
emption grew infenfibly into an utter difability in all the
leller barons from fitting in parliament, without elec¬
tion by the county •, though no ftatute is to be found
exprefsly excluding them.
13. To conftitute a baron in the drift law fenfe, his
lands muft have been erefted, or at leait confirmed, by
the king in libcram baroniam; and fuch baron had a
certain jurifdiftion, both civil and criminal, which he
might have exercifed, either in his own perfon, or by
his bailie.
14. By the late jurifdiftion aft, the civil jurifdic-
tion of a baron is reduced to the power of recovering
from his vaflals and tenants, the rents of his lands, and
of condemning them in mill fervices ; and of judging
in caufes where the debt and damages do not exceed
40s. fterling. His criminal jurifdiftion is, by the
fame ftatute, limited to affaults, batteries, and other
fmaller offences, which may be puniffied by a fine not
exceeding 20s. fterling, or by fetting the offender in
the (locks in the day time not above three hours ; the
fine to be levied by poinding, or one month’s imprifon-
ment. The jurifdiftion formerly competent to pro¬
prietors of mines, and coal or fait works, over their
workmen, is referved : and alfo that which was com¬
petent to proprietors who had the right of fairs or
markets,
Chip-
Law of
Scotland.
Conflabu-
lanes.
Lyon k’ng
at arms.
Sentence
money.
clix.
The pope.
Clergy,
I.
L
A W.
629
markets, for corre&irtg tlie dlforders that might hap¬
pen daring their continuance; provided they (hall ex-
ercife no jurifdidtion inferring the iofs of liie or demem¬
bration.
15. The high confiable of Scotland had no fixed ter¬
ritorial jurifdidtion, but followed the court ; and had,
jointly with the marifchal, the cognizance of all crimes
committed within two leagues of it. All other conlla-
bularies were dependent on him : thefe had caltles, and
fometimes boroughs, fubject to their jurifdidtion, as
Dundee, Montrofe, &c. and among other powers, now
little known, they had the right of exercifing criminal
jurifdidtion within their refpe&ive territories during
the continuance of fairs. By the late jurifdiftion a£l,
all jurifdiftions of conftahulary are diffoved, except
that of high conflable.
15. The office of the Lyon king of arms was chief¬
ly mini [ferial, to denounce war, proclaim peace, carry
public meffages, &c. But he has alfo a right of ju-
rifd:£lion, whereby he can punilh all who ufurp arms
contrary to the law of arms, and deprive or fufpend
•meffeng rs, heralds, or purfuivants, (who are officers
‘named by htmfelf) ; but he has no cognizance of the
damage arifing to the private party through the mef-
fenger’s fault. Mefiengers are fubfervieiit to the fu-
preme courts of Seffion and Judiciary ; and their proper
bufinefs is to execute all the king’s letters either in ci¬
vil or criminal caufes. They mud find caution for the
proper difeharge of their duty qua meffengers ; and in
cafe of any malverfation, or negleff, by which damage
arifes to their employers, their lureties may be recur¬
red upon for indemnification. Thefe fureties, however,
are not anfwerable for the conduct of the meflenger in
any other capacity but qua fuch ; and, therefore, if a
meflenger is authorifed to uplift payment from a debtor,
and fails to account to his employer, the cautioner is
not liable ; his obligation extending only to the regu¬
lar and proper duties of the ofliee in executing the dili¬
gence, or the like.
17. Our judges had, for a long time, no other fala-
ries or appointments than what arofe from the fentences
they pronounc ed. Oar criminal judges applied to their
own ufe the fines or iffues of their feveral courts ; and
regalities had a right to the fingle efeheat of all per-
fons denounced, who refided within their jurifdicfion ;
and our civil judges got a certain proportion of the
furn contained in the decree pronounced. But thefe
were all prohibited upon regular falarits being fettled
upon them.
Sect. V. Of Ecchfafical Perfons.
1, The pope, or biffiop of Rome, was long acknow¬
ledged, over the we hern part of Chriftendom, for the
head of the Chriftian church. The papal jurifdi&ion
was abolifhed in Scotland anno 1560. The king was,
by aft 1669, declared to have fupreme authority over
all perfons, and in all caufes ecclefiaftical; but this aft
was repealed by 1690, as inconfiilent with Prefbyterian
church government, which was then upon the point of
being eltablilhed.
2. Before the reformation from Popery, the clergy
was divided into fecular and regular. The fecular had
a particular traft of ground given them in charge,
within which they exercifed the pa floral office of bi- baw of
(hop, prefbyter, or other church officer. The regular Sco^ml!^,
clergy had no cure of louls; but were tied down to re-
fidence in their abbacies, priories, or other monafte-
ries : and they got the name of regular, !rom the rules
of mortification to which they were bound, according
to the inftitution of their feveral orders. Upon the va¬
cancy of any benefice, whether fecular or regular, cotu-
mendators were frequently appointed to levy the fruits,
as faftors or ftewards during the vacancy. Ihe pope
alone could give the higher benefices m cotnmertdam ;
and, at laft, from the plenitude of his power, he came
to name commendators for life, and without any obli¬
gation to account. After the Reformation, feveral ab¬
bacies and priories were given by James VI. in perpe¬
tual?! commendam, to laics.
3. Upon aboliihing the pope’s authority, the regular
clergy were totally fuppreffed ; and in place of all th©
different degrees which diffinguiftied the fecular cler¬
gy, we had at firft only parochial preibyters or mini-
fters, and fuperintendants, who had the overfight of the
church within a certain didrift ; foon thereafter the
church government became epifcopal by archbishops,
biShops, &.c.; and after fome intermediate turns, is now
Prefbyterian by kirk feflions, prefbyteries, fynods, and
general affemblies.
4. Prelate, in our ftatutes, fignifies a biffiop, abbot,
or other dignified clergyman, who, in virtue of his of¬
fice, had a feat in parliament. Every biffiop had his
chapter, which confifted of a certain number of the
minifters of the diocefe, by whofe afliftanee he ma¬
naged the affairs of the church within that diftrift.
The nomination of biffiops to vacant fees has been in
the crown fince 1540, though under the appearance of
continuing the ancient right of eleftion, which was in
the chapter. The confirmation by the crown under the
great feal, of the chapter’s eleftion, conferred a right
to the fpu duality of the benefice ; and a fecond grant
upon the confecration of the bifhop-eleft, gave a title
to the temporality ; but this fecond grant fell foon into
difufe.
5. He who founded or endowed a church was enti- Patronage,
tied to the right of patronage thereof, or advocatio eccle-
fee ; whereby, among other privileges, he might prefent
a churchman to the cure, in cafe of a vacancy. The
prefentee, after he was received into the church, had a
right to the benefice proprio jure ; and if the church
was parochial, he was called a parfon. The pope claim¬
ed the right of patronage of every kirk to which no
third party could {how a fpecial title ; and, fince the
Reformation, the crown, as coming in place of the pope,
is confidtred as univerfal patron, where no right of pa¬
tronage appears in a fubjeft. Where two churches are
united, which had different patrons, each patron pre--
fents by turns.
6. Gentlemen of eftates frequently founded colleges
or collegiate churches ; the head of which got the name
of provoj}, under whom were certain prebendaries, or
canons, who had their feveral flails in the church, where
they fung maffes. Others of Idler fortunes founded
ehaplainries, which were donations granted for the
finging of maffes for deceafed friends at particular al¬
tars in a church. Though all thefe were i’upprefled'
upon the Reformation, their founders continued pa¬
trons-
3
Patrons.
L A
trons of the endowments j out of which they were al¬
lowed to provide buiiars, to be educated in any of the
univerfitres.
7. Where a &rnd is gifted for the eftablilhment of a
fecond mioifter in a parilh where the cure is thought
too heavy for me, the patronage of fuch benefice does
i.oi 0. io-ng to the donor, but to him who was patron
of the church, uulefs either where the donor has re-
ferved to mmielf the right of patronage in the dona-
tips,, or where he and his fueceffors have been in the
coniknt ufis of prefen ting, the fecund minifter, without
challenge from the patron. The right of prefenting in¬
cumbents \Vr.s by 1690, e, 23c taken from patrons, and
veiled in the heritors and elders of the parifh, upon
payment to be made by the heritors to the patron of
600 merksj but it was again reftored to patrons, 10
An. c. 12. with the exception of the prefentations fold
in purfuance ef the former a cl..
8. Patrons were not limply adminiftrators of the
church ; for they held the fruits of the vacant benefice
as their own for fome time after the Reformation. But
that right is now no more than a truft in the patron,
who mufl apply them to pious ufes within the parilh,
at the fight of the heritors, yearly as they fall due. If
he fail, he lofes his right of adminiftering the vacant
ilipend for that and the next vacancy. The king,
who is exempted from this rule, may apply the va¬
cant tlipend of his churches to any pious ufe, though
not within the parilh. If one lliould be ordained to a
church, in oppofition to the prefentee, the patron,
whofe civil right cannot be affefted by any fentence ®f
a church court, may retain the ftipend as vacant. Pa¬
trons are to this day entitled to a feat and burial place
in the churches of which they are patrons, and to the
right of all the teinds of the parilh not heritably dif-
poned.
9. That kirks may not continue too long vacant, the
patron mull prefent to the prefbytery (formerly to the
bifiiop) a fit perfon for fupplying the cure, within
fix months from his knowledge of the vacancy, other-
wife the right of prefentation accrues to the prelbytery
jure devoiuto. Upon prefentation by the patron, the
biihop collated or conferred the benefice upon the pre¬
fentee by a writing, in which he appointed certain mi-
nilters of thediocefeto induce or inilitute him into the.
church ; which induction completed his right, and was
performed by their placing him in the pulpit, and de¬
livering to him the Bible and keys of the church. The
biihop collated to the churches of which himfelf was
patron, plena jure, or without prefentation: which he
alfo did in menfal churches, whofe patronages were
funk, by the churches being appropriated to him, as
part of his patrimony. Since the Revolution, a iudieial
afl of admifiion by the prefbytery, proceeding either
upon a prefentation, or upon a call from the heritors
and elders, or upon their own jus devolutum, completes
the miniller’s right to the benefice.
Provifions 10. Soon after the Reformation, the Popilh church-
tor the re- men were prevailed upon to refign in the fovereign’s
tormecl bands a third of their benefices; which was appropri-
ated, in the firlf place, for the fubfiftence of the reform¬
ed clergy. To make this fund effe&ual, particular lo¬
calities were affigned in every benefice, to the extent of
a third, called the a/fumplicn of thirds ; and for the far¬
ther fupport of minifters, Queen Mary made a grant
W- Part III.
in their favour of all the fmall benefices not exceeding Lswof
300 merles. Bilhops, by the aft which reftered them Srotland-
to the whole of their benefices, were obliged to main- »
tain the mini tiers within their diocefts, out of the
thirds ; and in like manner, the laic titulars, who got
grants of the teinds, became bound, by their accepta¬
tion thereof, to provide the kirks within their erec¬
tions in competent ftipends.
11. But all thofe expedients for the nrai itenance ofCommif-
the clergy having proved ineffeftual, a eommiflion of lion for
parliament was appointed in the reign of James VI. P;anting
for planting kirks, and modifying llipends to minifters va’
out of the teinds ; and afterwards feveral other com- ^nds &c.
midiom were appointed, with the more ample powers
of dividing large parifhes, erefting new ones, &c. aH
of which were, in 1707, transferred to the court of
feflion, with this limitation, that no parifh fhould be
disjoined, nor new church erefted, nor old one remov¬
ed to a new place, without the confent of three-fourths
of the heritors, computing the votes, not by their num¬
bers, but by the valuation of their rents within the pa¬
rifh. The judges of feffion, when fitting in that court,
are confidered as a commidion of parliament, and have
their proper clerks, macers, and other officers of court,
as fuch.
12. The lowed dipend that could be modified to a stipends,
minider by the fird commiffion, was 500 merks, or
five chalders of viftual, unlefs where the whole teinds
of the paridi did not extend fo far : and the highed
was 1000 merks, or ten chalders. The parliament
1633 raifed the minimum to eight chalders of viftual,
and proportionably in filver ; but as neither the com-
miffion appointed by that aft, nor any of the fubfe-
quent ones, was limited as to the maximum, the com-
midkmers have been in ufe to augment dipends con-
fiderably above the old maximum, where there is fudi-
cieney of free teinds, and the cure is burdenfome, or
living expenfive.
13. Where a certain quantity of dipend is modified
to a minider cut of the teinds of a parifh, without pro¬
portioning that dipend among the feveral heritors, the.
decree is called a decree of modification; but where
the commiffioners alfo fix) the particular proportions
payable by each heritor, it is a decree of modification
and locality. Where a dipend is only modified, it is
fecured on the whole teinds of the paridi, fo that ihe
minider can infid againd any one heritor to the full
extent of his teinds ; fuch heritor being always en¬
titled to relief againd the red for what he diall have
paid above his jud fliare : but where the dipend is alfo
localled, each heritor is liable in no more than his ow n
proportion.
14. Few of the reformed miniders were, at fird, Manfe,
provided with dwelling houfes; mod of the Popid)
clergy having, upon the fird appearance of the Refor¬
mation, let their manfes in feu, or in long tack : mi¬
niders therefore got a right, in 1563, to as much of
thefe manfes as w'ould ferve them, notw ithdanding fuch
feus or tacks. Where there was no parfon’s nor vicar’s
manfe, one was to be built by the heritors, at the fight
of the bifhop, (now the prefbytery), the charge not ex¬
ceeding locol. Scots, nor below 500 merks. Under a
manfe are comprehended dable, barn, and byre, with
a garden ; for all w hich it is ufttal to allow half an acre
of ground.
15. Every
Chap.
Law of
Scotland.
L
15. Every incumbent is entitled at his entry to have
his manfe put in good condition j for which purpofe
' the prefbytery may appoint a vilitation by tradefmen,
and order eltixnates to be laid before them of the fums
necsfiary for the repairing, which they may proportion
among the heritors according to their valuations. The
prefbytery, after the manfe is made fufficient, ought,
upon application of the heritors, to declare it a free
manfe j which lays the incumbent under an obligation
to uphold it in good condition during his incumbency,
other wile he or his executors lhall be liable in dama¬
ges \ but they are not bound to make up the lofs a-
rifing from the neceffary decay of the building by the
wade of time.
Glebe, and 16. All minillers, where there is any landward or
country parifh, are, over and above their llipend, en¬
titled to a glebe, which comprehends four acres of
arable land, or lixteen fowms of pafture ground where
there is no arable land (a fowm is what will graze ten
fheep or one cow) j and it is to be defigned or marked
by the bithop or prefbytery out of fuch kirklands with¬
in the pariih as lie neareft to the kirk, and, in default
of kirklands, out of temporal lands.
17. A right of relief is competent to the heritors,
whole lands are fet off for the manfe or glebe, againft
the other heritors of the parifh. Manfes and glebes
being once regularly defigned, cannot be feued or fold
by the incumbent in prejudice of his fucceffors, which
is in practice extended even to the cafe where fuch a-
lienation evidently appears profitable to the benefice.
Grafs. 18- Minifters, belide their glebe, are entitled to
grafs for a horfe and two cows. And if the lands,
out of which the grafs may be defigned, either lie at
a diftanee, or are not fit for pafture, the heritors are
to pay to the minifter 20I. Scots yearly, as an equiva¬
lent. Minifters have alfo freedom of foggage, paftur-
age, fuel, feal, divot, loaning, and free ifh and entry,
according to ufe and wont: but what thefe privileges
are, muft be determined by the local cuftom of the fe-
veral parifhes.
Terms of I9- The legal terms at which ftipends become due
payment of to minillers are Whitfunday and Michaelmas. If the
Law of
Scotland.
ftipends.
Annat or
ssn,
incumbent be admitted to his church before Whitfun¬
day (till which term the corns are not prefumed to be
fully fown), he has right to that whole year’s ftipend j
and, if he is received after Whitfunday, and before
Michaelmas, he is entitled to the half of that year j
becaufe, though the corns were fown before his en¬
try, he was admitted before the term at which they
are prefumed to be reaped. By the fame reafon, if
he dies or is tranfported before Whitfunday, he has
right to no part of that year ; if before Michaelmas,
to the half j and if not till after Michaelmas, to the
whole.
20. After the minilter’s death, the executors have
right to the annat j which, in the fenfe of the canon
law, was a right referved to the pope of the firlt
year’s fruits of every benefice. Upon a threatened in-
vafion from England anno 1547? the annat was given
by our parliament, notwithftanding this right in the
pope, to the executors of fuch churchmen as Ihould
fall in battle in defence of their country : but the word
annnt or ann, as it is now' underllood, is the right
which law gives to the executors of miniilers, ,o£ half
A W. 6.31
a year’s benefice over and above what was due to the
minifter himfelf for his incumbency.
21. The executors of a minifter need make up no
title to the ann by confirmation : neither is the right
aftignable by the minifter, or affedlable with his debts j
for it never belonged to him, but is a mere gratuity
given by law to thole for whom it is prefumed the de-
ceafed could not fufficiently provide } and law has
given it exprefsly to executors: and if it were to be go¬
verned by the rules of fucceftion in executory, the wi¬
dow, in cafe of no children, would get one half, the
other would go to the next of kin $ and where there
are children, the would be entitled to a third, and the
other two-thirds would fall equally among the children.
But the court of feffion, probably led by the general
pra&ice, have in this laft cafe divided the ann into two
equal parts } of which one goes to the widow, and the
other among the children in capita.
22. From the great confidence that was, in the firft Jurifdiftion
ages of Chriftianity, repofed in churchmen, dying per.of bifhor1,
fons frequently committed to them the care of their
eftates, and of their orphan children j but thefe were
limply rights of truft, not of jurifdiftion. The clergy
foon had the addrefs to eftablifh to themfelves a proper
jurifdi&ion, not confined to points of ecclefianical
right, but extending to queftions that had no concern
with the church. They judged not only in teinds,
patronages, teftaments, breach of vow, fcandal, &c.
but in queftions of marriage and divorce, becaufe
marriage was a facrament j in tochers, becaufe thefe
were given in confideration of marriage 5 in all que¬
ftions where an oath intervened, on pretence that
oaths were a part of religious worfliip, &c. As
churchmen came, by the means of this extenfive jurif-
didtion, to be diverted from their proper funftions,
they committed the exercife of it to their officials, or
commiffaries: hence the commiflary court was called
the bifhop's court, and curia Chri/Uanitatis ; it was alfo
ftyled the conjijlorial court; fcom conjijiory, anamefirft
given to the court of appeals of the Roman emperors,
and afterwards to the courts of judicature held by
churchmen.
23. At the Reformation, all epifcopal jurifdi£tion,Coinniif-
exercifed under the authority of the biffiop ofRome,fary.
was aboliffied. As the courfe of juftice in confiftorial
caufes w'as thereby flopped, Q. Mary, befides naming
a commiffary for every diocefe, did, by a fpecial grant,
eftablifli a new commiflary court at Edinburgh, con¬
fining of four judges or commiffaries. This court is
veiled with a double jurifdidtion 5 one diocefan, which
is exercifed in the fpecial territory contained in the
grant, viz. the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington,
Linlithgow, Peebles, and a great part of Stirlinglhire $
and another univerfal, by which the judges confirm the
teftaments of all who die in foreign parts, and may re¬
duce the decrees of all inferior commiffaries, provided
the reduction be purfued within a year after the de¬
cree. Biftiops, upon their re-eftabliihment in the reign
of James VI. were reftored to the right of naming their-
feveral commiffaries.
24. As the clergy, in time of Popery, affirmed a
jurifdi&ion independent of the civil power or any fe-
cular court, their leniences could be reviewed only by
the pope, or judges delegated by him; fo that, with
regard
r Oj
L A W.
Part III.
awot regard to the courts of Scotland, their jurifdI£Hon was
Scorl.-.nd, fupreme. But, by an aft I j6o, the appeals from the
~ biihops courts, that were then depending before the
Roman confiftories, were ordained to be decided by
the court of feffion : and by a pofterior aft, 1609, the
•f.'iTion is declared the king’s great conliftory, with
power to review all fentences pronounced by the com-
miffaries. Neverthelcfs, fince that court had no inhe¬
rent jurifdiftion in confiftorial caufes prior to this fta-
tute, and fince the ftatute gives them a power of
judging only by way of advocation, they have not, to
this day, any proper confiftorial jurifdiftion in the firll
inftance •, neither do they pronounce fentence in any
confiftorial caufe brought from the commiffaries, but
remit it back to them with inftruftions. By the prac¬
tice immediately fubfequent to the aft before quoted,
they did not admit advocations from the inferior com-
nriiTaries, till the caufe was firft brought before the
commifiaries of Edinburgh } but that praftice is now
in difufe.
25. The commiflaries retain to this day an exclufive
power of judging in declarators of marriage, and of
the nullity of marriage *, in aftions of divorce and of
non-adherence, of adultery, baftardy, and confirmation
of teftaments ; becaufe all thefe matters are ftill confi-
dered to be properly confiftorial. Inferior commiffaries
are not competent to queftions of divorce, under which
are comprehended queftions of baftardy and adherence,
when they have a connexion with the lawfulnefs of mar¬
riage, or with adultery.
26. Commiffaries have now no power to pronounce
decrees in abfence for any fum above 40I. Scots, except
in caufes properly confiftorial $ but they may authenti¬
cate tutorial and curatorial inventories ; and all bonds,
contrafts, &c. which contain a claufe for regiftration in
the books of any judge competent, and protefts on bills,
may be regiftered in their books.
Sect. VI. Of Marriage.
clx.
Marriage.
1. Perfons, when confidered in a private capacity, are
chiefly diftinguiftied by their mutual relations 5 as huf-
band and wife, tutor and minor, father and child,
mafter and fervant. The relation of hufband and
wife is con diluted by marriage ; which is the eon-
junftion of man and wife, vowing to live infeparably
till death.
2. Marriage is truly a contraft, and fo requires the
confent of parties. Idiots, therefore, and furious per¬
fons, cannot marry. As no perfon is prefumed capable
of confent within the years of pupillarity, which, by
our law, lafts till the age of 14 in males, and 12 in
females, marriage cannot be contrafted by pupils; but
if the married pair ihall cohabit after puberty, fuch
acquiefcence gives force to the marriage. Marriage is
fully perfefted by confent j which, without confum-
mation, founds all the conjugal rights and duties. The
confent requifite to marriage muft be de prafenti. A
promife of marriage (/Hpuiatio fponfalitw) may be re¬
filled from, as long as matters are entire j but if any
thing be done by one of the parties, whereby a pre¬
judice arjfes from the non-performance, the party re¬
filing is liable in damages to the other. I he cano¬
nist, and after them our courts of juftice, explain a
copula fubfequent to a promife of marriage into aftual Law©f
marriage.
Scotland.
3. It is not ncceffary that marriage ftiould be cele- F'rm'o'f '
brated by a clergyman. The confent of parties celebration
be declared before any magiftrate, or limply befor®
witneffes : and though no formal content thould ap¬
pear, marriage is prefumed from the cohabitation, or
living together at bed and board, of a man and wo¬
man who are generally reputed hufband and wife. One’s
acknowledgement of his marriage to the midw ife whom
he called to his wife, and to the miniiler w!ho baptized
his child, was found fufficient prefun ptive evidence of
marriage, without the aid either of cohabitation or of
habit and repute. The father’s confent was, by the Ro¬
man law, effential to the marriage of children in femi-
lia : but, by our law, children may enter into marriage,
without the knowledge, and even againit the remon-
ftrances, of a father.
4. Marriage is forbidden within certain degrees ofForbkMe*
blood. By the law of Mofes (Leviticus xviii.), which decrees,
by the a£I 1567, c. 15. has been adopted by us, feeonds
in blood, and all remoter degrees, may all lawfully
marry. By feeonds in blood are meant firft coufins.
Marriage in the direft line is forbidden in infinitum; as
it is alio in the collateral line, in the fpecial cafe where
one of the parties is loco parentis to the other, as
grand uncle, great grand uncle, &c. with reipeft to
his grand niece, &c. The fame degrees that are prohi¬
bited in conlanguinity, are prohibited in affinity ; which
is the tie arifing from marriage betwixt one of the mar¬
ried pair and the blood relations of the other. Mar-Other
riage alfo, where either of the parties is naturally unfit groun<k
for generation, or ftands already married to a third per-null)ty*
fon, is ipfo jure null.
5. To prevent bigamy and inceftuous marriages, proebma-
ihe church has introduced proclamations of banns ; tion of
which is the ceremony of publlfhing the names andkanns*
defignations of thofe who intend to intermarry in the
churches where the bride and bridegroom refide, after
the congregationfts afflmbled for divine fervice *, that
all perfons who know any objection to the marriage may
offer it. When the order of the church is obferved, the
marriage is called regular; when otherwife, clandejline.
Marriage is valid when entered into in either of thefe
ways ; but when clandeftine, there are certain penalties
impofed upon the parties as well as the celebrator and
witneffes.
6. By marriage, a fociety is created between the nrar-(-<omir,u.
ried pair, which draws after it a mutual communication mon of
of their civil interefts, in as far as is neceffary for main-goods,
taining it. As the fociety lafis only for the joint lives
of the foe ii; therefore rights that have the nature of a
perpetuity, which our law ftyles heritable, are not
brought under the partnerfhip or communion of goods j
as a land eftate, or bonds bearing a yearly intereft : it
is only moveable fubjefts, or the fruits produced by he¬
ritable fubjefts during the marriage, that become com¬
mon to man and wife.
7. The hufband, as the head of the wife, has the maritl
foie right of managing the goods in communion, which
is called jus mariti. This right is fo abfiolute, that it
bears but little refembiance to a right of adminiftering
a common fubjeft. For the hufband can, in virtue
thereof, fell, or even gift, at his pleafure, the whole
goods
I.
Law of goods
Scotland.
paraj/hcr-
tialia.
jus manti.
Chap. I. LA
failing under communion ; and his creditors
may affedl them for the payment of his proper debts:
fo that the jus tnariti carries all the characters of an
aflignatibn, by the wife to her hulband, of her move-
able eftate. It arifes ipj'o jure from the marriage $ and
therefore needs no other conftitution. But a ftranger
may convey an eftate to a wife, fo as it lhall not be
fubjeCt to the hufband‘'s adminiftration j or the huf-
band himfelf may, in the marriage contract, renounce
his jus manti in all or any part of his wife’s moveable
eft ate.
8. From this right are excepted paraphernal goods,
which, as the word is underftood in our law, compre¬
hends the wife’s wearing apparel, and the ornaments
proper to her perfon } as necklaces, ear-rings, bread;
or arm jewels, buckles, &c. Thefe are neither alien¬
able by the hulband, nor affeftable by his creditors.
Things of promifcuous ufe to hufband and wife, as
plate, medals, &c. may become paraphernalia, by the
hulband’s giving them to the wife, at or before mar¬
riage ; but they are paraphernal only in regard to
that hufband who gave them as fueh, and are efteem-
ed common moveables, if the wife, whofe parapherna¬
lia they were, be afterwards married to a fecond huf¬
band •, unlefs he (hall in the fame manner appropriate
them to her.
Burdens af- 9. The right of the hufband to the wife’s moveable
eftate, is burdened with the moveable debts contracted
by her before marriage ; and as his right is univerfal,
fo alfo is his burden ; for it reaches to her whole
moveable debts, though they ftiould far exceed her
moveable eftate. Yet the hufband is not confidered as
the true debtor in his wife’s debts. In all actions for
payment, fhe is the proper defender : the hufband is
only cited for his intereft : that is, as curator to her,
and adminiftrator of the fociety goods. As foon there¬
fore as the marriage is diffolved, and the fociety goods
thereby fufftr a divifion, the hufband is no farther con¬
cerned in the (hare belonging to bisdeceafed wife ; and
confequently is no longer liable to pay her debts, which
mult be recovered from her reprefentatives or Tier fepa-
rate eftate.
10. This obligation upon the hufband is, however,
• n perpetuated againft him, (1.) Where his proper eftate,
bufbwi'l 6 rea or Perf°nab has been affeCled, during the marriage,
by complete legal diligence j in which cafe, the huf¬
band mutt, by the common rules of law, relieve his
property from the burden with which it ftands charged ;
but the utmoft diligence againft his perfon is not luf-
ficient to perpetuate the obligation \ nor even incom¬
plete diligence againft his eftate. (2.) The hufband
continues liable, even after the wife’s death, in fo far
as he is lucratus or profited by her eftate : Still, how¬
ever, the law does not confider a hufband who has got
but a moderate tocher with the wife as lucratus by
the marriage •, it is the excefs only which it confiders
as lucrum, and that muft be eftimated by the quality
of the parties and their condition of life :—-As he
was at no time the proper debtor in his wdfe’s moveable
debts ; therefore, though he fhould be lucratus, he is,
after the diffolution, only liable for them fulfidiane,
i. e. it her own feparate eftate is not fufficient to pay
them off.
11. Where the wife is debtor in that fort of debt,
which, if it had been due to her, would have excluded
Vol. XI. Part II.
How ex¬
tended a-
W. 6.33
the jus mariti, e. g. in bonds bearing intereft, which, as Law of
w'e thall afterwards fee (clxiii. 4.), continues heritable Scotlitn
as to the rights of hufband and wife, notwithftanding
of the enaftment of the ftatute 1661, which renders
them moveable in certain other refpedts, the hulband
is liable only for the bygone interefts, and tliofe that
may grow upon the debt during the marriage ; becaufe
his obligation for her debts muft be commenfurated to
the intereft he has in her eftate. It is the hufband
alone who is liable in perfonal diligence for his wife’s
debts, while the marriage fubfifts : the wife, who is the
proper debtor, is free from all perfonal execution upon
them while fin is vejiita viro.
12. The hufband by marriage becomes the perpe-The huf-
tual curator of the wdfe. From this right it arifes,^arl^'st^e
I. That no fuit can proceed againft the wife till the^6 s cia*'“
hufband be cited for his intereft. 2. All deeds, done
by a wife without the hufband’s confent, are null ; nei¬
ther can fne fue in any aftion without the hufband’s
concurrence. Yet, where the hufband refufes, or by
reafon of forfeiture, &,c. cannot concur $ or where the
aftion is to be brought againft the hufband himfelf, for
performing his part of the marriage articles ; the judge
will authorize her to fue in her own name. The effects
arifing from this curatorial power difcover themfelves
even before marriage, upon the publication of banns j
after which the bride, being noXongexfuijuris, can con¬
tract: no debt, nor do any deed, either to the prejudice
of her future hufband, nor even to her own. But in
order to this, it is neceffary that the banns fhall have
been publilhed in the bride’s parilh church as well as
in that of her hufband.
13. If the hufband ftiou.ld either withdraw from his Separate
wife, or turn her out of doors j or if, continuing in alimony,
family with her, he (hould by fevere treatment endan¬
ger her life j the commiffaries will authorize a repara¬
tion a menfa et thoro, and give a feparate alimony to
the wife, fuitable to her hufband’s eftate, from the
time of fuch feparation until either a reconciliation or
a fentence of divorce.
14. Certain obligations of the wife are valid, not-What obli-
withitanding her being fub cur a marili; ex. gr. obli-giitlons of
gations arifing from deliCI ; for wives have no privilege!.*16 wifeva*
to commit crimes. But if the punilbment refolvts in-' ‘
to a pecuniary mulCf, the execution of it muft, from her
incapacity to fulfil, be fulpencied till the diffolution of
the marriage, unlefs the wife has a feparate eftate ex¬
empted from the jus manti.
15. Obligations arifing from contraCI, affeCt either
the perfon or the eftate. The law has been fo careful
to proteCt wives vs bile fub cura mariti, that ail per¬
fonal ©bligations granted by a wife, though with the
hufband’s confent, as bonds, bill-, &c. are null 5 with
the following exceptions : (I.) Where the wife gets
a feparate peculium or flock, either from her father or
a ftranger, for her own or her children’s alimony, the
may grant perfonal obligations in relation to fuch ftock :
and by ftronger reafon, perfonal obligations granted
by a vsife are good, when her perfon is aClually w ith¬
drawn from the hufband’s power by a judicial fepara¬
tion. (2 ) A wife’s perfonal obligation, granted in
the form of a deed inter vivos, is valid, if it is not to
take effeCt till her death. (3.) Where the wife is by
the hufhand prapofta negotiis, intruded with the ma¬
nagement either of a particular branch ©f bufinefs or
4 L of
<>3 +
L A
Inhibition
againft a
wife.
Law of of his whole affairs, all the contra&s fhe enters into in
*5ce the exercife of her prcepofitura are effectual, even though
they be not reduced to writing, but {houid ariie mere¬
ly ex re, from furnilhings made to her : but iuch obli¬
gations have no force againft the wife 5 it is the hut-
band only, oy whofe commiffion the acts, who is there¬
by obliged.
16. A wife, while (he remains in family with her
htfband, is conlidered as prcepojita n ego (us aomejhcis,
and confeque* tly may provide things proper for the
family 5 for the price, whereof the hufband 1 liable,
though they (houid be mifapplied, or though the hui-
band (houid have given her money to provide them elie-
where. A hufband who (ufjiefts that His wife may
hurt his fortune by high living, may ute the remedy of
inhibition againtl her ; by which all per (on s are inter-
pelied from contrafting with her, or giving her credit.
After the completing of this diiigence, whereby the
prcepofitura falls, the wife cannot bind the hufband, un¬
ion, for Inch reafonable furriftimgs as he cannot milrudl
that he provided her with As every man, and
confequently every hi (band, has a right to remove his
managers at pleafure, inhibition may pafs at the fuitof
the hufband againft the wife, though he (houid not offer
to juftity that meafure by an adluai proof of the extra¬
vagance or profufion of her temper.
Rights af- 17. As to rights granted by the wife afh dting her
feeling her eftate) ftie has no moveable eftate, except her para-
eftate. phernalia ; and thefe (he may alien or impignorate,
wfth confent of her hufhand. She can, without the
hufband, bequeath by teftament her (hare of the goods
in communion •, but fhe cannot difpofe of them inter
•vivos ; for ihe herfelf has no proper right to them while
the marriage fubfifts. A wife can lawfully oblige her¬
felf, in relation to her heritable eftate, with confent of
her hufband : for though her perfon is in feme fenfe
funk by the marriage, (he continues capable ©f hold¬
ing a real eflate j and in fuch obligations her efiate is
confidered, and not her perfon. A hufband, though
he be curator to his wife, can, by his acceptance or in¬
tervention, authorize rights granted by her in his own
favour : for a hufband’s curatory differs in this refpeft
from the curatory of minors, for it is not merely in¬
tended for the wife’s advantage, but is confidered as a
mutual benefit to both.
Donations ^ donations, whether by the wife to the huf-
IntUrrevu ^and or by the hufband to the wife, are revocable by
cable. t^e d°nor 5 ^ut ^ tlne donor dies without revocation,
the right becomes abfolute. Where the donation is
not pure, it is not fubjeft to revocation : thus, a grant
made by the hufband, in confequence of the natural
obligation that lies upon him to provide for his wife, is
not revocable, unlefs in fo far as it exceeds the meafure
of a rational fettlementj neither are remuneratory grants
revocable, where mutual grants are made in confidera-
tion of each other, except where an onerous caufe is fi-
mulated, or where what is given line inde bears no pro¬
portion to each other. All voluntary contracts of re¬
paration, by which the wife is provided in a yearly ali¬
mony, are effeftual as to the time paft, but revocable
either by the hufhand or wife.
Ratification 19. As wives are in the ftrongeft degree fubjeft to
by wives, the influence of their huibands, third parties, in whofe
favours they had made grants, were frequently vexed
with a&ions of reduftion; as if the grant had been ex-
W. Part III.
torted from the wife through the force er fear of the Law of
hufband. To fecure the grantees againft this danger, Scotland,^
ratifications were introduced, whereby the wife, ap¬
pearing before a judge, declares upon oath, her huf¬
band not prefent, that fhe. was not induced to grant
the deed ex vt out metis. A wife’s ratification is not
abfolutely neceffary for fecuring the grantee : law in¬
deed allows the wife to bring reduction of any deed fhe
has not ratified, upon the head ot force or fear j of
which, ii (he bring luftieient evidence, the deed will be
f'et afide ; but if (he fails in the proof, it will remain
efftClual to the receiver.
20. Marriage, like other contracts, might, by theDifiblutm
Roman law, be diffolved by the contrary confent of par-°* marri*
tits ; but. by the law of bcotland, it cannot be diffolved aS8*
till death, except by divorce, proceeding either upon
the head of adultery or of wilful defertion.
21. Marriage is diffolved by death, either within
year and day from its being contracted, or after year
and day. if it is diffolved within year and day, all
rights granted in confideration of the marriage (unlefs
guarded againft in the contract) become, void, and
things return to the fame condition in which they flood
before the marriage j with this refirictmn, that the
hufband is confidered as a bona fide polleffor, in rela¬
tion to what he has confumed upon the faith of his
right j but he is liable to repay the tocher, without
any dedu&ion, in confideration of his family expence
during the marriage. If things cannot be reftored 012
both fides, equity hinders the reftoring of one party
and not the other. In a cafe which was lately before
the court of feflion, it was determined after a long
hearing in prefence, that where a marriage had been
diffolved within the year without a living child, by the
death of the hufband, the widow was entitled to be ali¬
mented out of an eflate of which he died poffeffed,
though there were no conventional provifions ilipulated
in favour of the wife.
2 2. Upon the diffolution of a marriage, after year
and day, the furviving hufband becomes the irrevocable
proprietor of the tocher j and the wife, where fhe fur-
vives, is entitled to her jointure, or to her legal provi¬
fions. She has alfo right to mournings, fuitable to
the hufband’s quality \ and to alimony from the day
of his death till the term at which her liferent provi-
fion, either legal or conventional, commences. If a
living child be procreated of the marriage, the mar¬
riage has the fame effedt as if it had fubfifted beyond
the year. A day is adjedled to the year, in tnajorem
evidentiam, that it may clearly appear that the year it-
felf is elapfed $ and therefore, the running of any part
of the day, after the year, has-the fame effedl as if
the whole were elapfed. The Ifegal right of courtefy
competent to the furviving hufband is explained below,
N° clxx. 28.
23. Divorce is fuch a reparation of married per Tons, D;vorcs,
during their lives, as loofes them from the nuptial tie,
and leaves them at freedom to intermarry with others.
But neither adultery, nor wilful defertion, are grounds
which muft neceffarily diflolve marriage; they are on¬
ly handles, which the injured party may take hold of
to be free. Cohabitation, therefore, by the injured
party, after being in the knowledge of the adds of
adultery, implies a paffing from the injury ; ard no di¬
vorce can proceed, which is carried on by collufion be¬
twixt
CHcip. I.
Law of twixt tlie parties, left, contrary to tlie £vft inftitution
Scotland. 0f marrjage, they rnight-difengage them (elves by their
^ ' own confent j and though, after divorce, the guilty
perfon, as well as the innocent, may contrail fecond
marriages *, yet, in the cafe of divorce upon adultery,
marriage is by fpecial ftatute (1600. c. 20.) prohibited
betwixt the two adulterers.
24. Where either party has deferted from the other
for four years together, that other may fue for adhe¬
rence. If this has no effedf, the church is to proceed,
firft by admonition, then by excommunication ; all
•which previous Heps are declared to be a fufficient
ground for purfuing a divorce. Depraxi> the commif-
faries pronounce fentence in the adherence, after one
year’s defertion j but four years mull intervene between
the firft defertion and the decree of divorce.
25. The legal effefls of divorce on the head of de¬
fertion are, that the offending hufband thall reftore the
tocher, and forfeit to the wife all her provifions, legal
and conventional ; and, on the other hand*, the offend¬
ing wife (hall forfeit to the hulband her tocher, and all
the rights that would have belonged to her in the cafe
of her furvivance. This was alfo etteemed the rule in
divorces upon adultery. But by a decifion of the court
«f feflion 1662, founded on a traft of ancient decilions
recovered from the records, the offending huihand was
allowed to retain the tocher.
Sect. VII, Of Minort, and their Tatars and Curattrs.
Tutors.
esli. I. The ftages of life principally diftinguifhed in law
Pupiilarity, are pupillarity, puberty or minority, and majority. A
child is under pupillarity, from the birth to 14 years
of age if a male, and till 12 if a female. Minority be¬
gins where pupillarity ends, and continues till majori¬
ty ; which, by the law of Scotland, is the age of 21
years complete, both in males and females : but mi¬
nority, in a large fenfe, includes all under age, whe¬
ther pupils or puberes. Becaufe pupils cannot in any
degree a6t for themfelves, and minors feldom with dif-
cretion, pupils are put by law under the power of tu¬
tors, and minors may put themfelves under the direc¬
tion of curators. Tutory is a power and faculty to go¬
vern the perfon, and adminifter the eftate, of a pupil.
Tutors are either nominate, of /aw, or dative.
2. A tutor nominate is he who is named by a fa¬
ther, in his teftament or other writing, to a lawful
ohild. Such tutor is not obliged to give caution for
the faithful difcharge of his office ; becaufe his fidelity
is prefumed to have been fufficiently known to the fa¬
ther.
5. If there be no nomination by the father, or if
the tutors nominate do not accept, or if the nomina¬
tion falls by death or otherwife, there is a place for a
tutor of law. This fort of tutory devolves upon the
next agnate *, by which we underftand he who is
neareft related by the father, though females inter¬
vene.
Kgaates.
4. Where there are two or more agnates equally
near to the pupil, he who is entitled to the pupil’s legal
fucceffion falls to be preferred to the others. But as
the law iufpe&s that he may not be over careful to pre-
ferve a life which (lands in the way of his own intereft,
this fort of tutor is excluded from the cuftody of the
pupil’s perfon j which is commonly committed to the
AW. ^ • 635*
mother, while a widow, until the pupil be feven years Law or
old *, and, in default of the mother, to the next cog- 50(4jcn'
nate, i. e. the nigheft relation by the mother. T he
tutor of law mud (by act 1474) be at lead 25 years of
age. He is ferved or declared by a jury of fworn
men, who are called upon a brief iffuing from the chan¬
cery, which is diredled to any judge having jurifdiflion.
He mull give fecurity before he enters upon the maw
n age men t.
5. If no tutor of law demands the office, any pe^
fon, even a dranger, may apply for a tutory daiive.
But becaufe a tutor in law ought t > be allowed a com¬
petent time to deliberate whether he will ferve or not,
no tutory dative can be given till the elapfing of a year
from the time at which the tutor of law had fivft a
right to ferve. It is the king alone, as the father of
his country, who gives tutors dative, by his court c£
exchequer ; and by a£l 1672, no gift of tutory can
pais in exchequer, without the citation or content cf
the next of kin to the pupil, both by the father and
mother, nor till the tutor give fecurity, recorded in
the books of exchequer. There is no room for a tu¬
tor of law, or tutor dative, while a tutor nominate can
be hoped for : and tutors of law or dative, even after
they have begun to a£t, may be excluded by the tutor
nominate, as Toon as he offers to accept, unleft he has
expreftly renounced the office. If a pupil be without
tutors of any kind, the court of fed'xon will, at the iuit Indicia!
of any kinfman, name a factor (deward) for the ma-^a^or*
nagement of the pupil’s edate.
6. After the years of pupillarity are over, the mi¬
nor is confidered as capable of aiding by himl’elf, if he
has confidence enough of his own capacity and pru¬
dence. The only two cafes in which curators are im-Curator*,
pofed upon minors are, (1.) Where they are named
by the father, in a date of health. (2.) Where the
father is himfelf alive j for a father is ipfo jure, with¬
out any fervice, adminidrator, that is, both tutor and.
curator «f law to his children, in relation to whatever
edate may fall to them during their minority. This
right in the father does not extend to grandchildren,
nor to fuch even of his immediate children as are foris¬
familiated. Neither has it place in fubjeds which
are left by a dranger to the minor exclufive of the fa¬
ther’s adminidration. If the minor choofes to be un¬
der the diredion of curators, he mud raife and execute
a fummons, citing at lead two of his next of kin t»
appear before his own judge ordinary, upon nine days
warning (by ad 15jj). At the day and place of ap¬
pearance, he offers to the judge a lid of thofe whom
he intends for his curators : fuch of them as refolve
to undertake the office mud fign their acceptance,
and give caution $ upon which an ad of curatory is
extraded.
7. Thefe curators are dyled adnegotia ; to didinguilh
them from another fort called curators ad /iter, wh«
are authorized by the judge to concur with a pupil or
minor in adions of law, either where he is without tu¬
tors and curators, or where his tutors and curators are
parties to the fuit. This fort is not obliged to give
caution, becaufe they have no intermeddling with the
minor’s edate : they are appointed for a fpecial pur-
pofe ; and when that is over, their office is at an end. Who debar.
Women are capable of being tutors and curators under ret^0<^tm"
the following redridions: (1.) The office of a female ‘C!>
4 L » tutocf ■
636
Law of
Scotland.
Difference
between tiv
tory andcu
ratory.
Judicial in¬
ventories.
Powers of
tutors and
•urators.
L A
tutor or curator falls by her marriage, even though the
nomination Ihould provide otherwife ; for fhe is no
longer fui juris, and incapable of courfe of having an¬
other under her power. (2.) No woman can be tutor
of law. Papifts are (by aft 1700) declared incapable
of tutory or curatory. Where the minor has more tu¬
tors and curators than one, who are called in the no¬
mination to thejWtfnnanagement, they muft all concur
in every aft of adminiftration; where a certain num¬
ber is named for a quorum, that number mult concur :
where any one is named Jine qua non, no aft is valid
without that one’s fpecial concurrence. But if they
are named without any of thefe limitations, the concur¬
rence of the majority of the nominees then alive is fuf-
ficient.
8. In this, tutory differs from curatory, that as pu¬
pils are incapable of confent, they have no perfon ca¬
pable of acting 5 which defeft the tutor fupplies : but
a minor pubes can aft for himfelf. Hence, the tutor
fubferibes alone all deeds of adminiftration : but in cu¬
ratory, it is the minor who fubferibes as the proper
party ; the curator does no more than confent. Hence
alfo, the perfons of pupils are under the power either
of their tutors or of their neareft cognates ; but the
minor, after pupillarity, has the dilpofal of his own
perfon, and may reftde where he pleafes. In moft other
particulars, the nature, the powers, and the duties of
the two offices, coincide. Both tutors and curators
muft, previous to their adminiftration, make a judicial
inventory, fubferibed by them and the next of kin, be¬
fore the minor judge ordinary, of his whole eftate
perfonal and real j of which, one fubferibed duplicate
is to be kept by the tutors or curators themfelves ; an¬
other, by the next of kin on the father’s fide ; and a
third by the next of kin on the mother’s. If any eftate
belonging to the minor (hall afterwards come to their
knowledge, they muft add it to the inventory within
two months after their attaining poffeflion thereof.
Should they negleft this, the minor’s debtors are not
obliged to make payment to them : they may be remo¬
ved from their offices as fufpedfted ; and they are enti¬
tled to no allowance for the fums diiburfed by them in
the minor’s affairs (aft 1672), except the expence laid
out upon the minor’s entertainment, upon his lands and
houfes, and upon completing his titles.
9. Tutors and curators cannot grant leafes of the
minor’s' lands, to endure longer than their own office ;
nor under the former rental, without either a warrant
from the court of feflion, or fome apparent neceflity.
10. They have power to fell the minor’s moveables ;
but cannot fell their pupil’s land eftate, without the
authority of a judge : yet this reftraint reaches not to
fuch alienations as the pupil could by law be compelled
to grant, e. g. to renunciations of wadfets upon redemp¬
tion by the reverfer •, for in fuch cafe, the very tenor
of his own right lays him under the obligation •, nor to
the renewal of charters to heirs ; but the charter muft
contain no new right in favour of the heir. The ali¬
enation, however, of heritage by a minor, with confent
of his curators, is valid.
11. Tutors and curators cannot, contrary to the na¬
ture of their truft, authorize the minor to do any deed
for their own benefit j nor can they acquire any debt
affefting the minor’s eftate : and, where a tutor or cu¬
rator makes fuch acquifttion, in his own name, for a
W. Part III,
lefs fum than the right is entitled to draw, the benefit Law of
thereof accrues to the minor. It feems, however, that Sc°ftand.
fuch purchafe would be confidered as valid, provided
it were bona fide acquired at a public fale j for in fuch
cafe it occurs that the tutor or curator is in fa£t melio¬
rating the fituation of his ward by enhancing the value
of his property by a fair competition. In general, it
feems to be the genius and fpirit of our law, that tutors
and curators ftiall do every thing in their power towards
the faithful and proper difeharge of their refpeftive of¬
fices.
12. By the Roman law, tutory and curatory, being Their obli.
munera publica, might be forced upon every one whogations,
had not a relevant ground of excufe : but, with us, the
perfons named to thefe offices may either accept or de¬
cline : and where a father, in hege poufie (when in a
ftate of health), names certain perfons both as tutors
and curators to his children, though they have adted as
tutors, they may decline the office of curatory. Tutors
and curators having once accepted, are liable in dili¬
gence, that is, are accountable for the confequences of
their negledt in any part of their duty from the time
of their acceptance. They are accountable fnguli in
folidum, i. e. every one of them is anfwerable, not only
for his own diligence, but for that of his co-tutors ; and
any one may be fued without citing the reft; : but he
who is condemned in the whole, has adtion of relief
againft his co-tutors.
13. From this obligation to diligence, we may ex¬
cept, (1.) Fathers or adminiftrators-in-law, who, from
the prefumption that they adt to the beft of their
power for their children, are liable only for adtual in-
tromiflions. (2.) Tutors and curators named by the
father in confequence of the adl 1696, with the fpecial
provifos, that they fhall be liable barely for intromif-
fions, not for omiflions 5 and that each of them {hall be
liable only for himfelf, and not in folidum for the co¬
tutors : but this power of exemption from diligence is
limited to the eftate defeending from the father him¬
felf. Tutors or curators are not entiiled to any falary
or allowance for pains, unlefs a falary has been exprefs-
ly contained in the teftator’s nomination j for their of¬
fice is prefumed gratuitous.
14. Though no perfon is obliged to accept the of¬
fice of tutor or curator 5 yet having once accepted, he
cannot throw it up or renounce it without fufficient
caufe ; but, if he fhould be guilty of mifapplying the
minor’s money, or fail in any other part of his duty,
he may be removed at the fuit of the minor’s next in
kin, or by a co-tutor or co-curator. Where the mif-
condudt proceeds merely from indolence or inattention,
the court, in place of removing the tutor, either join
a curator with him, or, if he be a tutor nominate, they
oblige him to give caution for his paft and future ma¬
nagement.
15. The offices of tutory and curatory expire alfo by How tutc-
the pupil’s attaining the age of puberty, or the minor’s ry and cu-
.attaining the age of 21 years complete 5 and by the r^toly ex'
death either of the minor, or of his tutor and curator.l)ue'
Curatory alfo expires by the marriage of a female mi¬
nor, who becomes thereby under the coverture of her
own hufband. After expiry of the office, reciprocal
adtions lie at the inftance both of the tutors and cura¬
tors, and of the minor. That at the inftance of the
minor is called aclio tutelce diredla, by w hich he can com,-
Eel
Chap.
Law of
Scotland.
Effe&s of
deeds by
minors.
I. L A
pel the tutors to account ; that at the Inftance of the
tutors, aftio tutelce contraria, by which the minor can
' be compelled to repeat what has been profitably expend¬
ed during the adminiftration : but this laft does not lie
till after accounting to the minor; for till then the
tutors are prefumed intus habere to the effects in their
own hands for anfwering their difburfements.
16. Deeds either by pupils, or by minorshaving cu¬
rators without their confent, are null \ but they oblige
the granters in as far as relates to fums profitably ap¬
plied to their ufe. A minor under curators can indeed
make a teflament by himfelf j but whatever is execu¬
ted in the form of a deed inter vivos, requires the cu¬
rator’s confent. Deeds by a minor who has no cura¬
tors, are as eflfe&ual as if he had had curators, and fign-
ed them with their confent; he may even alien his he¬
ritage, without the interpofition of a judge.
Reftitution. j ^ Minors may be reftored againft all deeds grant¬
ed in their minority, that are hurtful to them. Deeds,
in themfelves void, need not the remedy of reftitution ;
but where hurtful deeds are granted by a tutor in his
pupil’s affairs, or by a minor who has no curators, as
thefe deeds fubfift in law, reftitution is neceflary: and
even where a minor, having curators, executes a deed
hurtful to himfelf with their confent, he has not only
action againft the curators, but he ha£ the benefit of
reftitution againft the deed itfelf. The minor cannot
be reftored, if he does not raife and execute a fummons
for reducing the deed, ex capite tninorennitatis et Iccji-
onis, before he be 25 years old. Thefe four years, be¬
tween the age of 21 and 25, called quadriennium utile,
are indulged to the minor, that he may have a reafon-
able time, from that period, when he is firft prefumed
to have the perfeft ufe of his realon, to confider with
himfelf what deeds done in his minority have been truly
prejudicial to him.
18. Oueftions of reftitution are proper to the court
of feflion. Tw'o things muft be proved by the minor,
in order to the reduction of the deed : (1.) That he
was minor when it was figned : (2.) That he is hurt
or lefed by the deed. This lefion muft not proceed
merely from accident j for the privilege of reftitution
was not intended to exempt minors from the common
misfortunes of life; it muft be owing to the imprudence
or negligence of the minor, or his curator.
19. A minor cannot be reftored againft his own de-
li<5t or fraud ; e. g. if he thould induce one to bargain
with him by faying he was major, (i-) Reftitution is
excluded, if the minor, at any time after majority, has
approved of the deed, either by a formal ratification,
or tacitly by payment of intereft, or by other atts in¬
ferring approbation. (2.) A minor, who has taken
himfelf to bufinefs, as a merchant-ihopkeeper, &c. can¬
not be reftored againft any deed granted by him in the
courfe of that bufinefs, efpecially if he was proximus
majorcnnitati at figning the deed. (3.^ According to
the more common opinion, a minor cannot be reftored
in a queftion againft a minor, unlefs fome grofs unfair-
nefs (hall be qualified in the bargain.
20. The privilege of reftitution does not always die
with the minor himfelf. (1.) If a minor fucceeds to
a minor, the time allowed for reftitution is governed
by the minority of the heir, not of the anceftor. (2.) If
a minor fucceeds to a major, who wras not full 25, the
privilege continues with the heir during his minority;
Its requi-
Stes.
How ex¬
cluded.
How tranf-
mitted to
the heir.
W. 637
but he cannot avail himfelf of the anni utiles, except
in fo far as they were unexpired at the anceftor’s death.
(3.) If a major fucceeds to a minor, he has only the
quadriennium utile after the minor’s death, and if he
1'ucceeds to a major dying within the quadriennium, no
more of it can be profitable to him than what remain¬
ed when the anceftor died.
2i. No minor can be compelled to ftate himferf Mmoi non
a defender, in any aftion, whereby his heritable eft ate l'iU"
flowing from afcendants may be evicted from him, by
one pretending a preferable right.
2 2. This privilege is intended merely to fave minors
from the neceflity of difputing upon queftions of prefer¬
ence. It does not therefore take place, (1.) Vv here
the aftion is purfued on the father’s falfehood or delift.
(2.) Upon his obligation to convey herilage. (3.) On
his liquid bond for a fum of money, though fueh ac¬
tion ihould have the effieft to carry off the minor’s
eftate by adjudication. (4.) Nor in acth.ns purfued by
the minor’s fuperior, upon feudal cafualties. (5.) d his
privilege cannot be pleaded in bar of an action which
had been firft brought againft the father, and is only
continued againft the minor ; nor where the father was
not in the peaceable pofTeffion of the heritable fubjeft
at his death. Before the minor can plead it, he muft:
be ferved heir to his father. The perfons of pupils are
by faid a£t 1696 protected from imprifonment on civil
debts.
23. Curators are given, not only to minors, but in Curators ot
general to every one who, either through defect of
judgment, or unfitnefs of difpofition, is incapable of^" s 1
rightly managing his own affairs. Of the firft tort, are
idiots and furious perfons. Idiots, or fatui, are en¬
tirely deprived of the faculty of reafon. The diflemper
of the furious perfon does not confift in the deleft of
reafon ; but in an overheated imagination, which ob-
ftrufts the application of reafon to the purpofes of life.
Curators may be alfo granted to lunatics; and even to
perfons dumb and deaf, though they are of found judge¬
ment, where it appears that they cannot exert it in the
management of bufinels. Every perftm, who is come
of age, and is capable of afting rationally, has a natu¬
ral right to conduft his own affairs. The only regular
way, therefore, of appointing this fort of curators, is
by a jury lummoned upon a brief from the chancery ;
which is not, like the brief of common tutory, di-
refted to any judge ordinary, but to the judge of the
fpecial territory where the perfon alleged to be fatuous
or furious reftdes ; that, if he is truly of found judge¬
ment, he may have an opportunity to oppofe it: and
for this reafon, he ought to be made a party to the
brief. The curatory of idiots and furious perfons be¬
longs'to the neareft agnate ; but a father is preferred
to the curatory of his fatuous fon, and the hulband to
that of his fatuous wife, before the agnate.
24. A claufe is inferted in the brief, for inquiring
how long the fatuous or furious perfon has been in thatr
condition : and the verdift to be pronounced by the
inqueft has a retrofpeftive effeft : for it is declared a
fufficient ground, without further evidence, for redu¬
cing all deeds granted after the period at which it ap¬
peared by the proof that the fatuity or furiofity began.
But, as fatuous and furious perfons are, by their very
ftate, incapable of being obliged, all deeds done by
them may be declared void, upon proper evidence of
theu1
638 . L A W. Partin,
Law of their fatuity at the time of figning, though they thould
^cotiaiK, nevet. have been cognofced idiots by an inqueft.
25. We have fome few inllances of the fovereign's
giving curators to idiots, where the next agnate did
not claim *, but fuch gifts are truly deviations from our
law, fince they pafs without any inquiry into the date
of the perfon upon whom the curatory is impofed.—
Plence the curator of law to an idiot ferving quandocun*
que, is preferred, as foon as he offers himfelf, before
the curator-dative. This fort of curatory does not de¬
termine by the lucid intervals of the perfon fub cura {
but it expires by his death, or perfed return to &
found judgment j which laft ought regularly to be de¬
clared by the fentence of a judge.
Snterdic* 26. Perfons, let them be ever fo profufe, or liable to
fUon. he impofed upon, if they have the exercife of reafon,
can effedually oblige themfelves, till they are fettered
by law. T his may be done by Interdiction, which is
a legal reftraint laid upon fuch perfons from figning
any deed to their own prejudice, without the confent
of their curators or interdidors.
27. There could be no interdidion by our ancient
pradice, without a previous inquiry into the perfon’s
condition. But as there were few who could bear the
fliame that attends judicial interdidion, however ne-
ceflary the reftraint might have been, voluntary inter¬
didion has received the countenance of law $ which is
generally executed in the form of a bond, whereby the
granter obliges himfelf to do no deed that may affed
his eftate, without the confent of certain friends there¬
in mentioned. Though the reafons indudive of the
bond Ihould be but gently touched in the recital, the in¬
terdidion ftands good. Voluntary interdidion, though
it be impofed by the foie ad of the perfon interdided,
cannot be recalled at his pleafure : but it may be taken
off, (1.) By a fentence of ths court of feffion, declar¬
ing, either that there was from the beginning no fuf-
ftcient ground for the reftraint j or that the party is,
iince the date of the bond, become rei fui providus.
(2.) It falls, even without the authority of the lords,
by the join ad of the perfon interdided, and his in-
terdidors, concurring to take it off. (3.) Where the
bond of interdidion requires a certain number as a
quorum, the reftraint ceafes, if the interdidors (hall by
death be reduced to a leffer number.
28. Judicial interdidion is impofed by a fentence
of the court of feffion. It commonly proceeds on an
adion brought by a near kinfman to the party ; and
fometimes from the nobi/e ojjkium of the court, when
they perceive, during the pendency of a fuit, that any
of the litigants is, from the facility of his temper, fub-
jed to impolition. This fort muft be taken off by the
authority of the fame court that impoled it.
Regiftra- 29. An interdidion need not be ferved againft the
tion of m- perfon interdided j but it rauft be executed, or pub-
terdidijus. j;{he3 jjy a meffenger, at the market crofs of the ju-
rifdidion where he refides, by publicly reading the in¬
terdidion there, alter three oytffes made for convoca-
ting the lieges. A copy of this execution muft be af¬
fixed to the crofs ; and theieafter, the interdidion, with
it- execution, muft (oy the ad 1581) be regiftered in
the books both of tbe jurifdidion where the perfon
interdided refides and where his lands lie, or (by the
ad 1600) in the general regifter <>» the, feffion, within
40 days from the publication. An interdidion, before
it is regiftered, has no effed againft third parties, Law of
though they ftiould be in the private knowledge of it j Scotland,
but it operates againft the interdidors themfelves, as
foon as it is delivered to them.
30. An interdidion, duly regiftered, has this effed, Effe&s>
that all deeds done thereafter, by the perfon interdid¬
ed, without the confent of his interdidors, affeding
his heritable eftate, are fubjed to redudion. Regif-
tration in the general regifter fecures all his lands
from alienation, wherever they lie ; but where the in¬
terdidion is recorded in the regifter of a particular
fhire, it covers no lands except thole fituated in that
fhire. But perfons interdided have full power to dif-
pofe of their moveables, not only by teftament, but by
prefent deeds of alienation : And creditors, in perfonal
bonds grunted after interdtdion, may ufe all execution
againft their debtor’s perfon and moveable eftate : luck
bonds being only fubjed to redudion in fo far as di¬
ligence againft the heritable eftate may proceed upon
them.
31. All onerous or rational deeds granted by the
perfon interdided, are as effedual, even without the
confent of the interdidors, as if the granter had been
laid under no reftraint $ but he cannot alter the fuccef-
lion of his heritable eftate, by any fettlement, let it be
ever fo rational. No deed, granted with confent of
the interdidors, is reducible, though the ftrongeft le-
fion or prejudice to the granter fhould appear : the on¬
ly remedy competent, in fuch cafe, is an adion by the
granter againft his interdidors, for making up to him
what he has loft through their undue confent. It is noofficeofi*'
part of the duty of interdidors to receive fums or ma-terdiders.
nage any eftate ; they are given merely ad auBoritatem
prcqfiandam, to interpofe their authority to reafonable
deeds : and fo are accountable for nothing but their
fraud or fault, in confenting to deeds hurtful to the
perfon under their care.
32. The law concerning the ftate of children falls Lawftrt
next to be explained. Children are either born in wed-childre)&
lock, or out of it. All children born in lawfful mar¬
riage or w'edlock, are prefumed to be begotten by the
perfon to whom the mother is married ; and eonfe^
quently to be lawful children. This prefumption is fo
ftrongly founded, that it cannot be defeated but by
dired evidence that the mother’s hufband could not be
the father of the child, g. where he is impotent, or
was abfent from the wife till within fix lunar months
of the birth. The canonifts indeed maintain, that the
concurring teftinaony of the hufband and wife, that the
child was not procreated by the hufband, is fufficient
to elide this legal prefumption for legitimacy : but it
is an agreed point, that no regard is to be paid to fuefe
teftimony, if it be made after they have owned the
child to be theirs. A father has the abfolute right of
difpofing of his children’s perfon, of direding their edu¬
cation, and of moderate chaftift ment $ and even after
they become puberes, he may compel them to live m
family with him, and to contribute their labour and
induftry, while they continue there, towards his fervice,
A child who gets a feparate fto( k from the father for
carrying on any trade or emp’oyment, even though he
fhould continue in the father’s houfe, may be laid te
be emancipated or forisfamiliated, in fo far as it concerns
that flock ; for the profits arifing from it are his own.
forisfamiliation, when taken m this fenfe, is alfo infer-
Chap.
Law of
Scotland.
Baftards.
Servants.
Colliers and
falters.
Reftraints
lately ta¬
ken off.
II. LA
red by fcbe child’s marriage, or by his living in a fepa-
rate houfe, with his father’s permiflion or good will.
' Children, after their full age of twenty-one years, be¬
come, according to the general opinion, their own ma¬
tters j and from that period are bound to the father
only by the natural ties of duty, affection, and grati¬
tude. The mutual obligations between parents and
children to maintain each other, are explained after¬
wards, N° clxxiii. 4.
33. Children born out of wedlock, are ftyled natu¬
ral children, or baitards. Baftards may be legitimat¬
ed or made lawful. (1.) By the fubfequent inter¬
marriage of the mother of the child with the father.
And this fort of legitimation entitles the child to all
the rights of lawful children. The fubfequent mar¬
riage, which produces legitimation, is confidered by
the law to have been entered into when the child legi¬
timated was begotten •, and hence, if he be a male, he
excludes, by his right of primogeniture, the fons pro¬
created after the marriage, from the fueceffion of the
father’s heritage, though the fons were lawful chil¬
dren from the birth. Hence, alfo, thofe children only
can be thus legitimated, who are begotten of a woman
whom the father might at that period have lawfully
married. (^2.) Battm-ds are legitimated by letters of
legitimation from the fovereign. N° clxxxii. 3.
34. As to the power of matters over their fervants:
All fervants now enjoy the fame rights and privileges
with other fubje&s, unlefs in fo far as they are tied
down by their engagements of fervice. Servants are
either neceffary or voluntary. Neceffary are thofe
whom law obliges to work without wages, of whom
immediately. Voluntary iervants engage without com-
pulfion, either for mere fubfiftence, or alfo for wages.
Thofe who earn their bread in this way, if they flrould
ftand off from engaging, may be compelled to it by
thejuftices of the peace, who have power to fix the
rate of their wages.
35. Colliers, coal-bearers, falters, and other perfons
neceffary to colliers and fait works, as they are parti¬
cularly defcribed by a£l 1661, were formerly tied down
to perpetual fervice at the works to which they had
once entered. Upon a fale of the works, the right of
their fervice ivas transferred to the new proprietor. All
perfons were prohibited to receive them into their fer¬
vice, without a teftimonial from their laft matter j and
if they deferted to another work, and were redemanded
within a year thereafter, he who had received them
was obliged to return them within twenty-four hours,
under a penalty. But though the proprietor fhould
negleft to require the deferter within the year, he did
not by that fliort prefeription, lofe his property in him.
Colliers, &c. where the colliery to which they were re-
ftri&ed was either given up, or not fuffieient for their
maintenance, might lawfully engage with others ; but
if that work ttiould be again fet a going, the proprie¬
tor might reclaim them back to it.
36 But by 15 Geo. III. c. 28. thefe rettraints, the
only remaining veftiges of flavery in the law' of Scot¬
land, are abrogated •, and, after the ift July 5 775?
colliers, coal-bearers, and falters, are declared to be up¬
on the fame footing with other fervants or labourers.
The aft fubjefts thole who are bound prior to the ift
July 1775, to a certain number of years fervice for
their freedom, according to the age of the perfon.
w. 639
37. The poor make the low-eft clafs or order of per- Law of
fons. Indigent children may be compelled to ferve any Scot]and.^
of the king’s fubjefts without wages, bill the age of rhep00Jj
thirty years. V- giants and fturdy beggars may be alfo
compelled to ferve any manufafturer. And becaufe
few perfons were willing to receive, them into their ler-
vice, public workhoufes are ordained to be built for
fetting them to work. The poor who cannot work,
mutt be maintained by the parilhes in w hich they were
born 5 and where the place of their nativity is not
known, that burden falls upon the parifhes where t.‘.ey
have had their moft common refort, for the three years
immediately preceding their being apprehended or
their applying for the public charity. Where the con¬
tributions collefted at the churches to which they be¬
long are not fufficient for their maintenance, they are
to receive badges from the minitter and kirk lefficn, in
virtue of which they may afk alms at the dwelling-
houfes of the inhabitants of the parifti.
Chap. II. O/'Things.
The things, or fubjefts, to which perfons have right,
are the fecond objeft of law'.
Sect. I. Of the Dimjion of Rights, and the federal ways
by which a Right may be acquired.
clxifi
I. The right of enjoying and difpofing of a fubjeft Property,
at one’s plealure, is called property. Proprietors are
rettrained by law from ufing their property emuloufly
to their neighbour’s prejudice. Every ftate or fove¬
reign has a power over private property, called, by
fome lawyers, dominium eminens, in virtue of which,
the proprietor may be compelled to fell his property-
for an adequate price, where an evident utility on the
part of the public demands it.
1. Certain things are by nature itfelf incapable of Things in¬
appropriation 5 as the air, the light, the ocean, &c.; capable of
none of which can be brought under the power of any feppiop153”
one perfon, though their uie be common to all. Others
are by law exempted from private commerce, in refpeft
of the ules to which they are deftined. Of this laft
kind are, (1.) Res pub lie as navigable rivers, high¬
ways, bridges, &c. the right of which is vetted in the
king, chietty for the benefit of his people, and they are
called tegaha. (2.) Res univerjitatis, things which be¬
long in property to a particular corporation or fociety,
and whole ufe is common to every individual in it, but
both property and ule are fubjeft to the regulations of
the fociety ; as tow n houfes, corporation halls, market¬
places, churchyards, &c. The lands or other reve¬
nue belonging to a corporation do not fall under this
clafs, but are juris privati, quoad the corporation.
3. Property may be acquired either by occupations^
or acceffon ; and transferred by tradition or prefeription ; acquiring
but prefeription being alfo a way of lofing property, property,
falls to be explained under a feparate title. Occupa¬
tion, or occupancy, is the appropriating of things
which have no owner, by apprehending them, or feiz-
ing their poffeffion. This was the original method of
acquiring property : and continued, under certain re-
ftriftions, the doftrine of the Roman lawq iguod nullius
ejj Jit occupantis; but it can have no room in the feudal
plan,*
640
Law of
Svuuand.
Acceflion,
L A \V. Part III,
plan, by which the king is looked on as original
proprietor of all the lands within bis dominions.
4. Even in that fort of moveable goods which are
preiunK-d to have once had an owner, this rule obtains
by the law of Scotland, Quod nuilius (ft, fit domim regis.
Thus, the ri^ht of treaiure hid under ground is not
acquired by occupation, but accrues to the king.—
Thus alfo, where one finds (hayed cattle or other
moveables, which have been loft by their former ow ner,
the finder acquires no right in them, but muft give
public notice thereof; and if, within year and day after
fuch notice, the proprietor does not claim his goods,
they fall to the king, IherilF, or other perton to whom
the king has made a grant of fuch efeheats.
5. In that fort of moveables which never had an
owner, as wild beafts, fowls, fifties, or pearls found on
the ftiore, the original law takes place, that he who
firft apprehends, becomes proprietor; infomuch, that
though the right of hunting, fowling, and fiftiing, be
reftrained by ftatute, under certain penalties, yet all
game, even what is catched in contravention of the
lawq becomes the property of the catcher (unlefs where
the confifeation thereof is made part of the penalty),
the contravener being obnoxious, however, to the pe¬
nal ena&ment of the ftatutes in confequence of his
tranfgreflion. It was not for a long time a fixed point
whether a perfon, though pofleffed of the valued rent
by law entitling him to kill game, could hunt upon
another perfon’s grounds without confent ; but it was
lately found by the court of feffion, and affirmed upon
appeal, that he could not; it being repugnant to the
idea of property, that any perfon, however qualified,
fliould have it in his power to traverfe and hunt upon
another’s grounds without confent of the proprietor.
Although certain things became the property of the
firft occupant, yet there are others which fall not un¬
der this rule. Thus, whales thrown in or killed on our
coafts, belong neither to thofe who kill them, nor to
the proprietor of the grounds on which they are caft ;
but to the king, providing they are fo large as that
they cannot be drawn by a wane w ith fix oxen.
6. Accession is that, way of acquiring property, by
which, in two things which have a connexion with,
or dependence on, one another, the property of the
principal thing draws after it the property of its accef-
fory. Thus the owner of a cow becomes the owner of
the calf; a houfe belongs to the owner of the ground
on which it (lands, though built with materials belong¬
ing to and at the charge of another ; trees taking root
in our ground, though planted by another become ours.
Thus alfo the infenfible addition made to one’s ground
by what a river wafhes from other grounds, (which is
called aHuvio), accrues to the mailer of the ground
which receives the addition ; but where it happened
that a large piece of ground was disjoined and annexed
to another perfon’s by the force of a river or any other
accident, and which was by the Romans called avu/Jio,
they confidered the owner’s right of property ftiil to
fubfift, § 21. Injl, de rer, divif.; and it is probable
^that, in a fimilar cafe, our courts would countenance
the diftnuftion. The Romans excepted from this rule
the cafe, of paintings drawn on another man’s board or
canvas, in confideration of the excellency of the art;
which exception our practice has for a like reafon ex¬
tended to fimilar cafes.
7. Under acceffion is comprehended Specification ; Law of
by which is meant, a perfon’s making a new fpeeies or Scotland,
ffibject, from materials belonging to another. Where s '~1,
the new' fpecies can be again reduced to the matter of'ti0n-
which it w'as made, law confiders the former mats as
ftill exifting; and therefore, the new (pecies, as an ac-
celfory to the former lubje£t, belongs to the proprietor
of that lubjefl: but wffiere the thing made cannot be
fo reduced, as in the cafe of wine, which cannot be
again turned into grapes, there is no place for the Jidtio
juris; and therefore the workmanftiip draws after it
the property of the materials. Rut the perfon who
thus carries the property from the other is bound to
indemnify him according to the true value; and in cafe
it was done mala jidr, he may be made liable in the pre-
tium afftSiionis or utmoft value.
8 Though the new fpecies fliould be produced fromcommi*.
the Commixtion or confufion of different fubftancestion.
belonging to different proprietors, the fame rule holds;
but where the mixture is made by the common confent
of the owner, fuch confent makes the whole a com¬
mon property, according to the lhares that each pro¬
prietor had formerly in the feveral fubjedts. Where
things of the fame fort are mixed without the confent
of the proprietors, which cannot again be feparated ;
e. g. two hogfheads of wine, the whole likewiie be¬
comes a common property ; but, in the after divifion,
regard ought to be had to the different quality of the
wines : if the things fo mixed admit of a feparation,
e. g. two flocks of Ihtep,. (he property continues di-
(tindl.
9. Property is carried from one to another by TsA-Tradition.
DitION; which is the delivery of peffeflion by the pro¬
prietor, with an intention to transfer the property to
the receiver. Two things are therefore requifite, in
ox'der to the tranfmitting of property in this way:
1. The intention or confent of the former owner to
transfer it on fome proper title of alienation, as fale,
exchange, gift, &c. (2.) The aclual delivery in pur-
fuanee of that intention. The firft is called the caufat
the other the modus transferendi doruinn : which laft is
fo neceffary to the acquiring of property, that he who
gets the laft right, with the firft; tradition, is prefer¬
red according to the rule, Traditionibus, non nudispac-
tis, transferuntur rerum dormnia.
10. Tradition is either real, where the ipfa corpora
of moveables are put into the hands of the receiver ; or
fymbolical, which is ufed where the thing is incapable
of real delivery, or even when aftual delivery is only
inconvenient. Wffiere the pofff ffion or cuftody of the
fubjedl has been before with him to whom the pro¬
perty is to be transferred, there is no room for tradi¬
tion.
11. Poffeffion, which is effential both to the acqui-pofl-e^10n,
fition and enjoyment of property, is defined, the deten¬
tion of a thing, with a defign or animus in the detainer
of holding it as his own. It cannot be acquired by
the foie adl of the mind, without real detention ; but,
being once acquired, it may be continued Jolo animo.
Poffeffion is either natural, or civil. Natural poffeffion natura2
is, w'hen one poffe.ffes by himfelf: thus, we poffefs lands
by cultivating them and reaping their fruits, houfes by
inhabiting them, moveables by detaining them in our
hands. Civil poffeffion is our holding the thing, either
by the foie ad of the mind, or by the hands of another
Chap. II.
L.
A \v.
64.1
Law of
Scotland.
hotui fide.
Effedls of
^offefllQn.
who holds It in our name . thus, the owner of a thing
lent polfefTes it by the borrower j the proprietor of lands,
by his tackfmen, truftee, or Reward, &e. The fame
fabjeft cannot be poffefled entirely, or in foUdum, by
two different perfons at one and the fame time : and
therefore poffeffiofi by an aft of the mind eeafes, as
foon as the natural poffeffion is fo taken up by another,
that the former poffeffor is not foffered to re-enter. Yet
two perfons may, in the judgment of law, poffefs the
fame fubjeft, at the fame time, on different rights :
thus, in the cafe of a pledge, the creditor poffeffes it in
his own name, in virtue of the right of i lit pignoration ;
while the proprietor is eonfidered as poffefling, in and
through the creditor, in fo far as is nSceffary for fup-
porting his right of property. The fame doftrine holds
in liferenters, tackfmen, and, generally, in every cafe
where there are rights affefting a fubjeft difun ft from
the property.
1 2. A bop.n fide poffeffor is he who, though he is not
really proprietor of the fubjeft, yet believes himfelf pro¬
prietor on probable grounds. A male fde poffeffor is he
who knows, or is prefumed to know, that what he pof¬
feffes is the property of another. A poffeffor bona fde
acquired right, by the Roman law, to the fruits of the
fubjeft poffeffed, that had been reaped and confumed
by himfelf, while he believed the fubjefts his own. By
our cuftoms, perception alone, without confumption,
fecures the poffeffor : nay, if he has fown the ground,
while his bona fides continued, he is entitled to reap the
crop, propter curatn et cuituram. But this deftrine does
not reach to civil fruits, e. g. the intereft of money,
which the bona fde receiver muff reflore, together with
the principal, to the owner.
13. Bona fides neceffarily ceafeth by the confcientia
-ei alienee i n the poffeffor, whether fuch confcioufnefs
fhould proceed from legal interpellation, or private
knowledge. Mala fides is fometiriies induced by the
true owner’s bringing his aftion againit the poffeffor,
fometimes not till litifcontellation, and, in cafes un¬
commonly favourable, not till the fentence be pro¬
nounced againfl the poffeilbr.
14. The property of moveable fubjefts is prefumed
by the bare aft of pofleffion, until the contrary be
proved ; but pofftffionof an immoveable fubjeft, though
for a century of years together, if there is no feifln,
does not create even a prefumptive right to it : Nulla
Jefina, nulla terra. Such fubjeft is confidered as ea-
duciary, and fo accrues to the fovereign. Where the
property of a fubjeft is contefted, the lawful poffeffor
is entitled to continue his poffefiion, till the point of
right be difeuffed j and, if he has loft it by force or
ftealth, the judge will upon fummary application, im¬
mediately reftore it to him.
15. Where a poffeffor has feveral rights in his per-
fon, affefting the fubje6t poffeffed, the general rule is,
that he may aferibe his poffeflion to which of them he
pleafes •, but one cannot preferibe his poffeffion to a title
other than that on which it commenced, in prejudice
of him from whom his title flow ed.
SECT. II. Of Heritable and Moveable Rights.
clxxii.
1. For the better underftanding the doftrine of this
title, it muff be known, that by the law of Scotland,
and indeed of moft nations of Europe fince the intro-
Vol. XI. Part II.
duftion of feus, wherever there are two or move in the. Law of
fame degree of confanguinity to one who dies iriteftate, Scot land. ^
and who are not all females, fuch rights belonging to y "
the deceafed as are either properly feudal, or have any
refernblance to feudal rights, defeend wholly to one of
them, who is confiderea as his proper heir j the others,
who have the name of next of kin or executors, muft
be contented with that portion of the eflate which is
of a more perifhable nature. Hence has arifen the
divifion of rights to be explained under this title : the
fubjefts defeending to the heir are flyled heritable;
and thofe that fall to the next of kin moveable.
2. All rights of, or affefting lands, under which are Divifion of
comprehended boufes, mills, fithings, teinds ; and all lights into
rights of fubjefts that are /undo annexa, whether com- ^ na de¬
pleted by feifin or not, are heritable ex fun natura. On abie.
the other hand, every thing that moves itfelf or can be
moved, and in general whatever is not united to land,
is moveable ; as houfehold furniture, corns, cattle, cafh,
arrears of rent and of intereft, even though they ftiould
be due on a right of annualrent ; for though the arrears
lait mentioned are fecurtd on land, yet being prefently
payable, they are confidered as caftr.
3. Debts, {nomina debilorurn), when due by bill, pro-
mifl'ory note, or account, are moveable. When con-
ftituted by bond, they do not all fall under any one
head 5 but are divided into heritable and moveable, by
the following rules. All debts conftituted by bond
bearing an obligation to infeft the creditor in any he¬
ritable lubjeft in fecurity of the principal firm and an¬
nualrent, or annualrent only, are heritable j for they
not only carry a yearly profit, but are fecured upon
land.
4. Bonds merely perfonal, though bearing a claufe
of intereft, are, by aft 1661, declared to be moveable
as to fucceffion ; i. e. they go, not to the heir, but to
the next of kin or executors ; but they are heritable
with refpeft to the filk, and to the rights of hufband
and wife ; that is, though by the general rule, move-
able rights fall under the communion of goods confe-
quent upon marriage, and the moveables of denounced
perfons fall to the crown of filk by fingle efeheat, yet
fnth bonds do neither, but are heritable in both re-
fpefts.
5. Bonds taken payable to heirs and affignees, fe-
eluding executors, are heritable in all refpefts, from the
deftihation of the creditor. But a bond, which is made
payable to heirs, without mention of executors, de-
feends, not to the proper heir in heritage, though heirs
are mentioned in the bond, but to the executor j for
the word heir, which is a generic term, points out him
who is to fucceed by larv in the right ; and the execu¬
tor, being the heir in mobilibus, is confidered as the per-
fon to whom fuch bond is taken payable. But where
a bond is taken to heirs male, or to a feries of heirs,
one after another, fuch a bond is heritable, becaufe its
deftination neceffarily excludes executors.
6. Subjefts originally moveable become heritable, Kow move-
(1.) By the proprietor’s deftination. Thus a jewel, able rights
or any other moveable fubjeft, may be provided to thebfccunje he-
heir, from the right competent to every proprietor to
fettle his property on whom he pleafes. (2.) Move-
able rights may become heritable, by the fupervening
of an heritable fecurity : Thus, a fum due by a per¬
fonal bond becomes heritable, by the creditor’s accept-
4 M ing
64 2
Law of
Scotlairl.
Rights
partly hen
table, part¬
ly move-
able.
What pe¬
riod makes
a fubjedl
heritable or
moveable.
cixiv.
Origin of
the feudal
law.
Definition
feus.
L
uig an neritable right for fecuring it, or by adjudging
upon it.
7. Heritable rights do not become moveable by ac-
ceff ry moveable fecurities ; the heritable right being,
in fuch cafe the jus nobihus, which draws the other af¬
ter it.
8. Certain fubje&s partake, in different refp<'£ts, of
the nature both of heritable and moveable. Perfonal
bonds are, by the above cited a£t 1661, moveable in
refpeft of fucceffion ; but heritable as to live filk, and
the rights of hufband and wife. All bonds, whether
merely perfonal, or even heritable, on which no feifin
has followed, may be afte&ed at the fuit of creditors,
either by abjudication, which is the diligence proper
to heritage, or by arreftment, which is peculiar to
moveables. Bonds fecluding executors, though they’
defcend to the creditor’s heir, are payable by the debt¬
or’s executors, without relief againft the heir ; fince the
debtor’s fucceflion cannot be affected by the deftination
of the creditor.
9. All queftions, whether a tight be heritable or
moveable, mull be determined according to the condi¬
tion of the fubjedl at the time of the anceftor’s death.
If it was heritable at that period, it muff belong to the
heir ; if moveable, it mud fall to the executor, without
regard to any alterations that may have affetled the
fubjeft in the intermediate period between the ancef¬
tor’s death and the competition.
I. HERITABLE RIGHTS.
Sect. III. Of the Coufitution of Heritable Rights by
Charter and Seijin*
1. Heritable rights are governed by the feudal law,
which owed its origin, or at lead its fird improvements,
to the Longobards; whofe kings, upon having penetra¬
ted into Italy, the better to preferve their conqueds,
made grants to their principal commanders of great
part of the conquered provinces, to be again fubdivided
by them among the lower officers, under the conditions
of fidelity and military fervice-
2. The feudal conditutions and ufages were fird re¬
duced into writing about the year 1150, by two law¬
yers of Milan, under the title of Confuetudines Feudo-
rutn. None of the German emperors appear to have
exprefsly confirmed this colle6tion by their authority :
but it is generally agreed, that it had their tacit appro¬
bation, and was confidered as the cudomary feudal law
of all the countries fubjeft to the empire. No other
country has ever acknowledged thefe books for their
law y but each date has formed to itfelf fuch a fydem
of feudal rules, as bed agreed with the genius of its
own conditution. In feudal quedions, therefore, we
are governed, in the fird place, by our own datutes
and cudoms; where thefe fail us, we have regard to
the pra&ice of neighbouring countries, if the genius of
their law appears to be the fame with ours j and ffiould
the quedion dill remain doubtful, we may have re-
courfe to thofe written books of the feus, as to the
original plan on which all feudal fydems have pro¬
ceeded.
3. This military grant got the name, fird of bene-
Jiciuni) and afterwards of feudum ; and was defined a
4
A W. Part TIL
gratuitous right to the property of lands, made under Law df
the conditions of fealty and military fervice, to be per- Scot ml.
formed to the granter by tha receiver; the radical v" ^
right of the lands dill remaining in the granter. Un¬
der lands, in this definition, are comprehended all rights
01 fubjecls fo connected with land,, that they are deem¬
ed a part thereof; as houfes, mills, fifhings, iuri(dic¬
tions, patronages, &.c. Though feus in their original
nature were gratuitous, they loon became the fubject
of commerce ; fervices of a civil or religious kind were
frequently fubdituted in place of military ; and now,
of a long time, fervices of every kind have been entire¬
ly difpenfed with in certain feudal tenures. He who
makes the grant is called the fuperior, and he who re-Superior
ceives it the voffal. The fubjedt of the grant is com- and vafialv
monly called the fu ; though that word is at other
times, in our law, ufed to dgnify one particular tenure.
(See Se61. iv. 2.). The intered retained by the iupe-
rior in the feu is dyled dominium direttum, or the fu-
periority ; and the intered acquired by the vaffal, do¬
minium utile, or the property. The word fee is promif-
cuoufly applied to both.
4. Allodial goods are oppofed to feus; by which are Allodial
underdood goods enjoyed by the owner, independentg00^1 2 3,
of a fuperior. All moveable goods are allodial ; lands
only are fo when they are given without the condition
of fealty or homage. By the feudal fydem, the fove-
reign, who is the fountain of feudal rights, referves to
himfelf the fuperiority of all the lands of which he
makes the grant; fo that, with us, no lands are allo¬
dial, except thofe of the king’s ow n property, the fupe-
riorities which the king rderves in the property-lands
of his fubjedls, and manfes and glebes, the right of
which is completed by the prefbytery’s defignation,
without any feudal grant.
5. Every perfon who is in the right of an immove- who can
able fubjeft, provided he has the free adminidration grant feu-
of his ellate, and is not debarred by datute, or by theflai
nature of his right, may difpofe of it to another. Nay,
a vaffal, though he has only the dominium utile, can
fubfeu his property to a fubvaffal by a fubaltern right,
and thereby raife a new dominium dirt Bum in himfelf,
fubordinate to that which is in his fuperior ; and fo in
infnitum. The vaffal who thus fubfeus is called the
fubvaffal’s immediate fuperior, and the vaffal’s fuperior
is the fubvaffal’s mediate fuperior.
6. All perfons who are not difabled by law, may ae-Who can
quire and enjoy feudal rights. Papids cannot purchafe ltce*ve
a land edate by any voluntary deed. Aliens, w,ho owe ^em"
allegiance to a foreign prince, cannot hold a feudal
right without naturalization : and, therefore, where
fuch privilege was intended to be given to favoured na¬
tions or perfons, datutes of naturalization were necef-
fary, either general or fpecial ; or, at lead, letters of
naturalization by the fovereign.
7. Every heritable fubjeft capable of commerce,
may be granted in feu. From this general rule are ex-jefts can
cepted, I. The annexed property of the crown, whichLe granted
is not alienable without a previous diffolution in par-111 *eUt
liament. 2. Tailzied lands, which are devifed under
condition that they ffiall not be aliened, 3. An edate
in hcereditate jacente cannot be effeftually aliened by
the heir-apparent (i. e. not entered) ; but fuch aliena¬
tion becomes effeftual upon his entry, the fupervening
light
Chap. II.
L
Law of
Scotland.
Feudal
charter.
Fts confti-
tuent parts
Warran¬
tee.
right accruing in that cafe to the purchafer *, which is
a rule applicable to the alienation of all fubjeds not
belonging to the vender at the time of the fale.
8. The feudal right, or, as it is called, inveftiture,
is conftituted by charter and feifin. By the charter,
we underftand that writing which contains the grant
of the feudal fubjedt to the vaffal, whether it be exe¬
cuted in the proper form of a charter, or of a difpoli-
tion. Charters by fubjedl fuperiors are granted, ei¬
ther, l. A me de fupenore tneo, when they are to be
hoi den, not of the granter himfelf, but of his fuperior.
This fort is called a public holding, becaufe vaffals were
in ancient times publicly received in the fuperior’s
court before the pares curies or co-vaflals. Or, 2. De
me, where the lands are to be holden of the granter.
Thefe were called fometimes bafe rights from has, low¬
er : and fometimes private, becaufe, before the efta-
blifliment of our records, they were eafily concealed
from third parties \ the nature of all which will be
more fully explained, Sed. vii. An original charter
is that by which the fee is firft granted : A charter by
progrefs is a renewed difpofition of that fee to the heir
or affignee of the vaffal. All doubtful claufes in char¬
ters by progrefs ought to be conftrued agreeably to the
original grant j and all claufes in the original charter
are underftood to be implied in the charters by pro¬
grefs, if there be no exprefs alteration.
0. The firft claufe in an original charter,, which
follows immediately after the name and defignation of
the granter, is the narrative or recital, which exprefles
the caufes indu&ive of the grant. If the grant be
made for a valuable confideration, it is faid to be one¬
rous; if for love and favour, gratuitous. In the dif-
pofitive claufe of a charter, the fubjeds made over are
deferibed either by fpecial boundaries or march ftones,
(which is called a bounding charter), or by fuch other
charaders as may fufficiently diftinguifh them. A
charter regularly carries right to no lubjeds but what
are contained in this claufe, though they ftiould be
mentioned in fome other claufe of the charter. It
has been however found, that a right to falmon fiftr-
ing was carried by a claufe cum pifeams in the tenen-
das of a charter, the fame having been followed with
pofTeflion.
10. The claufe of tenendas (from its firft words te-
nendas prcediBas terras) expreffes the particular tenure
by which the lands are to be holden. The claufe of
reddendo (from the words reddendo inde annuatim) fpe-
cifies the particular duty or fervice which the vaflal is
to pay or perform to the fuperior.
11. The claufe of warrandice is that by which the
granter obliges himfelf that the right conveyed fhall
be effedual to the receiver. Warrandice is either per-
fonal or real. Perfonal warrandice, where the granter
is only bound perfonally, is either, I. Simple, that
he (hall grant no deed in prejudice of the right; and
this fort, which is confined to future deeds, is implied
even in donations. 2. Warrandice ./toot/a# and deed,
by which the granter warrants that the right neither
has been, nor lhall be, hurt by any fad of his. Or,
3. Abfolule warrandice contra omnes morta/es, whereby
the right is warranted againft all legal defeds in it
which may carry it off from the receiver either wholly
or in part. Where a fale of land proceeds upon an
onerous caufe, the granter is liable in abfolute warran-
A W.
dice, though no warrandice be expreffed } but in af-
643
Law of
Scotland.
fignations to debts or decrees, no higher warrandice
than from fad and deed is implied.
12. Gratuitous grants by the crown imply no war¬
randice j and though warrandice Ihould be expreffed,
the claufe is ineffedual, from a prefumption that it
has crept in by the negligence of the crown’s officers.
But where the crown makes a grant, not ju"e corones,
but for an adequate price, the fovereign is in the fame
cafe with his fubjeds.
I 3. Abfolute warrandice, in cafe of evidion, affords Efft&s of
an adion to the grantee againft the granter, for mak-warrandice,
ing up to him all that he ihall have iuffered through
the defed of the right j and not fimply for his indem¬
nification, by the granter’s repayment of the price to
him. But as warrandice is penal, and confequently
Jiriftijuris, it is not eafily prefumed, nor is it incurred
from every light fervitude that may affed the fubjed ;
far lefs does it extend to burdens which may affed the
fubjed pofterior to the grant, nor to thofe impofed by
public ftatute, whether before or after, unlefs fpecially
warranted againft.
14. B.ea! warrandice is either, 1. Exprefs, whereby, Real war-
in fecurity of the lands principally conveyed, other candice.
lands, called warrandice lands, are alfo made over, to
which the receiver may have recourfe in cafe the prin¬
cipal lands be evided. Or, 2. Tacit, which is con-Excam-
ftituted by the exchange or excambion of one piece ofbion.
ground with another ; for, if the lands exchanged are
carried off from either of the parties, the law itfelf,
without any padion, gives that party immediate re¬
courfe upon his own firft lands, given in exchange for
the lands evided.
15. The charter concludes with a precept of y<7/?,7, Precept of
which is the command of the fuperior granter of thefel^'1I1•
right to his bailie, for giving feifin or poffeflion to the
vaffal, or his attorney, by delivering to him the pro¬
per fymbols. Any perfon, whofe name may h* infert-
ed in the blank left in the precept for that purpofe,
can execute the precept as bailie $ and whoever hag
the precept of feifin in his hands, is prefumed to have a
power of attorney from the vaffal for receiving poffeflion
in his name.
16. A feifin is the inftrument or atteftation pf a no-Inftmmcnt
tary, that poffeflion was adually given by the fuperior
or his bailie, to the vaffal or his attorney ; which js
confidered as fo neceffary a folemnity, as not to be fup-
pliable, either by a proof of natural poffeflion, or even
of the fpecial fad that the vaflal was duty entered to
the poffeflion by the fuperior’s bailie.
17. The fymbols by which the delivery of poffef-Sjmbols
fion is exprefied, are, for lands, earth and ilone j for «fed in,feU
rights of annualrent payable forth of land, it is alfofins’
earth and ftone, with the addition of a penny money ;
for parfonage teinds, a ftieaf of corn ; for jurifdidions,
the book of the court j for patronages, a pfalm book,
and the keys of the church 5 for filhings, net and
coble j for mills, clap and happer, &c. The feifin
muft be taken upon the ground of the lands, except
where there is a fpecial difpenfation in the charter
from the crown.
18. All feifins muft be regiftered within 60 days Regiltra-
after their date, either in the general regifter of feifinstl0n of
at Edinburgh, or in the regifter of the particular ftiirefins*
appointed by the ad 1617; which, it muff be obferv-
^ ‘ 4 M 2 ed,
644- L
S^alard e£^’ ^ every cafe, the ihire wilhin which the
l!..:' y lands lie. Burgage feifins are ordained to be regifter-
ed in the, books of the borough.
19. Unregillered feihns are ineffeflual againft third
parties, but they are Valid againft the gr a liters and
their heirs. Seifins regularly recorded, are preferable
not according to their own dates, but the dates of their
regiftration.
One feifin 20. Serfm neceffarily ftippofes a fuperior by whom
ferves in it is given ; the right therefore which the fovereign,
'ncUiT01^ "^° a{^-howledgeS' the fuperior, has over tiie whole
ted tene-111* ^an^s Scotland, is conftituted jure coroner without
mtnts. feifin. In feverai parcels of land that lie contiguous
to one another, one feifin ferves for all, unlefs the right
of the feverai parcels be either holden of different fu-
periors, or derived from different authors, or enjoyed
by different tenures Under the lame fuperior. In dll-
contiguous lands,.- a feparate feiiin muft be taken on
every parcel, Unlef'the fovereign has united them in¬
to’one ten an dry by a charter of union j in which cafe,
if there is no fpecial place expreffed, a feiiin taken on
any part of the united lands will ferve for the whole,
even though they be fituated in different {hires. The
only effebl of union is, to give the difeontiguous lands
the ftuue quality as if they had been contiguous or na¬
turally united ; union, therefore, does not take off the
neceffity of feparate feilins, inlands holden by differ¬
ent tenures, or the rights of which flow from different
fuperiors, thefe being incapable of natural union.
Barony im- 2T- privilege of barony carries a higher right
plies union, than union does, and confequently includes union in it
as the leffer degree. This right of barony can neither
be given, nor tranfmitted, unlefs by the crown ; but
the quality of fimple union, being once conferred on
lands by the fovereign, may be communicated by the
vaffal to a fubvaffal. Though part of the lands united
or erebted into a barony be fold by the vaffal to be
holdert a me, the whole union is not thereby diffolved :
what remains unfold retains the quality.
A charter 22. A charter, not perfebted by feifin, is a right
becomes merely perfonal, which does not transfer the property
clxx”5- *•) i and a feifm of itfelf bears no
a cr ei in. fgpp without fts warrant : It is the charter and feiiin
joined together that conftitutes the feudal right, and
fecures the receiver againft the effebt of all pofterior
feiiin?, even though the charters on which they proceed
Ihould be prior to his.
All burdens 23* h>io quality which is defigned as a lien or real
muft be in burden on a feudal right, can be effeblual againft fiq-
the'inv'fti SUlar rucce?'ors>.tf Jt be not inferted in the inveftiture.
ture.nVt " tbe 1 editors in the burden are not particularly men¬
tioned- the burden is not real 5 for no perpetual un¬
known encumbrance can be created upon lands. Where
the right itfelf is granted with the burden of the fum
therein mentioned, or where it is declared void if the
fum be not paid againft a day certain, the burden is
real v but where the receiver is limply obliged by his
acceptance to make payment, the claufe is effeblual
only againft him and his heirs.
Sect. IV. Of the feverai hinds of Holding.
clxv. 1 ■ Feudal fubjebis are chiefly diftinguilhed by their
Ward-hold-^3^ererit tnauuevs of holding, which were either ward,
ing. blanch, feu, or burgage. Ward-holding, (which is now
b‘.r;o; 1
^ W* part Hi.
abolilhed by 20 Geo. II. e. 5c.) was that which was Law0f
granted lor military ferviee. Its proper reddendo was Scotland,
fervices, or fervices ufed and wont; by which laft was
meant the performance of fervice whenever the fupe-
rior’s oeeafions required it. As all feudal rights were
originally held by this tenure, ward-holding was in du-
bto prefumed. Hence, though the reddendo had con¬
tained feme Ipeeial fervice or yearly duty, the holding
was prefumed ward, if another holding was not parti¬
cularly expr-effed.
2. Fea-hulding is that whereby the vaffal is obliged Feu-hold.
to pay to the fuperior a yearly rent in money or grain, ing.
and lometimes alio in fervices proper to a farm, as
ploughing, reaping, carriages for the luperior’s ufe,
&c. nominefeudifrtme. This kind of tenure was in¬
troduced for the encouragement of agriculture, the
improvement of which was confiderably obftrubted by
the vaffal’s obligation to military fervice. It appears
to have been a tenure known in Scotland as far back
as leges bttrgorum.
3. Blunck-holding is that whereby the vaffal is to Blanch-
pay to the fuperior an elufory yearly duty, as a penny holding,
money, a rofe, a pair of gilt fpurs, &c. merely in
acknowledgement of the fuperiority, nomine alba, firmer.
1 his duty, where it is a thing of yearly growth, if it
be not demanded within the year, cannot be exafted
thereafter ; and where the words fi petatur tan turn are
fubjoined to the reddendo, they imply a releafe to the
vaffal, whatever the quality of the duty may be, if it
is not alked within the year.
4. Burgage-hq]ding is that, by which boroughs-Burgage,
royal hold of the fovereign the lands which are con-bolding,
tained in their charters of ereftion. This, in the opi¬
nion of Craig, does not conftitute a feparate tenure,
but is a fpecies of ward-holding j with this fpeciality,
that the vaffal is not a private perfon, but a communi¬
ty : and indeed, watching and warding, which is the
ufual fervice contained in the reddendo of fuch char¬
ters, might be properly enough laid, fome centuries
ago, to have been of the military kind. As the royal
borough is the king’s vaffal, all burgage-holders hold
immediately of the crown ; the magiftrates, therefore,
when they receive the refignations of the particular
burgeffes, and give feifm to them, act, not as fupe-
riors, but as the king’s bailies fpecially authorized
thereto.
5. Feudal fubjefts, granted to churches, monafte-jvxort;fic3i,
ries, or other focieties for religious or charitable ufes, tion.
are faid to be mortified, or granted ad manum mor-
tuam ; either becaufe all cafualties muft neceffarily be
loft to the luperictr, where the vaffal is a corporation,
which never dies ; or becaufe the property of thefe
fubje£ts is granted to a dead hand, which cannot tranf-
fer it to another. In lands mortified in times of Po¬
pery to the church, whether granted to prelates for
the behoof of the church, or in puram rleemofynam;
the only fervices preftabie by the vaffals were prayers,
and finging of mafles for the fouls of the deceafed,
which approaches nearer to blanch-holding than ward.
The purpofes of fuch grants having been, upon the
Reformation, declared fuperftitious, the lands mortified
were annexed to the crown : but mortifications to uni-
verflties, holpitals, &c. were not affefled by that an¬
nexation ; and lands may, at this day, be mortified to
any lawful purpofe, either by blanch or by feu-hold-
ing ■
Chap. H. ' L A W. . 645
Law n mg ; But as the fuper’or mtill lofe"au the cafualUes
Scot land, of fuperiority in the caie of morlificalions to churches,
univerllties, &c. which, being confidered as a corpora¬
tion, never dies j therefore lands cannot be mortified
without the fuperior’s confent. Craig, lib. L dieg. 11.
§ 21.
clxvi. SiiCT. V. Of the Cafuallies due to the Superior.
Fixed rights i. The right of the fuperior continues unimpaired,
of mperio- notwithflaoding the feudal grant, unlefs in fo far as
ritlr‘ the dominium utile, or property, is conveyed to his
yaffil. The fuperiority carries a right to the fervices
and annual duties contained in the reddendo of the vaf-
fal’s charter. The duty payable by the vaffal is a de-
bitum fundi, i. e. it is recoverable, not only by a perfon-
al action againft himfelf, but by a real action againft
the lands.
Cafual 2. Beffles the conflant fixed rights of fuperiority,
rights. there are others which, becaufe they depend upon un¬
certain events, are called cafualties.
Ward-hold- 3* The cafualties proper to a ward holding, while
ing. that tenure fubfitted, were ward, recognition, and mar¬
riage, which it is now unneceffary to explain, as by the
late ftatutes 20 and 25 Geo. II. for abolilhing ward-
holdings, the tenure of the lands holden ward of the
crown or prince is turned into blanch, for payment of
one penny Scots yz%v\y, Jipetatur tantiwi ; and the te¬
nure of thofe holden of fubjefts into feu, for payment
of fuch yearly feu duty in money, victual, or cattle, in
place of all fervices, as Ihould be fixed by the court of
feffion. And accordingly that court, by aft of federunt
Feb. 8. 1749, laid down rules for afcertaining the ex¬
tent of thefe feu duties. A full hiftory of their cafual¬
ties, and of the effefts confequent upon their falling to
the fuperior, will be found in Erlkine’s large Infti-
tute, B. 2. t. 5. § 5. et fequen. ; to which the reader is
referred.
Feu-hold- 4* The only cafualty, or rather forfeiture, proper to
ing. feu-holding, is the lofs or tinfel of the feu right, by
the negleiff of payment of the feu duty for two full
years. Yet where there is no conventional irritancy in
the feu right, the vaffal is allowed to purge the legal
irritancy at the bar; that is, he may prevent the for¬
feiture, by making payment before fentence \ but where
the legal irritancy is fortified by a conventional, he is
not allowed to purge, unlefs where he can give a good
reafon for the delay of payment.
Non-^try cafualties common to all holdings are non¬
entry, relief liferent, efcheat, difdamation, and purpre-
Jlure. Non-entry is that cafualty which arifes In
the fuperior out of the rents of the feudal fubjeft,
through the heirs negledling to renew the inveftiture
after his anceftor’s death. The fuperior is entitled to
this cafualty, not only where the heir has not obtained
himfflf infeft, but where his retour or infeftment is
fet afide upon nullities. The heir, from the death of
the anceltor, till he be cited by the fuperior in a pro-
cefs of a general declarator of non-entry, lofes only the
retoured duties of his lands, (fee next parag.) j and he
forfeited thefe, though his delay fhould not argue any
contempt of the fuperior, becaufe the cafualty is con¬
fidered to fall, as a condition implied in the feudal
right, and not as a penalty of tranfgn ffion : but rea-
fonable exeunt are now adrouted to liberate even from L&w of
the retoured duties Before citation. Scotlard.
6. For uuderflanding the nature of retoured duties, ^toured
it mult be known, that there was anciently a general jutic5,
valuation of all the lands in Scotland, designed both
for regulating the proportion of public fubfidies, and
for ascertaining the quantity of non-entry and relief
duties payable to the fuperior ; which appears, by a
contradt between K. R. Bruce and his fubje&s a.nno
1327, preferved in the library of the Faculty of Advo¬
cates, to have been fettled at leaft as far back as the
reign of Alexander III. I his valuation became in the
courfe of time, by the improvement of agriculture, and
perhaps alfo by the heightening of the nominal value
of our money, from the reign of Robert I. downwards
to that of James III. much too low a iiandard for the
fuperior’s cafualties j wherefore, in all fervices of heirs,
the inqueft came at lall to take proof likewife of the
prefent value of the lands contained in the brief {quan¬
tum nunc valent), in order to fix tbefe cafualties. The
firft was called the old, and the other the new, extent. olJ and
Though both extents were ordained to be i’pecified in new ex-
all retours made to the chancery upon brieves of in-tents"
quell 5 yet by the appellation of retoured duties in a
quell ion concerning cafualties, the new extent is always
underllood. The old extent continued the rule for le-
veying public fubfidies, till a tax was impoled by new
proportions, by feveral adls made during the murpa-
tion. By two a£ls of Cromwell’s parliament, held at
Wellrainller in 1656, impoling taxations in Scotland,
the rates laid upon the feveral counties are precifely fix¬
ed. The fubfidy granted by the a<51 of cpnvention 1667
was levied on the feveral counties, nearly in the fame
proportions that were fixed by the ufurper in 1656;
and the fums to which each county w as fubjedled were
fubdivided among the individual landholders in that
county, according to the valuations already fettled, or
that ihould be fettled by the commiflioners appointed
to carry that a£l into execution. The rent fixed
by thefe valuations is commonly called the valued^dlwtk
rent i according to which the land tax and moll ofrent*
the other public burdens, have been levied iince that
time.
7. In feu-holdings, the feu duty is retoured as the
rent, becaufe the feu duty is prefumed to be, and truly
was at firft, the rent. The fuperior therefore of a feu-
holding gets no non-entry, before citation in the gene¬
ral declarator ; for he would have been entitled to the
yearly feu duty, though the fee had been full, i. e.
though there had been a vaffal infeft in the lands. The
fuperior of teinds gets the fifth part of the retoured duty
as non-entry, becaufe the law confiders teinds to be
worth a fifth part of the rent. In rights of annualrent
which are holden of the granter, the annualrenter be¬
comes his debtor’s vaffal \ and the annualrent contain¬
ed in the right is retoured to the blanch or othex duty
contained in the right before declarator.
8. It is becaufe the retoured dm v is the prefumed
rent, that the non-entry is governed by it. If, there¬
fore, no retour of the lands in non-entry e?n be pro¬
duced, nor any evidence brought of the retoured duty,
the fuperior is entitled to the real, or at leaft to the
valued, rent, even before citation. In lands formerly
holden ward of the king, the heir, in place of the re¬
toured
640 I* A vV. Part HI,
Law of toured duties, is fubje-cted only to the annual payment
,Scotian . one per cenj.i 0f valuecJ rent.
9. The heir, after he is cited by the fuperior in the
action of general declarator, is fubjefted to the full
rents till his entry, becaufe his negleft is lefs excufablc
after citation. The decree of declarator, proceeding
on this aflion, entitles the fuperior to the polTeflion,
and gives him right to the rents downward from the
citation. As this fort of non-entry is properly penal,
our law has always reftl'i&ed it to the retoured duties,
if the heir had a probable excufe for not entering.
In what Non-entry does not obtain in burgage holdings,
entry is pot became the incorporation of inhabitants holds the
due. whole incorporated fubjedts of the king; and there
can be no non-entry duty in lands granted to communi¬
ties, becaufe there the vaffal never dies. This covers
the right of particulars from non-entry : for if non¬
entry be excluded with regard to the whole, it cannot
obtain with regard to any part. It is alfo excluded,
as to a third of the lands, by the terce, during the w i¬
dow’s life y and as to the tvhole of them, by the cour-
tefy during the life of her huiband. But it is not ex¬
cluded by a precept of feifin granted to the heir till
feifin be taken thereupon.
Relief. 11. Relief is that cafualty which entitles the fupe¬
rior to an acknowledgment or confideration from the
heir for receiving him as vaffal. It is called relief^
becaufe by the entry of the heir, his fee is relieved out
of the hands of the fuperior. It is not due in feu-hold<-
ings flowing from fubje&s, urilefs where it is expreffed
in the charter by a fpecial claufe for doubling the feu
duty at the entry of an heir j but in feu rights holden
of the crown, it is due, though there fhould be no fuch
claufe in the charter. The fuperior can recover this
cafualty, either by a poinding of the ground, as a </<?-
bitum fundi, or by a perfonal aftion againft the heir.
In blanch and feu-holdings, where this cafualty is ex-
prefsly flipulated, a year’s blanch or feu duty is due in
name of relief, befide the current year’s duty payable
sn name of blanch or feu farm.
Efcheat. 12. Escheat (from efcheoir, to happen or fall*) is that
forfeiture which falls through a perfon’s being denoun¬
ced rebel. It is either or liferent. Single ef
cheat, though it does not accrue to the fuperior, mull
be explained in this place, becaufe df its cbincidence
with liferent.
Letters of 13. After a debt is conftituted either by a forhial
horning. decree, or by regiftration of the ground of debt, which
to the fpecial effe£t of execution, is in law accounted a
decree : the creditor may obtain letters of horning,
iffuing from the fignet, commanding meffengers to
charge the debtor to pay or perform his obligation,
within a day certain. Where horning proceeds on a
formal decree of the feffion, the time indulged bv law
to the debtor is fifteen days-, if upon a decree of the
commHIion of teinds dr admiral, it is ten j and upon
the decrees of all inferior judges, fifteen days. Where
it proceeds on a regiftered obligation, which fpecifies
the number of days, that number mull be the rule , and,
if no preclfe number be mentioned, the charge muft be
given in fifteen days, which is the term of law, unlefs
where fpecial ftatute interpofes ; as in bills, upon which
the debtor may be charged on fix days.
14. The meffenger muft execute thefe letters (and
indeed all fummonfes) againft the debtor, either per- Law of
fonally or at his dwelling houfe 5 and, if he get not Scotland,
accefs to the houfe, he muft ftrike fix knocks at the
gate, and thereafter affix to it a copy of his execution.
If payment be not made within the days mentioned in
the horning, the meffenger, after proclaiming three
oyeffes at the market crois of the head borough ef
the debtor’s domicile, and reading the letters there,
blows thiee blafts with a horn, by which the debtor is
underftood to be proclaimed rebel to the king for con¬
tempt of his authority j after which, he'muft affix a
copy of the execution to the market crofs \ This is
called the publication of the diligence, or a denunciation Denuncku
at the horn. Where the debtor is not in Scotland, he^on*
muft be charged on fixty days, and denounced at the
market crofs of Edinburgh, and pier and ffiore of
Leith.
15. Denunciation, if regiftered within 15 days, ei-Confequec-
ther in the ffieriff’s books, or in the general regifter, ces thereof,
drew after it the rebel’s Angle efeheat, i. e. the for¬
feiture of his moveables to the crown. Perfons de¬
nounced rebels have not a perfona fandi in judicio ;
they can neither fue nor defend in any aftion. But this
incapacity being unfavourable, is perfonal to the rebel,
land cannot be pleaded againft his affignee.
16. Perfons cited to the court of jufticiary may be Denunexa-
alfo denouheed rebels, either for appearing there with do11 'n cri“
too great a number of attendants : or, if they fail to ™nai ca^e*°
appear, they are declared fugitives from the law. Single
efeheat falls, without denunciation, upon fentence of
death pronounced in any criminal trial j and, by fpecial
ftatute, upon one’s being convifted of certain crimes,
though not capital } as perjury, bigamy, deforcement,
breach of arreftment, and ufury. By the late aft abo-
liffiing ward-holdings, the cafualties both of fingle and
liferent efeheat are difeharged, when proceeding upon
denunciation for civil debts j but they ftill continue,
when they arife from criminal caufes. All moveables
belonging to the rebel at the time of his rebellion,
(whether proceeding upon denunciation, or fentence in
a criminal trial), and all that {hall be afterwards acquir¬
ed by him until relaxation, fall under fingle efeheat.
Bonds bearing intereft, becaufe they continue heritable
quoadfifeum, fall not under it, nor fuch fruits of herit¬
able fubjefts as became due after the term next enfu-
ing the rebellion, thefe being referved for the liferent
efeheat.
f 7. The king never retains the right of efeheat to
himfelf, but makes it over to a donatory, whofe gift is
not perfefted till, upon an aftion of general declara¬
tor, it be declared that the rebel’s efeheat has fallen to
the crown by his denunciation, and that the right of it
is now transferred to the purfuer by the gift in his fa¬
vour. Every creditor therefore of the rebel, whofe debt
was contrafted before rebellion, and who has ufed dili¬
gence before declarator, is preferable to the donatory.
But the efeheat cannot be affefted by any debt con¬
trafted, nor by any voluntary deed of the rebel after
rebellion.
18. The rebel, if he either pays the debt charged Letters of
for, or fufpends the diligence, may procure letters ofrelaxaft°n’
relaxation from the horn, which, if publiihed in the
fame place, and regiftered 15 days thereafter in the
fame regifter with the denunciation, have the effeft to
reftore
Chap. II. L
Law uf refiore him to his former ftale j but they have no re-
Scotland. trofpe(3; as to the moveables already fallen under ef-
,”1 _v cheat, without a fpecial claufe for that purpofe.
Liferent jp. The rebel, if he continues unrelaxed for year
eh heat, anj after rebellion, is conftrued to be civilly dead :
and therefore, where he holds any feudal right, his fu-
periors, as being without a vaffal, are entitled, each of
them, to the rents of fuch of the lands belonging to
the rebel as hold of himfelf, during all the days of the
rebel’s natural life, by the cafualty of LIFERENT ES¬
CHEAT ; except where the denunciation proceeds upon
treafon or proper rebellion, in which cafe the liferent
falls to the king.
20. It is that eftate only, to which the rebel has a
proper right of liferent in his own perfon, that falls un¬
der his liferent efcheat.
21. Though neither the fuperior nor his donatory
can enter into pofleflion in confequence of this cafualty,
till decree of declarator ; yet that decree, being truly
declaratory, has a retrofpeft, and does not k> properly
confer a new right, as declare the right formerly con-
jftituted to the fuperior, by the civil death of his vaflal.
Hence, all charters or heritable bonds, though granted
prior to the rebellion, and all adjudications, though led
upon debts contrasted before that period, are ineffec¬
tual againit the liferent efcheat, unlefs feifin be taken
thereon within year and day after the granter’s rebel¬
lion .
22. Here, as in lingle efcheat, no debt contrasted
after rebellion can hurt the donatory, nor any voluntary
right granted after that period, though in fecurity or
fatisfaftion of prior debts.
Difclama- 23. Disclamation is that cafualty whereby a vaf-
uon. pa] forfeits his whole feu to his fuperior, if he difowns
or difclaims him, without ground, as to any part of it.
Purpref- PuRPRESTURE draws likewife a forfeiture of the whole
feu after it j and is incurred by the vaffal’s encroaching
upon any part of his fuperior’s property, or attempting,
by building, enclofing, or otherwife, to make it his own.
In both thefe feudal delinquencies, the leaft colour of
excufe faves the vaffal.
Signatures. 24. All grants from the crown, whether charters,
gifts of cafualties, or others, proceed on fignatures
which pafs the fignet. When the kingrelided in Scot¬
land, all fignatures were fuperferibed by him ; but, on
the acceffion of James VI. to the crown of England,
a cachet or feal was made, having the king’s name en¬
graved on it, in purfuance of an aft of the privy coun¬
cil, April 4. 1603, with which all fignatures were to
be afterwards fealed, that the lords of exchequer were
empowered to pafs ; and thefe pow'ers are transferred
to the court of exchequer, which was eftabliffied in
Scotland after the union of the two kingdoms in 1707.
Grants of higher confequence, as remiffion of crimes,
gifts proceeding upon forfeiture, and barters of novo-
damus, muff have the king’s fign manual for their w ar¬
rant.
Seals. 25. If lands holding of the crown were to be con¬
veyed, the charter paffed, before the union of the
kingdoms in 1707, by the great feal of Scotland 5 and
now by a feal fubftituted in place thereof. Grants of
church dignities, during Epifeopacy, paffed alfo by the
great feal; and the commiffions to all the orincipal of¬
ficers of the crown, as juftice clerk, king’s advocate,
folicitor, &c. do fo at this day. All rights which fub-
A W. 647
jefts may tranfmit by fituple affigr.atxon, the king tranf- Law of
mits by the privy feal : as gifts of moveables, or of Scotland,.
cafualties that require no leifin. The quarter feal, v
otherwife called the tejiimonilil of the great feal, is ap¬
pended to gifts of tutory, commifiions of brieves iffuing
from the chancery, and letters of prefentation to lands
holding of a fubjetff, proceeding upon forfeiture, baf-
tardy, or vltimus harer.
26. Seals are to royal grants what fubfeription is Their ufe.
to rights derived from fubjedls, and give them author:
ty ; they ferve alfo as a check to gifts procured Qfub-
reptione vel olreptionc') by concealing the truth, or ex-
prefling a falfehood \ for, where this appears, the gift
may be itopped before palling the feals, though the fig-
nature fhould have been figned by the king. AH rights
palling under the great or privy feal mult be regiftered
in the regifters of the great or privy feal rejpc6iive) be--
fore appending the feal.
SECT. VI. Of the Right ivhich the Vaffal acquires by clxvii.
getting the Feu..
1. Under the dominium utile which the vaffal acquires Dominium
by the feudal right, is comprehended the property of utile.
whatever is confidered as part of the lands, whether of
houfts, woods, enclofures, Sec. above ground j or of
coal, limeftone, minerals, &c. under ground. Mills
have, by the generality of cur lawyers, been deemed
a feparate tenement, and fo not carried by a charter
or difpofilion, without either a fpecial claufe convey¬
ing mills, or the erection of the lands into a barony.
Vet it is certain, that, if a proprietor builds a mill on
his own lands, it will be carried by his entail, or by a
retour, without mentioning it, although the lands are
not erefted into a barony. If the lands difponed be
aftrifted, or thirled to another mill, the purchaltr is
not allowed to build a new corn mill cn his property,
even though he fhould offer fecurity that it ihall not
hurt the thirle j which is introduced for preventing
daily temptations to fraud.
2. Proprietors are prohibited to hold dove-cots, un¬
lefs their yearly rent, lying within two miles thereof,
extend to ten chalders of victual. A purthafer of lands,
with a dove-cot, is not obliged to pull it down, though
he Ihould not be qualified to build one ; but, if it be¬
comes ruinous, he cannot rebuild it. The right of
brewing, though not expreffed in the grant, is implied
in the nature of property ; as are alfo the rights of fifli-
ing, fowling, and hunting, in fa far as they are not re-
ftrained by ftatute.
3. There are certain rights naturally confequent on Regalia,
property, which are deemed to be preferved by the
crown as regalia ; unlefs they be fpecially conveyed.
Gold and filver mines are of this fort; the firft univer-
fally j and the other, where three halfpennies of filver
can be extracted from the pound of lead, by aft 1424,
(three halfpennies at that time was equal to about
two {hillings five pennies of our prefent Scots money).
Thefe were by our ancient law annexed to the crown j
but they are now diffolved from it j and every proprie¬
tor is entitled to a grant of the mines within his own
lands, with the burden of delivering to the crown a
tenth of what (hall be brought up.
4. Salmon fiihing is likewife a right underlined to be
referved by the crown, if it be not exprefsly granted :
but
6i8
Law of
Scotland.
Res pub¬
lic#.
Pertinents.
Privileges
of barony.
Tack or
leafe.
L A
but 40 years poffeflum thereof, where the lands are ei¬
ther erefled into a barony, or granted with the general
ciauft of iifhings, eftablilhes fhe full right of the fal-
mon fifhing in the vailal. A charter of lands within
which any of the king’s foreifs lie, does not carry the
property of fuck foreft to the vaffal.
5. All the fubjedts which were by the Roman law
accounted res publicce, as rivers, highways, ports, &c.
are, lince the introduction of feus, held to be inter re-
ga >h, or in patrimonio principis ; and hence encroach¬
ment upon a highway is laid to infer purprefture. No
perfon has the right of a free port without a fpecial
grant, which implies a power in the grantee to levy
anchorage and Ihore dues, and an obligation upon him
to uphold the port in good condition. In this clafs of
things, our forefathers reckoned fortalices, or fmall
places of Itrength, originally built for the defence of
the country, either againft foreign invafions or civil
commotions ; but thefe now pafs with the lands in
every charter.
6. The vaflal acquires right by his grant, not only
to the lands fpecially contained in the charter, but to
-thofe that have been pofleffed 40 years as pertinent
thereof. But, 1. If the lands in the grant are marked
out by fpecial limits, the vaflal is circumferibed by the
tenor of his own right, which excludes every fubjedt
without thefe limits from being pertinent of the lands.
1. A right poflefled under an exprefs infeftment is pre¬
ferable, cceteris paribus, to one poflefled only as perti¬
nent. 3. Where neither party is infeft per exprejfum,
the mutual promifeuous pofleflion by both, of a fubjedt
as pertinent, refolves into a commonly of the fubjedt
poflefled : but if one ef the parties has exercifed all the
acts of property of which the fubjedt was capable, while
the pofleffion of the other was confined to pafturage
only, or to catting feal and divot, the firft is to be
deemed foie proprietor, and the other to have merely a
right of fervitude.,
7. As barony is a nomen univerjitatis, and unites
the feveral parts contained in it into one individual
right, the general conveyance of a barony carries with
it,all the different tenements of which it confifls, though
they fliould not be fpecially enumerated (and this
holds, even without eredtion into a barony, in lands
that have been united under a fpecial name). Hence,
likewife, the pofleflion by the vaflal of the fmalleft part
of the barony lands preferves to him the right of the
whole.
8. The vaffal is entitled, in confequence of his pro¬
perty, to levy the rents of his own lands, and to reco¬
ver them from his tenants by an adtion for rent before
his own court ; and from all other poffeffors and intro-
mitters, by an adtion of mails and duties before the
fheriff. He can alfo remove from his lands, tenants
who have no leafes j and he can grant tacks or leafcs
to others. A tack is a contradt of location, whereby
the ufe of land, or any other immoveable fubjedt, is fet
to the leffee or tackfman for a certain yearly rent, ei¬
ther in money, the fruits of the ground, or fervices.
It ought to be reduced into writing, as it is a right
concerning lands : tacks, therefore, that are given ver¬
bally, to endure for a term of years, are good againft
neither party for more than one year. An obligation
to grant a tack is as effedtual againfl: the granter as a
formal tack. A liferenter, having a temporary pro-
w.
Part 111.
perty in the fruits, may grant tacks to endure fur the Lav.- 0f
term of his own liferent. England.
9. The tackfman’s right is limited to the fruits v—J
which fpring up annually from the fubjedt fet, ei¬
ther naturally, or by his own induftry •, he is net
therefore entitled to any of the growing timber a-
bove ground, and far lefs to the minerals, coal, clay,
&c. under ground, the ufe of which con fumes the fub-
ftance. Tacks are, like other contradls, perfonal rights
in their own nature ; and confequemly ineffectual
againft Angular fucceffors in the lands 5 but, for the
encouragement of agriculture, they were, by act 1449,
declared effedtual to the tackfman for the full time of
their endurance, into whofe hands foever the lands
might come.
10. To give a written tack the benefit of this fta-
tute, it muft mention the fpecial tack-duty payable to
the proprietor, which, though fraall, if it be not elufory,
fecures the tackfman j and it muft be followed by pof-
feflion, which fupplies the want of a feifin. If a tack
does not exprefs the term of entry, the entry w ill com¬
mence at the next term after its date, agreeable to the
rule, ^uodpure debetur, preefenti die debeiur. If he does
not mention the iff, i. e. the term at which it is to de¬
termine, it is good for one year only ; but, if the in¬
tention of parties to continue it for more than one year,
fliould appear from any claufe in the tack, (e. g. if the
tackfman fliould be bound to certain annual preftations),
it is fuftained for two years as the minimum. Tacks
granted to perpetuity, or with an indefinite ifti, have
not the benefit of the ftatute. Tacks of houfes within
borough do not fall within this adt, it being cuftomary
to let thefe from year to year.
11. Tacks neceffarily \sx\'p\yA deleftusperfonce,2. choiceare
by the fetter of a proper perfon for his tenant. HenceJlriLii juris*
the conveyance of a tack which is not granted to afiig-
nees, is ineffedtual without the landlord’s confent. A
right of tack, though it be heritable, falls under the jus
mariti, becaufe it cannot be feparated from the labour¬
ing cattle and implements of tillage, which are move-
able fubjedts. A tack, therefore, granted to a Angle
woman, without the liberty of afiigning, falls by her
marriage j beeaufe the marriage, which is a legal con¬
veyance thereof to the hulband, cannot be annulled.
This implied exclufion of aflignees, is, however, limited
to voluntary, and does not extend to neceffary, affign-
ments ; as an adjudication of a tack by the tackfnian’s
creditor : but a tack, exprefsly excluding aflignees,
cannot be carried even by adjudication. It was not a
fixed point for a long time, whether a tenant could fub-
fet without confent of the landlord ; but the court of
feflion, in a cafe which occurred a few years ago, de¬
nied the power of fubfetting in the tenant. Liferent
tacks, becaufe they import a higher degree of right in
the tackfman than tacks for a definite term, may be af-
figned, uniefs affignees be fpecially excluded.
12. If neither the fetter nor tackfman (hall properly Tacit relo-
difeover their intention to have the tack difiolved at thecaft°n*
term fixed for its expiration, they are underftood, or
prefumed, to have entered into a new tack upon the
fame terms with the former, which is called tacit reloca¬
tion ; and continues till the landlord warns the tenant
to remove, or the tenant renounces his tack to the land*-
lord : this obtains alfo in the cafe of moveable tenants,
who poffels from year to year without written tacks.
Chap. II. L A
Law of In judicial tacks, however, by the court of feffion,
Scotland. tacit relocation neither does nor can take place ; for
i_, cautionerS being interpofed to thefe, they are loofed at
the end of the tack : and therefore, where judicial
tackfmen poffefs after expiry of the right, they are ac¬
countable as factors.
13. In tacks of land, the fetter is commonly bound
to put all the houfes and office hotifes, necelfary for the
farm, in good condition at the tenant’s entry ; and the
tenant mult keep them and leave them ft) at his removal.
But, in tacks of houfes, the fetter mult not only deliver
to the tenant the fubjeit fet, in tenantable repair at his
entry, but uphold it in that repair during the whole
years of the tack, unlefs it is otherwife covenanted be¬
twixt the parties.
14. If the inclemency of the weather, inundation,
or calamity of war, ffiould have brought upon the crop
an extraordinary damage (^plus quam tolerabile'), the
landlord had, by the Roman law, no claim for any part
of the tack-duty \ if the damage was more moderate,
he might exa£t the full rent. It is nowhere defined,
what degree of flerility or devaftation makes a lolsplus
qunm tolerabile ; but the general rule of the Roman law
feems to be made ours. Tenants are not obliged to pay
any public burdens to which they are not exprefsly
bound by their tack, except mill fervices.
Deftitution I5‘ ’^ac^s may evacuated during their currency,
vf tacks. (i.) In the fame manner as feu rights, by the tackf-
man’s running in arrear of his tack duty for two years
together. This irritancy may be prevented by the
tenant’s making payment at the bar before fentence.
(2.) Where the tenant either runs in arrear of one
year’s rent, or leaves his farm uncultivated at the ufual
feafon ; in which cafe he may, by a£t of federunt 1756,
be ordained to give fecurity for the arrears, and for the
rent of the five following crops, if the tack {hall fubfift
fo long $ otherwife to remove, as if the tack were at
an end. (3.) Tacks may be evacuated at any time by
the mutual confent of parties.
16. The landlord, when he intends to remove a te¬
nant whofe tack is expiring, or who pofiefles without a
tack, mull, upon a precept figned by himfelf, warn
the tenant forty days preceding the term of Whitfun-
^ day, at or immediately preceding the iffi, perfonally
a in t>’ or at his dwelling houfe, to remove at that term, with
his family and effefls. This precept mull be alfo exe¬
cuted on the ground of the lands, and thereafter read
in the parilh church where the lands lie, after the morn¬
ing fervice, and affixed to the moll patent door thereof.
Whitfunday, though it be a moveable feaft, is, in que-
llions of removing, fixed to the 15th of May. In
warnings from tenements within borough, it is fufficient
that the tenant be warned forty days before the iffi
of the tack, whether it be Whitfunday or Martinmas ;
and in thefe the ceremony of chalking the door is fu-
flained as warning, when proceeding upon a verbal or¬
der from the proprietor.
17. This procefs of warning was precifely neceffary
for founding an aftion of removing againfl: tenants, till
the aft of federunt 1756, which leaves it in the option
of the proprietor, either to ufe the former method, or
to bring his aftion of removing before the judge ordi¬
nary : which, if it be called 40 days before the faid term
of Whitfunday, {hall be held as equal to a warning.
Where the tenant is bound, by an exprefs claufe of his
Vol. XI. Part II.
W.
649
Law of
Scotland.
tack, to remove at the iffi without warning, fuch ob¬
ligation is, by the faid aft, declared to be a fufficient
warrant for letters of horning •, upon which, if the v
landlord charge his tenant forty days before the faid
Whitfunday, the judge is authorized to eject him with¬
in fix days after the term of removing exprefied in the
tack.
18. Aftlons of removing might, even before this aft A&ions of
of federunt, have been purfued without any previous removing,
warning, (1.) Againft vicious poffeffors, i. e. perfons
who had feisted the pofieffion by force, or who, without
any legal title, had intruded into it, after the lait pof*.
feflbr hajd given it up. (2.) Againit poflelfors who had
a naked tolerance. (3.) Againft tenants who had run
in arrear of rent, during the currency of their tacks.
(4.) Againit fuch as had fold their lands, and yet con¬
tinued to poffefs after the term of the purchafer’s entry.
Upon the fame ground, warning was not required, in
retnovings againft poffeffors of liferented lands, after
the death of the liferenter who died in the natural pof-
fefiion : but if he poffeffed by tenants, thefe tenants
could not be difturbed in their poffeffions till the next
Whitfunday, that they might have time to look out
for other farms j but they might be compelled to re¬
move at that term, by an aftion of removing, without
warning.
19. A landlord’s title in a removing, let it be ever
fo lame, cannot be brought under queltion by a tenant
whofe tack fiows immediately from him j but, if he is
to infill againft tenants not his own, his right muft be
perfefted by infeftment, unlefs it be fuch as requires no
infeftment j as terce, &c.
20. The defender, in a removing, muft (by aft 1555), Violent
before offering any defence which is not inftantly veri-profits,
fied, give fecurity to pay to the fetter the violent profits,
if they ftiould be awarded againft him. Thefe are fa
called, becaufe the law confiders the tenant’s poffeffion
after the warning as violent. They are eftimated, in
tenements within borough, to double the rent ; and in
lands, to the higheft profits the purfuer could have
made of them, by poffeffing them either by a tenant or
by himfelf.
21. If the aftion of removing {hall be paffed from, EfTecVof
or if the landlord {hall, after ufing warning, accept of wai'ninK
rent from the tenant, for any term fubfequent to that
of the removal, he is prefumed to have changed his
mind, and tacit relocation takes place. All aftions of
removing.againft the principal or original tackfman,
and decrees thereupon, if the order be ufe.d, which is
fet forth fiupra (i70> are, by the aft of federunt 1756;
declared to beeffeftual againft the affignees to the tack
or fubtenants.
22. The landlord has, in fecurity of h 15 tack-duty, Hypothec,
over and above the tenant’s perfonal obligation, a tacit
pledge or hypothec, not only on the fruits, but on the
cattle pafturing on the ground. The corn, and other
fruits are hypothecated for the rent of that year where¬
of they are the crop ; for which they remain affefted,
though the landlord ftiould not ufe his right for years
together. In virtue of this hypothec, the landlord is
entitled to a preference over any creditor, though he
has actually ufed a poinding •, except in the fpecial
cafe, that the poinding is executed after the term of
payment, when the landlord can appropriate the crop
for his payment, the poinder in fuch cafe being obliged
4 N to
650 L A W. Part 1IL
Law of to leaxre as much on the ground as to falisfy the land-
, boot I an-1. ]orjv hypothec : and it was found by the court of fef-
lion, that this right of the landlord is preferable even
to a debt due to the crown, for which a writ of extent
had been HTued.
23. The whole cattle on the ground confidered as a
quantity, are hypothecated for a year’s rent, one after
another fucceflively. The landlord may apply this hy¬
pothec for payment of the palt year’s rent, at any time
within three months from the lalt conventional term of
payment, after which it eeafes for that year. As the
tenant may increafe the fubjecft of this hypothec, by
purchaling oxen, Iheep, &c. fo he can imp •ir it, by
fellmg part of his ftock j but if the landlord fufpefts
the tenant’s management, he may, by fequelhration or
poinding, make his right, which was before general up¬
on the whole Hock, (pedal upon every individual. A
fuperior has aid a hypothec for his feu-duty, of the fame
kind with that juft explained.
24. In tai ks of houles, breweries, drops, and other
tenements, which have no natural fruits, the furniture,
and other goods brought into the (ubjeft fet are hypo¬
thecated to the landlord for one year’s rent. But the
tenant may by tale impair this hypothec, as he might
that of cattle in rural tenements $ and indeed, in the
particular cafe of a (hop, the tenant rents it for no other
purpofe than as a place of fale.
Sect. VII. Of the Tranfmifion of Rights, by Confirma¬
tion and Refignation.
clxvlii.
Tranfmif- 1 • A vafifal may tranfmit his feu either to univerfal
fion of feu- fucceffors, as heirs ; er to fingular fuceeflors, i. e. thofe
dal rights, who acquire by'gift, purcbafe, or other fingular tide.
This laft fort of tranfmiffion is either voluntary, by dif-
pofition ; or neceflary, by adjudication.
2. By the firft feudal rules, no fuperior could be
compelled to receive any vaftal in the lands, other than
the heir expreffed in the inveftiture j for the fuperior
alone had the power of afeertaining to what order of
heirs the fee granted by himfelf was to defcend. But
this right of refufal in the fuperior did not take place,
(1.) In the cafe of creditors appraifers or adjudgers,
whom fuperiors were obliged to receive upon payment
of a year’s rent (1469, c. 37. 1672, c. 19.) : (2.) In
the cafe of purchafers of bankrupt eftates, who were
put on the fame footing with adjudgers by 1690, c. 20.
The crown refufes no voluntary difponee, on his paying
a compofition to the exchequer of a fixth part of the
valued rent. Now, by 20 Geo. II. fuperiors are di-
refted to enter all fingular fucceffors (except incorpo¬
rations) who (hall have got from the vaffal a difpofition,
containing procuratory of refignation : they always re¬
ceiving the fees or cafualties that law entitles them to
on a vaflal’s entry, i. e. a year’s rent (a).
3. Bafe rights, i. e. difpofitions to be holden of the Law of
difpontr, are tranfmiftions only of the property, the Scotland,
fuperiority remaining as formerly. As this kind cf
right might, before eftablifhing the regifters, have been
kept quite concealed from all but the granter and re¬
ceiver, a public right was preferable to it, unlefs cloth¬
ed with poffefTion : but as this diftindftion was no long¬
er neceffary after the eftabliflnnent of the records, all
infeftments are declared preferable, according to ths
dates of their feveral regiftrations *, without relpeft to
the former diilinction of bafe and public, or of being
clothed and not clothed with poffeffion.
4. Public rights, i. e. difpofitions to be holden of the pupp-
granter’s fuperior, may be perfcfted either by con fir-rights,
mation or refignation •, and therefore they generally
contain both precept of feifin and procuratory of refig¬
nation. When the receiver is to complete his right in
the firft way, he takes feifm upon the precept: but
fuch feifin is ineffe&ual without the fuperior’s confir¬
mation for the difponee cannot be deemed a vaffal till
the fuperior receive him as fuch, or confirm the hold¬
ing. By the ufual ftyle in the tranfmiffion of lands,
the difpofition contains an obligation and precept of
infeftment, both a me and de me, in the option of the
difponee ; upon which, if feifin is taken indefinitely, it
is conftrued in favour of the difponee to be a bafe in¬
feftment, becaufe a public right is null without confir¬
mation : but if the receiver (hall afterwards obtain the
fuperior’s confirmation, it is confidered as if it had been
from the beginning a public right.
5. Where two (everal public rights of the fame fub-Preference
jeft are confirmed by the fuperior, their preference is in confirm
governed by the dates of the confirmations, not of the niatlon‘
infeftments confirmed ; becaufe it is the confirmation
which completes a public right.
6. Though a public right becomes, by the■ fupe- j7p-c(q 0f
rioi-’s confirmation, valid from its -date 5 yet if any midCnnfiima-
impediment intervene betwixt that period and thetion.
confirmation, to hinder the two from being conjoined,
e. g. if the granter of a public right (hould afterwards
grant a bafe right to another, upon which feifin is ta¬
ken before the fuperior’s confirmation of the firft, the
confirmation will have efFefl only from its own date ;
and confequently the bale right firft completed will
carry the property of the lands preferable to the public
one.
7. Refignation is-that form of law, by which a vaf- Ref]o-na_
fal furrenders his feu to his fuperior ; and it is either uons.
adperpetuam remanentwm, or in favorem. In refigna-
tions ad remancnt^m, where the feu is refigned, to the
effeft that it may remain with the fuperior, the fuperior,
who before had the fuperiority, acquires, by the refig¬
nation, the property alio of the lands refigneel : and as
his infeftment in the lands ftill fubfifttd, notwithftand-
ing the right by which he had given his vaffal the pro¬
perty ; therefore, upon the vaffal’s refignation, the fu¬
perior’s
(a) It was long matter of doubt how this compolition due to the fuperior upon the entry of fingular fucceftors
fhould be regulated. I he matter at laft received a folemn deeifion 5 finding, That the fuperior is entitled, for
the entry of lingular fucceffors, in all’ cafes where fuch entries are not taxed, to a year’s rent of the fubjetft, whe¬
ther lands or houfes, as the fame are fet, or may be fet at the time ; deducing the (eu-duty and all public bur¬
dens, and likewife all annual burdens fmpofed on the lands byconlentof the fuperior, with all reafonable annual
repairs to houfes and other periffiable fubje£ts.
Chap. IT. L A W. 651
Law of perior’s riglit of property revives, and Is confolidated
Scotland- with the fuperiority, without the neceffity of a new in-
feftment j but the inftrument of refignation muft be re¬
corded.
8. Refignations in favorem are made, not with an
intention that the property refigned fhould remain with
the fuperior, but that it thould be again given by him,
in favour either of the refigner himfelf, or of a third
party ; confequently the fee remains in the refigner,
till the perfon in whofe favour refignation is made gets
his right from the fuperior perfected by feifin. And
becaufe refignations in favorem are but incomplete per-
fonal deeds, our law has made no provifion for record¬
ing them. Hence, the fivft feifin on a fecond refigna¬
tion is prefer ble to the laft ft ifin upon the firft refigna-
tion ; but the fuperior, accepting a fecond refignation,
whereupon a prior feifin may be taken in prejudice of
the firft refignatory, is liable in damages.
9. By our former decifions, one who was veiled with
a perfonal right of lands, i. e. a right not completed
by feifin, effe&ually diverted himfelf by difponing it to
another; after which no right remained in the difpo-
ner, which could be carried by a fecond difpofition,
becaufe a perfonal right, is no more than zjus obligatio-
which may be transferred by any deed fufficiently
expreffing the will of the granter. But this do&rine,
at the fame time that it rendered the fecurity of the re¬
cords extremely uncertain, was not truly applicable .to
fuch rights as required feifin to complete them 5 and
therefore it now obtains, that the granter even of a per¬
fonal right of lands is not fo divefted by conveying the
right to one perfon, but that he may effedlually make
It over afterwards to another •, and the preference be¬
tween the two does not depend on the dates of the dif-
pofitions, but on the priority of the feifins following up-
en them.
' Sect. VIII. Of Redeemable Rights.
clxir. 1. An heritable right is faid to be redeemable, when
Reveriior.s it contains a right of reverfion, or return, in favour of
*e£al‘ the perfon from whom the right flows. Reverfions
are either legal, which arife from the law itfelf, as in
adjudications, which law declares to be redeemable
within a certain term after their date ; or convention¬
al, which are conftituted by the agreement of parties,
as in wadfets, rights of annualrent, and rights in fe-
Wadfet curity. A wadfet (from wad'or pledge) is a right, by
which lands, or other heritable fubjedfts, are impigno-
rated by the proprietor to his creditor in fecurity of
his debt •, and, like other heritable rights, is perfected
by feifin. The debtor, who grants the wadfet, and
has the right of reverfion, is called the reverfer; and
the creditor, receiver of the wadfet, is called the wad-
fetter.
2 Wadfets, by the prefent pradlice, are commonly
made out in the form of mutual contracts, in which
one party fells the land, and the other grants the right
of reverfion. When the right of revtrfion is thus in¬
corporated in t' e body of the wadiet, it is effedlual
without regiilration ; becaufe the fingular fucctfforin
the vadfet is, in that cafe, fufficiently certified of the
jseverfion, though it be not regiftered, by looking into
his own right, which bears it in gremio. But where
the right of reverfion is granted in a feparale writing, Law of
it is ineffi tlual againft: the lingular fucceiTor of the Scotland,
wadfetter, unlefs it be regiftered in the regifter of fti-
jins within 60 days after the date of the feifin upon the
wadfet.
3. Rights of reverfion are generally ef!eemed ftritliRe verb ni*
juris ; yet they go to heirs, though heirs Humid not be / rich juris*
mentioned, unlefs there be fome claufe in the right, dif-
covering the intention of parties, that the reverfion
fhould be perfonal to the reverfiw him lei t. In like
mariner, though the right ftu.ukl not exprefs a power
to redeem from the wadfetter’s heir, as well as from
himfelf, redemption will be competent againft the heir.
All our lawyers have affirmed, that reverfions cannot
be affigned, unlels they are taken to afiignees 5 but
from the favour of legal diligence, they may be ad¬
judged.
4. Reverfions commonly leave the reverfer at liberty Redemp.
to redeem the lands quandocunque, without reftri6liont!on*
in point of time \ but a claufe is adjefled to fome re¬
verfions, that if the debt be not paid agairift a deter¬
minate day, the right of reverfion (hall be irritated,
and the lands ffiall become the irredeemable property
of the wadfetter. Neverthelefs the irritancy being pe¬
nal, as in wadfets, where the fum lent falls always
{hort of the value of the lands, the right of redemption
is by indulgence continued to the reverfer, even after
the term has expired, while the irritancy is not decla¬
red. But the reverfer, if he does not take the benefit
of this indulgence within 40 years after the lapfe of the
term, is cut out of it by prefeription.
5. If the reverfer would redeem bis lands, he muft;
ufe an order of redemption againft the wadfetter : the
firft ftep of which is premonition (or notice given un¬
der form of inftrument) to the wadfetter, to appear at
the time and place appointed by the reverfion, then
and there to receive payment of his debt, and there¬
upon to renounce his right of wadfet. In the volun¬
tary redemption of a right of wadfet holden bafe, a
renunciation duly regiftered, re-eftablifties the reverfer
in the full right of the lands. Where the wadfet was
granted to be holden of the granter’s fuperior, the Ju-
perior muft receive the reverfer, on payment of a year’s
rent, if he produce a dilpofition from the wadfetter,
containing procuratory of refignation. If, at executing
the wadfet, the fuperior has granted letters of regrefs,
i. e. an obligation again to enter the reverfer upon re-jitters of
demption of the lands, he will be obliged to receive regrefs.
him without payment of the year’s rent. But letters
of regrefs will not have this effe£l againft lingular fuc-
ceflors in the fuperiority, if they are not regiftered in
the regifter of reverfions. All wadfets that remain
perfonal rights, are extinguilhtd by fimple difeharges,
though they ftiould not be recorded.
6. If the wadfetter either does not appear at the Redemp-
time and place appointed, or refufes the redemption don money,
money, the reverfer muft oonfign it under form of in¬
ftrument, in the hands of the perfon appointed in the
right of reverfion ; or, it no perfon be named, in
the hands of the clerk to the bills, a clerk of feffion,
or any refponfible perfon. An inftrument of configna-
tion, with the confignatory’s receipt of the money con-
figned, completes the order of redemption, Hops the
farther currency of intereft againft the reverfer, and
4 N 2 founds
L A W.
founds him in an a&ion declaring the order to be wants his principal fum,
Wadfets
proper and
improper.
Right of
annualrent
formal, and the lands to be redeemed in confequence
of it.
7. After a decree of declarator is obtained, by which
the lands are declared to return to the debtor, the
configned money, which comes in place of the lands,
becomes the wadfetter’s, who therefore can charge the
confignatory upon letters of horning to deliver it up
to him ; but, becaufe the reverfer may, at any time
before decree, pafs from his order, as one may do from
any other tiep of diligence, the configned fums con¬
tinue to belong to the reverfer, and the wadfetter’s in-
terefl in the wadfet continues heritable till that pe¬
riod.
8. it the wadfetter choofes to have his money ra¬
ther than the lands, he mull require from the reverfer,
under form of inftrument, the fums due. by the wad-
fet, in terms of the right. The wadlet-fums may be
heritable, notwithflanding requifidon, which may be
paired from the wadfetter even after the reverter
has. configned the redemption money in confequence
thereof.
9. W'adfets are either proper or improper. A pro¬
per wadtet is that whereby it is agreed, that the ufe of
the land fhall go for the ufe of the money 5 fo that
the wadletter takes his hazard of the rents, and enjoys
them without accounting, in latisfaftion, or infolutum
of his intereft.
10. In an improper wadfet, the reverfer, if the rent
thould fall fliort of the intereft, is taken bound to make
up the deficiency j if it amounts to more, the wadletter
is obliged to impute the excrefcence towards extin&ion
of the capital: And, as foon as the whole fums, princi¬
pal, and intereft, are extinguifhed by the wadfetter’s
poftefiion, he may be compelled to renounce, or diveft
himlelf in favour of the reverfer.
11. If the wadfetter be entitled by his right to en¬
joy the rents without accounting, and if at the fame
time the reverfer be fubjedled to the hazard of their
deficiency, fuch contract is juftly declared ufurious :
and alfo in all proper wadfets wherein any unreafonable
advantage lias been taken of the debtor, the wadfetter
muft (by atl 1661), during the not requifition of the
fum lent, either quit his poffeffion to the debtor, upon
his giving fecurity to pay the intereft, or fubje£l him-
ielf to account for the furplus rents, as in improper
wadfets.
12. Infeftments of annualrent, the nature of which
has been explained, are alfo redeemable rights. A
right of annualrent does not carry the property of the
lands ; but it creates a real nexus or burden upon the
property, for payment of the intereft or annualrent
contained in the right ; and ccnfequently the bygone
interefts due upon it are debita fundi. The annualren-
ter may therefore either infift in a real action for ob¬
taining letters of poinding the ground, or fue the te¬
nant m a perfonal aftion towards the payment of his
pa ft intereft : and in a com petition for thufe rente, the
annualrenter’s preference will not depend on his having
ufed a poinding of the ground, for his right w as com¬
pleted by the felling the power of poinding the ground,
arifing from that antecedent right, is merce facultatisy
and need not be exercifed, if payment can be other wife
got. As it is only the intereft of the fum lent which
is a burden upon the lands, the annualrenterj if he
Part III.
aunot recover it either by Law-of
poinding or by a perfonal a&ion againft the debtor’s Scotland,
tenants $ but muft demand it from the debtor himfelf, v---**'
on liis perfonal obligation in the bond, either by re¬
quifition, or by a charge of letters of horning, accord¬
ing as the right is drawn.
!3. Rights of annualrent, being fervitudes upon the
property, and confequently confident with the right of
property in the debtor, may be extinguiftied without
refignation.
14. Infeftments in fecurity are another kind of re-cf
deemable rights (now frequently ufed in place of rights fecurity.
of annualrent), by which the receivers are infeft in
the lands themfelves, and not limply in an annualrent
forth of them, for fecurity of the principal fums, inte¬
reft, and penalty, contained in the rights. If an in-
fcflment in fecurity be granted to a creditor, he may
thereupon enter into the immediate poffeffion of the
lands or annualrent for his payment. They are extin¬
guifhed as rights of annualrent.
15. All rights of annualrent, rights in fecurity, and
generally whatever conftitutes a real burden on the
fee, may be the ground of an adjudication, which is
preferable to all adjudications, or other diligences,
intervening between the date of the right and of the
adjudication deduced on it j not only for the princi¬
pal fum contained in the right, but alfo for the whole
part intereft contained in the adjudication. This pre¬
ference arifes from the nature of real debts, or debi¬
ta fundi: but in order to obtain it for the intereft: of
the intereft accumulated in the adjudication, fuel) ad¬
judication muft proceed on a procefs of poinding the
ground.
Sect. IX. Of Servitudes.
cl XX-
1. Servitude is a burden affecting lands, or father Different'
heritable fubjefls, whereby the proprietor is either re-kinds of
ftrained from the full ufe of what is his own, or igtervitude
obliged to fuffer another to do fomething upon it. Ser¬
vitudes are either natural, legal, or conventional. Na¬
ture itfelf may be faid to conftitute a fervitude upon
inferior tenements, whereby they muft receive the wa¬
ter that falls from thofe that ftand on higher ground.
Legal fervitudes are eftabliftied by nature or cuftom,
from ijonfiderations of public policy j among which may
be numbered the reftraints laid upon the proprietors of
tenements within the city of Edinburgh. There is as
great a variety of conventional fervitudes, as there are
ways by which the exercife of property may be re-
ftrained by pa&ion in favour of another.
2. Conventional fervitudes are conftituted, either by
grant, where the will of the party burdened is expref-
fed in writing : or by prefeription, where his confent
is prefumed from his acquiefeence in the burden for 40
years. A fervitude conftituted by writing, or grant,
is not eftedlual againft the granter’s fingular fucceffors,
unlefs the grantee has been in the ufe or exercife of
his right : but they are valid againft the granter and
his heirs even without ufe. In fervitudes that may be
acquired by prefeription, 40 years exercife of the rights
is fufficient, without any title in writing, other than a
charter and feifin of the lands to which the fervitude is
claimed to be due.
3. Servitudes conftituted by grant are not effeflual,
in
Chip. II. L
Law of jn a queftion with ine fwpenor ef the tenements bur-
l Scotland, dened with the fervitude, unlefs his confent be adhi-
v' ™" bited j for a fuperior cannot be hurt by his vaflfai’s
deed: but where the fervitude is acquired by preferip-
tion, the confent of the iuperior, whole right afforded
him a good title to interrupt, is implied. A fervitude
by grant, though followed only by a partial pofleffion,
mult be governed, as to its extent, by the tenor of the
grant j but a fervitude by prefcription is limited by the
meafure or degree of the ufe had by him who prefcribes:
agreeable to the maxim, Tantumprcefcriptutn, quantum
poJ/Wfum. _
Predial fer- 4- Servitudes are either predial ox perfonal. Pi'edial
vitudes. fervitudes are burdens impofed upon one tenement, in
favour of another tenement. That to which the fervi¬
tude is due is called the dominant, and that which owes
it is called the ferment tenement. No perfon can have
right to a predial fervitude, if he is not proprietor of
fome dominant tenement that may have benefit by it;
for that right is annexed to a tenement, and fo cannot
pafs from one perfon to another, unlefs fome tenement
goes along with it.
5. Predial fervitudes are divided into rural fervitudes,
or of lands ; and urban fervitudes, or of houfes. The
Rural fer- rural fervitudes of the Romans were iter, aBus, via,
vitudes. aquceduttus, aqucehaujlus, and jus pafcendi pecoris. Si¬
milar fervitudes may be conftituted with us, of a foot-
road, horfe-road, cart-road, dams and aquedudhs, wa¬
tering of cattle, and pafturage. The right of a high¬
way is not a fervitude conftituted in favour of a parti¬
cular tenement, but is a right common to all travellers.
The care of high-wavs, bridges, and ferries, is commit¬
ted to the Iheriffs, juftices of peace, and commiffioners of
fupply in each (hire.
6. Common pafturage, or the right of feeding one’s
cattle upon the property of another, is fometimes con¬
ftituted by a general claufe of pafturage in a charter or
difpofition, without mentioning the lands burdened ;
in which cafe, the right comprehends whatever had
been formerly appropriated to the lands difponed out
of the granter’s own property, and like wife all pafturage
due to them out of other lands. When a right of pa¬
fturage is given tofeveral neighbouring proprietors, on a
moor or common belonging to the granter, indefinite
as to the number of cattle to be paftured, the extent of
their feveral rights is to be proportioned according to
the number that each of them can fodder in winter up¬
on his own dominant tenement.
Urban fer- 7* chief fervitudes of houfes among the Romans
vitudes. were thofe of fupport, viz. tigni immittcndi, and oneris
ferendi. The firft was the right of fixing in our neigh¬
bour’s wall, a joift or beam from our houfe : the fecond
was that of refting the weight of one’s houfe upon his
neighbour’s wall.
8. With us, where different floors or flories of the
fame houfe belong to different perfons, as is frequent
in the city of Edinburgh, the property of the houfe
cannot be laid to be entirely divided ; the roof remains
a common roof to the whole, and the area on which
the houfe ftands fupports the whole ; fo that there is a
communication of property, in confequence of which
the proprietor of the ground floor muft, without the
eonftitution of any fervitude, uphold it for the fupport
of the upper, and the owner of the higheft ftory muft
uphold that as a cover to the lower. When the high-
A W., ; 653
eft is divided into garrets among the feveral proprie- Law of
tors, each proprietor is obliged, according to this rule, Scc'tland-
to uphold that part of the roof which covers his own
garret.
9. No proprietor can build, fo as to throw the rain
water falling from his own houfe, immediately upon
his neighbour’s ground, without a fpecial fervitude,
which is called oi f illicide ; but, if it falls within his
own property, though at the fmalleft diflance from the
inarch, the owner of the inferior tenement muft receive
it.
10. The fervitudes altlus non tolletidi, et non ojjicien-
di luminibus velprofpeclui, reftrain proprietors from raff¬
ing their houfes beyond a certain height, or from mak¬
ing any building whatfoever that may hurt the light
or profpett of the dominant tenement. Thefe fervi¬
tudes cannot be conftituted by prefcription alone; for,
though a proprietor ftiould have his houfe ever fo low,
or fhould not have built at all upon his grounds for 40
years together, he is prefumed to have fo for his
own conveniency or profit: and therefore cannot be
barred from afterwards building a houfe on his proper¬
ty, or raifing it to what height he pleafes, unlefs he be
tied down by his own confent.
11. We have two predial fervitudes to which the Servitude
Romans were ftrangers, viz. that of fuel or feal and feat and
divot, and of thirlage. The firft is a right, by whichdivot*
the owner of the dominant tenement may turn up peats,
turfs, feals, or divots, from the ground of the fervient,
and carry them off either for fuel, or thatch, or the
other ufes of his own tenement.
1 2. Thirlage is that fervitude, by which lands are Thirlagev
aftricled, or thirled, to a particular mill; and the pof-
feffors bound to grind their grain there, for payment
of certain multures and fequels as the agreed price of
grinding. In this fervitude, the mill is the dominant
tenement and the lands aftri&ed (which are called al-
fo the thirl or fuchen) the fervient. Multure is the
quantity of grain or meal payable to the proprietor of
the mill, or to the multurer his tackfman. The fe¬
quels are the fmall quantities given to the fervants, un¬
der the name of knavejhip, bannock, and lock or gowpen.
The quantities paid to the mill by the lands not a-
ftridled, are generally proportioned to the value of the
labour, and are called out-town or out-fucken multures ;
but thofe paid by the thirl are ordinarily higher, and
are called in-town or infucken multures.
13. Thirlage may be conflituted by a landholder,,
when, in the difpofition of certain lands, he aftrifts
them to his own mill; or when in the difpofition of a
mill, he aftrifts his own lands to the mill difponed ; or
when in letting his lands, he makes it a condition in
the tacks. The grant of a mill with the general claufe
of multures, without fpecifying the lands aftrided,
conveys the thirlage of all the lands formerly aftrided
to that mill, whether they were the property of the
granter, or of a third party.
14. A lefs formal conftitution ferves to aftrid ba¬
rony lands to the mill of the barony, than is neceffar^
in any other thirlage ; which perhaps proceeds from
the effeds of the union betwixt the two. Hence, if a
baron makes over the mill of a barony, cum tnukuris,
or cum afribhs multuris, it infers an altridion of the
barony lands to he mill conveyed, although they had
not formerly been aftrided. But if prior to the baron’s 1
conveyance
654- L A V/. Pan 111
Law of conveyance of his trull cum muhuris, he had fold any
Scotland. par^ 0£ iands to another cum mu/turis, the
’* firlt purchafer’s lands are not atlnfted by the polterior
grant*, for a right of lands with the multures, implies
a freedom of thefe lands from thirlage.
15. Thirlage is either, I. Ot grindable corns j or,
Of all growing corns : or, 3. Of the invecia et il-
lata, i. e. of all the grain brought vvitnin the thirl,
though of another growth. Where the thirlage is of
grindable grain, it is in practice redrifted to the corns
which the tenants have occafion to grind, either for the
fupport of their families, or for other uf^s ^ the furplus
may be carried out of the thirl unmanufaffured, with¬
out being liable in multure. Where it is ut \he grnna
crefcentin, the whole grain growing upon the thirl is
aftriffed, with the exceptions, 1. Of feed and horfe-
corn, which are deftined to ufes inconliftent w’ith grind¬
ing ; and, 2. Of the farm duties due to the landlord,
if they were delayered in grain not grinded. But, if the
rent be payable in meal, flour, or malt, the grain of
which thefe are made muff be manufactured in the do¬
minant mill.
16. The thirlage of inveBa et il/nta is feldom confti-
tuted but againft the inhabitants of a borough or vil¬
lage, that they fhall grind all the unmanufactured grain
they import thither at the dominant mill. Multure,
therefore, cannot be exaCted in a thirlage of invecia et
zl/ata, for flour or oatmeal brought into the fervient
tenement, unlefs the importer had brought it in grain,
and grinded it at another mill. The fame grain that
owes multure, as granum crefcens, to the mill in whofe
thirl it grew, if it fhall be afterwards brought within a
borough where the invcEiaet illata are thirled, muft pay
a fecond multure to the proprietor of that dominant
tenement; but, where the right of thefe two thirlages
is in the fame proprietor, he cannot exad both. Where
lands are thirled in general terms, without ex prefling
the particular nature of the fervitude, the lighted; thir¬
lage is prefumed, from the favour of liberty j but in
the aflriCHon of a borough or village, where there is
no growing grain which can be the fubjeft of thirlage,
the aflriCHon of invecia et illata muft be neceflarily un¬
der flood.
17. Thirlage, in the general cafe, cannot be efta-
blifhed by prefeription alone, for Us quee funt merce fa~
Cult at is non prasfenbitur; but where one has paid for
40 years together the heavy in-fucken multures, the
flighteft title in writing will fubjeCl his lands. Thir-
lage may, contrary to the common rule, be conftituted
by prefeription alone, 1. W7here one pays to a mill a
certain fum, or quantity of grain yearly, in name of
multure, whether he grinds at it or not, (called
multure'). 2. In mills of the king’s property } which
is conftituted jure coronce, without titles in writings
and, where he derives right from another, his titles
are more liable to be loft. This is extended in prac¬
tice to mill1- belonging to church lands, where thirty
year« pofllfli m is deemed equivalent to a title in writ¬
ing, from a prefumption that their rights were de¬
ft royed at the Reformation. Though thirlage itfelf can¬
not be conftituted by mere pnffeflion, the proportion
of multure payable to the dominant tenement may be
fo fixed
18. The pofleflbrs of the land aftriCled are bound
to uphold the mill, repair the dam dykes and aque-
2
duCts, and bring home the vnillftones. Thefe fervlces L w of
though not exprtfled in the eonluiution, are implied. Scotland.
19. Servitudes, being reftraints upon prop rty, are . "T't 'dtT
Jlrich j ris : they are not theitfuie prelumed if the.aie/// j^y
aCls upon w hich they are claimed can be explained con-jl.r/r.
fiftentiy with fret dom i and when fervitudes are con¬
ftituted, they ought to be uft ci in the way It-aft bur-
denfome to the leivient tencmenti H nee, one who
has a fervitude of peats upon his neighbour’s mofs, is
not at liberty to extend it for the ufe of any manufac¬
ture which may require an extraordinary expence of
fuel: but muft confine it to the natural uies of the do¬
minant temim nt.
20. Servitudes are extinguifln d, (1.) Confu(ione%
when the perfon comes to be proprietor of the domi¬
nant and fervient tenements j for res faa namini jervit9
and the ufe the proprietor therefore makes of the fer¬
vient tenement is not jure frvilutis, but is an aCl of
property. (2.) By the periihing either of the domi¬
nant or fervient tenement. (3.) Servitudes are loft non
utendo, by the dominant tenement negleCling to ufe
the right of 40 years j which is confidered as a de¬
reliction of it, though he who has the fervient tene¬
ment fliould have made no interruption by doing aCls
contrary to the fervitude.
21. Pcrfonal fervitudes are thofe by which the pro¬
perty of a fubjeCl is burdened, in favour, not of a te¬
nement, but of a perfon. The only perfonal fervitude
known in our law*, is ufufruCl or liferent; which is a
right to ufe and enjoy a thing during life, the fubftance
of it being preferved. A liferent cannot therefore be Liferent
conftituted upon things which perifh in the ufe *, and
though it may upon fubjeCls which gradually wear out
by time, as houfehold furniture, &c. yet with us, it is
generally applied to heritable fubjeCls. He whofe pro¬
perty is burdened, is ufually called the fiar.
22. Liferents are divided into conventional and /s’-Liferents,
gal. Conventional liferents are either fituple, or by
refervation. A Jimple liferent, or by a feparate con-
ftitution, is that which is granted by the proprietor in
favour of another : And this fort, contrary to the na¬
ture of predial fervitudes, requires feifin in order to af-
feft lingular fucceffors ; for a liferent of lands is, in
ftriCl fpeech, not a fervitude, but a right refembling
property which conftitutes the literenter vaffal for lifey
and fingular flicceffbrs have no way of difeovering a life-
rent right, which perhaps is not yet commenced, but
by the records : whereas, in predial fervitudes, the con-
ftant ufe of the dominant tenement makes them pub¬
lic. The proper right of liferent is intranfmiffible 5
qjjibus ufufruBuarii inlueret: When the profits of the
liferented fubjt Cl are tranfmitted to another, the right
becomes merely perfonal : for it entitles the aflignee
to the rent, not during his own life, but his cedent’sy
and is therefore carried by Ample aftignation, without
feifin.
23. A liferent by refervation, is that which a pro¬
prietor referves to himfelf in the fame w-riting by which
he conveys the fee to another. It rt quires no feifin j
for the granter’s former feifin, which virtually included
the liferent, frill fublifts as to the liferent which is ex-
prefsly referved. In conjuncl infeftments taken tohuf-
band and wife, the wife’s right of conjunCl fee relolves,
in the general cafe, into a liferent.
24. Liferents, by law, are the terce and the cour- ferce.
Chap. TL L
Law of tefy. 'j he terce ter tin') Is a liferent competent by
^fcoi.And jaw {-0 w'l(J()WSj vvho have not accepted of fpecial pro-
vifions, in the third of the heritable fubjefts in which
their hufbands died infeft 5 and takes place only where
the marriage has fubfilled for year and day, or where
a child has been born alive of it (b).
25. The terce is nut limited to lands, but extends
to teinds, and to fervitudes and other burdens affefling
lands ; thus, the widow is entitled, in the right of her
terce, to a liferent of the third of the fums lecured,
either by rights of annualrent, or by rights in fecurity.
In improper wadfets, the tevce is a third of the fum
lent : In thofe that are proper, it is a third of the wad-
fet lands j or, in cafe of redemption, a third of the re¬
demption money. Neither right of reverfion, fupe-
riority, nor patronage, fall under the terce ; for none of
thefe have fixed profits, and fo are not proper fubjefls
for the widow’s fubfiftence •, nor tacks, becaufe they are
not feudal rights. Burgage tenements are alfo exclud¬
ed from it, the reafon of which is not fo obvious.
Since the hufband’s feifin is both the meafure and fecu¬
rity of the terce, fuch debts or diligences alone, as ex¬
clude the hufband’s feifin, can prevail over it.
26. Where a terce is due out of lands burdened with
a prior terce Hill fubfifting, the fecond tercer has only
right to a third of the two thirds that remain unaffec¬
ted by the firfi: terce. But upon the death of the firft
widow, whereby the lands are difburdened of her terce,
the leffer terce becomes enlarged, as if the firft had
never exifted. .A widow, who has accepted of a fpe¬
cial provifion from her hulband, is thereby excluded
from the terce, unlefs fuch provifion ftiall contain a
claufe that (lie lhall have right to both.
27. The widow has no title of poffeftion, and fo can¬
not receive the rents in virtue of her terce, till Hie be
ferved to it ; and in order to this ftie muft obtain a
brief out of the chancery, direCed to the fheriff, who
calls an inqueft, to take proof that the was wife to the
deceafed, and that her hufband died infeft in the fub-
je<51s contained in the brief. The fervice or fentenee
of the jury, finding thefe points proved, does, without
the neceflity of a retour to the chancery, entitle the
wife to enter into the poffeffion •, but fhe can only pof-
fefs with the heir pro indivifo, and fo cannot remove
tenants till the fheriff kens her to her terce, or divides
the lands between her and the heir. In this divifion,
after determining by lot or kavil, whether to begin by
the fun or the fhade, i. e. by the eaft or the weft, the
ftienff fets off the two firft acres for the heir, and the
third for the widow. Sometimes the divifion is execu¬
ted, by giving one entire farm to the widow, and two
of equal value to the heir. The widow’s right is not
properly eonftituted by this fervice ; it was conftituted
before by the hufband’s feifin, and fixed by his death 3
3^
Law of>
Scotland.
W«—■ .r-iMrW
A W. 6,-
the fervice only declares it, and fo entitles her to the
third part of the rents retro to her hufband’s death,
preferable to any rights that may have affected the
lands in the intermediate period between that and her
own fervice. The relief, if fhe was reputed to be law¬
ful wife to the deceafed, muft be ferved, notwithftand-
ing any objefftions by the heir againft the marriage,
which may be afterwards tried by the commiffary.
28. Courtefy is a liferent given by law, to the fur- Courtefy.
viving hufband, of all his wife’s heritage in which fhe
died infeft, if there was a child of the marriage born
alive. A marriage, though of the longeft continuance,
gives no right to the courtefy, if there was no iflue of
it. The child born of the marriage muft be the mo¬
ther’s heir : If fhe had a child of the former marriage,
who is to fucceed to her eftate, the hufband has no
right to the courtefy while fuch child is alive 3 fo that
the courtefy is due to the hufband, rather as father to
an heir, than as hufband to an heirefs. Heritage is
here oppofed to conqueft 3 and fo is to be underftood
only of the heritable rights to which the wife fucceed-
ed as heir to her anceftors, excluding what fhe herfelf
had acquired by lingular titles.
29. Becaufe the hufband enjoys the liferent of his
wife’s whole heritage, on a lucrative title, he is con-
fidered as her temporary reprefentative 3 and fo is liable
in payment of all the yearly burdens chargeable on the
fubjeft, and of the current intereft of all her debts,
real and perfonal, to the value of the yearly rent he
enjoys by the courtefy, The courtefy needs no folem-
nity to its conftitution : That right which the hufband
had to the rents of his wife’s eftate during the marriage,
jure mariti, is continued with him after her death, un¬
der the name of courtefy, by an a.ift of the law itfelf.
As in the terce, the hufband’s feifin is the ground and
meafure of the wife’s right ; fo in the courtefy, the
wife’s feifin is the foundation of the hufband’s; and the
two rights are, in all other refpefts, of the fame nature 3
if it is not that the courtefy extends to burgage hold¬
ings, and to fuperiorities.
30. All liferenters muft ufe their right faha rei fub-
Jlantia : whatever therefore is part of the fee itfelf,
cannot be encroached on by the liferenter, e. g. woods
or growing timber, even for the neceffary ufes of the
liferented tenement. But, where a coppice or ftIva
ccedna has been divided into hags, one of which was in
ufe to be cut annually by the proprietor, the liferenter
may continue the former yearly cuttings 3 beeaufe thefe
are confidered as the annual fruits the fubjefl wras in¬
tended to yield, and fo the proper fubjeff of a liferent.
31. Liferenters are bound to keep the fubjeff life-
rented in proper repair. They are alfo burdened with
the alimony of the heir; where h« lias not enough for
maintaining himfeif. The bare right of apparency
founds
(b) In the cafe referred to, when treating of the effeffs of the diffolution of marriage within the year with¬
out a living child, and where no fpecial provifions had been granted to, or accepted by, the widow 3 {he did
not demand her legal provifions of terce ox jus relicLc, but merely infifted, that as widow the was entitled to be
alimented out of the heritable eftate of which her hufband died poffeffed : So that the decifion in that cafe can¬
not fo properly be faid to be an alteration in the law, as an equitable interpofition of the court of feffion, in
their capacity as a court of equity, in order to grant a fubfiftence to the widow of a man whofe eftate was fully
fufficient, and who, it could not reafonably be prefumed, would have inclined that his widow fhould be le& t
deftitute, when his eftate went perhaps to a diftant feries of heirs.
656
Lnw of
Scotland.
clxxi.
Teinds.
L A W.
founds the action againft the liferenter. It Is a burden
perfonal to the liferenter himfelf, and cannot be thrown
upon his adjudging creditors as coming in his place
by their diligences. Liferenters are alio fubje&ed to
the payment of the yearly ccffes, ftipends, &c. falling
due during their right, and to all other burdens that
attend the fubjeft liferented.
3 2. Liferent is extinguiihed by the liferenter’s death.
That part of the rents which the liferenter had a pro¬
per right to, before his death, falls to his executors •,
the reit, as never having been in bonis of the deceafed,
goes to the fiar. Martinmas and Whitfunday are, by
our cuftom, the legal terms of the payment of rent ;
confequently, if a liferenter of lands furvives the term
of Whitfunday, his executors are entitled to the half
of that year’s rent, becaufe it was due the term before
his death ; and if he furvives the term of Martinmas,
they have right to the whole. If the liferenter, being
in the natural poffeffion, and having firft fowed the
ground, fhould die, even before Whitfunday, his execu¬
tors are entitled to the whole crop, in refpedl that both
feed and indultry were his. In a liferent of money
conftituted by a moveable bond, the executors have a
right to the intereft, down to the very day of the life-
renter’s death, where no terms are mentioned for the
payment thereof 5 but in the cafe of an heritable bond,
or of a money liferent fecured on land, the interefts of
liferenter and fiar (or of heir and executor, for the
fame rules ferve to fix the interefts of both) are both
governed by the legal terms of land rent, without re¬
gard to the conventional.
Sect. X. Teinds*
1. Teinds, or tithes, are that liquid proportion of our
rents or goods, which is due to churchmen for per¬
forming divine fervice, or exercifing the other fpiri-
tual funftions proper to their feveral offices. Moft of
the canoniils affirm, that the precife proportion of a
tenth, not only of the fruits of the ground, but of what
is acquired by perfonal induftry, is due to the Chriftian
clergy, of divine right, which they therefore call the
proper patrimony of the church i though it is certain that
tithes, in their infancy, were given, not to the clergy
alone, but to lay-monks who were called pauperesy and
to other indigent perfons. Charles the Great was the
firft fecular prince who acknowledged this right in the
church. It appears to have been received with us, as
far back as David I.
2. The perfon employed by a cathedral church or
monaftery to ferve tire cure in any church annexed
was called a vicar, becaufe he held the church, not in
his own right, but in the right or vice of his employ¬
ers •, and fo was removeable at pleafure, and had no
{'hare of the benefice, other than what they thought fit
to allow him : but, in the courfe of time, the appella¬
tion of vicar was limited to thofe who were made per¬
petual, and who got a ftated fhare of the benefice for
their incumbency *, from whence arofe the diftinclion
M benefices into parfonages and vicarages.
3. Parfonage teinds are the teinds of corn*, and they
are fo called becaufe they are due to the parfon or
other titular of the benefice. Vicarage teinds are the
imall teinds of calves, lint, hemp, eggs, &c. which
were commonly given by the titular to the vicar who
Part IIL
ferved the cure in his place. The firft fort was univer- of
fally due, unlefs in the cafe of their infeudation to laics, Scotland.^
or of a pontifical exemption but by the cuftoms of ^
almoft all Chriftendem, the leffer teinds were not de¬
manded where they had not been in ufe to be paid.
By the practice of Scotland, the teinds of animals, er
of things produced from animals, as lambs, wool, calves,
are due though not accuftomed to be paid j but roots,
herbs, See. are not tithable, unlefs ufe of payment be
proved : neither are perfonal teinds (i. e. the tenth of
what one acquires by his own induftry) acknowledged
by our law: yet they have been found due, when fup-
ported by 40 years pofleflton.
4. The parfon who was entitled to the teind of corns,
made his right effectual, either by accepting of a cer¬
tain number of teind bolls yearly from the proprietor
in fatisfadftion of it j or, more frequently, by drawing or
feparating upon the field his own tenth part of the corns,
after they were reaped, from the flock or the remain¬
ing nine-tenths of the crop, and carrying it off to his
own granaries j which is called drawn teind.
5. After the Reformation, James VI. confidered him- Annexatiois
felf as proprietor of all the church lands ; partly be-church
caufe the purpofes for which they had been granted ‘anc*s t0 t^e
were declared fuperftitious ; and partly, in confequence
of the refignations which he, and Queen Mary his mo¬
ther, had procured from the beneficiaries : and even as
to the teinds, though our reformed clergy alfo claimed
them as the patrimony of the church, our fovereign
did not fubmit to that doftrine farther than extended
to a competent provifion for minifters. He therefore
erefted or fecularized feveral abbacies and priories into
temporal lordlhips ; the grantees of which were called
fometimes lords of ercElion, and fometimes titulars, as
having by their grants the fame title to the ere6led
benefices that the monafteries had formerly.
6. As the crown’s revenue fuffered greatly by thefe
erections, the temporality of all church benefices (i. e.
church lands) was, by 1587, c. 29. annexed to the
crown. That ftatute excepts from the annexation fuch
benefices as were eftablilhed before the Reformation in
laymen, whofe rights the legiflature had no intention
to weaken. Notwithftanding this ftatute his majefty
continued to make farther ereftions, which were de¬
clared null by 1592, c. 119. with an exception of fuch
as had been made in favour of lords of parliament
fince the general a£t of annexation in 1587.
7. King Charles I. foon after his fucceflion, raifed a
reduftion of all thefe ere&ions, whether granted before
or after the a£t of annexation, upon the grounds men¬
tioned at length by Mr Forbes in his Treatife of Tithes,
p. 259. At laft the whole matter was referred to the
king himfelf by four feverstl fubmiflions or compromi-
fes ; in which the parties on one fide were the titu¬
lars and their tacklmen, the bilhops with the inferior
clergy, and the royal boroughs, for the ititereft they
had in the teinds that were gifted for the provifion of
minifters, fchool, or hofpitals within their boroughs 5
and, en the other part, the proprietors who wanted to
have the leading of their own teinds. The fubmiflion
by the titulars contained a furrender into his majefty’s
hands of the fuperiorities of their feveral erections.
8. Upon each of thefe fubmiflions his majefty pro-Valuation
nounced feveral decrees arbitral, dated Sept. 2. 16 29, of teinds.
which are fubjoined to the a£ts of parliament of his reign.
He
Chap. II.
L A W.
657
Law of *'He made it lawful te proprietors to fue the titulars for
Scotland a valuation, and if they thought fit for a fale alfo, of
w~tfieir teinds, before the commitfioners named or to be
named for thatpurpofe. The rate of teind, when it was
poffelTed by the proprietor jointly with the flock, for
payment of a certain duty to the titular, and fo did not
admit a feparate valuation, was fixed at a filth part of
the conftant yearly rent, which was accounted a rea-
fonable furrogatum, in place of a tenth of the increafe.
Where it was drawn by the titular, and confequently
might be valued feparateiy from the flock, it was to
be valued as its- extent fiiould be afcertained, upon a
proof before the coramiffioners j but in this lalt valua¬
tion, the king diredted the fifth part to be deducted
from the proved teind, in favour of the proprietor,
which was therefore called the king's enfe. The pro¬
prietor fuing for a valuation gets the leading of his
own teinds as foon as his fuit commences, providing he
does not allow proteflqtion to be extradfed againft him
for no*t infilling.
9. Where the proprietor infilled alfo for a fale of his
teinds, the titular was obliged to fell them at nine years
purehafe of the valued teind duty. If the purfuer had
a tack of his own teinds, not yet expired •, or if the
defender was only tackfman of the teinds, and fo could
not give the purfuer an heritable right; an abatement
©f the price was to be granted accordingly by the com-
milTioners.
10. There is no provifion in the decrees arbitral, for
felling the teinds granted for the fullentation of mini-
Ilers, univerfities, fchools, or hofpitak ; becaufe thefe
were to continue, as a perpetual fund, for the mainte¬
nance of the perfens or fecieties to whom they were
appropriated •, and they are exprefsly declared not fub-
jedt to fale, by 1690, c. 30.—1693, c* 23* By the lad
of thefe adls, it is alfo provided, that the teinds be¬
longing to bifhops, which had then fallen to the crown
upon the abolilhing of Epifcopacy, Ihould not be fub-
jedl to fale as long as they remained with the crown
not difpofed of •, nor thofe which the proprietor, who
had right both to Hock and teind, referved to himfelf
in a fale or feu of the lands. But, though none of
thefe teinds can be fold, they may be valued.
K.in ’sri ht 1I* The king, by the decrees arbitral, declared his
to the fupe-own right to the fuperiorities of eredfion which had
riorities of been refigned to him by the fubmiffien, referving to
the titulars the feu duties thereof, until payment by
himfelf to them of xooo merks Scots for every chal-
der of feu vidhial, and for each 100 merks of feu du¬
ty ; which right of redeeming the feu ditties was af¬
terwards renounced by the crown. If the church vaf-
fal Humid confent to hold his lands of the titular, he
cannot thereafter recur to the crown as his immediate
fuperior.
12. In explaining what the conflant rent is by
which the tei d mull be valued, the following rules
are obferved The rent drawn by the proprietor
va'u tioi (from the fale of fuijedts, that are more properly parts
teinds. of the land than of the fruits, e. g. quarries, minerals,
moffes, &c. is to be dedudled from the rental of the
lands •, and alfo- the rent of fupernumerary houfes,
over and above what is necefifary for agriculture •, and
the additional rent that may be paid by the tenant,
in cun fid era t ion of the proprietor’s undertaking any
burde . that kw impofes on the tenant, e. g. uphold-
I Vol. XI, Part II.
Lnw of
Scot. and.
eredhon.
Rules for
fixing th»
rent in ih
i’-'ds re-,
aable,
ing the tenant’s houfes, becaufe none of thefe ar¬
ticles are paid properly on account of the fruits. Or¬
chards mult alfo be deducted, and mill rent, becaufe
the profits of a mill arife from induftry ; and the corns
manufactured there fuffer a valuation as rent payable by
the tenant, and therefore ought not to be valued a ft-
cond time againlt the titular as mill rent. 1 he yearly
expence of culture ought not to be deduCted : for no
rent can be produced without it: but, if an improvement
of rent is made at an uncommon ex-pence, e. g. by
draining a lake, the proprietor is allowed a reafonable
abatement on that account.
13. Notwithftanding the feveral ways of mifapply-
ing parochial teinds in the times of Popery, fimit few
benefices remained entire in the hands of the parfonsAc*
The minifters planted in thefe, after the Reformation,
continued to have the full right to them, as proper be¬
neficiaries : but a power was afterwards granted to the
patron, to redeem the whole teind from fuch benefici¬
aries, upon their getting a competent fiipend modi¬
fied to them *, which teind fo redeemed, the patron is
obliged to fell to the proprietor, at fix years purthafe.
14. Some teinds are more directly fubjeft to an al¬
location for the minifter’s ftipend than others. The
teinds in the hands of the lay titular fall firft to be
allocated, who, fince he is not capable to ferve the
cure in his own perfon, ought to provide one who
can 5 and if the titular, in placs of drawing the teind,
has let it in tack, the tack duty is allocated : this fort
is called free teind. Where the tack duty, which is
the titular’s intereft in the teinds, falls fhort, the tack
itfeif is burdened, or, in other words, the fur plus
teind over and above the tack duty : but, in this cafe,
the commiffioners are empowered to recompenfe the
tackfman, by prorogating his tack for fuch a number
of years as they lhall judge equitable. Where this
likewife proves deficient, the allocation fails on the
teinds heritably conveyed by the titular, unlefs he
has warranted his grant againlt future augmentations;
in which cafe, the teinds of the lands belonging in
property to the titular himfelf mult be allocated in the
fir It place.
I Where there is fitfficiency of free teinds in a
parilh, the titular may allocate any of them he Ihali
think fit for the minifter’s ftipend, fince they are all
his own ; unlefs there has been a previous decree of lo¬
cality : and this holds, though the ftipend Humid have
been paid immemorially out of the teinds of certain
particular lands. This right was frequently abufed by
titulars, who, as foon as a proprietor had brought an
aftion of fale of his teinds, allocated the purfuer’s
full teind for the ftipend, whereby fuch aft ion became
ineffeftual ; it was therefore provided, that after cita¬
tion in a fale of teinds, it lhall not be in the titular’s
power to allocate the purfuer’s teinds folely, but only
in proportion with the other teinds in the parilh.
16. MiniftCrs glebes are declared free from the pay-Minifters
ment of teind Lands cum de imis inc/ufis are alfo ex- glebes. &e.
empted from teind. But in order to exempt lands®xerr‘Pt|^
from payment of teind. it is neceffary that the pro-,i0Ul tu"1
prietor prove his right thereto, cum deatnis inclufis, as
far back as the above aft of annexation 1587
17. Teinds are debita fruB'/um, not fundi. The ac¬
tion therefore for bygone tcin k is only perfonal,
againlt thofe who have int rmeddled, unlefs where the
4 O titula-r
4
^58 L A W. Pan Ilf
is infcft in the lands, in fecurity of the valued
'-'t' •l!l *, teind duty. Where a tenant is, by his tack., bound
to pay a joint duty to the landlord for ftock and teind,
without diftinguithing the rent of each, his defence of
a bona fide payment of the whole to the landlord has
been fuftained in a fuit at the inftance of a laic titular,
but repelled where a churchman was purfuer. In both
cafes the proprietor who receives fuch rent is liable as
intermeddler.
Inhibition 18. In tacks of teinds, as of lands, there is place
sf teinds. for tacit relocation : to flop the effect of which, the
titular muft obtain and execute an inhibition of teinds
againft the tackfman j which differs much from inhibi¬
tion of lands (explained under the next feftion), and
is intended merely to interpel or inhibit the tackfman
from farther intermeddling. This diligence of inhibi¬
tion may alfo be ufed at the fuit of the titular, againft
any other poffeffor of the teinds ; and if the tackfman
or poffeffor ffiall intermeddle after the inhibition is ex¬
ecuted, he is liable in a fpuilzie.
19. Lands and teinds pafs by different titles : a dif-
pofition of lands, therefore, though granted by one
w ho has alfo right to the teind, will not carry the teind,
unlefs it fhall appear from fpecial circumftances that a
fale of both was defigned by the parties. In lands
decvnis inclufis, where the teinds are confolidated with
the ftock, the right of both muft neceffarily go together
in all cafes.
Sect. XI. Of Inhibitions,
dxxii. T* The conftitution and tranfmiflion of feudal rights
being explained, and the burdens with which they
are chargeable, it remains to be confidered how thefe
rights may be affefted at the fuit of creditors by legal
Diligences, diligence. Diligences are certain forms of law, where¬
by a creditor endeavours to make good his payment,
either by affe&ing the perfon of his debtor, or by fe-
curing the fubjefts belonging to him from alienation,
or by carrying the property of thefe fubje&s to him-
felf. They are either real or perfonal. Real diligence
is that which is proper to heritable or real rights -7
perfonal, is that by which the perfon of the debtor
may be fecured, or his perfonal eftate affe&ed. Of
the firft fort we have two, viz, inhibition and adjudi¬
cation.
Inhibition. 2. Inhibition is a perfonal prohibition, which paffes
by letters under the fignet, prohibiting the party inhi¬
bited to contra# any debt, or do any deed, by which
any part of his lands may be aliened or carried off in
prejudice of the creditor inhibiting. It muft be exe¬
cuted againft the debtor, perfonally, or at bis dwell¬
ing houTe, as fummonfes, and thereafter publifhed and
yegiftered in the fame manner with interdictions, (fee
N° clxxxiii. 21.).
3. Inhibition may proceed, either upon a liquid
obligation, or even on an adlion commenced by a cre¬
ditor for making good a claim not yet fuftained by
the judge •, which laft is called inhibition vpon a depend¬
ing aEtion. The fummons, which conftitutes the de¬
pendence, muft be executed againft the debtor before
the letters of inhibition pafs the fignet; for no fuit
can be faid to depend againft one till he be cited in
it as a defender : but the effe# of fuch inhibition is
fufpended till decree be obtained in the aftion againft
4
the debtor j and in the fame manner, inhibitions on Law of
conditional debts have no effe# till the condition be Scotland,
purified. Inhibitions are not granted, without a trial 'r*W
of the caufe, when they proceed on conditional debts.
And though, in other cafes, inhibitions now pafs of
courfe, the lords are in ufe to ftay, or recal them, ei¬
ther on the debtor’s ftunving caufe why the diligence
ftiould not proceed, or even ex officio where the ground
of the diligence is doubtful.
4. Though inhibitions, by their uniform ftyle, dif-Limited t©
able the debtor from felling his moveable as well as heritage,
his heritable eftate, their effe# has been long limited
to heritage, from the interruption that fuch an em¬
bargo upon moveables muft have given to commerce j
fo that debts contrafled after inhibition may be the
foundation of diligence againft the debtor’s perfon and
moveable eftate. An inhibition fecures the inhibitor
againft the alienation, not only of lands that belonged
to his debtor when he was inhibited, but of thofe that
he (hall afterwards acquire : but no inhibition can ex¬
tend to fuch after-purchafes as lie in a jurifdi#ion
where the inhibition was not regiftered j for it could
not have extended to tbefe though they had been made
prior to the inhibition.
5. This diligence only ftrikes againft the voluntary
debts or deeds of the inhibited perfon : it does not re-
ftrain him from granting neceffary deeds, i. e. fuch a»
he was obliged to grant anterior to the inhibition,
fince he might have been compelled to grant thefe be¬
fore the inhibitor had acquired any right by his dili¬
gence. By this rule, a wadfetter or annualrenter
might, after being inhibited, have effeftually renoun¬
ced his right to the reverfer on payment, becaufe law
could have compelled him to it \ but to feeure inhibi¬
tors againft the effedl of fuch alienations, it is declared
by a# of federunt of the court of feflion, Feb. 19.
1680, that, after intimation of the inhibition to the
reverfer, no renunciation or grant of redemption ftrall
be fuftained, except upon declarator of redemption
brought by him, to which the inhibitor muft be made
a party.
6. An inhibition is a diligence fimply prohibitory,Is limply
fo that the debt, on which it proceeds, continues per-prohibitory*
fonal after the diligence \ and confequently, the inhi¬
bitor, in a queftion with anterior creditors whofe debts
are not ftruck at by the inhibition, is only preferable
from the period at which his debt is made real by ad¬
judication : and where debts are contrafted on herit¬
able fecurity, though pofterior to the inhibition, the
inhibitor’s debt, being perfonal, cannot be ranked with
them ; he only draws back from the creditors ranked
the fums contained in his diligence. The heir of the
perfon inhibited is not reftrained from alienation by
the diligence ufed againft his anceftor $ for the prohi¬
bition is perfonal, affedling only the debtor againft
whom the diligence is ufed.
7. Inhibitions do not of themfelves make void the
pofterior debts or deeds of the perfon inhibited ; they
only afford a title to the ufer ©f the diligence to let
them afide, if he finds them hurtful to him : and even
where a debt is actually reduced ex capite inhihitionis,
fuch reduction, being founded folely in the inhibitor’s
intereft, is profitable to him alone, and cannot alter the
natural preference of the other creditors.
8. Inhibitions may be reduced upon legal nullities, Purging of
arifing ^h'bitions.
Chip, II.
LAW.
Law of ariYmg either from the ground of debt or the form of
S(0t ;il 1 diligenee. When payment is made by the debtor to
the inhibitor, the inhibition is faid to be purged. Any
creditor, whofe debt is ftruck at by the inhibition,
may, upon making payment to the inhibitor, compel
him to aflign the debt and diligence in his favour, that
he may make good his payment the more effectually
againft the common debtor*
SECT. XII. Of Comprifings, Adjudications, and Judicial
Sales.
ckxii. i. Heritable rights may be carried from the debtor to
the creditor, either by the diligence of appraifing (now
adjudication), or by a judicial fale carried on before
Appraifing. the court of feflion. Appraifing, or comprifing, was
the fentence of a fheriff, or of a meffenger who was
fpecially conftituted fherifi for that purpofe, by which
the heritable rights belonging to the debtor were fold
for payment of the debt due to the appraifer $ fo that
appraifings were, by their original conftitution, proper
Tales of the debtor’s lands to any purchafer who offer¬
ed. If no purchafer could be found, the fheriff was to
appraife or tax the value of the lands by an inqueft
(whence came the name of appraifing), and to make
over to the creditor lands to the value of the debt. A
full hiftory of appraifings will be found in the begin¬
ning of Mr Erfkine’s large Inflitute under this title j it
being confidered as unneceffary to enter into a deduc-
659
Law of
Scotland.
concern of the creditor is, that his debtor make up titles
to the anceftor’s eftate, which is done by a fpecial charge:
but where the deceafed was the debtor, the creditor
muft firfl charge his heir to enter in general, that it
may be known whether he is to reprefent the debtor :
if he does not enter within forty days, the debt may
be fixed againft him by a decree of conftitution j after
which the heritable rights belonging to the anceftor
will fall to be attached j in doing which, the diligence
to be ufed is different, according to the ftate of the
titles in the anceftor’s perfon : for if the anceftor flood
veiled by infeftment, the heir muft be charged to en¬
ter heir in fpecial $ but if the anceftor had but a per-
fonal right to the fubje£ts (i. e. not perfected by fei-
fin), which would have been carried to the heir by a
general ftrvice, then what is called a general fpecial
charge muft be given to the heir. Thefe charges ei¬
ther fpecial or general fpecial, as the circumftances of
the cafe may require, are by the ftatute 1540 made
equivalent to the heir’s aflual entry j and therefore an
adjudication led after the inductee of the charges are
elapfed, effedlually carries to the creditor the fubje&s
to which the heir was charged to enter.
3. Appraifings in courfe of time underwent many Adjudiou
changes in their form and effect, till at length, by actions.
1672, c. 19. adjudications were fubftituted in their
place, and are carried on by way of aftion before the
court of fefiion. By that ftatute, fuch part of the
debtor’s lands is to be adjudged as is equivalent to the
tion now no longer neceffary, as by the a<El 1672 adju- principal fum and interefl of the debt, with the compo-
dications were fubftituted in their place
2. That creditors may have accefs to affeft the ftate
of their deceafed debtor, though the heir fhould ftand
off from entering, it is made lawful (by 1540, c. 106.)
for any creditor to charge the heir of his debtor to en¬
ter to his anceftor (year and day being paft after the
anceftor’s death), within 40 days after the charge ; and
if the heir fails, the creditor may proceed to appraile
his debtor’s lands, as if the heir had been entered. Cu-
ilom has fo explained this ftatute, that the creditor
may charge the heir, immediately after the death of
his anceftor, provided that the fummons which is to be
founded on the charge be not raifed till after the ex¬
piry both of the year and of the 40 days next enfuing
the year, within which the heir is charged to enter.—-
But this ftatute relates only to fuch charges on which
appraifing is to be led againft the anceftor’s land ; for
in thofe which are to be barely the foundation of a
common fummons or procefs againft the heir, a&ion
will be fuftained if the year be elapfed from the
anceftor’s death before the execution of the fummons,
though the 40 days ftiould not be alfo expired. Though
the ftatute authorifes fuch charges againft majors only,
praftice has alfo extended it againft minors, and the
rule is extended to the cafe where the heir is the
debtor. One muft, in this matter, diftinguilh between
a general and a fpecial charge. A general charge
ferves only to fix the reprefentation of the heir who is
charged, fo as to make the debt his which was for¬
merly his anceftor’s : but a fpecial charge makes up
for the want of a fervice (N° clxxx. 25.) j and ftates
the heir, feiione juris, in the right of the fubjefts to
which he is charged to enter. Where, therefore, the
heir is the debtor, a general charge for fixing the re¬
prefentation againft him is unneceflary, fince the only
fition due to the fuperior and expences of infeftment,
and a fifth part more in refpedt the creditor is obliged
to take land for his money. The debtor muft deliver
to the creditor a valid right of the lands to be ad¬
judged, or tranfumpts thereof, renounce the poffefllon
in his favour, and ratify the decree of adjudication :
and law confiders the rent of the houfes as precifely
commenfurated to the intereft of the debt 5 fo that
the adjudger lies under no obligation to account for
the furplus rents. In this, which is called a fpecial
adjudication, the legal, or time wfithin which the debtor
may redeem, is declared to be five years •, and the cre¬
ditor attaining poffeflion upon it can ufe no farther ex¬
ecution againft the debtor, unlefs the lands be evi&ed
from him.
4. Where the debtor does not produce a fufficient
right to the lands, or is not willing to renounce the
poffeffion, and ratify the decree (which is the cafe
that has moft frequently happened), the ftatute makes
it lawful for the creditor to adjudge all right belong¬
ing to the debtor in the fame manner, and under the
fame reverfion of ten years, as he could, by the former
laws have appraifed it. In this laft kind, which is
called a general adjudication, the creditor muft limit
his claim to the principal fum, intereft, and penalty,
without demanding a fifth part more. But no general
adjudication can be infifted on, without libelling in the
fummons the other alternative of a fpecial adjudication j
for fpecial adjudications are introduced by the ftatute
in the place of appraifings j and it is only where the
debtor refufes to comply with the terms thereof, that
the creditor can lead a general adjudication.
5. Abbreviates are ordained to be made of all ad
judications, which muft be recorded within 60 days
after the date of the decree. In every other refpedt,
4 O 2 genera!
66o L A
Law of general adjudications have tHe fame effefts tliat appraif-
^ Scotland. jngg jiacj . adjudgers in poffeffion are accountable for
the furplus rents *, a citation in adjudications renders
the fubject litigious; fuperiors are obliged to enter ad¬
judgers 5 the legal of adjudications does not expire
during the debtor’s minority, gcc. Only it may be ob-
ferved, that though appraifings could not proceed be¬
fore the term of payment, yet where the debtor is ver-
gens ad inogiam, the court ex ncbili officio admit adjudi¬
cation for the debt before it be payable. But this fort
being founded folely in equity, fublifts merely as a fe-
curity, and cannot carry the property to the creditor by
the lapfe of any length of time.
Two kinds <5. There are two kinds of adjudication, which took
*J: ^Juc*lca'place at the fame time with appraifings, and ftill ob¬
tain ; viz. adjudications on a decree cogmtionis caufa,
other wile called 1 antra hcercditatem jacentem; and adju¬
dications in implement. Where, the debtor’s apparent
heir, who is charged to enter, formally renounces the
fuceeffion, the creditor may obtain a decree cognitionis
caufa ; in which, though the heir renouncing is cited
for the fake of form, no fentence condemnatory can
be pronounced againft him, in refpeft of his renuncia¬
tion ; the only effeft of it is to fubjedt the hcc roditas ja-
cens to the creditor’s diligence.
7. Adjudications contra Jicrreditatem jacentem, carry
not only the lands themlelves that belonged to the de-
ceafed, but the rents thereof fallen due fince his death 5
for thefe, as an acceffbry to the eftate belonging to the
deceafed, would have defeended to the heir if he had
entered, which rule is applied to all adjudications led
on a fpecial charge. This fort of adjudication is de¬
clared redeemable within feven years, by any co-ad-
judging creditor, either of the deceafed debtor or of
the heir renouncing. The heir himfelf, who renounces,
cannot be reftored againft his renunciation, nor eonfe-
quently redeem, if he be not a minor. But even a
major may redeem indirectly, by granting a fimulate
bond to a confident perfon : the adjudication upon
which, when conveyed to himfelf, is a good title to
redeem all other adjudications againft the lands belong¬
ing to his aneeftor.
8. Adjudications in implement are deduced againft
ihofe who have granted deeds without procuratory of
refignation or precept of feifin, and refufe to divert
themfelVes ; to the end that the fubjeft conveyed may
be effeftually verted in the grantee. Thefe adjudica¬
tions may be alfo diredled againft the heir of the grant-
er, upon a charge to enter. Here there is no place
for a legal reverfion •, for as the adjudication is led for
completing the right of a fpecial fubjeft, it muft carry
that fubjetft as irredeemably as if the right had been
voluntarily completed.
9. All adjudications led within year and day of that
one which has been made firft effttrtual by feifin (where
feifin is neceffary)-, or exacf diligence for obtaining fei¬
fin. are preferable pari paffiu. The year and day runs
from the date of the adjudication, and not of the fei¬
fin or diligence, for obtaining it. After the days of
that period, they are preferable according to their
dates. All the eo-adjudgers within the year are pre¬
ferable pari paffiu, as if one adjudication had been led
for ail their debts. This makes the feifin or diligence
on the firft adjudication a common right to the reft,
■ftho muft therefore refund to the owner of that dili-
3
w.
Part III.
gence his whole expence laid out in carrying on and Law of
completing it. And though that firft adjudication , Scot!-ai‘T
fhould be redeemed, the diligence upon it ftill fubfifts *
as to the reft. This pari paffiu preference, however,
does not deftroy the legal preference of adjudications
led are debit a fundi (fee N° clxix. 15.) j nor does it take
place in adjudications in implement.
A new fort of adjudication has been lately introdu¬
ced into the law of Scotland by the aft of the 23d
Geo. III. for rendering the payment of the creditors
of infolvent debtors more equal and expeditious. A-
mong the many other provilos in that ftatute for ex¬
pediting the payment of creditors, and lefiening the
expence of diligence againft the debtor’s eftate, it is'
enafled, That upon an order from the court of feffion
or lord ordinary, the bankrupt {hall be bound to exe¬
cute a di'pofttion or difpofitions, making over to the
truftee or tniftees ehofen by the creditors the whole
eftate real and perfonal, wherever fitnated ; and in cafe
of the bankrupt’s refufal, or of the order not being
complied w ith from any other reafon, the court or the
hud ordinary {hall, upon the application of the truftee,
ifiue an act or decree, adjudging the property of the
whole fequeftered eftate to be in the truftee for behoof
of the creditors j which (hall have the fame effect as if
the bankrupt had executed the conveyance : and by
a fubfequent elaufe in the ftatute, it is enacted, that
this difpofition of the heritable eftate, together with
the order of the court or lord ordinary on which it
proceeds, or failing thereof, the decree of adjudication,
of the court or the lord ordinary, ftiall within 60 days
of the date thereof be regiftered in the regifter of ab¬
breviates of adjudications j and (hall have the effe(ft to
entitle the truftee for behoof of the whole creditors to
rank in the fame manner upon the heritable eftate as
if it had been a proper decree of adjudication, obtain¬
ed at the date of the interlocutor awarding the fequef-
tration 5 accumulating the whole debts, principal and
intereft, as at that period, and adjudging for fecurity
or payment thereof, fo as to rank pari paffiu with any
prior effeflual adjudication, and v'ithin year and day
of the fame. By this adl alfo, in order to leffen the
number of adjudications, and confequendy the expence
upon a bankrupt eftate, it is declared, that intimation
(hall be made of the firft adjudication which is called^
fo as all creditors who are in readinefs may, within
fuch a reafonable time as may he allowed, not exceed¬
ing twenty federunt days, produce their grounds of
debt, and be conjoined in the decree to follow on faid
firft adjudication. At the fame time it may be proper
to mention, that this act is only temporary; and after
eight years experience, will probably fuffer very coml-
derable alterations, when it fhall become neceffary to
digeft another bankrupt law for Scotland.'
10. Before treating of judich; fates of bankrupts Sequeftra-
eftates, the nature or fequejlration may be fhortly ex-tion.
plained, which is a diligence that generally ufliers in
aftions of fale. Sequeftratioh of lands is a judicial a£l
of the court of feffion, whereby the management of an
eftate is put into the hands of a factor or fteward named
by the court, wffio gives fecurity, and is to be account¬
able for the rents to all having intereft. This diligence
is competent, either where the right of the lands is
doubtful, if it be applied for before either of the com¬
petitors has attained poffeffion, or where the eftate is
heavily
\
Char. II.
L A W.
661
Law of
Scot and.
Sale of
bankrupt
elUtes.
heavily charged with debts: but, as it is an unfa¬
vourable diligence, it is not admitted, unlefs that mea-
fure (hall appear neceffary for the fecurity of creditors.
Subjects not brought before the court by the diligence
of creditors, cannot fall under fequeftration ; for it is
the competition of creditors which alone founds the
jurifdiaion of the court to take the difputed fubjeft
into their poiTefifion.
it. The court of feffion who decrees the fequeftra¬
tion has the nomination of the factor, in which they
are directed by the recommendation of the creditors.
A faftor appointed by the feffion, though the proprie¬
tor had not been infeft in the lands, has a power to re¬
move tenants. Judicial factors mult, within fix monlhs
after extracting their factory, make up a rental ef the
eftate, and a lift of the arrears due by tenants, to be
put into the hands of the clerk of the proctfs, as a
charge againft themielves, and a note of fuch altera-
tions in the rental as may afterwards happen: andmuft
alfo deliver to the clerk annually a fcheme of their ac¬
counts, charge and difcharge, under heavy penalties.
They are, by the nature of their office, bound to. the
fame degree of diligence that a prudent man adhibits
in his own affairs ; they are accountable for the inte-
reft of the rents, which they either have, or by dili¬
gence might have, recovered, from a year after their
falling due. As it is much in the power of thofe fac¬
tors to take advantage of the neceffities of creditors, by
purchafing their debts at an undervalue, all luch pur-
chafes made either by the faflor himfelf, or to his be¬
hoof, are declared equivalent to an acquitta'hce or ex-
tinftion of the debt. No faftor can warrantably pay
to any creditor, without an order of the court of lef-
fion ; for he is, by the tenor of his commiffien, di-
redfted to pay the rents to thofe who {hall be found to
have the beft right to them. Judicial faftors are en¬
titled to a falary, which is generally ftated at five, per
cent, of their intromifiions: but it is leldom afcertained
till their office expires, or till their accounting •, that
the court may modify a greater or fmailer falary, or
none, in proportion to the factor’s integrity and dili¬
gence. Many cafes occur, where the court of feffion,
without fequeftration, name a faflor to preferve the
rents from periftiing 5 e. g, where an heir is diliberat-
ing whether to enter, where a minor is without tu¬
tors, where a fucceffion opens to a perfon refiding
abroad ; in all which cafes the faftor is fubje&ed to the
rules laid down in aft of federunt, feb. 13. I730,
As to fequeftrations under the bankrupt aft before
recited, the reader muft neceflarily be referred to the
aft itfelf; for being only temporary, as before men¬
tioned, it feems quite inconfiftent with the plan of this
work to enter into a minute detail of the different re¬
gulations thereby laid down in cafes 01 fequeftration
under it.
1 2. The word bankrupt is fometimes applied to per-
fons whofe funds are not fufficient for their debts; and
fometimes, not to the debtor, but to his eftate. The
court of feffion are empowered, at the fuit of any real
creditor, to try the value of a bankrupt’s eftate, and
fell it for the payment of his debts.
13. No procefs of fale, at the fuit of a creditor, can
proceed without a proof of the debtor’s bankruptcy, or
at leaft that his lands are fo charged with debts that
no prudent perfons will buy from him} and therefore
the fummons of fale muft comprehend the debtor’s of
whole eftate. The debtor, or his apparent heir, and , t
all the real creditors in pofftffion, muft be made par¬
ties to the fuit 5 but it is fufficient if the other credi¬
tors be called by an ediffal citation. The fummons of
fale contains a conclufion of ranking, or preference of
the bankrupt’s creditors. In this ranking, firft and fe- Ranking of
cond tekms are affigned to the whole creditorsfor exhi-CieuiCOf''
biting in court (or producing) their rights and dili¬
gences 5 and the decree of certification proceeding
thereupon, againft the writings not produced, has the
fame effeft in favour of the creditors who have produ¬
ced their rights, as if that decree had proceeded upon
an aftion of reduction improbation. See N° clxxxiii. 3*
By the late bankrupt ad, the fale may precede the
ranking of the creditors, unlels the court, upon applica¬
tion of the creditors, or any of them, dial] find fufneieni
caufe to delay the fale. The irredeemable property of
the lands is adjudged by the court to the higheit of¬
ferer at the fale. The creditors receiving payment
muft grant to the purchafer abfolute warrandice, to the
extent of the fum received by them ^ and the lands
purchafed are declared difburdened of all debts or deeds
of the bankrupt or his anceftors, either on payment of
the price by the purchafer to the creditors according to
their preference, or on confignation of it. By the ad
1695, purchafers were bound to confign the price in
the hands of the magiftrates of Edinburgh •, but by
§ 5. of the above ad, they may confign it in the Royal
Bank or Bank of Scotland. The only remedy pro¬
vided to fuch creditors as judge themfelves hurt by the
fale or divifion of the price, even though they ihould
be minors, is an adicn tor recovering their ftiare of the
price againft the creditors who have received it.
14. The expence of thofe proceffes is difburfed by
the fador out of the rents in his hands ; by which the
whole burden of fuch expence falls upon the pofterior
creditors.
1 if. Apparent heirs are entitled to bring adions of
fale of the eftates belonging to their anceftors, whe¬
ther bankrupt or not; the expence of which ought to
fall upon the purfuer, if there is any excrefcence of the
price, after payment of the creditors : but if there be
no excrefeenee, the creditors, who alone are gainers by
the fale, ought to bear the charge of it.
16. As proceffes of ranking and fale are defigned
for the common intereft of ail the creditors, no dili¬
gence carried on or completed during their pendency
ought to give any preference in the competition } pea-
dente tile, nihil innovandum.
17. It is a rule in ail real diligences, that where a
creditor is preferable on feveral different fubjeds, he
cannot ufe his preference arbitrarily, by favouring one
creditor more than another j but muft allocate his uni-
verfal or catholic debt proportionally againft all the
fubjeds or parties whom it affeds. If it is material to
fuch creditor to draw his whole payment out of any
one fund, he may apply his debt fo as may beft fecure
himfelf: but that inequality will be redified as to the
pofterior creditors, who had likewife by their.rights
and diligences, affected the fubjeds out of which he
drew his payment, by obliging him to affign in their
favour his right upon the feparate fubjeds which he
did not ufe in the ranking ; by which they may recur
a a a in ft thefe feparate fubjeds for the Ik a res which the
0 • “■ debt-
662
L A
Law of
Scotland,
clxxiii.
debt preferred might have drawn out of them. As the
j obligation to affign is founded merely in equity, the
catholic creditor cannot be compelled to it, if this af-
iiguing (hall weaken the preference of any feparate
debt vefted in himfelf, affefting the fpecial fubjedt
fought to be affigned. But if a creditor upon a fpe¬
cial fubjeft fhall acquire from another a catholic right,
or a catholic creditor {hall purchafe a debt affecting a
fpecial fubjeft, with a view of creating to the fpecial
debt a higher degree of preference than was naturally
due to it, by an arbitrary application of the catholic
debt, equity cannot prevent him from affigning in fa¬
vour of the creditor excluded by fuch application, efpe-
cially if, prior to the purchafe, the fubjedt has become
litigious by the procefs of ranking.
II. MOVEABLE RIGHTS.
The law of heritable rights being explained, Move-
able Rights fall next to be confidered j the dodtrine of
which depends chiefly on the nature of obligations.
Sect. XIII, Of Obligations and ContraSls in genet ah
Obligation. I. An obligation is a legal tie, by which one is bound
to pay or perform fomething to another. Every obli¬
gation on the perfon obliged implies an oppofite right
in the creditor, fo that what is a burden in regard to
the one isa right with refpedt to the other j andall rights
founded on obligation are called perfonal. There is
this effential difference between a real and a perfonal
right, that ayW in re, whether of property, or of an
inferior kind, as fervitude, entitles the perfon Vefted
with it to poffefs the fubjedt as his own j or if he is not
ih poffeflion, to demand it from the poffeffors: where¬
as the creditor in a perfonal right has only jus ad rent,
or a right to compel the debtor to fulfil his obligation j
without any right in the fubjedt itfelf, which the debt¬
or is bound to transfer to him. One cannot oblige
himfelf, but by a prefent adt of the will. A bare refo-
lution, therefore, or purpofe, to be obliged, is alter¬
able at pleafure,
Bivifionof 2. Obligations are either, (i.) Merely natural,
obligations, where one perfon is bound to another by the law of na¬
ture, but cannot be compelled by any civil adlion to
the performance. I hus, though deeds granted by a
minor having curators, without their confent, are null,
yet the minor is naturally obliged to perform fuch
deeds j and parents are naturally obliged to provide
their children in reafonable patrimonies. Natural obli¬
gations entitle the creditor to retain what he has got
in virtue thereof, without being fubjedled to reft ore it*
(2.) Obligations are merely civil, which may be fued
upon by an adtion, but are elided by an exception in
equity \ this is the cafe of obligations granted through
force or fear, &c. (3.) Proper or full obligations, are
thofe which are fupported both by equity and the civil
fandtion.
3. Obligations may alfo be divided into, (i.) Pure,
to which neither day nor condition is adjedted. Thefe
may be exadled immediately. (2.) Obligations {ex
die), which have a day adje&ed to their performance.
In thefe, dies Jlatim cedit, fed non vend $ a proper debt
arifes from the date of the obligation, becaufe it is cer¬
tain that the day will exift $ but the execution is fuf-
w* Part III,
pended till the lapfe of that day. (3.) Conditional Law of
obligations; in which there is no proper debt {dies non Scotland.
cedit) till the condition be purified, becaufe it is pof-
fible the condition may never exift ; and which there¬
fore are faid to create only the hope of a debt; but the
granter, even of thefe, has no right to refile. An obli¬
gation, to which a day is kdje&ed that poflibly may
never exift, implies a condition ; dies incertus pro con-
ditione habetur* Thus, in the cafe of a provifion to a
child, payable when he attains to the age of fourteen,
if the child dies before that age, the provifion falls.
4* Obligations, when confidered with regard to their
caufe, were divided by the Romans into thofe arifing*
from contraft, quafi contraft, delift, and quafi delia :
but there are certain obligations, even full and proper
ones, which cannot be derived from any of thefe fources,
and to which Lord Stair gives the name of obediential*
Such as the obligation on parents to aliment or main¬
tain their children ; which arifes fingly from the rela¬
tion of parent and child, and may be enforced by the
civil magiftrate. Under parents are comprehended, the
mother, grandfather, and grandmother, in their proper
order. This obligation on parents extends to the pro¬
viding of their iffue in all the neceffaries of life, and
giving them fuitable education. It ceafes, when the
children can earn a livelihood by their own induftry ;
but the obligation on parents to maintain their indi¬
gent children, and reciprocally on children to maintain
their indigent parents, is perpetual. This obligation
is, on the father’s death, transferred to the eldeft fen,
the heir of the family ; w ho, as reprefenting the father,
muft aliment his younger brothers and fillers : the bro¬
thers are only entitled to alimony till their age of twen¬
ty-one, after which they are prefumed able to do for
themfelves ; but the obligation to maintain the fillers
continues till their marriage. In perfons of low'er
rank, the obligation to aliment the lifters ceafes after
they are capable of fubfifting by any fervice or employ¬
ment.
5. All obligations, arifing from the natural duty of
ireftitution, fall under thisclafs ; thus, things given up¬
on the view of a certain event, muft be reftored, if that
event does not afterwards exift: thus alfo, things given
ob turpem caufam, where the turpitude is in the recei¬
ver and not in the giver, muft be reftored. And on
the fame principle, one upon whofe ground a houfe is
built or repaired by another, is obliged, without any
covenant, to reftore the expence laid out upon it, in fo
far as it has been profitable to him.
6. A contraft is the voluntary agreement of two or Contra^
more perfons, whereby fomething is to be given or per¬
formed upon one part, for a valuable confideration,
either prefent or future, on the other part. Confent,
which is implied in agreement, is excluded, (1.) By
error in the effentials of the contraft : for, in fuch cafe,
the party does not properly contrad, but errs or is
deceived ; and this may be alfo applied to contrafls
which take their rife from fraud or impolition. (2.)
Confent is excluded by fuch a degree of reftraint upon
any of the contrafting parties, as extorts the agreement;
for where violence or threatening are ufed againft a
porfon, his will has really no part in the contracf.
7. Loan, or mutuum, is that contract which obliges Loats.
a perfon, who has borrowed any fungible fubjeft from
another, to reftore to him as much of the fame kind,
and
Chap. II. L
Law of and of equal goodnefs. Whatever receives Its eftima-
‘jScotfand. tion jn number, weight, or meafure, is a fungible j as
Lj“ v corn, wine, current coin, &c. The only proper fub-
je£ts of this contradt are things which cannot be ufed
without either their extinction or alienation : hence
the property of the thing lent is neceffarily transferred
by delivery to the borrower, who confequently muft
run all the hazards either of its deterioration or its
perilhing, according to the rule, res perit fuo domino.
Where the borrower negledts to reftore at the time
and place agreed on, the eftimation of the thing lent
muft be made according to its price at that time and
in that place ; becaufe it would have been worth fo
much to the lender, if the obligation had been duly
performed. If there is no place nor time ftipulated for,
the value is to be ftated according to the price that the
commodity gave when and where it was demanded. In
the loan of money, the value put on it by public au¬
thority, and not its intrinfic worth, is to be conftdered.
This contradt is one of thofe called by the Romans
unilateral, being obligatory only on one part; for the
lender is fubjedled to no obligation : the only aftion
therefore that it produces, is pointed againft the bor¬
rower, that he may reftore as much in quantity and
quality as he borrowed, together with the damage the
lender may. have fuffered through default of due per¬
formance.
Comtno- 8. Commodate is a fpecies of loan, gratuitous on the
date. part of the lender, where the thing lent may be ufed,
without either its perifhing or its alienation. Hence,
in this fort of loan, the property continues with the
lender *, the only right the borrower acquires in the
fubjeft is its ufe, after which he muft reftore the indi¬
vidual thing that he borrowed : confequently, if the
1'ubjeCt periihes, it perilhes to the lender, unlefs it has
perilhed by the borrower’s fault. What degree of fault
or negligence makes either of the contra&ing parties
liable to the other in damages, is comprehended under
the following rules. Where the contraft gives a mutual
benefit to both parties, each contradlor is bound to
adhibit a middle fort of diligence, fuch as a man of or¬
dinary prudence ufes in his affairs. Where only one of
the parties has benefit by the contraft, that party muft
ufe exaft diligence } and the other who has no advan¬
tage by it, is accountable only for dole, or for grofs
omiftions, which the law conftrues to be dole. Where
one employs lefs care on the fubjeft of any eontraft
which implies an exuberant truft, than he is known to
employ in his own affairs, it is eonfidered as dole.
9. Hence it will appear that this is a bilateral con¬
tract \ the borrower muft be exaCtly careful of the
thing lent, and reftore it at the time fixed by the con-
trad, or after that ufe is made of it for which it was
lent: if he puts it to any other ufe, or negleCts to re¬
ftore it at the time covenanted, and if the thing pe-
rilhes thereafter, even by mere accident, he is bound to
pay the value. On the other part, the lender is obliged
to reftore to the borrower fuch of the expences diftmrf-
ed by him on that fubjed as arofe from any uncommon
accident, but not thofe that naturally attend the ufe of
iL Where a thing is lent gratuitoufiy, without fpeci-
fying any time of re-delivery, it conftitutes the contraCl
of precarium,' which is revocable at the lender’s plea-
fure, and, being entered into from a perfonal regard to
the borrower, ceafes by his death.
A W. > 663
10. Deportation is alfo a bilateralcontrad, by which law of
one who has the cuftody of a thing committed to him Scotland.^
(the depofitary) is obliged to reftore it to the depofi- Dep0flta.
tor. If a reward is bargained for by the depofitary tion.
for his care, it refolves into the contraCl of location.
As this contraCl is gratuitous, the depofitary is only
anfwerable for the confequences of grofs negleCt j but
after the depofit is redemanded, he is accountable even
for eafual misfortunes. He is entitled to a full indem¬
nification for the Ioffes he has fuftained by the contraCl,
and to the recovery of all fums expended by him on
the fubjeCl.
n. An obligation arifes without formal paClion,
barely by a traveller’s entering into an inn, (hip, oxcauPones\
liable, and there depofiting his goods, or putting up^a^flrx**
his horfes j whereby the innkeeper, fhipmafter, or fta-
bler, is accountable, not only for his own fads and thofe
of his fervants (which is an obligation implied in the
very exercife of thefe employments), but of the other
gutfts or paffengers j and, indeed, in every cafe, unlefs
where the goods have been loft damno fatali, or carried
off by pirates or houfe-breakers. Not only the mailers
of fhips, but their employers, are liable each of them
for the fhare that he has in the fliip ; but by the pre-
fent cuftom of trading nations, the goods brought into
a (hip muft have been delivered to the mafter or mate,
or entered into the (hip books. Carriers fall within
the intendment of this law ; and praClice has extended
it to vintners within borough. The extent of the da¬
mage fuftained by the party may be proved by his own
oath in litem.
12. Sequeftration, whether voluntarily confented to Sequeftra-
by the parties, or authorized by the judge, is a kind of tion.
depofite j but as the office of fequeftree, to whofe
care the fubjeCl in difpute is committed, is not confi-
dered as gratuitous, he cannot throw it up at pleafure,
as a common depofitary may do *, and he is liable in
the middle degree of diligence. Confignation of money Confiona-
is alfo a depofite. It may be made, either where the tion.'
debt is called in queftion by the debtor, as in fuf-
penfions j or where the creditor refufes to receive his
money, as in wadfets, &c. The rifk of the configned
money lies on the configner, where he ought to have
made payment, and not confignation 5 or has configned
only a part; or has chofen for confignatory, a perfon
neither named by the parties nor of good credit. The
charger, or other creditor, runs the riik, if he has
charged for fums not due, or has without good reafon
refufed payment, by which refufal the confignation be¬
came neceffary. It is the office of a confignatory, to
keep the money in fafe cuftody till it is called for : if
therefore he puts it out at intereft, he muft run the
hazard of the debtor’s infolveney -y but for the fame
reafon, though he (hould draw intdreft for it, he is
liable in none to the configner.
13. Pledge, when oppofed to wadfet, is a contraCl, pie^ge,
by which a debtor puts into the hands of his creditor a
fpecial moveable fubjeCl in fecurity of the debt, to be
re-delivered on payment. Where a fecurity is eftabliffi-
ed by law to the creditor, upon a fubjeCl which con¬
tinues in the debtor’s poiTeffion, it has the fpecial name
of an hypothec. L radefrnen and (hip carpenters have Hypothec,
an hypothec on the houfe or (hip repaired, for the
materials and other charges of reparation ; but not for
the expence of building a new (hip. This, however,
mull
clxxlv.
Vei*al
agreement.
Writinj
muft not now be underflood to apply umverfally : for
the court of feflion, in different eak s which lately oc¬
curred before them, and founding upon the law and
praflice of England in limilar calts, have found, that
no hypothec exifts for the expence of repairs done in
a home port. Owners of (hips h ive an hypothec on
the cargo for the freight •, heritors on the fruits or the
ground ; and landlords on the invefta etMata, for their
rents. Writers alfo, and agents, have a right of hy¬
pothec, or more properly of retention, in their con-
ftituent’s writings, for their claim of pains and difburfe-
ments. A creditor cannot, for his own payment, fell
the fubjedl impignorated, without applying to the
judge ordinary for a warrant to put it up to public
fale or roup ; and to this application the debtor ought
to be made a party.
Sect. XIV. Of Obligations by Word or Writ.
1. The appellation of verbal may be applied to all
obligations to the conftitution of which writing is not
effential, which includes both real and confenlual con»
trafts ; but as thefe are explained under feparate titles,
obligations by word, in the fenfe of this rubric, mutt be
reftricted, either to promifes, or to fuch verbal agree¬
ments as have no fpecial name to diftinguilh them.
Agreement implies the intervention of two different
parties, who come under mutual obligations to one
another. Where nothing is to be given or performed
but on one part, it is properly called a promfe ; which,
as it is gratuitous, does not require the acceptance of
him to whom the promife is made. An offer, which
mu it be diftinguifhed from a promife, implies fomething
to be done by the other party 5 and confequently is
not binding on the offerer, till it be accepted, with
its limitations or conditions, by him to whom the
offer is made j after which, it becomes a proper agree¬
ment.
2. Writing mu ft neceffarily intervene in all obliga¬
tions and bargains concerning heritable fubjefts, though
they fhould be only temporary ; as tacks, which, when
they are verbal, lail but for one year. In thefe, no
verbal agreement is binding, though it fhould be refer¬
red to the oath of the party } for, till writing is adhi¬
bited, law gives both parties a right to refile, as from
an unfinifhed bargain j which is called locus posnitentuc.
If, upon a verbal bargain of lands, part of the price
{hall be paid by him who was to purchafe, the mt r-
ventus rei, the aflual payment of money, creates a va¬
lid obligation, and gives a beginning to the contract
of fale : and, in general, wherever matters are no
longer entire, the right to reiile feems to be excluded.
An agreement, whereby a real right is pafled from, or
reftrifted, called pactum Hbtratorium, may be perfected
verbally ; for freedom is favourable, and the purpofe of
fuch agreement is rather to diffolve than to create an
obligation. Writing is alfo effential to bargains made
under condition that they fhall be reduced into writ¬
ing •, for in iuch cafes, it is pars cO 'traBus, that, till
writing be adhibited, both partus {hall have liberty
to withdraw. In the fame manner, verbal or nuncu-
pat-Vi teftaments are rejected by our law *, but verbal
legacies are i'uftained, where they do nut exceed 100I.
Scoi-'.
3. Anciently, when writing was little uied* deeds
L A W. Tart III.
were executed by the party appending his feal to them -Law of
in prefence of witncfTes. Fur preventing frauds that
might happen by appending ieals to falfe deeds,_ the
fubfcription alfo of the granter was afterwards required, 0fwnttea
and, if he could not write, that of a notary. As it obhgatioac.
might be of dangerous confequences to give full force
to the lubfcription of the parties by initials, which is
more ealily counterf ited j our praClhe, in order to fu-
ftain fuch fubicription, feems to require a proof, not
only that the grantor ufed to iubfcribe in that way, but
that de ft,Bo he had fubfcribed the deed in queftion j
at leaft, fuch proof is required, if the inftrumentary
witneflts be ftill alive.
4, As a further check, it v/as afterwards provided,
that ail writings carrying any heritable right, and
other deeds of importance, be fubfcribed by the principal
parties, if they can fubfcribe j otherwife, by two nota¬
ries, before four witneffes fpecially defigned. The fub-
fequent practice extended this requifite of the dt Agna¬
tion of the witneffes to the cafe where the parties them-
felves fubfcribed. Cuftom has conftrued obligations for
fums exceeding look Scots, to be obligations of im¬
portance. In a divifible obligation, ex. gr. for a fum
of money, though exceeding icol. the fubfcription
of one notary is fufticient, if the creditor reftrifts his
claim to 100I. : But in an obligation indivifible, e. g,
for the performance of a fa£t, if it be not fubfcribed
in terms of the ftatute, it is void. When notaries thus
atteft a deed, the atteftation or docqueft muft fpecially
exprefs that the granter gave them a mandate to fign j
nor is it fufficient that this be mentioned in the body of
the Writing.
K. In every deed, the name of him who writes it,
with his dwelling place or other mark of diftinftion,
muft be inferted. The witneffes muft both fubfcribe
as witneffes, and their names and delignations be in¬
ferted in the body of the deed. And all fubferibing
witneffes muft know the granter, and either fee him
fubfcribe, or hear him acknowledge his fubfcription $
otherwife they are declared puniftiable as acceffary to
forgery. Deeds, decrees, and other fecurities, con-
fifting of more than one. Ihect, may be written by way
of book, in place of the former cuftom of palling to¬
gether the feveral ftieets, and figning the joinings on
the margin provided each page be figned by the
granter, and marked by its number, and the telling
claufe exprefs the number of pages.
6. Inllruments of feifin are valid, if fubfcribed by Solemnities
one notary, before a reafonable number of witneffes y of notorial
which is extended by praftice to inftruments of refig foments,
nation. Two witneffes are deemed a n afonable num¬
ber to every deed that can be executed by one notary.
It is not neceffary that the witmffes to a notorial in-
ilrument or execution fee the notary or mt ffenger fign ;
for they are called as witntftVs to the tranla6lion which
is atteltcd, and not to the fubfcription of the perlon
attelling.
y. A new requifite has been added to certain deeds
fince the Union, lor the benefit of the revenue : They
mull be executed on llamped paper, or parchment, pay¬
ing a certain duty to the crown. I befe duties -mult
alfo bt paid before wrote upon, under a penalty ; but
thev-are fo numerous and complex, that it would be
tedious, even if it fell under our plan, to enter in¬
to an enumeration of them. They will be found at
length
Chap. II.
L A YV.
665
Blank
bonds.
Privileged
deeds.
Law of length in Swinton’j Abridgement, voce S'am/js, to
^SeotlancL rea!jer Js referred. Certain judicial deeds,
fuch as bail bonds, bonds of cautionry, in fufpenfions,
&c. are exempted, and do not require ftamps, as will
be feen from the feveral acts referred to by the compi¬
ler of the above abridgement of the ftatutes.
8. The granter’s name and delignation are effential,
not properly as folemnities, but becaufe no writing can
have eifeft without them. Bonds were, by our an¬
cient practice, frequently excecuted without filling up
the creditor’s name j and they paffed from hand to hand,
like notes payable to the bearer: But as there was no
method for the creditor of a perfon pofleffed of thefe to
fecure them for his payment, all writings taken blank
in the creditor’s name are declared null, as covers to
fraud j with the exception of indorfations of bills of
exchange.
9. Certain privileged writings do not require the
ordinary folemnities. 1. Holograph deeds (written by
the granter himfelf) are effe£tual without witneffes.
The date of'no holograph writing, except a bill of ex¬
change (fee next parag.) can be proved by the granter’s
own afiertion, in prejudice either of his heir or his
creditors, but mud be fupported by other adminicles.
2. Teftaments, if executed where men of Ikill and buli-
nefs cannot be had, are valid though they fhould not
be quite formal: and let the fubjeft of a teftament be
ever fo valuable, one notary figning for the teftator,
before two witneffes, is in-praftice fuffieient. Clergy¬
men were frequently notaries before the Reformation }
and, though they were afterwards prohibited to atSl as
notaries, the cafe of teftaments is excepted 5 fo that
thefe are fupported by the atteftation of one minifter,
■with two witneffes. 3. Difcharges to tenants are fuf-
tained without witneffes, from their prefumed rufticity,
or ignorance in bufinefs. 4. Mifiive letters in re nter-
catoria, commiffions, and fitted accounts in the courfe
of trade, and bills of exchange, though they are not
holograph, are, from the favour of commerce, fuftained
without the ordinary folemnities.
10. A bill of exchange is an obligation in the form
of a mandate, whereby the drawer or mandate defires
him to whom it is directed, to pay a certain fum, at
the day and place therein mentioned, to a third party.
Bills of exchange are drawn by a perlon in one country
to his eorrefpondent in another j and they Jiave that
name, becaufe it is the exchange, or the value of money
in one place compared with its value in another, that
generally determines the precife extent of the fum con¬
tained in the draught. The creditor in the bill is
fometimes called the poffeffor, or porteur. As parties to
bills are of different countries, queftions concerning them
ought to be determined by the received cuftom of trad¬
ing nations, unlefs where fpecial ftatute interpofes.
For this reafon, bills of exchange, though their form
admits not of witneffes, yet prove their own dates, in
queftions either with the heir or creditors of the debtor j
but this doftrine is not extended to inland bills payable
to the drawer himfelf.
11. A bill is valid, without the defignation either
of the drawer or of the perfon to whom it is made
payable : It is enough, that the drawer’s fubfeription
appears to be truly his j and one’s being poffeffor of a
bill marks him out to be the creditor if he bears the
name given in the bill to the creditor: Nay, though
Vol. XI. Part XL
Bills of ex¬
change.
Their fo¬
lemnities
and obli¬
gations.
the perfon drawn on ftiould not be^ defiglied, his accept¬
ance prefumes that it was he whom the drawer had in
his eye. Bills drawn blank, in the creditor’s name,
fall under the ftatutory nullity ; for though indovfations
of bills are excepted from it, bills themselves are not.
Not only the perfon drawn upon muft fign his accept¬
ance, but the drawer muft fign his draught, before any
obligation can be formed againft the accepter : Yet it
is fufficient in praftice, that the drawer figns before
the bill be produced in judgment j though it ftiould be
after the death both of the creditor and accepter. A
creditor in a bill may tranfmit it to another by indor-
fation, though the bill should not bear to his order ; by
the fame rule that other rights are tranfmifiible by ai-
fignation, though they do not bear to ajjignees.
12. The drawer, by figning his draught, becomes Obligation*,
liable for the value to the creditor in the bill, in cafe
the perfon drawn upon either does not accept, or after
acceptance does not pay j for he is prefumed to have re*
ceived value from the creditor atgiving him the draught,
though it ftiould not bear for value received: But, if
the drawer was debtor to the creditor in the bill before
the draught, the bill is prefumed to be given towards
payment of the debt, unlefs it exprefsly bears for value.
The perfon drawn upon, if he refufes to accept, while
he has the drawer’s money in his hand, is liable to him
in damages. As a bill prefumes value from the credi¬
tor, indorfation prefumes value from the indorfee j who
therefore, if he cannot obtain payment from the ac¬
cepter, has recuurfe againft the indorfer, unlefs the bill
be indorfed in thefe words, without recourfe.
13. Payment of a bill, by the accepter, acquits both
the drawer and him at the hands of the creditor : but
it entitles the accepter, if he was not the drawer’s
debtor, to an a6lion of recourfe againft him 5 and, if
he was, to a ground of compenfation. Where the bill
does not bear value in the hands of the perfon drawn
upon, it is prefumed that he is not the drawer’s debtor,
and confequently he has recourfe againft the drawer,
ex mandate.
14. Bills, when indorfed, are confidered as fo many
bags of money delivered to the onerous indorfee j which
therefore carry right to the contents, free of all burdens
that do not appear on the bills themfelves. Hence, a
receipt or difeharge, by the original creditor, if grant¬
ed on a feparate paper, does not exempt the accepter
from fecond payment to the indorfee *, hence, alfo, no
ground of compenfation competent to the accepter
againft: the original creditor can be pleaded againft the
indorfee : but, if the debtor fhall prove, by the oath of
the indorfee, either that the bill is indorfed to him for
the indorfer’s own behoof, or that he paid not the full
value for the indorfation, the indorfee is juftly confi-
dered as but a name ; and therefore all exceptions, re¬
ceivable againft the original creditor, will be fuftained
againft him. A protefted bill, after regiftration, cannot
be tranfmitted by indorfation, but by aftignation.
15. Bills muft be negociated by the poffeffor, againft
the perfon drawn upon, within a preciie time, in ordertl0n*
to preferve recourfe againft the drawer. In bills pay¬
able fo many days after fight, the creditor has a dif-
cretionary power of fixing the payment fomewhat
fooner or later, as his oocafions fhall require. Bills
payable on a day certain, need not be prefented for ac¬
ceptance till the day of payment, becaufe that day can
4 P neither
L?w of
Scotland.
  v-~—<
666
L A W.
Part III.
Law of
Scotland.
Days of
grace.
Privileges
©f bills by
flatute.
Inland bills.
Certain
bills not
privileged.
neither be prolonged nor (hortened by the time of ac¬
ceptance. For the fame reaion, the acceptance of bills,
payable on a precife day, need not be dated: but, where
a bill is drawn payable fo many days after figbt, it
mull j becaufe there the term of payment depends on
the date of acceptance.
16. Though bills are, in drift law, due the very day
on which they are made payable, and may therefore be
protefted on the day thereafter •, yet there are three
days immediately following the day of payment, called
days of grace, within any of which the creditor may
proteft the bill; but if he delay protefting till the day
after the laft day of grace, he lofes his recourfe. Where
a bill is protefted, either from not acceptance or not
payment, the diftionour muft be notified to the drawer
or indorfer, within three polls at fartheft. This ftrift-
nefs of negociation is confined to fuch bills as may be
protefted by the poffeffor upon the third day of grace :
where, therefore, bills are indorfed after the days of
grace are expired, the indorfee is left more at liberty,
and does not lofe his recourfe, though he (hould not take
a formal proteft for not payment, if, within a reafonable
time, he lliall give the indorfer notice of the accepter’s
refufing to pay. Not only does the pofleflbr, who ne-
glefts ftrift negociation, lofe his recourfe againft the
drawer, where the perfon drawn upon becomes after¬
wards bankrupt \ but though he ftiould continue fol-
vent : for he may in that cafe recover payment from
the debtor, and fo is not to be indulged in an unnecef-
fary procefs againft the drawer, which he has tacitly
renounced by his negligence. Recourfe is preferved
againft the drawer, though the bill ftiould not be duly
negociated, if the perfon drawn upon Avas not his debt¬
or ; for there the draAver can qualify no prejudice by
the negleft of diligence, and he ought not to have
drawn on one who owed him nothing.
The privileges fuperadded to bills by ftatute are,
that though, by their form, they can have no claufe of
regiftration, yet, if duly protefted, they are regiftrable
Aivithin fix months after their date in cafe of not accept¬
ance, or in fix months after the term of payment in
the cafe of not payment ; Avhich regiftration is made
the foundation of fummary diligence, either againft the
drawer or indorfer in the cafe of not acceptance, or
againft the accepter in the cafe of not payment. This
is extended to inland bills, i. e. bills both draAvn and
made payable in Scotland. After acceptance, fum¬
mary diligence lies againft no other than the accepter;
the drawer and indorfer muft be purfued by an ordi¬
nary aftion. It is only the principal fum in the bill,
and intereft, that can be charged for fummarily: the ex¬
change, when it is not included in the draught, the re-
exchange incurred by fufrering the bill to he protefted
and returned, and the expence of diligence, muft all
be recovered by an ordinary aftion ; becaufe thefe are
not liquid debts, and fo muft be previoufly conftituted.
18. Bills, when drawn payable at any confiderable
diftance of time after date, are denied the privileges of
bills : for bills are intended for currency, and not to
lie as a fecurity in the creditor’s hands. Bills are not
valid which appear ex facie to be donations. No ex-
trinfic ftipulatxon ought to be contained in a bill which
deviates from the proper nature of bills : hence, a bill
to which a penalty is adjefted, or Avith a claufe of in-
ierefl: from the date, is null. Inland precepts drawn,
not for money, the medium of trade, but for fungibles, Law of
are null, as wanting Avriter’s name and witneffes. It is Scotland.^
not an agreed point whether promiffory notes, Avithout v_
writer and witneffes, unlefs holograph, are probative.
19. So flood the law of Scotland, in regard to bills and Later al-
promiffory notes, previous to the ftatute 1 2 Geo. III. temtions as
By that "ftatute, however, the law of Scotland hasu’^1
undergone very material alterations. They are de-J10te5(
dared to have the fame privileges, and to prefcribe in
fix years after the term of payment. Bank notes and
poft bills are excepted from this prefcription : nor does
it run during the years of the creditor’s minority. In¬
land bills and promiffory notes muft be protelied Avith-
in the days of grace, to fecure recourfe ; and the difho.
nour notified within 14 days after the proteft. Sum¬
mary diligence may pals not only againft the accepter,
but likewii’e againft the drawer, and all the indovfees
jointly and feverally ; and at the inftance of any in-
dorfee, though the bill Avas not protefted in his name,
upon his producing a receipt or letter from the pro¬
tefting indorfee. This aft was in force only for feven
years after 15th May 1772, and to the end of the then
next feflion of parliament. But as it was founu by
experience that it had been of great advantage to Scot¬
land, it was made perpetual by the late aft 23 Geo.
III. fo that it has now become a permanent part of the
law of Scotland.
20. As for the folemnities effential to deeds figned
in a foreign country, where they come to receive exe¬
cution in Scotland, it is a general rule, that no law' can
be of authority beyond the dominions of the lawgiver.
Hence, in ftriftnefs, no deed, though perfefted accord-Solemnities
ing to the Hav of the place where it is figned, can have of deeds
effeft in another country where different folemnities_ are “n‘n a
required to a deed of that fort. But this rigour is k)coun):ry>
foftened ex comitate, by the common confent of nations,
that all perfonal obligations granted according to the
law of that country where they are figned, are effeftual
everywhere ; which obtains in obligations to convey
heritage. Conveyances themfelves, however, of heri¬
table fubjefts muft be perfefted according to the law
of the country where the heritage lies, and from which
it cannot be removed.
21. A writing, Avhile the granter keeps it under his Delivery
own poAver or his doer’s, has no force ; it becomes pb-asd^epofi-
ligatory, only after it is delivered to the grantee him-
felf, or found in the hands of a third perfon. As to
Avhich laft, the following rules are obferved. A deed
found in the hands of one who is doer both for the
granter and grantee, is prefumed to have been put in
his hands as doer for the grantee. The prefumption
is alfo for delivery, if the deed appears in the hands of
one who is a ftranger to both. Where a deed is depo-
fited in the hands of a third perfon, the terms of de-
pofitation may be proved by the oath of the depofitary,
unlefs where they are reduced into Avriting. A deed
appearing in the cuftody of the grantee himfelf is con-
fidered as his abfolute right ; infomuch that the gran¬
ter is not alloAved to prove that it was granted in truft,
otherwife than by a written declaration figned by the
truftee, or by his oath.
22. The following deeds are effeftual without deli-What deeds
very, (i.) Writings containing a claufe difpenlingeff^al _
with the delivery; thefe are of the nature of revocable
deeds, where the death of the granter is equivalent to
delivery,
Chap. II.
L A W.
667
Law of delivery, becaufe after deatli there can be no revocation.
Scotland. ^2.) Deeds in favour of children, even natural ones j
L" v for parents are the proper cuftodiars or keepers of their
children’s writings. From a limilar reafon, poftnuptial
fettlements by the hufband to the wife need no delivery.
(3.) Rights which are not to take effect till the granter’s
death, or even where he referves an interelt to himfelf
during his life ; for it is prefumed he holds thecuilody
of thefe, merely to fecure to himfelf fuch referved inte-
reft. (4.) Deeds which the granter lay under an ante¬
cedent natural obligation to execute, e.g. rights grant¬
ed to a cautioner for his relief. (5.) Mutual obliga¬
tions, e.g. contrails for every fuch deed, the moment it
is executed, is a common evident to all the parties con-
tra&ors. Laftly, The publication of a writing by re-
giftration is equivalent to delivery.
SECT. XV. Of Obligations and ContraBs Ori/ing from
Confent, and of accefforrj Obligations.
cl XXV.
Confcnfual i. Contracts confenfual (7. e. which might, by the Ro-
eontra&s. man jaWj perfected by the foie confent, without the
intervention either of things or of writing), are file,
permutation, location, fociety, and mandate. Where the
fubjeft of any of thefe contracts is heritable, writing is
neceflary.
Sale. 2. Sale is a contraft, by which one becomes obliged
to give fomething to another, in confideration of a cer¬
tain price in current money to be paid for it. Things
confifting merely in hope, may be the fubjecl of this
contract, as the draught of a net. Commodities, where
their importation or ufe is abfolutely prohibited, can¬
not be the fubjeft of fale 5 and even in run goods, no
adlion lies againll the vender for the delivery, if the
buyer knew the goods were run. So far indeed has
this principle been carried, and fo anxious have our
judges been to put a Hop to the pra&ice of fmuggling,
that in different cafes which have occurred of action
being brought at the dillance of a foreign merchant
againlt perfons refident in Scotland for payment of
goods which had been fmuggled, a diftimflion has been
made betwixt the cafe of the foreign merchant being
or not being a native of Scotland. Where the foreign
merchant was a native of Scotland, it has been pre¬
fumed that he was acquainted with the revenue lawr of
the country, and that he was in a manner verfans
in re illicita ; and therefore action has been denied for
recovery of the price of fuch goods : but where, on the
other hand, the foreign merchant was not a native of
Scotland, nowife amenable to, and even prefumed ig¬
norant of its laws, he has with jultice been allowed ac¬
tion for the price of fuch goods, unlefs it were fliown
that he had in fa£t been particeps crimims, by aiding the
frnuggle. The fame principle has regulated the decilions
in the courts of England in cafes of a limilar nature,
which have within thefe few years come before them.
3. Though this contradl may be perfected before de¬
livery of the fubjeft, the property remains till then with
the vender : (See N° clxii. 9.). Yet till delivery, the
hazard of its deterioration falls on the purchafer, becaufe
he has all the profits arifing from it after the fale. On
the other hand, the fubjeft itfelf perilhes to the vender :
(1.) If it Ihould perilh through bis fault, or after his
undue delay to deliver it. (2.) If a fubjeft is fold as
a fungible, and not as an individual, or corpus^ e. g. a
quantity of farm-wheat, fold without diftinguifhing the Law of
parcel to be delivered from the reft of the farm. Scotiand'
(3.) The periculum lies on the vender till delivery, if 'r~
he be obliged by a fpecial article in the contrail to de¬
liver the lubjedt at a certain place.
4. Location is that contract where a hire is ftipu- Location,
lated for the ufe of things, or for the fervice of perfons.
He who lets his work or the ufe of his property to
hire, is the locator or leffor j and the other, the con-
dudtor or leflee. In the location of things, the leffor
is obliged to deliver the fubjeft, fitted to the ufe it was
let for j and the leflee muft preferve it carefully, put
it to no other ufe, and, after that is over, reftore it.
Where a workman or artificer lets his labour, and if
the work is either not performed according to contrail,
or if it be infufficient, even from mere unfkilfulnefs, he
is liable to his employer in damages, for he ought not,
as an artificer, to have undertaken a work to which he
was not equal. A fervant hired for a certain term is
entitled to his full wages, though from ficknefs or other
accident he (hould be difabled for a part of his time :
but if he die before the term, his wages are only due
for the time he actually ferved. If a mafter dies, or
without good reafon turns off, before the term, a fervant
who eats in his houfe, the fervant is entitled to his full
wages, and to his maintenance till that term ; and, on
the other part, a fervant wdio without ground deferts his
fervice, forfeits his wages and maintenance, and is liable
to his mafter in damages.
5. Society or copartnerfoip is a contrail, w hereby the Society,
feveral partners agree concerning the communication
of lofs and gain arifing from the fubjeft of the con¬
trail. It is formed by the reciprocal choice: which the
partners make one of another ; and fo is not conftitut-
ed in the cafe of co-heirs, or of feveral legatees in the
fame fubje6t. A copartnerfliip may be fo conftituted,
that one of the partners (hall, either from his foie right
of property in the (ubjeift, or from his fuperior fkill, be
entitled to a certain thare of the profits, without being
fubjeiled to any part of the lofs j but a fociety, where
one partner is to bear a certain proportion of lofs, with¬
out being entitled to any fhare of the profits, called by
the Romans focietas Iconina, is juftly reprobated. All
the partners are entitled to ftiares of profit and lofs pro¬
portioned to their feveral flocks where it is not other-
wife covenanted.
6. As partners are united, from a deleBus perfonce,
in a kind of brotherhood, no partner can, without a
fpecial power contained in the contradl, transfer any
part of his {hare to another. All the partners are bound
in folidum by the obligation of any one of them, if he
fubferibe by the firf or focial name of the company ;
unlefs it be a deed that falls not under the common
courfe of adminiftration. The company effe£ls are the
common property of the fociety fubje£led to its debts j
fo that no partner can claim a divifion thereof, even af¬
ter the fociety is diflblved, till they are paid j and, con-
fequently, no creditor of a partner can, by diligence,
carry to himfelf the property of any part of the com¬
mon flock, in prejudice of a company creditor : but he
may, by arreftment, fecure his debtor’s {hare in the com¬
pany’s hands, to be made forthcoming to him at the
clofe of the copartnerfhip, in fo far as it is not exhauft-
ed by the company debts.
7. Society being founded in the mutual confidence
4 P 2 among
668 L i
Law of among tlie fociiy is diffolved, not only by the renuncia-
^Scotland. jjonj but. by t}ie death of any one of them, if it be not
otherwife fpecially covenanted, A partner who te-
nounces upon unfair views, or at a critical time, when
his withdrawing may be fatal to the fociety, loofes his
partners from ail their engagements to him, while he
is bound to them for all the profits he {hall make by
his withdrawing, and for the lofs arifing thereby to
the company. Not only natural, but civil death, e. g.
arifing from a fentence infli&ing capital punifiiment,
makes one incapable to perform the duties of a part¬
ner, and confequently diffolves the fociety. In both
cafes of death and renunciation, the remaining part¬
ners may continue the copartnerlhip, either exprefsly,
by entering into a new contraft j or tacitly, by carry¬
ing on their trade as formerly. Public trading com¬
panies are now every day conftituted, with rules very
different from thofe which either obtained in the Ro¬
man law, or at this day obtain in private focieties. The
proprietors or partners in thefe, though they may tranf-
fer their {hares, cannot renounce 5 nor does their death
diiTolve the company, but the {hare of the deceafed de-
fcends to his reprefentative.
A joint 8. A joint trade is not a copartnerfhip, but a mo-
trade. mentary contraft, where two or more perfons agree to
contribute a fum, to be employed in a particular courfe
of trade, the produce whereof is to be divided among
the adventurers ; according to their feveral {hares, after
the voyage is finiihed. If, in a joint trade, that part¬
ner who is intruded with the money for purchafing the
goods, fliould, in place of paying them in cafti, buy
them upon credit, the furnifiier who followed his faith
alone in the lale, has no recourfe againft the other ad¬
venturers, he can only recover from them what of the
buyer’s {hare is yet in their hands. Where any one of
the adventurers in a joint trade becomes bankrupt, the
others are preferable to h!s creditors, upon the common
flock, as long as it continues undivided, for their relief
of all the engagements entered into by them on ac¬
count of the adventure.
Mandate. 9- Mandate is a contraft, by which one employs
another to manage any bufinefs for him $ and by the
Roman lawq it muft have been gratuitous. It may be
conftituted tacitly, by one’s fuffering another to aft in a
} certain branch of his affairs, for a traft of time together,
without challenge. The mandatory is at liberty not to
accept of the mandate j and, as his powers are folely
founded in the mandant’s commiflion, he muff, if he
undertakes it, ftriftly adhere to the direftions given
him : Nor is it a good defence, that the method he fol¬
lowed was more rational ; for in that his employer was
the proper judge. Where no fptcial rules are prefcri-
bed, the mandatory, if he afts prudently, is fecure,
whatever the fuccefs may be j and he can fue for the
recovery of all the expences reafonably dilburfed by
him in the execution of his office.
10. Mandate may be general, containing a power
of adminiftering the mandant’s whole affairs; but no
mandate implies a power of difpofing gratuitouily of
the conftituent’s property, nor even of felling his heri¬
tage for an adequate price ; but a general mandatory^
may fell fuch of the moveables as muft otherw'ife periffi.
No mandatory can, without fpecial powers, trar.faft
doubtful claims belonging to his conftituentj or refer
them to arbiters,
l
^ W. Part III.
11. Mandates expire, (1.) By the revocation of the Law of
employer, though only tacit, as if he ftiould name an- Scotland,
other mandatory for the fame bufinefs. (2.) By the
renunciation of the mandatory ; even after he has exe¬
cuted a part, of his commiffion, if his office be gratuitous.
(3.) By the death either of the mandant or mandatory :
But if matters are not entire, the mandate continues
in force, notwithftanding fuch revocation, renunciation,
or death. Procuratories of refignation and precepts
of feifin are made out in the form of mandates ; but,
becaufe they are granted for the foie benefit of the man¬
datory, all of them, excepting precepts of c/W conjlat,
are declared (by aft 1693) to continue after the death
either of the granter or grantee. Deeds which con¬
tain a claufe or mandate for regiftration, are for the
fame reafon made regiftrable after the death of either
(by aft 1693 and 1696).
12. The favour of commerce has introduced a tacit
mandate, by which mafters of {hips are empowered
to contraft in name of their exercitors or employers,
for repairs, ffiip-provifions, and whatever elfe may be
neceffary for the {hip or crew ; fo as to oblige not them-
felves only, but their employers. Whoever has the ac¬
tual charge of the ffiip is deemed the mafter, though
he ffiould have no commiffion from the exercltors, or
ffiould be fubftituted by the mafter in the direftion of
the {hip without their knowledge. Exercitors are
liable, whether the mafter has paid his own money to
a merchant for neceffaries, or has borrowed money to
purehafe them. The furniffier or lender muft prove
that the {hip needed repairs, provifion, &c. to fuch an
extent; but he is under no neceffity to prove the ap¬
plication of the money or materials to the {hip’s ule.
If there are feveral exercitors, they are liable Jinguli in
folidum. In the fame manner the undertaker of any
branch of trade, manufafture, or other land negocia-
tion is bound by the contrafts of the inftitors whom he
fets over it, in fo far as relates to the fubjeft of theprce-
pojitura.
13. Contrafts and obligations, in themfelves i^per-jjomoj0„a.
feft, receive ftrength by the contraftor or his heirs do-tion.
ing any aft thereafter which imports an approbation of
them, and confequently fupplies the want of an origi¬
nal legal confent. This is called homologation ; and it
takes place even in deeds intrinfically null, whether
the nullity arifes from the w:ant of flatutory folemnities
or from the incapacity of the granter. It cannot be
inferred, (].) By the aft of a perfon who was not in the
knowledge of the original deed ; for one cannot ap¬
prove what he is ignorant of. (2.) Homologation has
no place where the aft or deed, which is pleaded as
fuch, can be afcribed to any other caufe; for an inten¬
tion to come under an obligation is not prefumed.
14. ^ucJi-contrciBs are formed without explicit con-Qiiaf,.cen-
fent, by one of the parties doing fomething which by itstrads.
nature either obliges him to the other party, or the
other party to him. Under this clafs may be reckoned
tutory, &c. the entry of an heir, negotiorutn gejlio, in-
debiti fo/utio, communion of goods betw een two or more
common proprietors, and merciutn jaBus levandce navis
caufa Negofiorum gejlio forms thofe obligations which
arife from the management of a perfon’s affairs, in his
abfence, by another, without any mandate. As fuch
manager afts without authority from the proprietor,
he ought to be liable in exaft diligence, unlefs he has
froni
I
Chip. II. L A W.
Law of from friend ft ip interpofed in affair? which admitted no
Scotiand. delay : and he is accountable for his intromiflions with
,r~""'J intereft. On the other part, he is entitled to the re¬
covery of his neceilary dlfburfements on the fubjeft,
and to be relieved of the obligations in which he may
have bound himfelf in confequence of the management.
I 5. Indebiti folutio, or the payment to one of what
is not due to him, if made through any miftake, either
of fadf, or even of law, founds him who made the pay¬
ment in an a&ion againft the receiver for repayment
(condiBio indebiti'). This adion does not lie, (1.) If
the fum paid was due ex equitatey or by a natural ob¬
ligation : for the obligation to reftore is founded folely
in equity. (2.) If he who made the payment knew
that nothing was due : for qui confu/td dat quod non de-
bebat, prcefumltur donare.
Right of di- 16. Where two or more perfons become common
viding com- proprietors of the fame fubjed, either by legacy, gift,
mon proper OJ. without the view of copartnerfhip, an ob¬
ligation is thereby created among the proprietors to
communicate the profit and lofs arifing from the fubjed,
while it remains common : And the fubjed may be
divided at the fuit of any having intereft. This divi-
fion, where the queftion is among the common proprie¬
tors, is according to the valuation of their refpeBive pro¬
perties : But where the queftion is between the pro¬
prietors and thofe having fervitudes upon the property,
the fuperfice is only divided, without prejudice to the
property. Commonties belonging to the king, or to
royal boroughs, are not divifible. Lands lying runrig,
and belonging to different proprietors, may be divided,
with the exception of borough and incorporated acres ;
the execution of which is committed to the judge or¬
dinary, or juftices of the peace.
Lex Rhodia 17* ^'^le throwing of goods overboard, for lighten-
dejadlu. ing a ^ip in a ftorm, creates an obligation, whereby
the owners of the ftiip and goods faved are obliged to
contribute for the relief of thofe whofe goods were
thrown overboard, fo that all may bear a proportional
lofs of the goods ejected for the common fafety. In
this contribution, the fhip’s provifions fuffer no eftima-
tion. A matter who has cut his maft, or parted with
his anchor, to fave the (hip, is entitled to this relief:
but if he has loft them by the ftorm, the lofs falls only
on the fhip and freight. If the ej eft ion does not fave
the (hip, the goods preferved from (liipwreck are not
liable in contribution. Ejection may be lawfully
made, if the mailer and a third part of the mariners
judge that meafure neceffary, though the owner of the
goods ftiould oppofe it : and the goods ejefted are to
be valued at the price that goods of the fame fort which
are faved (hall be afterwards fold for.
Accefibry I^* ^'^ere are certain obligations which cannot fub-
obUgations. ^ by themfelves, but are accejjions to, or make a part
of, other obligations. Of this fort are fidejujjion, and
the obligation to pay intereft. Cautionry, or fidejujfion,
is that obligation by which one becomes engaged as fe-
curity for another, that he thall either pay a fum, or
perform a deed.
Cautionry. 19. A cautioner for a fum of money may be bound,
either fimply as cautioner for the principal debtor, or
conjundtly and feverally for and with the principal
debtor. The firft has, by our cuftoms, the benefcium
ordims, or of difcuffion j by which the creditor is ob¬
liged to difcufs the proper debtor, before he can in-
659
Law of
Scotland.
fill for payment againft the cautioner. Where one is
bound as full debtor with and for the principal, or con-
junftly and feverally with him, the two obligants are "v
bound equally in the fame obligation, each in folidum ;
and confequently, the cautioner, though he is but an
acceffory, may be fued for the wlufie, without either dif-
cufling or even citing the principal debtor. Cautioners
for performance of fafls by another, or for the faith¬
ful difcharge of an office (e. g. for factors, tutor?, &c.),
cannot by the nature of their engagement be bound
conjunftly and feverally with the principal obligant,
becaufe the fadt to which the principal is bound
cannot poffibly be performed by any other. In fuch
engagements, therefore, the failure mull be previoully
conllituted againft the proper debtor, before adtion can
-be brought againft the cautioner for making up the lofs
of the party fuffering.
20. The cautioner, who binds himfelf at the defire
of the principal debtor, has an aSlio mandati or of re¬
lief againlt him, for recovering the principal and in¬
tereft paid by himfelf to the creditor, and for neceffary
damages : -which adtion lies de jure, though the credi¬
tor fhould not affign to him on payment. As relief
againlt the debtor is implied in fidejuffory obligations,
the cautioner, where fuch relief is cut off, is no longer
bound : hence the defence of prefeription frees the cau¬
tioner, as wrell as the principal debtor.
21. But (1.) Wrhere the cautionry is interpofed to
an obligation merely natural, the relief is reltridled
to the fums that have really turned to the debtor’s
profit. (2.) A cautioner who pays without citing the
debtor, lofes his relief, in i’o tar as the debtor had a re¬
levant defence againft the debt, in whole or in part.
Relief is not competent to the cautioner, till he either
pays the debt, or is diftreffed for it j except, ill, Where
the debtor is exprefsly bound to deliver to the cau¬
tioner his obligation cancelled, againll a day cer¬
tain, and has failed j or, 2dly, Where the debtor is
vergens ad inopiam ; in w hich cafe the cautioner may,
by proper diligence, fecure the debtor’s funds for his
own relief, even before payment or diftrefs.
22. A right of relief is competent de jure to the
cautioner, who pays, againll his co-cautioners, unlefs
where the cautioner appears to have renounced it. In
confequence of this implied relief, a creditor, if he
fliall grant a difcharge to any one of the cautioners,
mull, in demanding the debt from the others, dedudl:
that part as to which he has cut off their relief by
that difcharge. Where the principal debtor, in a
bond in which a cautioner is bound, grants bond of
corroboration with a new cautioner, both cautioners,
as they intervene for the fame debt, and at the delire
of the fame debtor, have a mutual relief againft each
other ; but w here the cautioner in the firll bond figns
as a principal obligant in the corroboration, the cau¬
tioner in the new bond, it. would feem, would be en¬
titled to a total relief againft the firft cautioner. At
fame -time, the decifions of the court of feflion are
not perfectly at one upon this branch of the dodtrine of
cautionry.
23. Cautionry is alfo judicial, as in a fufpenfion. It judicial
is fufficient to loofe the cautioner, that when he became cautionry,
bond, the fufpender had good realon to fufpend, e. g.
if the charger had at that period no title, or had not
then performed his part, though thefe grounds of fuf-
penlion
670 -L*
Law of penfion fhould be afterwards taken off. In all mari-
t ^CQt'lan<^ time caufes, where the parties are frequently foreigners,
the defender muft give caution judicio fijli etjudicatum
folvi: fuch cautioner gets free by the death of the de¬
fender before fentence j but he continues bound, though
the caufe fhould be carried from the admiral to the
court of fellion. This fort of caution is only to be ex¬
acted in caufes ftrictly maritime.
24. It happens frequently, that a creditor takes
two or more obligants bound to him, all as principal
debtors, without fidejuffion. Where they are fo
bound, for the performance of facts that are in them-
felves indivifible, they are liable each for the whole
or Jinguli in foHihim, But, if the obligation be for a
fum of money, they are only liable prorata; unlefs,
(1.) Where they are in exprefs words bound eonjunft-
ly and feverally ; or, (2.) In the caie of bills or pro-
miffory notes. One of feveral obligants of this fort,
who pays the whole debt, or fulfils the obligation, is
entitled to a proportional relief againb the reft j in fuch
manner, that the lofs muft, in every cafe, fall equally
upon all the folvent obligants.
IntereA: of 25. Obligations for fums of money are frequently
money. accompanied with an obligation for the annualrent or
intereft thereof. Interejl (ufura') is the profit due by
the debtor of a fum of money, to the creditor for the
ufe of it. The canon law confidtred the taking of
intereft as unlawful : the law of Moles allowed it to
be exacted from ftrangers : and all the reformed na¬
tions of Europe have found it neceffary, after the ex¬
ample of the Romans, to authorize it at certain rates
fixed by ftatute. Soon after the Reformation, our le¬
gal intereft was fixed at the rate of 10 per cent, per
annum : from which time it had been gradually redu¬
ced, till at laft, by 12 Ann. flat. 2. c. 16. it was
brought to five per cent, and has continued at that rate
ever fince.
26. Intereft is due, either by law or by paBion.
It is due by law, either from the force of Jlatute, un¬
der which may be included acis of federunt, ox front
the nature of the tranfaBion. Bills of exchange, and
inland bills, though they ftrould not be protefted, car¬
ry intereft from their date in cafe of not acceptance j
or from the day of their falling due, in cafe of ac¬
ceptance and not payment. Where a bill is accept¬
ed, which hears no term of payment, or which is pay¬
able on demand, no intereft is due till demand be
made of the fum, the legal voucher of which is a no¬
torial proteft. Intereft is due by a debtor after de¬
nunciation, for all the fums contained in the diligence,
even for that part which is made up of intereft. Sums
paid by cautioners on diftrefs carry intereft, not only
as to the principal fum in the obligation, but as to the
intereft paid by the cautioner. Faftors named by the
court of feflion are liable for intereft, by a fpecial atl
of federunt 5 fee N° clxxii. 11.
27. It arifes ex lege, or from the nature of the
tranfafliqn, that a purchafer in a fale is liable in irite-
reft for the price of the lands bought from the term
of his entry, though the price fhould be arrefted in
his hands, or though the feller ftiould not be able to
deliver to him a fuftieient progrefs or title to the
lands *, for no purchafer can in equity enjoy the fruits
of the lands, while at the fame time he retains the in¬
tereft of the price; but lawful confignation of the
A W. Part IIL
price made by a purchafer, upon the refufal of the Law of
perfon’s having right to receive it, flops the currency ^Scotland,
of intereft. Where one intermeddles with money be-
longing to another which carries intereft, he ought to
reftore it cum omm obventione et caufa ; and is therefore
liable in the intereft of it, as being truly an acceffory
of the fubjeft itfelf. It is alfo from the nature of the
tranfa&ion, that intereft is in certain cafes allowed to
merchants or others in name of damages.
28. Intereft is due by exprefs patlion, where there
is a claufe in a bond or obligation, by which money
is made to carry intereft. An obligation is not law¬
ful, where it is agreed on, that the yearly intereft of
the fum lent, if it ftiould not be paid punftually as it
falls due, {hall be accumulated into a principal fum
bearing intereft *, but an obligation may be lawfully
granted, not only for the fum truly lent, but for the
intereft to the day at which the obligation is made
payable, thereby the intermediate intereft is accumu¬
lated into a principal fum from the term of payment.
Intereft may be alfo due by implied paffion :■ Thus
where the intereft upon a debt is by a letter promifed
for time part, fuch promife implies a padlion for intereft
as long as the debt remains unpaid j thus alfo the ufe
of payment of intereft prefumes a padtion, and when
intereft is exprefied for one terra, it is prefumed to be
bargained for till payment.
29. The fubjedl matter of all obligations confifls ei-General
ther cf things or of faBs. Things exempted from
commerce cannot be the fubjtdf of obligation. (^eeti0n. b
N° clxii. 2.). One cannot be obliged to the perform¬
ance of a fadt naturally impoflible ; nor of a fadt in
itfelf immoral, for that is alfo in the judgment of law
impoflible. Since impoflible obligations are null, no
penalty or damage can be incurred for non-perform¬
ance : but it is otherwife, if the fadt be in itfelf pof-
fible, though not in the debtor’s power j in which cafe
the rule obtains, locum faEh itnprafabilis fubit damnum
et intereffe.
30. An obligation, to which a condition js objedt-
ed, either naturally or morally impoffible, is in the
general cafe null} for the parties are prefumed not to
have been ferious. But fuch obligation is valid, and
the condition thereof heldnon fcripta, (i.) In tef-
taments : (2.) In obligations, to the performance of
which the granter lies under a natural tie, as in bonds
of provifion to a child. Where an obligation is
granted under a condition, lawful but unfavourable,
e. g. that the creditor {hall not marry without the
confent of certain friends, no more weight is given
to the condition than the judge thinks reafonable.
A condition, which is in feme degree in the power
of the creditor himfelf, is held as fulfilled, if he has
done all he could to fulfil it. Implement or perform¬
ance cannot be demanded in a mutual contradft, by that
party who himfelf declines or cannot fulfil the coun¬
terpart.
31. Donation, fo long as the fubjeft is not deliver-Donation,
ed to the donee, may be juftly ranked among obliga¬
tions j and it is that obligation which arifes from the
mere good will and liberality of the granter. Dona¬
tions imply no warrandice, but from the future faffs
of the donor. They are hardly revocable by our law
for ingratitude, though it Ihould be of the groffeft
kind: thofe betwixt man and wife are revocable by
Chap. II. LA
Law of the donor, even after the death of the donee j but re-
Scotland. muneratory grants, not being truly donations, cannot
be fo revoked. That fpecial fort of donation, which
is conftituted verbally, is called a promife. The Ro¬
man law entitled all donors to the beneficium competen¬
tly, in virtue of which they might retain fuch part of
the donation as was neceffary for their own lubfift-
ence. Our law allows this benefit to fathers, with
refpecf to the provifions granted to their children j
and to grandfathers, which is a natural confequence
of children’s obligation to aliment their indigent pa¬
rents ; but to no collateral relation, not even to bro¬
thers.
32. Donations made in contemplation of death, or
mortis caufa, are of the nature of legacies, and like
them revocable : confequently, not being effectual in
the granter’s life, they cannot compete with any of
his creditors ; not even with thofe whofe debts were
contracted after the donation. They are underltood
to be given from a perfonal regard to the donee, and
therefore fall by his predeceafe. No deed, after deli¬
very, is to be prefumed a donatio mortis caufa ; for re¬
vocation is excluded by delivery.
33. Deeds are not prefumed, in dubio, to be dona¬
tions. Hence, a deed by a debtor to his creditor, if
donation be not exprelfed, is prefumed to be granted
in fecurity or fatisfadtion of the debt \ but bonds of
provifion to children are, from the prefumption of pa¬
ternal aftedtion, conftrued to be intended as an addi¬
tional patrimony; yet a tocher, given to a daughter
in her marriage contradf, is prefumed to be in fatis-
fadtion of all former bonds and debts ; becaufe mar¬
riage contradfs ufually contain the whole provifions in
favour of the bride. One who aliments a perfon that
is come of age, without an exprefs padtion for board,
is prefumed to have entertained him as a friend, unlefs
in the cafe of thofe wfho earn their living by the en¬
tertainment or board of llrangers. But alimony given
to minors, who cannot bargain for themfelves, is not
accounted a donation ; except either where it is pre¬
fumed from the near relation of the perfon alimenting,
that it was given ex pietate ; or where the minor had a
father or curators, with whom a bargain might have
been made.
Sect. XVI. Of the Diffohttion or Extinction of Obli¬
gations.
Extinction I* Obligations may be difiblved by performance, or
of obliga- implement, confent, compenfation, novation, and confufon.
tions as, (1.) By fpecifcal performance : thus, an obligation for
perform- a fum Gf money is extinguilhed by payment. The
creditor is not obliged to accept of payment by parts,
unlefs where the fum is payable by different divifions.
If a debtor in two or more feparate bonds to the fame
creditor, made an indefinite payment, without afcrib-
ing it at the time to any one of the obligations, the
payment is applied, iff. To intereft, or to fums not
bearing intereft. idly, To the fums that are leaft fe-
cured, if the debtor thereby incurs no rigorous penalty..
But, 3dly, If this application be penal on the debtor,
e. g. by fuffering the legal of an adjudication to ex¬
pire, the payment wfill be applied .fo as to fave the
debtor from that forfeiture. Where one of the debts
is fecured by a cautioner, the other not, the appli-
3
w.
671
cation is to be fo made, cttcris paribus, that both
creditor and cautioner may have equal juftice done to
them.
Law of
Scotland.
2. Payment made by the debtor upon a miftake in
fa£t, to one whom he believed, upon probable grounds,
to have the right of receiving payment, extinguithes
the obligation. But payment made to one, to w'hom
the law denies the power of receiving it, has not this
effeit ; as if a debtor, feized by letters of caption,
fhould make payment to the meffenger ; for ignorantia
juris nemmem excufat. In all debts, the debtor, it he
be not interpelled, may fafely pay before the term, ex¬
cept in tack duties or feu duties ; the payment where¬
of, before the terms at which they are made payable,
as conftrued to be collufive, in a queftion with a cre¬
ditor of the landlord or fuperior. Payment is in dubio
prefumed, by the voucher of the debt being in the
hands of the debtor ; chirographum, apud debitorem
repertum, prafumitur folutum.
3. Obligations are extinguifhable by the confent o/’By confenti
the creditor, who, without full implement, or even
any implement, may renounce the right conftituted in
his own favour. Though a difcharge or acquittance
granted by one whom the debtor bona fide took for
the creditor, but who was not, exiinguilhes the obli¬
gation, if the fatisfa&ion made by the debtor was
real ; yet where it is imaginary, the difcharge will
not fcreen him from paying to the true creditor the
debt for which he had made no prior fatisfaftion. In
all debts which are conftituted by writing, the extinc¬
tion, whether it be by fpecifical performance or bare
confent, muft be proved, either by the oath of the
creditor, or by a difcharge in writing ; and the fame
folemnities which law requires in the obligation, are
neceffary in the difcharge : but, where payment is
made, not by the debtor himfelf, but by the creditor’s
intromiftion with the rents of the debtor’s eftate, or by-
delivery to him of goods in name of the debtor, luch
delivery or intromifTion, beingmay be proved by
witneffes, though the debt fhould have been not only
conftituted by writing, but made real on. the debtor’s
lands by adjudication.,
4. A difcharge, though it fhould be general, of all
that the granter can demand, extends not to debts of
an uncommon kind, which are not prefumed to have
been under the granter’s eye. This doftrine applies
alfo to general aflignations. In annual payments, as
of rents, feu-duties, intereft, &c. three confecutive dif-
charges by the creditor, of the yearly or termly duties,
prefume the payment of all precedings. Two difcharges
by the anceftor, and the third by the heir, do not infer
this prefumption, if the heir was ignorant of the ancef-
tor’s difcharges. And difcharges by an adminiftrator,
as a fa&or, tutor, &c. prefume only the payment of
all preceding duties incurred during his adminiftra-
tion. This prefumption arifes from repeating the dif¬
charges thrice fucceflively; and fo does not hold in the
cafe of two difcharges, though they ftiould include the
duties of three or more terms.
5. Where the fame perfon is both creditor and By compel*-
debtor to another, the mutual obligations, if they arefatl011‘
for equal fums, are extinguilhed by compenfation ; if
for unequal, ftill the leffer obligation is extinguifti-
ed, and the greater diminiftied, as far as the con-
courfe of debit and credit goes. To found compenfa-
tion,,
672
L;.w of
ScoU'V.d.
Sy reten¬
tion.
By nova-
Xion.
L A W.
Fart III,
tion, (1.) Earli of the parties muft be debtor and
creditor at the fame time. (2.) Each of them muft
be debtor and creditor ?n his own right. (3.) The
nu’fu-d debts muft be of the fame quality : hence, a
fum of money cannot be compenfated with a quantity
of corns j becaufe, till tho prices are fixed, at which
the corns are to be converted into money, the two
debts are incommenfurable, Laftly, Compenfation
cannot be admitted, where the mutual debts are not
clearlv afeertained, either by a written obligation, the
fentence of a judge, or the oath of the party. Where
this requires but a ftiort difcuflion, fentence for the
purfuer is delayed for fume time, ex cequitate, that
the defender may make good his ground of compen¬
fation. Where a debt for fungibles is afeertained in
money by the fentence of a judge, the compenfation
can have no effeft farther back than the liquidation j
becaufe, before fentence, the debts were incommen¬
furable : but, where a debt for a fum of money is, in
the courfe of a fuit, conftituted by the oath of the
debtor, the compenfation, after it is admitted by the
judge, operates retro, in fo far as concerns the cur¬
rency of intereft, to the time when, by the parties ac¬
knowledgement, the debt became due : for, in this cafe,
the debtor’s oath is not what creates the debt, or makes
it liquid : it only declares that fuch a liquid fum was
truly due before. Compenfation cannot be offered
after decree, either by way of fufpenfion or reduftion j
unlefs it has been formerly pleaded, and unjuftly re¬
pelled. Decrees in abfence are excepted.
6. The right of retention, which bears a near re-
ferablance to eompenfation, is chiefly competent, where
the mutual debts, not being liquid, cannot be the
ground of compenfation; and it is fometimes admit¬
ted ex cequitate in liquid debts, where compenfation
is excluded by ftatute : thus, though compenfation
cannot be pleaded after decree, either againft a credi¬
tor or his aflignee j yet, if the original creditor fliould
become bankrupt, the debtor, even after decree, may
retain againft the aflignee, till he gives fecurity for
fatisfying the debtor’s claim againft the cedent. This
right is frequently founded in the expence dilburfed on
work employed on the fubjeft retained, and fo arifes
from the mutual obligations incumbent on the par¬
ties. It has never been difputed that retention of
goods was competent, until payment or fatisfaflion
of the debt incurred in relation to thefe goods ; but
it was found, by the court of feftion, in a cafe which
was very lately before them, that goods could not
be retained by a manufafturer until payment of a
prior debt} the debt incurred upon the goods in his
hands being offered •, and although the debtor had be¬
come bankrupt, and the manufa&urer muft otherwife
rank as a common creditor for his prior debt. But
retention may be fuftained, though the debt due
to him who claims it does not arife from the nature
of the obligation by which he is debtor : thus, a fac¬
tor on a land eftate may retain the fums levied by
him in confequence of his factory, not only till he be
paid of the diftmrfements made on occafion of fuch
eftate, but alfo till he be difeharged from the feparate
engagements he may have entered into on his confti-
tuent’s account.
7. Obligations are diffolved by novation, whereby
one obligation is changed into another, without chan-
Lawot’
Scotland.
ging either the debtor or cteditor. The firft obliga¬
tion being thereby extinguiftred, the cautioners in it
are loofed, and all its confequences difeharged 5 fo that ^
the debtor remains bound only by the laft. As the
creditor to whom a right is once conftituted, ought not
to lofe it by implication, novation is not eafily prefu¬
med, and the new obligation is conftrued to be merely
corroborative of the old j but, where the fecond obliga- Ry delega.
tion exprefsly bears to be in fatisfa&ion of the firft, tlon‘
thefe words muft neceffarily be explained into novation.
Where the creditor accepts of a new debtor, in place
of the former who is difeharged, this method of extinc¬
tion is called delegation.
8. Obligations are extinguilhed confufione, where the By confu.
debit and credit meet in the fame perfon, either by fuc-fion.
ceflion or Angular title, e. g. when the debtor fucceeds
to the creditor, or the creditor to the debtor, or a ftran-
ger to both j for one cannot be debtor to himfelf. If
the fueceflion, from which the confujio arifes, happens
afterwards to be divided, fo as the debtor and creditor
come again to be different perfons •, the confujio does
not produce an extinftion, but only a temporary fuf¬
penfion, of the debt.
Sect. XVII. Of Ajjignatwns.
• clxxvii,
1. Heritable rights, when they are clothed with in- Affigna-
feftment, are transmitted by difpofition, which is a wri-tious.
ting containing procuratory of refignation and precept
of feifin •, but thofe which either require no feifin, or
on which feifin has not aftually followed, are tranf-
miffible by Ample afjignatian. He who grants the
aftignation is called the cedent; and hs who receives it,
the ajjignee or ceffionary : if the aflignee conveys his
right to a third perfon, the deed of conveyance is
called a tranjlation ; and if he afligns it back to the
cedent, a retrocejjion. Certain rights are, from the ufes
to which they are deftined, incapable of tranfmifiion,
as alimentary rights : others cannot be afligned by the
perfon invefted in them, without Ipecial powers given
to him } as tacks, reverfions: the tranlmiflion of a
third fort, is not prefumed to be intended, without
an exprefs conveyance j as of paraphernal goods, which
are fo proper to the wife, that a general afiigna-
tion, by her to her hufband, of all that did or (hould
belong to her at her deceafe, does not comprehend
them. A liferent right is, by its nature, incapable of
a proper tranfmiflion ; but its profits may be afligned
while it fubfifts.
2. Aflignations muft not only be delivered to thelntimatipn
aflignee, but intimated by him to the debtor. Intima-of affigna-
tions are confidered as fo neceffary for completing the*10115,
conveyance, that in a competition between two afligna¬
tions, the laft, if firft intimated, is preferred.
3. Though, regularly, intimation to the debtor isWhatnoti-
made by an inftrument, taken in the hands of a notary, fication is
by the affignee or his procurator •, yet the law’ admits
equipollencies, where the notice of the aflignment given t;otu
to the debtor is equally ftrong. Thus, a charge upon
letters of horning at the aflignec’s inftance, or a fuit
brought by him againft the debtor, lupplies the want
of intimation j thefe being judicial a£ts, which expofe
the conveyance to the eyes both of the judge and of
the debtor ; or the debtor’s promife of payment by
writing to the aflignee, becaufe that is in effect a cor-
roborating
Chap. II.
673
Law of
Scotland,
In what
cafes not
necefiary.
EiTe&s of
assignation
clxxviii.
Acre fl¬
uent.
roborating of the original debt. The aflignee’s poffef-
fion of the right, by entering into payment of the rents
or intereft, is alfo equal to an intimation *, for it im¬
ports, not only notice to the debtor, but his a£tual
compliance : but the debtor’s private knowledge of the
affignment is not fuftained as intimation.
4. Certain conveyances need no intimation. (1.) In-
dorfations of bills of exchange j for thefe. are not to be
fettered with forms, introduced by the laws of particu¬
lar dates. (2.) Bank notes are fully conveyed by
the bare delivery of them ; for as they are payable to
the bearer, their property mutt pafs with their poffef-
fion. (3.) Adjudication, which is a judicial convey¬
ance, and marriage, which is a legal one, carry the
full right of the fubjedls thereby conveyed, without
intimation : neverthelefs, as there is nothing in thefe
conveyances which can of themfelves put the debtor
in tna/a fide, _ he is therefore in tuto to pay to the wife,
or to the original creditor in the debt adjudged, till
the marriage or adjudication be notified to him. Af-
fignments of moveable fubjedfs, though they be inti¬
mated, if they are made retenta po[fejfione, (the cedent
retaining the pofieflion), cannot hurt the cedent’s cre¬
ditors ; for fuch rights are prefumed, in all queftions
with creditors, to be collufive, and granted in truft for
the cedent himfelf.
5. An aflignation carries to the affignee the whole
right of the fubjett conveyed, as it was in the cedent ;
and confequently he may ufe diligence either in his
cedent’s name while he is alive, or in his own.
6. After an affignation is intimated, the debtor can¬
not prove a payment or compenfation, by the oath of
the cedent, who has no longer any intereft in the debt j
unlefs the matter has been made litigious by an a&ion
commenced prior to the intimation : but the debtor
may refer to the oath of the affignee, who is in the
right of the debt, that the afiignment was gratuitous,
©r in truft for the cedent : either of which being pro¬
ved, the oath of the cedent will affedf the affignee. If
the affignation be in part onerous, and in part gratui¬
tous, the cedent’s oath is good againft the affignee,
only in fo far as his right is gratuitous. All defences
competent againft; the original creditor in a moveable
debt, which can be proved otherwife than by his oath,
continue relevant againft; even an onerous affignee $
whofe right can be no better than that of his author,
and muft therefore remain affe&ed with all the burdens
which attended it in the author’s perfon.
Sect. XVIII. Of Arrefiments and Poindings.
1. The diligences whereby a creditor may affeft his
debtor’s moveable fubjefts, are arrefiment and poind¬
ing. By arrefiment is fometimes meant the fecuring
of a criminal’s perfon till trial j but as it is underftood
in the rubric of this title, it is the order of a judge, by
which he who is debtor in a jnoveable obligation to the
arrefter’s debtor, is prohibited to make payment or de¬
livery till the debt due to the arrefter be paid or fe-
cured. The arrefter’s debtor is ufually called the com¬
mon debtor 5 becaufe, where there are two or more
competing creditors, he is debtor to all of them. The
perfon in whofe hands the diligence is ufed is ftyled
the arreftee.
2. Arreftment may be laid on by the authority eithejr
Vol. XI. Part II.
Law of
Scot.and.
A W.
of the fupreme court, or of an inferior judge. In the
firft cafe, it proceeds either upon fpecial letters of ar- 
reftment, or on a warrant containing letters of horn- v "
ing : and it muft be executed by a mtffenger. The
warrants granted by inferior judges are called precepts
of arreftment, and they are executed by the officer pro¬
per to the court. Where the debtor to the common
debtor is a pupil, arreftment is properly ufed in the
hands of the tutor, as the pupil’s adminiftrator : this
dodlrine may perhaps extend to other general admini-
ftrators, as commiffioner, &c. But arreftment ufed in
the hands of a fa&or or fteward, cannot found an ac¬
tion of forthcoming without calling the conftituent.
Where the debtor to the common debtor is a corpora¬
tion, arreftment muft be ufed in the hands of the di-
reftors or treafurer, who reprefent the whole body.
Arreftment, when it is ufed in the hands of the debtor
himfelf, is inept 5 for that diligence is intended only
as a reftraint upon third parties.
3. All debts in which one is perfonally bound,
though they fhould be heritably fecured, are grounds
upon which the creditor may arreft the moveable eftate
belonging t@ his debtor. Arreftment may proceed on
a debt, the term of payment whereof is not yet come,
in cafe the debtor be vergens ad inopiam. If a debt be
not yet conftituted by decree or regiftration, the cre¬
ditor may arife and execute a fummons againft his .
debtor for payment, on which pending aftion arreft¬
ment may be ufed, in the fame manner as inhibition,
which is called arrefiment upon a dependence. If one’s
ground of credit be for the performance of a faft, or
if his depending procefs be merely declaratory, without
a conclufton of payment or delivery, fuch claims
are not admitted to be fufficient grounds for arreft¬
ment.
4. Moveable debts are the proper fubjeft of arreft- What debts
ment j under which are comprehended conditional aire‘tab^e*
debts, and even depending claims. For leffening the
expence of diligence to creditors, all bonds which have
not been made properly heritable by feifin are declared
arreftable : but this does not extend to adjudications,
wadfets, or other perfonal rights of lands, which are
not properly debts. Certain moveable debts ai« not
arreftable. (1.) Debts due by bill, which pafs from
hand to hand as bags of money. (2.) Future debis j
for though inhibition extends to adquirenda as well as
adquifita, yet arreftment is limited, by its warrant, to
the debt due at the time of ferving it againft the ar¬
reftee. Hence, an arreftment of rents or intereft car¬
ries only tbofe that have already either fallen due or at
leaft become current. Cla ms, depending on the iffue
of a fuit, are not confidered as future debts j for the
fentence, when pronounced, has a retrofpeft to the pe¬
riod at which the claim was firft founded. The like
doftrine holds in conditional debts. (3.) Alimentary
debts are not arreftable ; for thefe are granted on per¬
fonal confiderations, and fo are not communicable to
creditors : but the paft intereft due upon fuch debt may
be arrefted by the perfon who has furnifhed the ali¬
mony. One cannot fecure his own effedls to himfelf
for his maintenance, fo as they (hall not be affeftable.:
by his creditors. Salaries annexed to offices granted
by the king, and particularly thofe granted to the
judges of the feffion, and the fees of fervants, are con¬
fidered as alimentary funds; but the iurplus fee, over
4 Q. and
674
Law of
Scotland.
Effedt of
breach of
arreftaient.
Loofing of
arreftment.
Forthcom¬
ing on ar¬
reftment.
L A
and above what is neceffary for the fervant’s perfonal
ufes, may be arrefted. It has alio been found, that a
wadfet fum configned after an order of redemption
ufed, but before decreet of declarator, is not arreft-
able.
5. If, in contempt of the arreftment, the arreftee
fhall make payment of the fum, or deliver the goods
arrefted, to the common debtor, he is not only liable
criminally for breach of arreftment, but he muft pay
the debt again to the arrefter. As the law formerly
flood, an arreftment ufed at the market crofs of Edin¬
burgh, pier and fhore of Leith, againft a perfon furth
of the kingdom, was good } fo that if the arreftee made
payment to his creditor after the date of the arreft¬
ment, he was found liable? in fecond payment to the ar¬
refter, becaufe he had done all in his power to notify
his diligence. This, however, is very properly altered
by § 3. of the a£l of the 23d Geo. III. which declares
that an arreftment ufed at the market crofs of Edin¬
burgh, pier and ihore of Leith, in the hands of any
perfon out of the kingdom, without other fufKcient no¬
tification, fhall not interpel the arreftee from paying
bona fide to the original creditor. Arreftment is not
merely prohibitory, as inhibitions are 5 but is a ftep of
diligence which founds the ufer in a fubfequent adtion
whereby the property of the fubjedl arrefted may be
adjudged to him. It therefore does not, by our latter
pradlice, fall by the death of the arreftee ; but continues
to fubfift, as a foundation for an adlion of forthcoming
againft his heir, while the fubjedl arrefted remains in
medio. Far lefs is arreftment loft, either by the death
of the arrefter, or of the common debtor.
6. Where arreftment proceeds on a depending ac¬
tion, it may be loofed by the common debtor’s giving
fecurity to the arrefter for his debt in the event it fhall
be found due. Arreftment founded on decrees, or on
regiftered obligations, which in the judgment of law
are decrees, cannot be loofed but upon payment or con-
fignation *, except, (1.) Where the term of payment
of the debt is not yet come, or the condition has not
yet exifted. (2.) Where the arreftment has proceed¬
ed on a regiftered contraft, in which the debts or mu¬
tual obligations are not liquid. (3.) Where the de¬
cree is fufpended, or turned into a libel: for, till the
fufpenfion be difeufl'ed, or the pending a£lion conclud¬
ed, it cannot be known whether any debt be truly
due. A loofing takes off the nexus which had been
laid on the fubjeft arrefted j fo that the arreftee may
thereafter pay fafely to bis creditor, and the cautioner
is fubftituted in place of the arreftment, for the arreft-
er’s fecurity : yet the arrefter may, while the fubjeft
continues with the arreftee, purfue him in a forthcom¬
ing, notw'khftanding the loofing. '
7. Arreftment is only an inchoated or begun dili¬
gence ^ to perfect it, there muft be an action brought
by the arrefter againft the arreftee, to make the debt
or fubjeft arrefted forthcoming. In this adtion, the
common debtor muft called for his intereft, that he
may have an opportunity of excepting to the lawful-
nefs or extent of the debt on which the diligence pro¬
ceeded. Before a forthcoming can be purfued, the
debt due by the common debtor to the arrefter muft be
liquidated ; for the arrefter can be no further entitled
to the fubjedl arrefted than to the extept of the debt
due to him by the common debtor. Where the fub-
I
W. Part III.
jedl arrefted is a fum of money, it is, by the decree of Law of
forthcoming, diredled to be paid to the purfuer towards Scotland,
fatisfying his debt j where goods are arrefted, thejudge *" "'r~w
ordains them to be expofed to fale, and the price to be
delivered to the purfuer. So that, in either cafe, de¬
crees of forthcoming are judicial aflignations to the ar¬
refter of the fubjedt arrefted.
8. In all competitions, regard is had to the dates, Preference
not of the grounds of debt, but of the diligences pro-m arreft.
ceeding upon them. In the competition of arreftments,ineilt5'
the preference is governed by their dates, according to
the priority even of hours, where it appears with any
certainty which is the hrft. But, as arreftment is but
a begun diligence, therefore if a prior arrefter (hall ne-
gledl to infift in an action of forthcoming for fuch a
time as may be reafonably conftrued into a defertion of
his begun diligence, he lofes his preference. But, as
dereliction of diligence is not ealily prefumed, the di-
ftance of above two years, between the firft arreitment
and the decree of forthcoming, was found not to make
fuch a mora as to entitle the pofterior arrefter to a pre¬
ference. This rule of preference, according to the
dates of the feveral arreftments, holds, by our prefent
pradtice, whether they have proceeded on a decree or
on a dependence j on debts not yet payable, or on
debts already payable j provided the pendency thall
have been clofed, or the debt have become payable, be¬
fore the iffue of the competition.
By aft 13d Geo. III. § 2. it is enafted, that when
a debtor is made bankrupt, in terms of the aft 1696,
as thereby extended (clxxxiii. 13.), all arreftments
which (hall have been ufed for attaching any perfonal
efft-fts of fuch bankrupt within thirty days prior to the
bankruptcy, or within four kalendar months immedi¬
ately fubfequent, fhall be panpajfu preferable : and in
order to fave as far as poflible the expence of a multi¬
plicity of arreftments, it is declared, that where the ef-
fefts of a debtor are arrefted by any creditor within
thirty days before the bankruptcy, or within four
months after it, and a procefs of fortheoming or mul¬
tiplepoinding is brought in which fuch arreftment is
founded on, it {hall be competent for any other credi¬
tor producing his intereft, and making his claim in the
faid procefs, at any lime before the expiration of the
faid four months, to be ranked in the fame manner as
if he had ufed the form of arreftment j the expence of
raifing the procefs, and of the diligence at the inftance
of the creditor who raifes it, being always paid out of
the common fund. We here again repeat, that the
enaftments of this ftatute are only temporary, and not
yet a permanent part of the law of Scotland, whatever
they may become when the fubjeft is refumed by the
legiflature upon the expiry of the aft.
9. In the competition of arreftments with affigna-
tions, an aflignation by the common debtor, intimated
before arreftment, is preferable to the arreftment. If
the aflignation is granted before arreftment, but not in¬
timated till after it, the arrefter is preferred.
10. PoxNDING is that diligence affefting moveable Poindingj?
fubjefts, by which their property is carried direftly to
the creditor, No poinding can proceed, till a charge
be given to the debtor to pay or perform, and the days
thereof be expired, except poindings againft vaffals for
their feu-duties, and poindings againft tenants for rent,
proceeding upon the landlord’s own decree j in which
the
/
Chap. II. L A W. 675
Law of the ancient cmlom of poinding without a previous
_ Scotland, charge continues. A debtor’s goods may be poinded
by one creditor, though they have been arrefted before
by another ; fur arretfment being but an imperfect di¬
ligence, leaves the right of the fubjeft ftill in the debt¬
or, and fo cannot hinder any creditor from ufing a more
perfeft diligence, which has the effedt of carrying the
property direftly to himfelf.
11. No cattle pertaining to the plough, nor inftru-
ments of tillage, can be poinded in the time of labour¬
ing or tilling the ground, unlefs where the debtor has
no other goods. By labouring time is underftood, that
time, in which that tenant, whofe goods are to be
poinded, is ploughing, though he fhould have been
earlier or later than his neighbours \ but fummer fal¬
lowing does not fall under this rule.
Form I 2. In the execution of poinding, the debtor’s goods
thereof. mutt be appraifed, firft, on the ground of the lands
where they are laid hold on, and a fecond time at the
market crofs of the jurifdidHon, by the hated appraifers
thereof j or, if there be none, by perfons named by the
meffenger or other officer employed in the diligence.
Next, the meffenger muft, after public intimation by
three oyeffes, declare the value of the goods according
to the fecond appraifement, and require the debtor to
make payment of the debt, including intereft and ex-
pences. If payment (hall be offered to the creditor, or
in his abfence to his lawful attorney j or if, in cafe of
refufal by them, confignation of the debt (hall be made
in the hands of the judge ordinary or his clerk, the
goods muft be left with the debtor ; if not, the mef¬
fenger ought to adjudge and deliver them over, at the
appraifed value, to the ufer of the diligence towards his
payment: and the debtor is entitled to a copy of the
warrant and executions, as a voucher that the debt is
difeharged in whole or in part by the goods poinded.
13. Minifters may poind for their ftipends, upon one
appraifement on the ground of the lands, and landlords
were always in ufe to poind fo, for their rents. Ap¬
praifement of the goods at the market crofs of the next
royal borough, or even of the next head borough of
ftewartry or regality, though thefe jurifdi&ions be
abolifhed, is declared as fufficient as if they were car¬
ried to the head borough of the (hire. Poinding, whe¬
ther it be confidered as a fentence, or as the execution
of a fentence, muft be proceeded in between fun-rifing
and fun-fetting ; or at leaft it muft be finilhed before
Powers of the going off of day-light.—The powers of the officer
meffengers employed in the execution of poindings are not clear-
in defined by cuftom, in the cafe of a third party
claiming the property of the goods to be poinded.
This is certain, that he may take the oath of the claim¬
ant, upon the verity of his claim $ and if from thence
it fliall appear that the claimant’s title is collufive, he
ought to proceed in the diligence •, but if there remains
the leaft doubt, his fafeft courfe is to deliver the goods
to the claimant, and to exprefs in his execution the
reafons why poinding did not proceed.
14. Any perfon who flops a poinding via fatfi, on
groundlefs pretences, is liable, both criminally, in the
pains of deforcement (fee N° clxxxvi. 15.), and civilly,
in the value of the goods which might have been poind¬
ed by the creditor.
By the forefaid ftatute 23 Geo. III. § 4. it is de¬
clared, that after a perfon is rendered bankrupt, as
thereby directed, no poinding of the moveables be- Law of
longing to fuch bankrupt, within 30 days before his ScoJ.tnd,
bankruptcy, or within four kalendei months thereafter,
ftiall give a preference to fuch poinder over the other-
lawful creditors of the bankrupt ; but the goods fo
poinded ftiall be confidered as in medio, and the perfon
receiving the price of them ihall be liable to make the
fame forthcoming, fo as that all the other creditors
of the bankrupt who are pojffeffed of liquidate grounds
of debt or decrees for payment, fliall be entitled to their
proportion of the fame j provided they make their
claim by fummoning the poinder at any time before '
the expiration of the faid four months, deducting al¬
ways the expence of fuch poinding from the firft end
of the price of fuch goods, together with 20 per cent,
on the appraifed value, which the poinder ftiail retain,
to account of his- debt in preference to the other cre¬
ditors \ referving liberty to him to rank on the re¬
maining fum for the full amount of the debt contained
in his diligence. And it is by the faid a£t further de¬
clared, that where any perfon concerned in trade or
manufaiftures is bankrupt, as before mentioned, it may
be lawful for any creditor, to the amount of look or
any two creditors to the amount of 150I. or any three
or more creditors to the amount of 200I. or upwards,
to apply for fequeftration of the eftate real and perfonal
belonging to the debtor ; after awarding which, an
interim faftor, and then a truftee, fliall be chofen by
the creditors, who is to conduft the bufinefs of the
fequeftration, according to the various rules fixed and
laid down by the ftatute. The a£i, however, exprefsly
excludes all others, except thofe concerned in trade or
manufa&ures, from the benefit of the fequeftration j
but it is probable, when it comes to be renewed or
digefted in another form, this part of it will fuffer an
alteration.
SECT. XIX. Of Prefcription. clxxix.
1. Prefcription, which is a method, both of eftablifh-Prefcrip-
ing and of extinguithing property, is either poJitiveVQXX'
or negative. Pojitive prefcription is generally defined,
as the Roman ufucapio, The acquifition of property
(it fliould rather be, when applied to our law, the
fecuring it againft all further challenge) by the poffiif-
for’s continuing his poffeffion for the time which law
has declared fufficient for that purpofe : negative, is
the lofs or amiffion of a right, by neglecting to follow
it forth, or ufe it, during the whole time limited by
law. The doftrine of prefcription, which is, by fome
writers, condemned as contrary to juft ice, has been
introduced, that the claims of negligent creditors
might not fubfift forever, that property might be at laft
fixed, and forgeries difeouraged, which the difficulty
of deteding muft have made exceeding frequent, if
no length of time had limited the legal effect of writ¬
ings.
2. Pofitive prefcription was firft introduced into our Fofitive.
law by 1617, c. 12. which enaCts, that whoever fliall
have poffeffed his lands, annual rents, or other heri¬
tages, peaceably in virtue of infeftments, for 40 years
continually after their dates, (hall not thereafter be dif-
quxeted in his right by any perfon pretending a better
title. Under heritages are comprehended every right
that is fundo annex urn, and capable of continual poffef-
4 Q. 2 fion.
676 LA W. Part III.
Lawof {jon. Continued poflefTion, if proved as far back as the
^Scotland. memory 0f man? prefumes poffeffion upwards to the
date of the infeftrmnt. The whole courfe of poffeflion
mull by the aft be founded on feifins •, and confequent-
]y no part thereof on the bare right of apparency : but
40 years poiTeflion, without feilin, is fufficient in the
prefeription of inch heritable rights as do not require'
feifm. The poffeflion muff alfo be without any lawful
Interruption, i. e. it mull neither be interrupted via
fa£li, nor v a juris-. The prefeription of fubjefts not
exnreffed in the infeftment as part and pertinent of an¬
other fubjeft fpecially expreffed, has been explained,
N° clxvii. 6.
3. The aft requires, that the poffi flor produce, as
his title of prefeription, a charter of the lands pre¬
ceding the 40 years poffeflion, with the feifin follow¬
ing on it : and where there is no charter extant, lei-
iins, one or more, Handing together for 40 years, and
proceeding either on retours or precepts of dare con-
ftat. This has given rife to a reafonable diltinftion,
obferved in praftice, between the prefeription of a An¬
gular fucceffor, and of an heir. Singular fucceffors
muff produce for their title of prefeription, not only
a feifln, but its warrant, as a charter, difpofllion, &c.
either in their own perfon, or in that of their author :
but 1 he produftion, by an heir, of feiflns, one or more,
ftanding together for 40 years, and proceeding on re¬
tours or precepts of dare conjlat, is fufficient. The
heir is not obliged to produce the retours or precepts
on which his feifins proceed, nor is the Angular fuccef¬
for obliged to produce the ground of his charter : fo
that if the title of prefeription produced be a fair deed,
and a fufficient title of property, the poffeffor is fecure
by the aft, which admits no ground of challenge, but
falfehood. A fpecial ftatute, for eftabliffiing the poA-
tive prefeription in moveable rights, was not necelfary :
for, Ance a title in writing is not requiAte for the ac¬
quiring of thefe, the negative prefeription, by which
all right of aftion for recovering their property is cut
off, effeftually fecures the poffeffor.
Negative ^ The negative prefeription of obligations, by the
lapfe of 40 years, was introduced into our law long
before the poAtive, (1469, c. 29.—1474? c. 55.)
This prefeription is now amplifled by the forefaid aft
(1617), which has extended it to all aftions competent
upon heritable bonds, reverAons, and others whatfoever $
unlefs where the reverAons are either incorporated in
the body of the wadfet-right, or regiftered in the re-
gifter of reverAons : And reverAons fo incorporate!!, or
regiftered, are not only exempted from the negative
prefeription, but they are an effeftual bar againft ahy
perfon from pleading the poAtive.
A fhorter 5- A negative prefeription is introduced by
eegative ftatute, in certain rights and debts. Aftions of fpuil-
preferip- zie, ejeftion, and others of that nature, muft be purfued
aka. within three years after the commiffion of the faft on
which the aftion is founded. As in fpuilzies and ejec¬
tions, the purfuer was entitled, in odium of violence, to
a proof by his own oath in litem, and to the violent pro¬
fits againft the defender, the ftatute meant only to limit
thefe fpecial privileges by a three years prefeription,
without cutting off the right of aftion, where the claim
is reftrifted to Ample reftitution. Under the general
words, and others of that nature, are comprehended all
3
aftions where the purfuer is admitted to prove his libel Law of
by his own oath in litem. Scotland.
6. Servants fees, houfe rents, men’s ordinaries, (i. e. prefc^ ^
money due for board), and merchants accounts, fall tjon 0f fer.
under the triennial prefeription, (by 1579, c. 83.). vants fees,
There is alio a general claule fubjoined to this ftatute,&-c*
of other the like debts, w hich includes alimentary debts,
wages due to workmen, and accounts due to writers,
agents, or procurators. Thefe debts may, by this aft,
be proved after the three years, either by the writing
or oath of the debtor •, fo that they prefenbe only as
to the mean of proof by witnefles : but after the three
years it behoves the creditor to refer to the debtor’s
oath, not only the conftitution, but the lubftlience
of the debt. In the prefcription of houle rents, fer-
vants fees, and alimony, each term’s rent, fee, or ali¬
mony, runs a feparate courle of prefeription j fo that
in an aftion for thefe the claim will be rehrifted to
the arrears incurred within the three years immediately
before the citation : But, in accounts, prefeription does
not begin till the laft article ; for a Angle at tide can-
net be called an account. Aftions of removing muft
alfo be purfued within three years after the warning.
Reduftions of erroneous retours prelcribe, if not pur¬
fued within 20 years. N
7. Minifters ftipends and multures preferibe in five of mini¬
years after they are due $ and arrears of rent, five years tters fti-
after the tenant’s removing from the lands. As the Penc^s»
prefeription of mails and duties w-as introduced in fa¬
vour of poor tenants, that they might not fuffer by
neglefting to preferve their difeharges, a proprietor of
lands fubjeft to a liferent, who had obtained a leafe of
all the liferented lands from the liferenter is not en¬
titled to plead it, nor a tackfman of one’s whole eftate,
who had by the leafe a power of removing tenants.
Bargains concerning moveables, or fums of money
which are proveable by witneffes, preferibe in five years
after the bargain. Under thefe are included {ales, lo¬
cations, and all other confenfual contrafts, to the con¬
ftitution of which writing is not neceffary. But all the
above-mentioned debts, may, after the five years, be
proved, either by the oath or the writing of the debt¬
or •, of which above, (par. 6.) A quinquennial pre¬
feription is eftabliffied in arreftjnent whether on de¬
crees or depending aftions : The firft preferibe in five
years after ufing the arreftments, and the laft in five
years after fentence is pronounced on the depending
aftion.
8. No perfon binding for or with another, either as Limitation
cautioner or co-principal, in a bond or contraft for aot cautionjy
fum of money, continues bound after feven years from
the date of the bond, provided he has either a claufs
of relief in the bond, or a feparate bond of relief, in¬
timated to the creditor, at his receiving the bond. But
all diligence ufed within the feven years againft the
cautioner {hall ftand good. As this is a public law,
intended to prevent the bad confequences of rafh en¬
gagements, its benefit cannot, before the lapfe of the
feven years, be renounced by the cautioner : As it is
correftory, it is ftriftly interpreted : Thus, bonds
bearing a mutual claufe of relief pro rata, fall not un¬
der it j nor bonds of corroboration, nor obligations,
where the condition is not purified, or the term of pay¬
ment not come within the feven years 5 becaufe no di¬
ligence
Scotland.
Prefer! p-
tion o ho¬
lograph
writings.
Chap. II. L A
Ldwof ligence can be ufed on thefe. The fiatute excludes all
cauiiunries for the faithful difeharge of offices ; thefts
not being obligations in a bond or contrail for fums of
money. And pra&ice has denied the benefit of it to all
judicial cautioners, as cautioners in a fufpenfion.—-Ac¬
tions of count and reckoning, competent either to mi¬
nors againlt their tutors or curators, or vice verfa, pre-
fenbe in ten years after the majority or death of the
minor.
9. Holograph bonds, miffive letters, and books of
account, not attefted by witneffes, preferibe in 20
years, unlefs the creditor fliall thereafter prove the
verity of the fubfeription by the debtor’s oath. It is
therefore fufficient to fave from the effect of this pre-
feription, that the conftitution of the debt be proved
by the party’s oath after the 20 years j whereas, in fti-
pends, merchants accounts, &c. not only the confti¬
tution, but the fubftftence of the debt, muft be proved
by writing or the debtor’s oath, after the term of pre-
feription. Some lawyers extend this prefeription of ho¬
lograph writings to all obligations for fums not exceed¬
ing 1 ool. Scots, which are not attefted by witneffes j
becaufe though thefe are in praftice fuftained, yet
they ought not to have the fame duration with deeds
attefted by witneffes. Though in the ihort preferip-
tions of debts, the right of aftio'n is for ever loft, if not
exercifed within the time limited : yet where adtion
was brought on any of thofe debts, before the preferip¬
tion was run, it fubfifted, like any other right, for 40
years. As this defeated the purpofes of the adls efta-
blilhing thefe preferiptions, all proceffcs upon warn¬
ings, fpuilzies, ejections, or arreftments, or for pay¬
ment of the debts contained in a£t 1669, c. 9. are by
the faid aft joined with 1685, c. 14. declared to pre¬
feribe in five years, if not wakened within that timej
fee N° clxxxiii. 26.
10. Certain obligations are loft by the lapfe of lefs
than 40 years, without the aid of ftatute, where the
W. 677
a right can be cither acquired or loft by it j fo that Law of
Extinction
of obliga-
Bona fidet
preicrip-
tien.
on the laft day of the 40th year,
The politive prefeription runs a-,
Scotland.
tiors by ta-nature of the obligation, and the circumftances of par-
citurnity. jjes it: thus, bills which are not intended for
lafting fecurities, produced no aftion where the cre¬
ditor had been long filent, unlefs the fubfiftence of the
debt be proved by the debtor’s oath j but the precife
time was not fixed by praftice. But the duration of
bills is now limited to fix years by the I 2 Geo. III. ;
rendered perpetual by 23 Geo. III. Thus, alfo, a re¬
ceipt for bills granted by a writer to his employer, not
infilled upon for 23 years, was found not produftive of
an aftion. The preferiptions of the reftitution of mi¬
nors, of the benefit of inventory, &c. are explained in
their proper places.
11. In the pofitive prefeription, as eftabliflied by the
aft 1617, the continued poffeflion for 40 years, pro¬
ceeding upon a title of property not chargeable with
falfehood, fecures the poffeffor againft all other grounds
of challenge, and fo prefumes bona Jides, preefumptione
juris et de jure. In the long negative prefeription,
bona jides in the debtor is not required : the creditor’s
neglefting to infill for fo long a time, is conftrued aS
an abandoning of his debt, and fo is equivalent to a
difeharge. Hence, though the fubfiftence of the debt
ftiould be referred to the debtor’s own oath, after the
40 years he is not liable.
12. Prefeription runs de momenta in momentum : the
whole time defined by law mull be completed, before
interruption, made
breaks its courfe. auc puunvc picu-npiiuji iuub tl-prej-i,rjp_
gainft the fovereign himfelf, even as to his annexedtion, againft
property j but it is generally thought he cannot fufferwhom it
by the negative : he is fecured againft the negligencerun5*
of his officers in the management of his proceffes, by
exprefs ftatute, 1600, c. 14. The negative, as well
as the pofitive prefeription, runs againft the church,
though churchmen have but a temporary interell in
their benefices. But becaufe the rignts of beneficia¬
ries to their ftipends are liable to accidents, through
the frequent change of incumbents, 13 years poffef-
fion does, by a rule of the Roman chancery which we
have adopted, found a prefumptive title in the benefi¬
ciary : but this is not properly prefeription ; for if by
titles recovered, perhaps out of the incumbent’s own
hands, it Ihall appear that he has poffcffed tithes or
other lubjefts to a greater extent than he ought, his
poffeflion will be rtftrifted accordingly. This right
muft not be confounded with that eftablilhed in favour
of churchmen, which is confined to church lands and
rents, and conftitutes a proper prefeription upon a pof¬
feflion of 30 years.
13. The claufe in the aft 1617, faving minors from
prefeription, is extended to the pofitive, as well as to
the negative prefeription ; but the exception of mino¬
rity is not admitted in the cafe of hofpitals for chil¬
dren, wdiere there is a continual fucceffion of minors,
that being a ca/us infolitus. Minors are exprefsly ex¬
cepted in feveral of the Ihort preferiptions, as 1579,
c. 18. 1669, c 9. ; but where law leaves them ia
the common cafe, they muft be fubjeft to the common,
rules.
14. Prefeription does not run contra non valentem
agere, againft one who is barred by fome legal inca¬
pacity, from purfuing ; for in fuch cafe, neither negli¬
gence nor dereliftion can be imputed to him. This
rule is, by a favourable interpretation, extended to
wives, who ex reverentia maritali forbear to purfue ac¬
tions competent to them againft: their hufbands. On
the fame ground, prefeription runs only from the time
that the debt or right could be fued upon. Thus, in¬
hibition preferibes only from the publiftiing of the deed
granted to the inhibiter’s prejudice ; and in the pre¬
feription of removings, the years are computed only
from the term at which the defender is warned to re¬
move. Neither can prefeription run againft perfons
who are already in pofftflion, and fo can gain nothing
by a purfuit. Thus, where a perfon who has two ad¬
judications affefting the fame lands, is in poffeflion
upon one of them, prefeription cannot run againft the
other during fuch poffeflion..
15. Certain rights are incapable of prefeription: Certain
(1.) Things that law has exempted from commerce.rights inca*
(2.) Res merce facultatis, e. g. a faculty to charge a,Pa^e .°l
fubjeft with debts, to revoke, &c. cannot be loft. by^rJneri^,‘
prefeription $ for faculties may, by their nature, be
exercifed at any time : hence, a proprietor’s right of
ufing any aft of property on his own grounds cannot
be loft by the greateft length of time. (3.) Excep¬
tions competent to a perfon for. eliding an aftion, can¬
not preferibe, unlefs the exception is founded on a right
produftive of an aftion, e. g. compenfation y fuch right
muft be infifted on within the years of prefeription.
C4-).
678
Law sf
Scotland
Tnternip-
f.ion of pre.
fcxiption.
L A
(4.) Obligations of yearly penfions or payments,
, though no demand has been made on them for 40
years, do not fuffer a total prefcription, but ftill fubfilt
as to the arrears fallen due within that period 5 becaufe
prefcription cannot run againft an obligation till it be
payable, and each year’s penfion or payment is eonfi-
dered as a feparate debt.
16. No right can be loft non utendo by one, unlefs
the effeft of that prefcription be to eftablifh it in ano¬
ther. Hence the rule arifes, juri fanguinis nunquam
prcefcribitur. Hence alfo, a proprietor of land cannot
lofe his property by the negative prefcription, unlefs
he who objects it can himfelf plead the pofitive. On
the fame ground, a fuperior’s right of feu duties can¬
not be loft non utendo ; becaufe being inherent in the
fuperiority, it is truly a right of lands that cannot
fuffer the negative prefcription, except in favour of
one who can plead the pofitive j which the vaffal can¬
not do, being deftitute of a title. This rule applies
alfo to parfonage tithes, which are an inherent burden
upon all lands not fpecially exempt ; and from
which therefore the perfon liable cannot prefcribe an
immunity by bare non-payment : but fuch vicarage
tithes as are only due where they are eftablifhed by
ufage, may be loft by prefcription. In all thefe cafes,
though the radical right cannot fuffer the negative
prefcription, the bygone duties, not demanded with¬
in the 40 years, are loft to the proprietor, fuperior, or
titular.
17. Prefcription may be interrupted by any deed
whereby the proprietor or creditor ufes his right or
ground of debt. In all interruptions, notice muft be
given to the poffeffor of the fubjeft, or the debtor,
that the proprietor or creditor intends to fue upon his
right. All writings whereby the debtor himfelf ac¬
knowledges the debt, and all proceffes for payment
brought, or diligences ufed againft him upon his obli¬
gation, by horning, inhibition, arreftment, &c. muft
be effeflual to interrupt prefcription.
18. Interruptions, by citation upon libelled fum-
monfes, where they are not ufed by a minor, prefcribe,
if not renewed every feven years : but where the ap¬
pearance of parties, or any judicial aft has followed
thereupon, it is no longer a bare citation, but an aftion
which fubfifts for 40 years. It has been found, that
the fexennial prefcription of bills is not interrupted by
a blank citation, as praftifed in the court of admiralty.
Citations for interrupting the prefcription of real rights
inuft be given by meffengers ; and the fummonfes, on
which fuch citations proceed, muft pafs the fignet up¬
on the bill, and be regiftered within 60 days after the
execution, in a particular regifter appointed for that
purpofe : and where interruption of real rights is made
viafaBi, an inftrument muft be taken upon it, and re¬
corded in the faid regifter j otherwife it can have no
effeft againft fingular fucceflors.
19. Interruption has the effeft to cut off the courfe
of prefcription, fo that the perfon prefcribing can avail
himfelf of no part of the former time, but muft begin
a new courfe, commencing from the date of the inter¬
ruption. Minority, therefore, is no proper interrup¬
tion : for it neither breaks the courfe of prefcription,
nor is it a document or evidence taken by the minor
on his right : it is a perfonal privilege competent to
him, by which the operation of the prefcription is in-
w. Part HI.
deed fufpended during the years of minority, which Law of
are therefore difcounted from it; but it continues to Scotland*
run after majority, and the years before and after the
minority may be conjoined to complete it. The fame
doftrine applies to the privilege ariiing from one’s in¬
capacity to aft.
20. Diligence ufed upon a debt, againft any one of
two or more co-obligants, preferves the debt itfelf, and
fo interrupts prefcription againft all of them ; except
in the fpecial cafe of cautioners, who are not affefted
by any diligence ufed againft the principal debtor. In
the fame manner, a right of annualrent, conftituted
upon two feparate tenements, is preferved as to both
from the negative prefcription, by diligence ufed a-
gainft either of them. But whether fuch diligence has
alfo the effeft to hinder the poffeffor of the other tene¬
ment by fingular titles from the benefit of the pofitive
prefcription, may be doubted.
III. OF SUCCESSION.
Sect. XX. Of SucceJJion in Heritable Rights. clxxs.
I. Singular fucceffors are tbofe who fucceed to aSuccdTors
perfon yet alive, in a fpecial fubjeft by fingular titles; finSular
■ " ~ - - . 7 an(j unjvcr-
but fucceflion, in its
fenfe, is a method of
r , ProPer  > - - -fal
tranfmitting rights from the dead to the living. He¬
ritable rights defcend by fucceflion to the heir proper¬
ly fo called 5 moveable rights to the executors, who are
fometimes faid to be heirs in moveables. Succeffion
is either by fpecial deflination, which defcends to thofe
named by the proprietor himfelf; or legal, which de¬
volves upon the perfons whom the law marks out for
fucceffors, from a prefumption, that the proprietor
would have named them had he made a deftination.
The firft is in all cafes preferred to the other, as pre¬
fumption muft yield to truth.
2. In the lucceflion of heritage, the heirs at law Order of
are otherwife called heirs general, heirs whatfoever, fuc^effion
or heirs of line ; and they fucceed by the right ofm enta£s’
blood, in the following order. Firft, Defcendants j
among thefe, fons are preferred to daughters, and the
eldeft fon to all the younger. Where there are daugh¬
ters only, they fucceed equally, and are called heirs
portioners. Failing immediate defcendants, grand¬
children fucceed j and in default of them, great-grand¬
children ; and fo on in infinitum ; preferring, as in the
former cafe, males to females, and the eldeft male to
the younger.
3. Next after defcendants, collaterals fucceed ; among Collaterals,
whom the brothers of the deceafed have the firft
place. But as, in no cafe, the legal fucceflion of heri¬
tage is, by the law of Scotland, divided into parts,
unlefs where it defcends to females j the immediate
younger brother of the deceafed excludes the reft, ac¬
cording to the rule, heritage defcends. Where the de¬
ceafed is himfelf the youngeft, the fucceflion goes to
the immediate elder brother, as being the leaft: devia¬
tion from this rule. If there are no brothers german,
the lifters german fucceed equally : then brothers con-
fangumean, in the lame order as brothers german j and
failing them, fillers confanguinean equally. Next, the
father fueceeds. After him, his brothers and fillers,
according to the rules already explained ; then the
grandfather ; tailing him, his brothers and lifters j and
fo
Chap. II.
L
Succeffion
in capita
and in
Jlirpe.
Succeffion
of heirs
portioners.
Law of fo upwards, as far back as propinquity can be proved.
.Scotland. Xhough children fucceed to their mother, a mother
No fuccef- cannot t0 her child : nor is there any fuceeffion by our
lion by the law through the mother of the deceafed •, infomuch that
mother. one brother uterine, i. e. by the mother only, cannot
fucceed to another, even in that eftate which flowed ori¬
ginally from their common mother.
4. In heritage there is a right of reprefentation, by
which one fucceeds, not from any title in himfelf, but
in the place, and as reprefenting fome of his deceafed
afeendants. Thus, where one leaves a younger fon, and
a grandchild by his eldeil, the grandchild, though far¬
ther removed in degree from the deceafed than his
uncle, excludes him, as coming in place of his father
the eldelt fon. Hence arifes the diftinHion between
fucceffion in capita, where the divifion is made into as
many equal parts as there are capita or heirs, which is
the cafe of heirs portioners j and fucceffion in JUrpes,
where the remoter heirs draw no more among them
than the fhare belonging to their afeendants or Jiirps,
whom they reprefent; an example of which may be
figured in the cafe of one who leaves behind him a
daughter alive, and two grand daughters by a daughter
deceafed. In which cafe the two grand-daughters would
fucceed equally to that half which would have belong¬
ed to their mother had fhe been alive.
5. In the fucceflion of heirs portioners, indivifible
rights, e. g. titles of dignity, fall to the eldeft filter.
A fingle right of fuperiority goes alfo to the eldeft ;
for it hardly admits a divilion, and the condition of the
vaffal ought not to be made worfe by multiplying fu-
periors upon him. Where there are more fuch rights,
the eldeft may perhaps have her election of the heft j
but the younger fifters are entitled to a recompenfe, in
fo far as the divifions are unequal •, at leaft, where the
fuperiorities yield a conftant yearly rent. The princi¬
pal feat of the family falls to the eldeft, with the gar¬
den and orchard belonging to it, without recompenfe
to the younger lifters j but all other houfes are divided
amongft them, together with the lands on which they
are built, as parts and pertinents of thefe lands. A
preecipuum, however, is due only in the cafe of fuccef¬
fion of heirs portioners ab inteftato ; and therefore there
is no place for it where the fucceflion is taken under a
deed.
6. Thofe heritable rights, to which the deceafed did
himfelf fucceed as heir to his father or other anceftor,
get fometimes the name of heritage in a ftriH fenfe, in
oppofition to the feuda nova, or feus of conqueft, which
he had acquired by lingular titles, and which defeend
not to his heir of line, but of conqueft. This diftinc-
tion obtains only where two or more brothers or uncles,
or their iifue, are next in fucceflion ; in which cafe, the
immediate younger brother, as heir of line, fucceeds to
the proper heritage, becaufe that defeends ; whereas
the conqueft afeends to the immediate elder brother.
It has no place in female fuccelfion, which the law di¬
vides equally among the heirs portioners. Where the
deceafed was the younger brother, the immediate elder
brother is heir both of line and of conqueft. An eftate
difponed by a father to his eldeft fon, is not conqueft
in the fon’s perfon, but heritage $ becaufe the fon would
have fucceeded to it, though there had been no difpo-
lition. The heir of conqueft fucceeds to all rights af-
fe&ing land, which require feifm to perfect them. But
Heir of
conqneft.
A W. 679
teinds go to the heir of line j becaufe they are merely Law of
a burden on the fruits, not the land. Tacks do not Scotland,
fall under conqueft, becaufe they are complete rights
without feifin j nor perfonal bonds taken to heirs feclud-
ing executors.
7. The heir of line is entitled to the fuccefi'ion, not Heirfhip-
only of fubjefts .properly heritable, but to that fort ofmoveablesj
moveables called heirjhip, which is the heft of certain
kinds. This doftrine has been probably introduced,
that the heir might not have a houfe and eftate to fuc¬
ceed to, quite difmantled by the executor. In that fort
which goes by pairs or dozens, the beft pair or dozen
is the heirlhip. There is no heirlhip in fungibles, or
things eftimated by quantity ; as grain, hay, current
money, &c. To entitle an heir to this privilege, the
deeeafed muft have been either, (1.) A prelate : (2.) A
baron, t. e. who flood infeft at his death in lands, though
not erefted into a barony ; or even in a right of annual-
rent: Or, (3.) A burgefs j not an honorary one, but
a trading burgefs of a royal borough, or at leaft one
entitled to enter burgefs in the right of his anceftor.
Neither the heir of conqueft, nor of tailzie, has right
to heirlhip moveables.
8. As to fucceflion by deftination, no proprietor can Succeffion
fettle any heritable eftate, in the proper form of a tefta- by deftina-
ment} not even bonds fecluding executors, though t'on*
thefe are not heritable ex fua natura : But, where a
teftamentis in part drawn up in the ftyle of a deed in¬
ter vivos, fuch part of it may contain a fettlement of
heritage, though executors ftiould be named in the
teftamentary part. The common method of fettling
the fucceflion of heritage is by difpolition, contraft of
marriage, or Ample procuratory of refignation : and,,
though a difpofition fettling heritage fliould have nei¬
ther precept nor procuratory, it founds an aftion a-
gainft the heir of line to complete his titles to the
eftate ; and thereafter diveft himfelf in favour of the
difponee. The appellation of tailzie, or entail, is chief¬
ly ufed in the cafe of a land eftate, which is fettled on
a long feries of heirs fubftituted one after another.
The perfon firft called in the tailzie is the inftitute j
the reft, the heirs of tailzie, or the fubftitutes. ,
9. Tailzies, when confidered in relation to their fe» Tailzies*
veral degrees of force, are either, (1.) Simple deftina-
tions. (2.) Tailzies with prohibitory claufes. (3.) Tail- *
zies with prohibitory, refolutive, and irritant claufes.
That is a Ample deftination, where the perfons called
to the fucceflion are fubftituted one after another, with¬
out any reftraint laid on the exercife of their property.
The heirs, therefore, fucceeding to fuch eftate, are ab-
folute fiars, and confequently may alter the deftination
at pleafure.
10. In tailzies with claufes prohibitory, e. g. declar¬
ing that it (hall not be lawful to the heirs to contraft
debts or alien the lands in prejudice of the fucceflion,
none of the heirs can alien gratuitoufly. But the mem¬
bers of entail may contraft debts which will be effec¬
tual to the creditors, or may difpofe of the eftate for
onerous caufes. In both thefe forts the maker himfelf
may alter the tailzie: except, (1.) Where it lias been
granted for an onerous caufe, as in mutual tailzies : or,
(2.) Where the maker is exprefsly difabled, as well as
the inftitute or the heirs.
I r. Where a tailzie is guarded with irritant and re¬
folutive claufes, the eftate entailed cannot be carried oft
by~
68o
L A
Law of
Scotland.
Their re-
quilitfS.
Heirs of
by the debt, or deed, of any of the heirs fucceeding
thereto, in prejudice of the fubftitutes. It was long
doubted, whether fuch tailzies ought to be eft'e&ual,
even where the fuperior’s confent was adhibited j be-
caufe they funk the property of eftates, and created a
perpetuity of liferents. They were firft explicitly au¬
thorized by 1685, c. 22. By this ftgtute, the entail
muft be regiftered in a fpeeial regilter eftablilhed for
that purpofe ; and the irritant and refolutive claufes
muft be inferted, not only in the procuratories, pre¬
cepts, and feifins, by which the tailzies are firft confti-
tuted, but in all the after conveyances thereof; other-
wife they can have no force againft lingular fucceffors.
But a tailzie, even without thefe requifites, is effectual
againft the heir of the granter, or againft the inftitute
who accepts of it. It has been found, that an entail,
though completed by infeftment before the aft 1685,
was ineffeftual, becaufe not recorded in terms of the
aft.
12. An heir of entail has full power over the en-
entail.then eftate, except in fo far as he isexprefsly fettered j
reftridfio-s an<^ as enta^s are an unfavourable reftraint upon pro¬
perty, and a frequent finare to trading people, they are
JiriBifiimi juris; fo that no prohibition or irritancies
are tube inferred by implication. By 10 George III.
c. 51. heirs of entail are entitled (notwithftanding any
refiriftions in the deed of entail) to improve their eftates
by granting leafes, building farm houfes, draining, en-
clofing, and excambing, under certain limitations, and
to claim repayment of three-fourths of the expence from
the next heir of entail.—This aft extends to all tailzies,
whether made prior orpofterior to the 1685.
13. An heir, who counterafts the direftions of the
tailzie, by aliening any part of the eftate, charging it
with debt, &c. is faid to contravene. It is not the
fimple contrafting of debt that infers contravention j
the lands entailed muft be aflually adjudged upon the
debt contrafted. An heir may, where he is not ex-
prefsly barred, fettle rational provifions on his wife and
children, without incurring contravention. It is not
quite clear whether the heirs alfo of the contravener
would forfeit their right from the afts or deeds of their
predeceffor where there is no exprefs claufe in the en¬
tailed fettling it} and though the words of the afl 1685
(which declares, that entails executed according to the
direftions of it, ftrall be effeftual not only againft the
contravener and his heirs, but againft creditors), may
feem to favour the idea that heirs alfo would forfeit,
the more favourable opinion has received the fanftion
of our fupreme court. For the greater fecurity, how¬
ever, a claufe is now ufually inferted in tailzies, de¬
claring, that the contravention of the heir in pofleflion
(hall not affeft his defcendants, when fuch is the in¬
tention of the granter.
14. When the heirs of the laft perfon fpecially call¬
ed in a tailzie come to fucceed, the irritancies have no
longer any perfon in favour of whom they can operate,
and confequently, the fee, which was before tailzied,
becomes fimple and unlimited in the perfon of fuch
heirs. By the late aft 20th George II. for aboliftiing
wardholdings, the king may purchafe lands within
Scotland, notwithftanding the ftrifteft entail} and where
the lands are in the hands of minors or fatuous perfens,
his majefty may purchafe them from the curators or
guardians. And heirs of entail may fell to their vaf-
Contraven
tion, by
whom in¬
ferred.
in what
cafes an
heir may
fell.
W. Part III.
fals the fuperiorities belonging to the entailed eftate } Law of
but in all thefe cafes, the price is to be fettled in the Scotland,
fame manner that the lands or fuperiorities fold were J
fettled before the fale.
15. Rights, not only of land eftates, but of bonds, Rights
are fometimes granted to two or more perfons in con- taken in
junft fee. Where a right is fo granted to two ftran-^jun<^
gers, without any fpecial claufe adjefted to it, each of
them has an equal intereft in the fee, and the part of
the deceafed defeends to his own heir. If the right be
taken to the two jointly, and the longejl liver and their
heirs, the feveral fhares of the conjunft fiars are affeft-
able by their creditors during their lives} but, on the
death of any one of them, the furvivor has the fee of
the whole, in fo far as the {hare of the predecealed re¬
mains free, after payment of his debts. Where the
right is taken to the two in conjunft fee, and to the
heirs of one of them, he to whofe heirs the right is taken
is the only fiar } the right of the other relolves into a
fimple liferent: yet where a father takes a right to him-
felf and his fon jointly, and to the fon’s heirs, fuch
right being gratuitous, is not underltood to ftrip the
father of the fee, unlefs a contrary intention ftrall plain¬
ly appear from the tenor of the right.
16. Where a right is taken to a hufband and wife,
in conjunft fee and liferent, the hufband, as theperfona
dignior, is the only fiar : the wife’s right refolves into
a liferent, unlefs it be prefumable, from fpecial circum-
ftances, that the fee was intended to be in the wife.
Where a right of moveables is taken to hufband and
w ife, the heirs of both fucceed equally, according to
the natural meaning of the words.
17. Heirs of provifion are thofe who fucceed to any Heirs of
fubjeft, in virtue of a provifion in the inveftiture, orpnmfions
other deed of fettlement. This appellation is given moft
commonly to heirs of a marriage. Thefe are more fa¬
vourably regarded than heirs by fimple deftination,
who have only the hope of fucceftion ; for heirs of a
marriage, becaufe their provifions are conftituted by an
onerous contraft, cannot be difappointed of them by
any gratuitous deed of the father. Neverthelefs, as
their right is only a right of fucceflion, which is not
defigned to reftrain the father from granting onerous
or rational deeds, he continues to have the full power
of felling the fubjeft, or charging it with debts, unlefs
a proper right of credit be given to the heir by the
marriage contraft, e. g. if the father (hould oblige him-
felf to infeft the heir in the lands, or make payment of
the fum provided againft a day certain, or when the
child attains a certain age, &c. ; for fuch rights, when
perfefted by infeftment, or fecured by diligence, are
effeftual againft all the pofterior deeds of the father,
even onerous.
18. Though all provifions to children, by a mar-EfFedts of
riage contraft conceived in the ordinary form, being Pn'v'^on t0
merely rights of fucceflion, are poftponed to every one-c*“lc^ien*
rous debt of the granter, even to thofe contrafted po¬
fterior to the provifions} yet where a father executes a
bond of provifion to a child aftually exifting, whether
fuch child be the heir of a marriage or not, a proper
debt is thereby created, which, though it be without
doubt gratuitous, is not only effeftual agairft the fa¬
ther himfelf and his heirs, but is not reducible at the
infiance even of his prior onerous creditors, if he was
folvent at the time of granting it. A father may, not-
withftanding,
Provifion
lo heirs.
Cliap. II. L
wltiiilanding a flrfi: marriage contraA, fettle a jointure
on a fecond wife, or provide the children of a fecond
marriage j for fuch fettiements are deemed onerous ;
but where they are exorbitant, they will be reftrifted
to what is rational : and in all fuch fettiements, where
the provifions of the firft marriage contract are en¬
croached upon, the heirs of that marriage have recourfe
againft the father, in cafe he (hould afterwards acquire
a feparate eftate, which may enable him to fulfil both
obligations.
19. In marriage contracts, the conqueft, or a certain
part of it, is frequently provided to the iiTue ; by which
is underftood whatever real addition {hall be made to
the father’s eftate during the marriage by purchafe or
donation. Conqueft therefore muft be free, i. e. what
remains after payment of debts due by the father. As
in other provifions, fo in conqueft, the father is ftill
fiar, and may therefore difpofe of it for onerous or ra¬
tional caufes. Where heritable rights are provided to
the heirs of a marriage, they fall to the eldeft fon, for
he is the heir at law in heritage. Where a fum of
money is fo provided, the word heir is applied to the
fubjeft of the provifion, and fo marks out the executor,
who is the heir in moveables. When an heritable right
To bairns, is provided to the bairns (or iffue) of a marriage, it is
divided equally among the children, if no divifion be
made by the father *, for fuch deftination cuts off the
exclufive right of the legal heir. No provifion granted
to bairns gives a fpecial right of credit to any one
child as long as the father lives : the right is granted
fatrahce ; fo that the whole muft indeed go to one or
other of them ; but the father has a power inherent in
him, to divide it among them in fuch proportions as he
thinks beft, yet fo as none of them may be entirely
excluded, except in extraordinary cafes.
20. A claufe of return is that, by which a fum in a
bond or other right, is in a certain event limited to
return to the granter himfelf, or his heirs. When a
right is granted for onerous caufes, the creditor may
defeat the claufe of return, even gratuitoufly. But,
where the fum in the right flows from the granter, or
where there is any other reafonable caufe for the pro¬
vifion of return in his favour, the receiver cannot difap-
point it gratuitoufly. Yet fince he is fiar, the fum may
be either afligned by him for an onerous caufe, or af¬
fected by his creditors.
Heirs, 21. An heir is, in the judgment of law, eadem per-
fona cum defun&o, and fo reprefents the deceafed uni-
rerfally, not only in his rights, but in his debts : in the
firft view, he is faid to be an heir adlive; in the fecond,
pajjive. From this general rule are excepted, heirs fub-
ftituted in a fpecial bond, and even fubftituted in a
difpofition o?nnium bonorum, to take effect at the grant-
er’s death ; for fuch fubftitutes are confidered as lin¬
gular fucceffors, and their right as an univerfal legacy,
which does not fubjeft the legatee ultra valorem: but
heirs male or of tailzie, though their right be limited to
Ipecial fubjedls, are liable, not merely to the extent of
the fubje£t entailed or provided, but in folidum ; becaufe
fuch rights are defigned to carry a univerfal charafter,
and fo infer a univerfal reprefentation of the granter.
The heir of line is primarily liable for the debts of his
predeceffbr ; for he is the moft proper heir, and fo muft
be difcufied before any other can be purfued ; next to
him the heir of conqueft, becaufe he alfo fucceeds to
Yol. XI. Part II.
Claufe of
return.
A \V. 68i
the univerjitas of the whole heritable rights which his Law of
predeceffur had acquired by lingular titles ; then, the Scotland .
heir male, or of a marriage j for their propinquity of
blood fubjefts them more dire£Hy than any other heir
of tailzie, who may poflibly be a ftranger ; and who for
that reafon is not liable to be difcuffed, except for fuch
of the predectlfor’s debts or deeds as relate fpecially
to the lands tailzied ; as to which he is liable even be¬
fore the heir of line. Heirs portioners are liable pro
rata for their predecelTor’s debts j but if any of them
prove infolvent, the creditors may, after difcufling her,
infill for her {hare againft the reft, who will be liable
in fo far as they are lucratce by the fucceflion. Where
an heir, liable fubjidarie, pays the predeceflor’s debt,
he has relief againft the heir who is more dire6t-
ly liable, in refpeft of whom he is not co-heir, but
creditor.
22. Before an heir can have an a£Hve title to his nn-
ceftor’s rights, he muft be entered by fervice and re¬
tour. He who is entitled to enter heir, is, before his
aflual entry, called apparent heir. The bare right of Apparent
apparency carries certain privileges with it. An ap-heirs.
parent heir may defend his anceftor’s titles againft
any third party who brings them under challenge.
Tenants may fafely pay him their rents $ and after
they have once acknowledged him by payment, he
may compel them to continue it; and the rents not
uplifted by the apparent heir belong to his executors,
upon his death.
23. As an heir is, by his entry, fubjedled univerfally ,7^/ deli~
to his anceftor’s debts, apparent heirs have therefore ^berandt-
year (annus deliberandi') allowed to them from the an-
cellor’s deceafe, to deliberate whether they will enter
or not: till the expiry of which, though they may
be charged by creditors to enter, they cannot be fued
in any procefs founded upon fuch charge. Though
declaratory actions, and others which contain no per-
fonal eonclulion, may be purfued againft the apparent
heir without a previous charge, action does not lie
even upon thefe, within the year, if the heir cannot
make the proper defences without incurring a paflive
title. But judicial Tales, commenced againft: an ancef-
tor, may by fpecial a£t of federunt be continued upon
a citation of the heir, without waiting the year of de¬
liberating. This annut deliberandi \% computed, in the.
cafe of a pofthumous heir, from the birth of fuch heir.
An apparent heir, who, by immixing with the eftate
of his anceftor, is as much fubjefted to his debts as if
he had entered, can have no longer a right to delibe¬
rate whether he will enter or not.
24. All fervices proceed on brieves from the chan- Service of
eery, which are called brieves of inquejl, and have been^e‘is>
long known in Scotland. The judge, to whom the
brief is directed, is required to try the matter by an
inqueft of 15 fworn men. The inqueft, if they find
the claim verified, muft declare the claimant heir to the
deceafed, by a verdift or fervice, which the judge muft
atteft, and return the brief, with the fei ~e proceeding
on it, to the chancery j from which an extra6l is ob¬
tained called the retour of the fervice.
25. The fervice of heirs is cither general or fpecial. general and
A general fervice veils the heir in the right of all he-fpecial.
ritable fubje6H, which either do not require feifin, or
which have not been perfected by feifin in the perfon of
the anceftor. A public right, therefore, according to
4 K the
6B2 Li A Vv. Part IIP.
Law of the feudal law, though followed by lelfin, having
, Scotland. ^ no iega[ effects till it be conhrmed by the fuperior,
muft, as a perl'onal right, be carried by a general fer-
vice. A fpecinl fervice, followed by feifin, veils the
heir in the right of the fpecial fubjedls in which the
anceftor died infeft.
Entry by 26. If an heir, doubtful whether the eftate of his
inventory. anceftor be fufficient for clearing his debts, lhall, at
any time within the annus deliberandi, exhibit upon
oath a full inventory of all his anceftor’s heritable fub-
je£fs to the clerk of the {hire where the lands lie j or,
if there is no heritage requiring feifin, the clerk of the
Ihire where he died ; and if, after the fame is iubfcri-
bed by the fheriff or IherilF-depute, the clerk, and him-
felf, and regiftered in the (heriff’s books, the extrafl
thereof lhall be regiftered within four days after expiry
of the annus deliberandi in the general regifter appoint¬
ed for that purpofe, his fubfequent entry will fubjefl
him no farther than to the value of fuch inventory. If
the inventory be given up and regiftered within the
time prefcribed, the heir may ferve on it, even after
the year.
27. Creditors are not obliged to acquiefce in the va¬
lue of the eftate given up by the heir ; but, if they be
real creditors, may bring the eftate to a public fale, in
order to difcover its true value j fince an eftate is al¬
ways worth what can be got for it. An heir by in¬
ventory, as he is in eflfeft a truftee for the creditors,
muft account for that value to which the eftate may
have been improved fince the death of the anceftor,
and he muft; communicate to all the creditors the cafes
he has got in tranfafting with any one of them.
Entry upon 28. Praftice has introduced an anomalous fort of
a precept ofeR^ry5 without the interpofition of an inqueft, by the
c^e con- puje confent 0f tlie fuperior j who, if he be fatisfied that
' the perfon applying to him is the next heir, grants
him a precept (called of dare conjlat, from the firft
words of its recital), commanding his bailie to infeft
him in the fubjedts that belonged to his anceftor. The
heir, by taking feifin on this precept, becomes pajjive,
liable for all the debts on his anceftor ; and, on the
other hand, acquires an aftive title, as to the fubjedts
contained in the precept in queftions with the fuperior
or his heirs } and they may, when followed by feifin,
afford a title of prefcription : But as no perfon can be
declared an heir by private authority, they cannot bar
the true heir from entering after 20 years, as a legal
entry would have done j the true heir, in fuch cafe,
having it ftill in his power to fet afide that right, and
obtain himfelf regularly ferved at any time within the
Entry by years of prefcription. Of the fame nature is the entry
hafp and yiafp ancj ftaple? commonly ufed in burgage tene-
ments of houfes 5 by which the bailie, without calling
an inqueft:, cognofces or declares a perfon heir, upon
evidence brought before himfelf j and, at the fame
time, infefts him in the fubjedt, by the fymbol of the
hafp and ftaple of the door. Charges given by credi¬
tors to apparent heirs to enter, ftand in the place of an
adlual entry, fo as to fupport the creditor’s diligence
(clxxii. 2.).
A fpecial 29. A general fervice cannot include a fpecial one $
^lude^aH'e ^nce ^ n0 re^at^on to an7 fpecial fubjedf, and car-
HeraloneT ries on^y !:^at c^a^s r*ghts on which feifin has not
proceeded : but a fpecial fervice implies a general one
of the, fame kind or charadler3 and confequently carries
even fuch rights as have not been perfedled by feifin. Law of
Service is not required to eftabliftr the heir’s right in Scotland,
titles of honour, or offices of the higheft dignity } for '-J
thefe defeend jure fanguinis.
30. An heir, by immixing with his anceftor’s eftate Paffive ti-
without entry, fubjedts himfelf to his debts, as if he had^65,
entered j or, in our law phrafe, incurs a paffive title.
The only paffive title by which an apparent heir be¬
comes liable univerfally for all his anceftor’s debts, is
gejiio pro hcerede,. or his behaving as none but an heir Gejliopro
has right to do. Behaviour as heir is inferred from the k&rede>.
apparent heir’s intromiffion, after the death of the an¬
ceftor with any part of the lands or other heritable fub-
jedls belonging to the deceafed, to which he himfelf
might have completed an adlive title by entry.
31. This paffive title is excluded, if the heir’s in¬
tromiffion be by order of law j or if it be founded on
lingular titles, and not as heir to the deceafed. But an
apparent heir’s purchafing any right to his aneeftor’s
eftate, otherwife than at public roup (audlion), or his
poffeffing it in virtue of rights fettled in the perfon of
any near relation of the anceftor, to whom he himfelf
may fucceed as heir, otherwife than upon purchafe by
public fale, is deemed behaviour as heir.
32. Behaviour as heir is alfo excluded where the in¬
tromiffion is fmall, unlefs an intention to defraud the
anceftor’s creditors be prefumable from the circum-
ftances attending it. Neither is behaviour inferred
againft the apparent heir, from the payment of his an¬
ceftor’s debt, which is a voluntary adl, and profitable
to the creditors : nor by his taking out of brieves to
ferve j for one may alter his purpofe, while it is not
completed : nor by his afiuming the titles of honour
belonging to his anceftor, or exercifing an honorary
office hereditary in the family •, for thefe rights an-
fwer to the blood, which may be ufed without proper
reprefentation. But the exercifing an heritable office
of profit, which may pafs by voluntary conveyance, and
confequently is adjudgeable, may reafonably be thought
to infer a paffive title. Laftly, as paffive titles have
been introduced merely for the fecurity of creditors ;
therefore, where queftions conceiving behaviour arife
among the different orders of heirs, they are liable
to one another no farther than in valorem of their fe-
veral intromiffions.
33. Another paffive title in heritage, may be incur- pra,ceptisi
red by the apparent heir’s accepting a gratuitous right Werfzta-
from the anceftor, to any part of the eftate to which tis.
he himfelf might have fucceeded as heir j and it is call¬
ed prceceptio luereditatis, becaufe it is a taking of the
fucceffion by the heir before it opens to him by the
death of his anceftor. If the right be onerous, there
is no paffive title ; if the confideration paid for it does
not amount to its full value, the creditors of the de¬
ceafed may reduce it, in fo far as it is gratuitous, but
ftill it infers no paffive title.
34. The heir incurring this paffive title is no farther
liable, than if he had at the time of his acceptance
entered heir to the granter, and fo fubjefted himfelf
to the debts that were then chargeable againft him $
but with the pofterior debts he has nothing to do, not
even with thofe contracted between the date of the
right and the infeftment taken upon it, and he is
therefore called fuccpjfor titulo lucraltvo pojl contradum
debit um.
Chap.II,
LAW.
683
Law of
Scotland
Other paf-
fsve titles.
35. Neither of theft; pafiive titles takes place, unlefs
the fubjeft intermeddled with or difponed be fueh as
the intromitter cr receiver would fucceed to as heir.
In this alfo, thefe two paflive titles agree, that the in-
tromiflion in both mult be after the death of the ances¬
tor ; for there can be no termini habiles of a pa {live
title, while the anceftor is alive. But in the following
reipedt they differ : GeJHo pro hcerede, being a vicious
paiiive title founded upon a quafi delidt, cannot be ob¬
jected againft the delinquent’s heir, if procefs has not
been litifcontetled while the delinquent himfelf was
alive •, whereas the fuccejjbr titu/o lucrativo is by the ac¬
ceptance of the difpofitinn underftood to have entered
into a tacit contradt with the granter’s creditors, by
which he undertakes the burden of their debts 5 and
all adtions founded on contradl are tranfmiflible againft
heirs.
36. An apparent heir, who is cited by the anceftpr’s
creditor in a procefs for payment, if he offers any pe¬
remptory defence againft the debt, incurs a paffive
title j for he can have no intereft to objedt againft it,
but in the charadter of heir. In the fame manner, the
heir’s not renouncing upon a charge to enter heir, in¬
fers it: But the effedt of both thefe is limited to the
fpecial debt purfued for, or charged upon. This paf¬
five title, which is inferred from the heir’s not renoun¬
cing, has no effedt till decree pafs againft him *, and
even a renunciation offered after decree, if the decree
be in abfence, will entitle the heir to a fufpenfion of all
diligence againft his perfon and eftate, competent upon
his anceftor’s debts.
37. By the principles of the feudal law, an heir,
when he is to complete his titles by fpecial fervice, muft
necelfarily pafs over his immediate anceftor, e. g. his
father, if he was not infeft; and ferve heir to that an¬
ceftor who was laft veft and feized in the right, and in
whofe ha-reditatis jacens the right muft remain, till a title
be connedted thereto from him. As this bore hard
upon creditors who might think themfelves fecure in
contradting with a perfon whom they faw for fome
time in the poffeflion of an eftate, and from thence con¬
cluded that it was legally veiled in him •, it is there¬
fore provided by adl 1695, that every perfon, paffing
over his immediate anceftor who had been three years
in poffeffion, and ferving heir to one more remote, fhall
be liable for the debts and deeds of the perfon inter-
jedted, to the value of the eftate to which he is ferved.
This being corredtory of the feudal maxims, has been
ftridtly interpreted, fo as not to extend to the gratui¬
tous deeds of the perfon interjedled, nor to the cafe where
the interjedled perfon was a naked liar, and poffeffed
only civilly through the liferenter.
38. Our law, from its jealoufy of the weaknefs of
by the .heir while under ficknefs, and of the importunity
fiends on that occafion, has declared that all deeds
affedting heritage, if they be granted by a perfon on
deathbed, (z. e, after contradling that ficknefs which
ends in death, to the damage of the heir, are ineffec¬
tual, except where the debts of the granter have laid
him under a neceflity to alien his lands. As this law
of deathbed is founded folely in the privilege of the
heir, deathbed deeds, when confented to by the heir,
are not reducible. The term properly oppofed to
deathbed is liege poujiie, by which is underftood a ftate
of health j and it gets the name, becaufe perfons in
Reduction
health have the leghima pot eft as, or lawful prtwer, of haw of
difpofing of their property at pleafure. Scotiand.^
39. The two extremes being proved, of the granter’s what C0[v.
ficknefs immediately before figning, and of his deathftitmes a
following it, though at the greateft diftance of time,deathbed,
did, by our former law, found a prefumption that thec'eed*
deed was granted on deathbed, which could not have
been elided but by a pofitive proof of the granter’s
convalefcence •, but now the allegation of deathbed is
alfo excluded, by his having lived 60 days after fign¬
ing the deed. The legal evidence of convalefcence is
the granter’s having been, after the date of the deed,
at kirk OR market unfupported ; for a proof of either
will fecure the deed from challenge. The going to
kirk or market muft be performed when the people
are met together in the church or churchyard for any
public meeting, civil or ecclefiaftical, or in the mar¬
ket place at the time of public market. No othet
proof of convalefcence is receivable, becaufe at kirk
and market there are always prefent unfufpefled wit-
neffes, which we can hardly be fure of in any other
cafe.
40. The privilege of fetting afide deeds eic capite^-0.
leBi, is competent to all heirs, not to heirs of line only, js
but of conqueft, tailzie, or provifion ; not only to thecompetent,
immediate, but to remoter heirs, as foon as the fuccef-
fion opens to them. But, where it is confented to
or ratified by the immediate heir, it is fecured againft
all challenge, even from the remoter. Yet the imme¬
diate heir cannot, by any antecedent writing, renounce
his right of reduflion, and thereby give flrength to
deeds that may be afterwards granted in ledlo to his
hurt $ for no private renunciation can authorife a per¬
fon to aft contrary to a public law ; and fuch renuncia¬
tion is prefumed to be extorted through the fear of
exheredation. If the heir Ihould not ufe this privilege
of reduftion, his creditor may, by adjudication, tranf-
fer it to himfelf; or he may, without adjudication,
reduce the deed, libelling upon his intereft as credi¬
tor to the heir : But the granter’s creditors have no
right to this privilege, in regard that the law of death¬
bed was introduced, not in behalf of the granter him¬
felf, but of his heir.
41. The law of deathbed ftrikes againft difpofitions
of every fubjeft to which the heir would have fucceed-
ed, or from which he would have had any benefit, had ^ ‘
it not been fo difponed. Deathbed deeds granted in
confequence of a full or proper obligation in liege pou¬
jiie, are not fubjeft to reduftion ; but, where the an¬
tecedent obligation is merely natural, they are reducible.
By ftronger reafon, the deceafed cannot, by a deed
merely voluntary, alter the nature of his eftate on death¬
bed to the prejudice of his heir, fo as from heritable
to make it moveable j but if he ftsould, in liegepouJlie>
exclude his apparent heir, by an irrevocable deed con¬
taining referved faculties, the heir cannot be heard t®
quarrel the exercife of thefe faculties on deathbed.
42. In a competition between the creditors of the
deceafed and of the heir, our law (aft 1661) has
j iiilly preferred the creditors of the deceafed, as every
man’s eftate ought to be liable, in the firft place, for
his own debt. But this preference is, by the ftatute,
limited to the cafe where the creditors of the deceafed
have ufed diligence againft their debtor’s eftate, with¬
in three years from his death j and therefore the heir’s
4 II 2 creditors
684
L A W.
Part ]IL
Liiw of creditors may, after that period, affect it for their
C0l*‘int' own payment. All difpofitions by an heir, of the
anceftor’s eftate, within a year after his death, are
null, in fo far as they are hurtful to the creditors of
the anceftor. This takes place, though thefe credi¬
tors fhould have ufed no diligence, and even where
the difpolitions are granted after the year : It is
thought they are ineffectual againft the creditors of
the deceafed who have ufed diligence within the three
years.
dxxxi. SECT. XXI. Of SucceJJion in Moveables.
Moveable
iucceflion
by law.
Succeffion
in move,
ablesby def-
tinaiion.
1. In the fucceflion of moveable rights, it is an uni-
verfal rule, that the next in degree to the deceafed (or
next of kin) fucceeds to the whole •, and if there are
two or more equally near, all of them fucceed by equal
parts, without that prerogative, which takes place in
heritage, of the eldeft fon over the younger, or of males
over females. Neither does the right of reprefenta-
tion (explained N° clxxx. 4.) obtain in the fucceflion
of moveables, except in the fingle cafe of a competi¬
tion between the full blood and the half blood ; for a
niece by the full blood will be preferred before a bro¬
ther by the half blood, though fire is by one degree
more remote from the deceafed than her uncle. Where
the eftate of a perfon deceafed confifts partly of heri¬
tage, and partly of moveables, the heir in the heri¬
tage has no fhare of the moveables, if there are others
as near in degree to the deceafed as himfelf: But where
the heir, in fuch cafe, finds it his intereft to renounce
his exelufive claim to the heritage, and betake himfelf
to his right as one of the next of kin, he may collate
or communicate the heritage with the others, who in
their turn muft collate the moveables with him ; fo
that the whole is thrown into one mafs, and divided
equally among all of them. This doCtrine holds, not
only in the line of defcendants, but of collaterals ; for
it was introduced, that the heir might in no cafe be
worfe than the other next of kin.
2. One may fettle his moveable eftate upon whom
he pleafes, excluding the legal fucceffor, by a tefta-
ment ; which is a written declaration of what a per¬
fon wills to be done with his moveable eftate after his
death. No teftamentary deed is effeftual till the death
of the teftator ; who may therefore revoke it at plea-
fure, or make a new one, by which the firft lofes its
force, according to the rule, voluntas tefatoris ef am-
bu/atoria ufque ad mortem ; and hence teftaments are
called lajl or latter wills. Teftaments, in their ftri6t
acceptation, nmft contain a nomination of executors, i. e.
of perfons appointed to adminifter the fucceflion ac¬
cording to the will of the deceafed : Yet nothing hin¬
ders one from making a fettlement of moveables, in fa¬
vour of an univerfal legatee, though he ftiould not have
appointed executors j and on the other part, a tefta-
ment where executors are appointed is valid, though
the perfon who is to have the right of fucceflion ftiould
not be named. In this laft cafe, if the executor nomi¬
nated be a ftranger, i. e. one who has no legal intereft
in the moveable eftate, he is merely a truftee, account¬
able to the next of kin j but he may retain a third of
the dead’s part (explained par. 6.) for his trouble in
executing the teftament 5 in payment of which, lega¬
cies, if any be left to him, muft be" imputed. The Law of
heir, if he be named executor, has right to the third as Scotland,
a ftranger 5 but if one be named who has an intereft —■'•v'”—**
in the legal fucceflion, he has no allowance, unlefs fuch
intereft be lefs than a third. Nuncupative or verbal
teftaments are not, by the law of Scotland, effedual for
fupporting the nomination of an executor, let the fub-
jeft of the fucceflion be ever fo fmall : But verbal le¬
gacies, not exceeding look Scots, are fuftained : and
even where they are granted for more, they are inef-
feiftual only as to the excefs.
3. A legacy is a donation by the deceafed, to be Legacy,
paid by the executor to the legatee. It may be grant¬
ed either in the teftament or in a feparate writing.
Legacies are not due till the granter’s death ; and
conl’equently they can tranfmit no right to the exe¬
cutors of the legatee, in the event that the grantor
furvives him. A cafe occurred fome years ago, where
a teftator left a legacy payable when the legatee arri¬
ved at a certain age. 'I he legatee furvived the tefta-
tor, but died before the legacy was payable. It was
found, chiefly upon the authority of the Roman law,
that the legacy veiled in the legatee a niorte tejlatoris,
and upon his deceaie was due to the legatee’s next of
kin.
4. Legacies, where they are general, i. e. of a cer¬
tain fum of money indefinitely, give the legatee no
right in any one debt or fubje£l ; he can only infift in
a perfonal adlion againft the executor for payment out
of the teftator’s effects. A fpecial legacy, i. e. of a
particular debt due to the deceafed, or of a particular
lubjedft belonging to him, is of the nature of an aflig-
nation, by which the property of the fpecial debt or
fubject veils, upon the teitator’s death, in the legatee,,
who can therefore direftly fue the debtor or poffeffor :
Yet as no legacy can be claimed till the debts are paid,
the executor muft be cited in fuch proceis, that it may
be known, whether there are free efftfols fufhcient for
anfwering the legacy. W here there is not enough for
payment of all the legacies, each of the general lega¬
tees muft fuffer a proportional abatement : But a fpe¬
cial legatee gets his legacy entire, though there fliould
be nothing over for payment of the reft j and, on the
contrary, he has no claim, if the debt or fubjedl be¬
queathed ihould periih, whatever the extent of the free
executry may be.
5. Minors, after puberty, can teft without their cu- Who can
rators, wives without their huihands, and perfons inter-teft, and
dialed without their interdiflors : but baftards cannotunc!er w3ia'
teft, except in the cafes afterwards fet forth, N° clxxii.ie^r'<^’ons’
3. As a certain fhare of the goods, falling under the
communion that is confequent on marriage, belongs,
upon the hufband’s deceaie, to his widow, jure reliBt?y
and a certain {hare to the children, called the legitimey
portion natural, or bairns part of gear ; one who has a
wife or children, though he be the abfolute adminiftra-
tor of all thefe goods during his life, and confequently
may alien them by a deed inter vivos, in liege poufie,
even gratuitoufly, if no fraudulent intention to diiap-
point the wife or children ihall appear, yet cannot im¬
pair their ihares gratuitoufly on deathbed : nor can
he diipofe of his moveables to their prejudice by tefta¬
ment, though it ftinuld be made in liege poufie; fince-
teftaEients dc not operate till the death of the teftator^
at
1
affedt the
executiy.
11. L
at which period the divifion of the goods m communion
have their full effect in favour of the widow and chil¬
dren.
6. If a perfon deceafed leaves a widow', but no child,
his leftament, or, in other words, the goods in com¬
munion, divide in two: one half goes to the widow :
the other is the dead’s part, i. e. the abfolute property
of the deceafed, on which he can teff, and which falls
to his next of kin, if he dies inteftate. Where he leaves
children, one or more, but no widow, the children get
one half as their legitime : the other half is the dead’s
part: which falls aifo to the children, if the father has
not tefted upon it. If he leaves both widow and chil¬
dren, the divifion is tripartite : the wife takes one-tliird
by herfelf; another falls, as legitime, to the children
equally among them, or even to an only child, though
he thould fucceed to the heritage j the remaining third
is the dead’s part. Where the wife predeceafes with¬
out children, one half is retained by the hufband, the
other falls to her next of kin : Where fhe leaves chil¬
dren, the divition ought alfo to be bipartite, by the
common rules of fociety, fince no legitime is truly due
on a mother’s death : yet it is in practice tripartite ;
two-thirds remain with the furviving father, as if one-
third were due to him proprio nomine, and another as
adminiftrator of the legitime for his children •, the re¬
maining third, being the wife’s (hare, goes to her chil¬
dren, whether of that or any former marriage : for they
are all equally her next of kin.
What debts y. Before a teftament can be divided, the debts ow¬
ing by the deceafed are to be dedudled ; for all execu-
try muff be free. As the huiband has the full power
of burdening the goods in communion, his debts affecff:
the whole, and fo leflen the legitime and the ffrare of
the relifl, as well as the dead’s part. His funeral
charges, and the mournings and alimony due to the
widow, are confidered as his proper debts j but the le¬
gacies, or other gratuitous rights granted by him on
deathbed, affeft only the dead* part. Bonds bearing
intereft, due by the deceafed, cannot diminilh the re¬
lift’s fliare, becaufe fuch bonds, when due to the de¬
ceafed, do not increafe it. The funeral charges of the
wife predeceafing, fall wholly on her executors who
have right to her (hare. Where the deceafed leaves no
family, neither hufband, wife, nor child, the teffament
fuffers no divifion, but all is the dead’s part.
8. The whole iffue of the hufband, not only by that
marriage which was diflblved by his death, but by any
former marriage, has an equal intereft in the legitime j
otherwife the children of the firft marriage would be
cut out, as they could not claim the legitime during
their father’s life. But no legitime is due, (l.) Upon
the death of a mother. (2.) Neither is it due to grand¬
children, upon the death of a grandfather. Nor, (3.)
To children forisfamiliated, i. e. to fuch as, by having
renounced the legitime, are no longer confidered as in
familia, and fo are excluded from any farther {hare of
the moveable eftate than they have already received.
9. As the right in legitime is ftrongly founded in
nature, the renunciation of it is not to be inferred by
implication. Renunciation by a child of his claim of
legitime has the fame effeft as his death, in favour of
the other children entitled thereto j and confequently
the (hare of the renouncer divides among the reft 5 but
he does uot thereby lofe his right to the dead’s partj if
Law of
Scotland.
Renuncia¬
tion of the
legitime.
A W. 68
he does not a.fo renounce his (hare in the father’s exe-
cutry. Nay, his renunciation of the legitime, where    
he is the only younger child, has the effeft to convert
the whole fubjeft thereof into dead’s part, which will
therefore fall to the renouneer himfell as next of kin,
if the heir be not willing to collate the heritage with
him. Yet it has been found that the renunciation of
the only younger child made the whole legitime ac¬
crue to the heir without collation.
10. For preferving an equality among all the chil-Collatione
dren who continue entitled to the legitime, we have among
adopted the Roman doftrine of collatio ^oncrum
whereby the child, who has got a provifion from his
father, is obliged to collate it with the others, and im¬
pute it towards his own (hare of the legitime ; but if
from the deed of provifion, the father (hall appear to
have intended it as a prcecipuum to the child, collation
is excluded. A child is not bound to collate an heri¬
table fubjeft provided to him, becaufe the legitime is
not impaired by fuch provifion. As this collation taI5.es
place only in queffions among children who are entitled
to the legitime, the relift is not bound to collate dona¬
tions given her by her hufband, in order to increafe the
legitime •, and on the other part, the children are not
obliged to collate their proviiions, in order to increafe
her (hare.
11. As an heir in heritage muff complete his titles Confirma--
by entry, fo an executor is not vefted in the right of the don*
moveable eftate of the deceafed without confirmation.
Confirmation is a fentence of the commiffary or biftiop’s
court, empowering an executor, one or more, upon mak¬
ing inventory of the moveables pertaining to the de¬
ceafed, to recover, poffefs, and adminifter them, either
in behalf of themfelves, or of others interefted therein.
Teftaments muft be confirmed in the commiflariot
where the deceafed had his principal dwelling houfe at
his death. If he had no fixed refidence, or died in a.,
foreign country, the confirmation muft be at Edinburgh,
as the commune forum ; but if he went abroad with an
intention to return, the commiffariot within which he
redded before he left Scotland, is the only proper
court.
12. Confirmation proceeds upon an edift, which is
affixed on the door of the parifh church where the de¬
ceafed dwelt, and ferves to intimate to all concerned
the day of confirmation, which muft be nine days at
leaft after publifhing the edift. In a competition for
the office ©f executor, the commiffary prefers, primo
loco, the perfon named to it by the deceafed himfelf,
whofe nomination he ratifies or confirms, without any
previous decerniture : this is called the confirmation of
a teftament teftamentary. In default of an executor
named by the deceafed, univerfal difponees are by the
prefent praftice preferred 5 after them the next of kin j
then the relift ; then creditors; and, laftly, fpecial le¬
gatees. All thefe muft be decerned executors, by a
fentence called a decree-dative ; and if afterwards they
incline to confirm, the commiffary authorizes them to
adminifter, upon their making inventory, and giving
fecurity to make the fubjeft thereof forthcoming to all
having intereft j which is called the confirmation of a.
teftament dative.
13. A creditor, whofe debtor’s teftament is already conf;rma,
confirmed, may fue the executor, who holds the office tion qua ex-
for all concemedj to make payment of his debt. Where ecutor-cre-
there dUor*
L A W.
Part III.
Confirma¬
tion ad
omijfa, flic
Legitime
Wr tranf-
mit with¬
out confir¬
mation.
Partial cen
firniation.
there is nrs confirmation, he himfelf may apply for the
office, and confirm as executor-creditor ; which entitles
him to fue for and receive the fubjeft confirmed, for
his own payment : and where one applies for a confir¬
mation as executor-creditor, every co-creditor may ap¬
ply to be conjoined with him in the office. As this
kind of confirmation is fimply a form of diligence, cre¬
ditors are exempted from the neceflity of confirming
more than the amount of their debts.
14. A creditor, v.'hofe debt has not been cendituted
or his claim not clofed by decree, during the life of his
debtor, has no title to demand direftly the office of
executor qua creditor : but he may charge the next of
kin who Hands off, to confirm, who muff either re¬
nounce within twenty days after the charge, or be liable
for the debt ; and if the next of kin renounces, the pur-
fuer may conftitute his debt, and obtain a decree cogni-
tionis caufa, againft the hcercditas jacens of the move¬
ables, upon which he may confirm as executor-creditor
to the deceafed. Where one is creditor, not to the
deceafed, but to his next of kin who Hands off from
confirming, he may affeft the moveables of the de¬
ceafed, by obtaining himfelf decerned executor-dative
to the deceafed, as if he were creditor to him, and not
to his next of kin.
15. Where an executor has either omitted to give up
any of the effefts belonging to the deceafed in invento¬
ry, or has eftimated them below their jufl value, there
is place for a new confirmation, ad omtffa, vel male ap-
pretiata, at the fuit of any having interefl $ and if it
appears that he has not omitted or undervalued any
fubject dolose, the commiffary will ordain the fubjedts
omitted, or the difference between the eftimations in
the principal teftament and the true values, to be added
thereto ; but if dole (hall be prefumed, the whole fub-
je£t of the teftament ad omiffa vel male appretiata, will
be carried to him who confirms it, to the exclufion of
the executor in the principal teftament.
16. The legitime andrelifl’s fhare, becaufe they are
rights arifing ex lege, operate ipfo jure, upon the father’s
death, in favour of the relift and children j and confe-
quently pafs from them, though they fhould die before
confirmation, to their next of kin : whereas the dead’s
part, which falls to the children or other next of kin in
the way of fucceffion, remains, if they Ihould die before
confirming, in bonis of the firft deceafed ; and fo does
not defcend to their next of kin, but may be confirmed
by the perfon who, at the time of confirmation, is the
next of kin to the firft deceafed. Special affignations,
though neither intimated nor made public during the
life of the granter, carry to the affignee the full right
of the fubjeffs affigned, without confirmation. Special
legacies are really affignations, and fo fall under this
rule. The next of kin, by the bare poffeffion of the
ipfa corpora of moveables, acquires the property there¬
of without confirmation, and tranfmits it to his execu¬
tors.
17. The confirmation of any one fubjeft by the next
of kin, as it proves his right of blood, has been ad¬
judged to carry the whole executry out of the tefta-
ment. of the. deceafed, even what was omitted, and to
tranfmit all to his own executors. The confirmation
of a ft ranger, who is executor nominated, as it is
merely a truft; for the next of kin, has the effeft to
eilablkh the right of the next of kin to the fubje&s
4
confirmed, in the fame manner as if himfelf had con- Law of
firmed them. Scotland.
18. Executry, though it carries a certain degree ofExecutors
reprefentation ef the deceafed, is properly an office : how far *
executors therefore are not fubjedfed to the debts due liable,
by the deceafed, beyond the value of the inventory j
but, at the fame time, they are liable in diligence for
making the inventory effedtual to all having intereft.
An executor-creditor who confirms more than his debt
amounts to, is liable in diligence for what he confirms.
Executors are not liable in intereft:, even upon fuch
bonds recovered by them as carried intereft to the de¬
ceafed, becaufe their office obliges them to retain the
fums they have made effectual, in order to a diftribu-
tion thereof among all having intereft. This holds
though they fhould again lend out the money upon in¬
tereft, as they do it at their own rifk.
19. There are certain debts of the deceafed called la what
privileged debts, which were always preferable to every ca^es the^
other. Under that name are comprehended, medicines
fumifhed to the deceafed on deathbed, phyficians fees fentencc.
during that period, funeral charges, and the rent of his
houfe, and his fervants wages for the year or term cur¬
rent at his death. Thefe the executors are in fafety
to pay on demand. All the other creditors, who ei¬
ther obtain themfelves confirmed, or who cite the exe¬
cutor already confirmed, rvithin fix months after their
debtor’s death, are preferred,pcjfu, with thofe who
have done more timely diligence; and therefore no exe¬
cutor can either retain for his own debt, or pay a tefta-
mentary debt, fo as to exclude any creditor, who ftiall
ufe diligence rvithin the fix months, from the benefit
of the pari pajju preference ; neither can a decree for
payment of debt be obtained, in that period, againft an
executor, becaufe, till that term be elapfed, it cannot
be known how many creditors may be entitled to the,
fund in his hands. If no diligence be u(ed within the
fix months, the executor may retain for his own debt,
and pay the refidue primo venienti. Such creditors of
the deceafed as have ufed diligence within a year
after their debtor’s death, are preferable on the fub-
je£f of his tertament to the creditors of his next of
kin.
20. The only paflive title in moveables is vitious in-vitiousin*,
tromiffion ; which may be defined, an umvarrantabletromilfien,
intermeddling Avith the moveable eftate of a perfon
deceafed, without the order of law. This is not con¬
fined, as the paffive titles in heritage are, to the perfons
interefted in the fucceffion, but ftrikes againft: all intro-
mitters whatever. Where an executor confirmed in¬
tromits with more than he has confirmed, he incurs a
paffive title; fraud being in the common cafe prefumed
from his not giving up in inventory the full fubjeff in¬
termeddled with. Vitious intromiffion is alfo prefu¬
med, where the repofitories of a dying perfon are not
fealed up, as foon as he becomes incapable of fenfe,
by his neareft relations ; or, if he dies in a houfe not
his own, they snuft be fealed by the mafter of iuch
houfe, and the keys delivered to the judge ordinary,
to be kept by him, for the benefit of all having in¬
tereft.
21. The paffive title of vitious intromiffion does not
take place where there is any probable title or circum-
ftance that takes off the preiumption or fraud. In con-
fequence of this rule, neceffary intromiffion, or cujlodicc
caufa,
Chap. II.
Law of catifa, by the wife or children, who only continue the
< Scotland, pofleflion of the deceafed, in order to preferve his goods
v ~'1~ for the benefit of all concerned, infers no paflive title.
And, upon the fame principle, an intromitter, by con¬
firming himfelf executor, and thereby fubjeding him-
felf to account, before aftion be brought againft him
on the paflive titles, purges the vitiofity of his prior
intromiffion : and where the intromitter is one who is
interefted in the fucceflion, e. g. next of kin, his con¬
firmation, at any time within a year from the death of
the deceaftd, will exclude the paflive title, notwith-
ftanding a prior citation. As this paflive title was in¬
tended only for the fecurity of creditors, it cannot be
fued upon by legatees ; and fince it arifes ex deliSio, it
cannot be pleaded againft the heir of the intromitter.
As in delidls, any one of many delinquents may be
fubjedled to the whole punifiiment, fo any one of many
intromitters may be fued in folidum for the purfuer’s
debt, without calling the refl 5 but the intromitter Avho
pays, has an adlion of relief agalnfl: the others for their
ihare of it. If the intromitters are fued jointly, they
are liable, not pro rata of their feveral intromiflions,
but pro virili.
Mutual re- 22. The whole of a debtor’s eftate is fubjedted to the
liei betwixt payment of his debts; and therefore, both his heirs and
the heir ai.d execut:ors are £or them, in a queflion with credi-
executor 7 1
tors : but a fucceffion is by law divided into the he¬
ritable and the moveable eftate, each of thefe ought, in
a queftion between the feveral fucceflbrs, to bear the
burdens which naturally affedl it. Adfion of relief is
accordingly competent to the heir who has paid a move-
able debt, againft the executor ; and vice verfa. This
relief is not cut ofF by the deceafed’s having difponed
either his land eftate or his moveables, with the bur¬
den of his whole debts ; for fuch burden is not to be
conftrued as an alteration of the legal fucceffion, but
merely as a farther fecurity to creditors, unlefs the con¬
trary ihall be prefumed from the fpecial ftyle of the
difpofition.
dxxxii. IV. OF LAST HEIRS AND BASTARDS.
\)ykere I. Ry our ancient pradlice, feudal grants taken to the
there is no vaflal, and to a fpecial order of heirs, without fettling
heir, the t]ie laft termination upon heirs whatfoever, returned to
reeds'UC~ ^ie Superior, upon failure of the fpecial heirs therein
contained : but now that feus are become patrimonial
rights, the fuperior is, by the general opinion, held to
be fully dive tied by fuch grant, and the right defcends
to the vaffal’s heirs at. law. And even where a vaflal
dies without leaving any heir who can prove the re-
moteft propinquity to him, it is not the fuperior, as the
old law ftood, but the king, who fucceeds as laft; heir,
both in the heritable and moveable eftate of the de¬
ceafed, in confequence of the rule, Quod nullius eji^ ce¬
di t domino Reqi.
2. If the lands to which the king fucceeds be
holden immediately of himfelf, the property is confo-
lidated with the fuperiority, as if refignation had been
made in the fovereign’s hand. If they are holden of
a fubjeft, the king, who cannot be-vaflal to his own
fubjeft, names a donatory ; who, to complete his title,
muft obtain a decree of declaratory ; and thereafter he
is prefented to the fuperior, by letters of prefentation
from the king under the quarter feal, in which the fupe*
687
Law of
Scotland.
A Vv\
rior is charged lo enter the donatory. The whole eftate
of the deceafed is, in this cafe, fubjedt to his debts, and
to the widow’s legal provifions. Neither the king nor
his donatory is liable beyond the value of the fucceflion.
A perfon tvho has no heir to fucceed to him, cannot
alien his heritage in letlo, to the prejudice of the
king, who is entitled to fet afide fuch deed, in the cha-
rabter of ultimas hceres.
3. A baftard can have no legal heirs, except thofe ofKing fuc-
his own body ; fince there is no fucceflion but byc. sasw^"
the father, and a baftard has no certain father. The
king therefore fucceeds to him, failing his lawful iflue, ftar(L
'as laft heir. Though the baftard, as abfolute proprie¬
tor of his own eftate, can difpofe of his heritage in
liegepoujlie, and of his moveables by any deed inter vi¬
vos ; yet he is difabled, ex defeElu natalium, from be¬
queathing by teftament, without letters of legitimation
from the fovereign. If the baftard has lawful chil-
• dren, he may left without fuch letters, and name tu¬
tors and curators to his iflue. Letters of legitimation,
let their claufes be ever fo flrong, cannot enable the
baftard to fucceed to his natural father, to the exclufion
of lawful heirs.
4. The legal rights of fucceflion, being founded in Baftards,
marriage, can be claimed only by thofe rvho are born in incapable
lawful marriage ; the iflue therefore of an unlawful ofje£a^ut
marriage are incapable of fucceffion. A baftard is ex-™^ fuec"
eluded, (1.) From his father’s fucceflion ; becaufe law ceffi0n.
knows no father who is not marked out by marriage.
(2.) From all heritable fucceflion, whether by the fa¬
ther or mother ; becaufe he cannot be pronounced law¬
ful heir by the inqueft, in terms of the brief. And,
(3.) From the moveable fucceflion of his mother ; for
though the mother be known, the baftard is not her
lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all fucceflion
conferred by lawr. A baftard, though he cannot fuc¬
ceed jure fanguinis, may fucceed by deftination, where
he is fpecially called to the fucceflion by an entail or
teftament.
5. Certain perfons, though born in lawful marriage, Aliens can-
are incapable of fucceflion. Aliens are, from their al-not I'ucceed
legiance to a foreign prince, incapable of fucceeding in‘n feudal
feudal rights, without naturalization. Children born"^1 *
in a foreign ftate, whofe fathers were natural born fub-
je£ls, and rot attainted, are held to be natural bom
fubie6ts. Perfons educated in, or profefling, the Popiih nor Papifts,
religion, if they {hall negleft, upon their attaining the
age of 15, to renounce its doftrines by a figned declara¬
tion, cannot fucceed in heritage: but muft give place
to the next Proteftant heir, who will hold the eftate
irredeemably, if the Popiih heir does not, within ten
years after incurring the irritancy, fign the formula pre-
feribed by the ftatute 1700, c. 3.
Chap. III. Of Actions.
Hitherto of Perfons, and Rights, the two firft ob¬
jects of law : dBions are its third object, whereby per¬
fons make their rights e fife dual.
Sect. I. Nature, Divi/ion, <b'c. of ABions.
clxxxiii.
1. An aflion maybe defined, A demand regularly madeAn a(fj.;on
and infifted in, before the judge competent, for the at-wj,at> ’
taining
68S
L A W
Part III.
Redudlion
improba-
tion.
Law of taining or recovering of a right j and it fuffers feveral
, Scotland, j jvifi()ns< according to the different natures of the rights
purfued upon.
Divifion of 2. Aftions are either real or perfonal. A real
actions. aftion is that which arifes from a right in the thing it-
felf, and which therefore may be dire£ted againft all
poffeffors of that thing : thus, an adtion for the recove¬
ry, even of a moveable fubjedl, when founded on a jus
in re, is in the proper acceptation real 5 but real ac¬
tions are, in vulgar fpeech, confined to fuch as are di-
refted againft heritable fubjedls. A perfonal adtion is
founded only on an obligation undertaken for the per¬
formance of fome fadt, or the delivery of fome fubjedl j
and therefore can be carried on againft no other than
the perfon obliged, or his heirs.
3. Adtions, again, are either ordinary or refciffory.
All adtions are, in the fenfe of this divifion, ordinary,
which are not refciffory. Refciffory adtions are di¬
vided, (1.) Into adtions of proper improbation. (2.)
Adtions of redudtion-improbation. (3.) Adtions of
fimple redudtion. Proper improbations, which are
brought for declaring writings falfe or forged, are no¬
ticed below, N° clxxxvi. 32. Redudtion-improbation
is an adtion, whereby a perfon who may be hurt or af-
fedted by a writing, inlifts for producing or exhibiting
it in court, in order to have it fet afide, or its effedt
afcertained, under the certification that the writing,
if not produced, fhall be declared falfe and forged.
This certification is a fidtion of law, introduced that
the produdtion of writings may be more effedtually
forced, and therefore it operates only in favour of the
purfuer. Becaufe the fummons in the adtion proceeds
on alleged grounds of falfehood, his majefty’s advocate,
•who is the public profecutor of crimes, muft concur
in it.
4. As the certification in this procefs draws after it
fo heavy confequences, two terms are afligned to the
defenders for produdtion. After the fecond term is
elapfed, intimation muft be made judicially to the de¬
fender, to fatisfy the produdtion within ten days j and
till thefe are expired, no certification can be pronoun¬
ced. Certification cannot pafs againft deeds record¬
ed in the books of feflion, if the defender fliall, be¬
fore the fecond term, offer a condefcendence of the
dates of their regiftration, unlefs falfehood be objedt-
ed : in which cafe, the original muft be brought from
the record to the court. But an extradt from the in¬
ferior court is no bar to certification •, the principal
writing muft be laid Before the court of feftion on a
proper warrant.
Simple re- 5. In an adfion of fimple redudlion the certification
tdudtioa. Js only temporary, declaring the writings called for
null, until they be produced ; fo that they recover
their full force after produdtion, even againft the pur¬
fuer himfelf; for which yeafon, that procefs is now
feldom ufed. Becaufe its certification is not fo fevere
as in redudfion-improbation, there is but one term af-
figned to the defender for producing the deeds called for.
Grounds of 6. The moft ufual grounds of redudtion of writings
/eduction, are, the want of the requifite folemnities ; that the gran-
te: uas minor, or interdidled, or inhibited •, or that he
fig i. d the deed on deathbed, or was compelled or fright¬
ened into it, or was circumvented ; or that he granted
it in prej. dice of his lawful creditors.
y. In ipdudtions on the head of force, or fear, or
fraud and circumvention, the purfuer maft libel the
particular circumftanees from which his allegation is
to be proved. Redudlion is not competent upon every
degree of force or fear ; it muft be fuch as would (hake
a man of conftancy and refolution. Neither is it com¬
petent, on that fear which arifes from the juft authority
of hulbands or parents, over their wives or children,
nor upon the fear arifing from the regular execution of
lawful diligence by caption, provided the deeds granted
under that fear relate to the ground of debt contained
in the diligence; but if they have no relation to that
debt, they are reducible ex metu.
8. Alienations granted by debtors after contraft-
ing of lawful debts, in favour of conjunct or confi¬
dent perfons, without juft and neceffary caufes, and
without a juft price really paid, are, by the aft 1621,
declared to be null. One is deemed a prior creditor,
whofe ground of debt exifted before the right granted
by the debtor*, though the written voucher of the
debt ftiould bear a date pofterior to it. Perfons are
accounted conjunft, whofe relation to the granter is
fo near, as to bar them from judging in his caufe.
Confident perfons are thofe who appear to be in the
granter’s confidence, by being employed in his affairs
or about his perfon j as a doer, fteward, or domeftie
fervant.
9. Rights, though gratuitous, are not reducible, if
the granter had, at ’the date thereof, a lufticient fund
for the payment of his creditors. Provifions to child¬
ren are, in the judgment of law, gratuitous 5 fo that
their effeft, in a queftion with creditors, depends on
the folvency of the granter 5 but fettlements to wives,
either in marriage contrafts, or even after marriage, are
onerous, in fo far as they are rational 5 and confequent-
ly are not reducible, even though the granter was in-
folvent. This rule holds alfo in rational tochers con-
trafted to hufhands : But it muft, in all cafes, be quali¬
fied with this limitation, if the in folvency of the granter
was not publicly known ; for if it was, fraud is pre¬
fumed in the receiver of the right, by contrafting with
the bankrupt.
10. The receiver of the deed, if he be a conjunft;
or confident perfon, muft inftruft or fupport the one¬
rous caufe of his right, not merely by his own oath,
but by fome circumftances or adminicles. But where
a right is granted to a ftranger, the narrative of it ex-
preffing an onerous caufe, is fufficient per fe to fecure it
againft reduftion.
11. All voluntary payments or rights made by a
bankrupt to one creditor, to difappoint the more timo¬
rous diligence of another, are reducible at the inftanee
of that creditor who has ufed the prior diligence. A
creditor, though his diligence be but begun by citation,
may infill in a reduftion of all pofterior voluntary,
rights granted to his prejudice^ but the creditor who ne-
glefts to complete his begun diligence within a reaion-
able time, is not entitled to reduce any right granted by
the debtor, after the time that the diligence is confider-
ed as abandoned.
12. A prohibited alienation, when conveyed by the
receiver to another who is not privy to the fraud, lub-
fifts in the perfon of the bona fide purchafer. In the
tafe of moveable rights, this nullity is receivable by ex¬
ception ; but it muft be declared .by reduftion, where
the right is heritable.
^3- %
Law of
England.
Chap. IIL
L
Law of
Scotland.
Actions ei¬
ther rei
perfecuto-
risf, or pe¬
nal.
Spuilzies.
Contraven¬
tion of law-
hurrows,
I3’ 1696, c. 5* all alienations by a bank-
yrupt, within 60 days before his bankruptcy, to one
creditor in preference to another, are reducible, at the
inftance even of fuch co-creditors as had not ufed the
leaft ftep of diligence. A bankrupt is there deferibed
by the following chara&ers ; diligence ufed againft
him by horning and caption ; and infolvency, joined
either with imprifonment, retiring to the fanftuary,
abfeonding, or forcibly defending himfelf from dili¬
gence. It is fufficient that a caption is raifed againft
the debtor, though it be not executed, provided he
has retired to thun it. And by the late bankrupt fta-
tute 23d Geo. III. it is declared, that in all aftions
and queftions arifing upon the conftruftion and effedft
of the a£t 1696 ; when a debtor is out of Scotland, or
not liable to be imprilbned by reafon of privilege or
perfonal prote6Iion, a charge of horning executed
againft him, together with either an arreftment of any
of his perfonal effedls not loofed or difeharged within
fifteen days, or a poinding executed of any of his
moveables, or a decree of adjudication of any part of
his heritable eftate, or fequeftration by the aift of a
proper court, of all or any part of his eftate or effe6ts,
heritable or moveable, for payment of debt, (hall,
when joined with infolvency, be held as fufficient
proof of notour bankruptcy ; and from and after the
laft ftep of fuch diligence, the faid debtor, if infolvent,
fhall be held bankrupt. It is provided (by faid aft
1696), that all heritable bonds or rights on which lei-
fin may follow, (hall be reckoned, in a queftion with
the granter’s other creditors upon this aft, to be of the
date of the feilin following thereon. But this aft was
found to relate only to fecurities for former debts, and
not to nova debita.
14. Aftions are divided into rei perfecutorice, and
panales. By the firft, the purfuer infifts barely to re¬
cover the fubjeft that is his, or the debt due to him :
and this includes the damage fuftained ; for one is as
truly a fufferer in his patrimonial intereft by that da¬
mage, as by the lofs of the fubjeft itfelf. In penal ac¬
tions, which always arife ex deliBo, fomething is alfo
demanded by way of penalty.
15. Aftions of fpuilzie, ejeftion, and intrufion, are
penal. An aftion of fpuilzie is competent to one dif-
poflefied of a moveable fubjeft violently, or without
order of law, againft the perfon difpoffeffing : not only
for being reftored to the poffeffion of the fubjeft, if
extant, or for the value, if it be deftroyed, but alfo for
the violent profits, in cafe the aftion be brought with¬
in three years from the fpoliation. Ejeftion and intru¬
fion are, in heritable fubjefts, what fpuilzie is in move¬
ables. The difference between the two firft is, that in
ejeftion, violence is ufed ; whereas the intruder enters
into the void poffeflion, without either a title from the
proprietor, or the warrant of a judge. The aftions
arifing from all the three are of the fame general na¬
ture.
16. The aftion of contraventien of law-burrows is
alfo penal. It proceeds on letters of law-burrows,
(from borgby a cautioner), which contain a warrant to
charge the party complained upon, that he may give
fecurity not to hurt the complainer in his perfon, fa¬
mily, or eftate. Thefe letters do not require the pre¬
vious citation of the party complained upon, becaufe
the caution which the law requires is only for doing
Vol. XI. Part II.
68 9
Law of
Scotland-
A W.
what is every man’s duty j but, before the letters are
executed againft him, the complainer muft make oath
that he dreads bodily harm from him. The penalty
of contravention is ascertained to a fpecial fum, ac¬
cording to the offender’s quality \ the half to be ap¬
plied to the fiik, and the half to the complainer. Con¬
travention is not incurred by the uttering of reproach¬
ful words, where they are not accompanied, either
with afts of violence, or at leaft a real injury j and as
the aftion is penal, it is elided by any probable ground
of excufe.
17. Penalties are the confequences of delift, or Penal ac-
tranfgreflion ; and as no heir ought to be accountable tions, whei
for the delift of his anceftor, farther than the injured t^ier tranf-
perfon has really fuffered by it, penal aftions die with^^1^'
the delinquent, and are not tra*nfmiffible againft heifs. purfuer.
Yet the aftion, if it has been commenced and litif-
contefted in the delinquent’s lifetime, may be conti¬
nued againft the heir, though the delinquent ftrould die
during the dependence. Some aftions are rei perfecu-
torice on the part of the purfuer, when he infifts for fim-
ple reftitution ; which yet may be penal in refpeft of
the defender : e. g. the aftion on the paffive title of
vitious intromiffion, by which the purfuer frequently
recovers the debt due to him by the deceafed, though
it Ihould exceed the value of the goods intermeddled
with by the defenders.
18. The moft celebrated divifion of aftions in our Adticns p
laws is into petitory, pojfcjjbryy and declaratory. Petitory titory, as
aftiens are thofe, where fomething is demanded from
the defender, in confequence of a right of property, or
of credit in the purfuer: Thus, aftions for reftitution
of moveables, aftions of poinding, of forthcoming, and
indeed all perfonal aftions upon contrafts or quali-con-
trafts, are petitory. Pojfejfory aftions are thofe which poffelTorf.
are founded, either upon peffeffion alone, as fpuilzies j
or upon poffeftion joined with another title, as remo¬
ving* ; and they are competent either for getting into
poffelfion, for holding it, or for recovering it ; analo¬
gous to the interdifts of the Roman law, quorum bono-
rum, uti pojjidetis, and unde vi.
19. An aftion of moleftation is a poffeffory aftlon, ofmoiefts-j
competent to the proprietor of a land eftate, againft tion.
thofe who difturb his poffeffion. It is chiefly ufed in
queftions of commonty, or of controverted marches.
Where a declarator of property is conjoined with a pro-
cefs of moleftation, the feffion alone is competent to the
aftion. Aftions on brieves of perambulation, have the
fame tendency with moleftations, viz. the fettling of
marches between conterminous lands.
20. The aftion of mails and duties is fometimes Of mail*
petitory, and fotnetimes poffeffory. In either cafe, it and duties,
is direfted againft the tenants and natural poffeffors of
land eftates, for payment to the purfuer of the rents
remaining due by them for part crops, and of the full
rent for the future. It is competent, not only to a
proprietor whofe right is perfefted by feifin, but to a
fimple difponee, for a difpofition of lands includes a
right to the mails and duties 5 and confequently to an
adjudger, for an adjudication is a judicial difpofition.
In the petitory aftion, the purfuer, fince he founds Petitory"
upon the right, not poffeffion, muft make the proprie¬
tor, from whom the tenants derive their right, party to
the fuit; and he muft fupport his claim by titles of
property or diligences, preferable to thofe in the perfon
■4 of
OU rt
690 LAW. ' Part III;
Law of of his competitor. In the poffeffbry, the purfuer who
, Scotland- nei his anceltors, or authors, have been feven
Poffeiibry? years in poff flion, and that therefore he has the bene¬
fit of a poffcdTory judgment, need produce no other title
than a feifia, which is a title fufficient to make the
pofleflion of heritage lawful ; and it is enough, if he
calls the natural poffeffors, though he fhould neglect
the proprietor. A poffefiory judgment founded on
feven years poffeflion, in confequence either of a feifin
Poffeflbry or a tachj has this effed, that though one fhould claim
judgment uncjer a tjtje preferable to that of the poffeffor, he can¬
not compete with him in the polfeffion, till in a formal
procefs of redu&ion he (hall obtain the poffeifor’s title
declared void.
Declara- 21. A declaratory z.£t\on is that, in which fome right
tory ac- jg craveci to be declared in favour of the purfuer, but
nothing fought to be paid or performed by the defend¬
er, fuch as declarators of marriage, of irritancy, of
expiry of the legal reverfion, &c. Under this clafs
may be alfo comprehended refciffory adions, which
without any perfonal conclufion again!! the defender,
tend fimply to fet afule the rights or writings libelled,
in confequence of which a contrary right or immunity
arifes to the purfuer. Decrees upon adions that are
properly declaratory confer no new right } they only
declare what was the purfusr’s right before, and fo have
a retrofped to the period at which that right firft eom-
menced. Declarators, becaufe they have no perfonal
conclufion againft the defender, may be purfued againft
an apparent heir without a previous charge given him
to enter to his anceftor j unlefs where fpecial circum-
Itances require a charge.
Adlon for 22. An adion for proving the tenor, whereby a wrx-
provingthe ting, which is deftroyed or amifling, is endeavoured to
tenor. be revived, is in effed declaratory. In obligations that
are extinguilhable barely by the debtor’s retiring or
cancelling them, the purfuer, before a proof of the te¬
nor is admitted, muft condefcend on fuch a ca/ns amif-
Jionis, or accident by which the writing was dellroyed,
as (hows it was loft when in the creditor’s pofTeffion j
©therwife bonds that have been cancelled by the debtor
«n payment, might be reared up as ftill fubfifting
againft him : But in writings which require contrary
deeds to extinguilb their effed, as aflignations, difpo-
fitions, charters, &c. it is fufticient to libel that they
were loft, even cafu for Unto.
Adminicles 33. Regularly no deed can be revived by this adion,
in writing. wJthout fome adminicle in writing, referring to that
which is libelled for no written obligation ought to
be raifed up barely on the teftimony of witneffes. If
thefe adminicles afford fufficient convidion that the
deed libelled did once exift, the tenor is admitted to
be proved by witneffes, who muft depofe, either that
they w'ere prefent at figning the deed, or that they
afterwards fawr it duly fubfcribed. Where the rela¬
tive writings contain all the fubftantial claufes of that
which is loft, the tenor is fometimes fuffained with¬
out witneffes. In a writing -which is libelled to have
contained uncommon claufes, all thefe muft appear by
the adminicles. Adions of proving the tenor are, on
account of their importance, appropriated to the court
of feffion } and, by the old form,, the teftimony of the
witneffes could not be received but in prefence of all
the judges.
fcTultiple- 24. The action of double or multiple-poinding may
poinding, ^
be alfo reckoned declaratory. It is competent to a Law of
debtor, who is diftrtffed, or threatened with diftrefs, Scotland,
by two or more perfons claiming right to the debt, J 1J
and who therefore brings the feveral claimants into the
field, in order to debate and fettle their feveral prefer¬
ences, that fo he may pay fecurely to him whofe right
{hall be found preferable. This adion is daily pur¬
fued by an arreftee, in the cafe of feveral arreftmenta
ufed in his hands for the fame debt j or by tenants in
the cafe of feveral adjudgers, all of whom claim right
to the fame rents. In thefe competitions, any of the
competitors may bring an adion of niultiple-poindir),g
in name of the tenants, or other debtors, without their
eonfent, or even though they Humid difclaim the pro¬
cefs j fince the law has introduced it as the proper re¬
medy for getting fuch competitions determined : And
while the fubjed in controverfy continues in medio, any
third perfon who conceives he has a right to it, may,
though he ffiould not be cited as a defender, produce
his titles, as if he were an original party to the fuit,
and w ill be admitted for his intereft in the competition.
By the forefaid bankrupt ftatute, however, it is compe¬
tent, in the cafe of a forthcoming or multiple-poinding
raifed on an arreftment ufed within thirty days prior,
or four kalender months fubfequent, to a bankruptcy,
for any other creditor producing his intereft, and making
his claim, in the procefs at any time before the expira¬
tion of the four months, to be ranked in the fame man¬
ner as if he had ufed the form of arreftment.
25. Certain adions may be called accejfory, becaufe Acfeff01T
they are merely preparatory or fubfervient to other ac-a^ons*
tions. Thus, exhibitions ad delibe/'andum, at the in-
ftance of an heir againft the creditors or cuftediers of
his anceftor’s writings, are intended only to pave the
way for future proceffes. An adion of transference is Transfer,
alfo of this fort, whereby an adion,. during the pen-ence.
dency of which the defender happens to die, is craved
to be transferred againft his reprefentative, in the fame
condition in which it flood formerly. Upon the pur-
fuer’s death his heir may infill; in the caufe againft the
defender, upon producing either a retour or a confirm¬
ed teftament, according as the fubjed is heritable or
moveable. Transferences being but incidental to ether
adions, can be pronounced by that inferior judge a-
lone before whom the principal caufe depended j but
where the reprefentatives of the deceafed live in ano¬
ther territory, it is the fupreme court muft transfer.
Obligations may now be regiftered fummarily after the
creditor’s death ; which before was not admitted, with¬
out a feparate procefs of regiftration, to which the grant-
er was neeeffarily to be made a party.
26. A procefs of wakening is likewife acceffory.'Wakeriiqg
An adion is faid to fleep, when it lies over not infill¬
ed in for a year, in which cafe its effed is fufpended ;
but even then it may, at any time within the years of
prefeription, be revived or wakened by a fummons, in •
which the purfuer recites the laft ftep of the procefs,
and concludes that it may be again carried on as if it
had not been difeontinued. An adion that {lands upon
any of the inner-houfe rolls cannot fleep j nor an adion
in which decree is pronounced, becaufe it has got its
full completion : Confequently the decree may be ex.
traded after the year, without the necefflty of a waken-
ing.
27. An adicn of tranfumpt falls under the fame TrarArry^
, clafs.
Chap. III.
Law of clafs.
Scotland.
L A W.
It is competent to thofe who have a partial
intereft in writings that are not in their own cuftody,
^ againft the poffeffors thereof, for exhibiting them,
that they may be tranfumed for their behoof. Though
the ordinary title in this procefs be an obligation by
the defender to grant tranfumpts to the purfuer, it is
fuificient if the purfuer can fliow that he has an intereft
in the writings^ but in this cafe, hemuft tranfume them
on his own charges. Actions of tranfumpt may be
purfued before any judge-ordinary. After the writings
to be tranfumed are exhibited, full duplicates are made
out, collated, and figne.d, by one of the clerks of court,
which are called tranfumpts, and are as effe&ual as an
extract from the regifter.
Brieves. Attions proceeded anciently upon brieves Hill¬
ing from the chancery, diredted to the judiciary or
judge-ordinary, who tried the matter by a jury, upon
whofe verdict judgment was pronounced : And to this
day we retain certain brieves, as of inquefl, terce, idio-
try, tutory, perambulation, and perhaps two or three
others: But fummonfes were, immediately upon the
inllitution of the college of juftice, introduced in the
place of brieves. A fummons, when applied to actions
purfued before the feffion, is a writ in the king’s name,
iiTuing from his fignet upon the purfuer's complaint,
authorizing meffengers to cite the defender to appear
before the court and make his defences, with certifi-
sation, if he fail to appear, that decreewill be pronoun¬
ced againft him in terms of the certification of the fum-
mons.
29. The days indulged by law to a defender, be¬
tween his citation and appearance, to prepare for his
Summonfcs. defence are called inducice legates. If he is within the
Inducice kingdom, 21 and 6 days, for the ftrft and fecond diets
gales. 0f appearance, muft be allowed him for that purpofe $
and if out of it, 60 and 15. Defenders refiding in
-Orkney or Zetland muft be cited on 40 days. In
certain fummonfes which are privileged, the induche
are thortened : Spuilzies and ejections proceed on 1 5
days •, wakenings and transferences, being but inci¬
dental, on fixj (fee the lift of privileged fummonfes, in
act of federunt June 29. 1672.). A fummons muft be
executed, i. e. ferved againft the defender, fo as the
laft diet of appearance may be within a year after the
date of the fummons 5 and it muft be called within a
year after that diet, otherwife it falls for ever. Of¬
fence againft the authority of the court, acts of mal-
verfatios in office by any member of the college of ju¬
ftice, and a£ts of violence and oppreffion committed
during the dependence of a fait by any of the parties,
may be tried without a fummons, by a fummary com¬
plaint.
Conrourfe 3°* Though the Romans acknowledged a concourfe
ofadlions. actions in their proceedings, it is not known in the
law of Scotland. Therefore, where an action is in part
penal, e. g. a removing, fpuilzie, &c. a purfuer who
reftrifts his demand to, and obtains a decree merely
for, reftitution, cannot thereafter bring a new procefs
for the violent profits. Yet the fame faft may be the
foundation both of a criminal and civil aftion, becaufe
thefe two are intended for different purpofes ; the one
for fatisfying the public juftice, the other for indemni¬
fying the private party : And though the defender
fhould be abfolved in the criminal trial, for want of evi¬
dence, the party injured may bring an a&ion ad ci-
6$l
vilem effe&um, in which he is entitled to refer the libel Law of
to the defender’s oath. Scotlanc*.
31. One libel or fummons may contain different con-
clufions on the fame ground of right, refciffory, de-ti0nofao
claratory, petitory, &c. if they be not repugnant lotions,
each other : Nay, though different lums be due to one,
upon diftinft grounds of debt, or even by different
debtors, the creditor may infift againft them all in the
fame fummons.
3 2. Defences are pleas offered by a defender for Defences,
eliding an action. They are either dilatory, which do
not enter into the caufe itfelf, and fo can only procure
an abfolvitor from the lis pendens : Or, peremptory,
which entirely cut off the purfuer’s right of action. The
fir ft, becaufe they relate to the forms of proceeding,
muft be offered in limine judicii, and all of them at
once. But peremptory defences may be proponed at
any time before fentence. By an aft of federunt, how¬
ever (1787), all defences, both dilatory and peremp¬
tory, fo far as they are known, muft be propofed at re¬
turning the fummons, under a penalty j and the fame
enactment extends to the cafes of fufpenfions and advo¬
cations. The writings to be founded upon by the
parties alfo muft be produced: the intention of the
court, in framing the act of federunt, being to accele¬
rate as much as poffible the detifion of caufes.
33. A caufe, after the parties had litigated it before Litlfcontef-
the judge, was faid by the Romans to be litifcontefted. tat‘on*
By litifconteftation a judicial contraft is underftood to
be entered into by the litigants, by which the aftion
is perpetuated againft heirs, even when it arifes ex de-
hElo. By our law, litifconteftation is not formed till
an aft is extrafled, admitting the libel or defences to
proof.
Sect. II. Of 'Probation.
clxxxiv.
1. All allegations by parties to a fuit, muft be fup-probat;en s
ported by proper proof. Probation is either by writ¬
ing, by the party’s own oath, or by witneffes. In the
cafe of allegations, which may be proved by either of
the three ways, a proof is faid to be admitted prout depout de
jure; becaufe, in fuch cafe, all the legal methods
probation are competent to the party 5 if the proof he
brings by writing be lame, he may have recourfe either
to witneffes or to his adverfary’s oath j but, if he fhould
firft; take himfelf to the proof by oath, he cannot there¬
after ufe any other probation (for the reafon aftigned
par. 3.) j and, on the contrary, a purfuer who has
brought a proof by witneffes, on an extrafled aft, is
not allowed to recur to the oath of the defender.—
Single combat, as a fort of appeal to Providence, ’was, by fingle
by our ancient law-, admitted as evidence, in matters combati
both civil and criminal. It was afterwards reftrifted
to the cafe of fuch capital crimes where no other pooof
could be bad ; fome traces of this blind method of trial
remained even in the reign of Jame> VI. who, by 1600,
c. 12. might authorize duels on weighty octafions.
2. As obligations or deeds figned by the party him- by writing
felf, or his anceftors or authors, muft he, of all evidence,
the leait liable to exception 5 therefore every debt or
allegation may be proved by proper evidence in writing.
The folemnities eifential to probative deeds have been
already explained, (N2 clxxiv. 3. ef fey.). Books of ac¬
count kept by merchants, trad* (men, and other^dealers .
4 S 2 in
Law of
Scotland.
Probation
692 L A
in bufinefs, though not fubferibed, are probative againft
him who keeps them j and, in cafe of furnifhings by a
ftiopkeeper, fuch books, if they are regularly kept by
him, fupported by the teftimony of a fingle witnefs,
afford a femiplena probatio in his favour, which becomes
full evidence by his own oath in fupplement. Notorial
inftruments and executions by meflengers bear full evi¬
dence, that the folemnities therein fet forth were ufed^
not to be invalidated otherwife than by a proof of falfe-
hood ; but they do not prove any other extrinfic fa£ts
therein averred, againlt third parties.
.. ^ 3. Regularly, no perfon’s right can be proved by
ty in rrfer-"his ov,'n oath, nor taken away by that of his adverfary $
»nce. becaufe thefe are the bare averments of parties in their
own favour. But, where the matter in iffue is referred
by one of the parties to the oath of the other, fuch
oath, though made in favour of the deponent himfelf,
is decifive of the point; becaufe the reference is a vir¬
tual contrail between the litigants, by which they are
vmderftood to put the iffue of the caufe upon what fhall
be depofed : and this contrail is fo ftriftly regarded,
that the party who refers to the oath of the other can¬
not afterwards, in a civil action, plead upon any deed
againft the party depofing, inconiiftent with his oath.
To obviate the fnares that may be laid for perjury, he
to whofe oath of verity a point is referred, may refufe
to depofe, till his adverfary fwear that he can bring no
other evidence in proof of his allegation.
4. A defender, though he cannot be compelled to
fwear to fafts in a libel properly criminal ; yet may, in
trefpaffes, where the conclulion is limited to a fine, or
to damages. In general, an oath of party cannot either
hurt or benefit third parties j being, as to them, res
inter alios a£ia.
Qualified S' An oa,;h upon reference is fometimes qualified by
oiTth*. fpecial limitations reftrifting it. The qualities which
are admitted by the judges as part of the oath, are call¬
ed intrinfic ; thofe-which the judge reje£ts or fepar&tes
from the oath, extrinjic. Where the quality makes a
part of the allegation W'hich is relevantly referred to
oath, it is intrinfic. Thus, becaufe a merchant fuing
for furnilhings after the three years, muft, in order to
make a relevancy, offer to prove by the defender’s oath,
not only the delivery of the goods, but that the price
is Hill due} therefore, though the defender fhould ac¬
knowledge upon oath his having received the goods,
yet, if he adds, that he paid the price, this laft part
being a denial that the debt fubfifts, is intrinfic, fince
it is truly the point referred to oath. Where the qua¬
lity does not import an extinftion of the debt, but
barely a counter-claim, or mutua petitio, againft the
purfuer, it is held as intrinfic, and muft be proved ali¬
unde. Neither can a defender who in his oath admits
the conftitution of a debt, get off by adjecting the
quality of payment, where the payment ought by its
nature to be vouched by written evidence.
Oaths in 6, Oaths of verity are fometimes referred by the
lupplement, judgg to either party, ex cfficio; which, becaufe they
are not founded on any implied contract between the
litigants, are not finally decifive, but may be traverfed
on proper evidence afterwards produced. Thefe oaths
are commonly put by the judge for fupplying a lame or
imperfedf proof, and are therefore called oaths in fup¬
plement. (See par. 2.).
©ath of To prevent groundlefs allegations, oaths of ca-
taluoiD)’. *
W. Part III.
lumny have been introduced, by which either party may Law of
demand his adverfary’s oath, that he believes the fadt Scotland,
contained in his libel or defences to be juft and true.
As this is an oath, net of verity, but only of opinion,
the party who puts it to his adveriary does not re¬
nounce other probation j and therefore no party is
bound to give an oath of calumny, on recent fadts of
his own, for fuch oath is really an oath of verity. Thefe
oaths have not been fo frequent fince the adt of fede-
runt, Feb. 1. 1715, whereby any party, againft whom
a fadt {hall be alleged, is obliged, without making oath,
to confefs or deny it $ and, in cafe of calumnious denial,
is fubjedted to the expence that the other party has
thereby incurred.
8. In all oaths, whether of verity or calumny, the ci¬
tation carries, or at leaft implies, a certification, that
if the party does not appear at the day affigned for de¬
pofing, he {hall be held pro confejfo; from a prefump-
tion of his confcioulnefs, that the fadt upon which he
declines to fwear makes againft him ; but no party can
be held pro confejfo, if he be in the kingdom, without a
previous petfonal citation ufed againft him. Though
an oath which refolves into a non memini cannot be {aid ^ nBnme„
to prove any point j yet where one fo depofes upon a tninioath,
recent fadl, to which he himfelf was privy, his oath is
confidered as a diffembling of the truth, and he is held
pro confejfi, as if he had refufed to fwear.
9. An oath in litem is that which the judge refers Oath in
to a purfuer, for afeertaining either the quantity or the^v/.
value of goods which have been taken from him by the
defender without order ef law, or the extent of his da¬
mages. An oath in litem, as it is the affirmation of a
party in his own behalf, is only allowed where there is
proof that the other party has been engaged in fome
illegal adl, or where the public policy has made it ne-
ceffary, (fee N° clxxiii. 11.). This oath, as to the quan¬
tities, is not admitted, where there is a concurring te¬
ftimony of witneffes brought in proof of it. When it
is put as to the value of goods, it is only an oath of
credulity j and therefore it has always been fubjedl to
the modification of the court.
10. The law of Scotland rejedis the teftimony of Probation
witneffes, (1.) In payment of any firm above 100I. by witnef-
Scots, all which muft be proved either feripto vel jura-
mento. (2.) In all gratuitous promifes, though for thee^ ‘ J
fmalleft trifle. (3.) In all contradls, where writing is
either effential to their conftitution (iee N° clxxiv. 2.),
or where it is ufually adhibited, as to the borrowing
of money. And it is a general rule, fubjedf to the
reftridlion mentioned in the next part, that no debt or
right, once conftituted by writing, can be taken away
by witneffes.
11. On the other part, probation by witneffes is ad-jn what ad¬
mitted to the extent of icol. Scots, in payments, mitted.
nuncupative legacies, and verbal agreements which con¬
tain mutual obligations. And it is received to the
higheft extent, (1). In all bargains which have known
engagements naturally arifing from them concerning
moveable goods. (2.) In fadls performed in fatisfadfion.
even of a written obligation, where luch obligation
binds the party precifely to the performance of them.
(3.) In fadts which with difficulty admit of a proof by
writing, even though the effedt of fuch proof fliouid be
the extindtion of a written obligation, efpecially if the
fadts import fraud or violence j thus, a bond is redu¬
cible
Chap. III.
Law of
Scotland.
What per-
fons reject¬
ed as wit-
nefles.
Purgation
of witnef-
fes.
Diligence
again* wit'
■dies.
Circuroduc.
fttm.
cible ex dolo, on a proof by witneffes. Laftly, all in-
tromiffion by a creditor with the rents of his debtor’s
eftate payable in grain, may be proved by witnefles:
and even intromiffion with the filver rent, where the
creditor has entered into the total poffeflion of the
debtor’s lands.
12. No perfon, whofe near relation to another bars
him from being a judge in his caufe, can be admitted
as a witnefs for him : but he may againft him, except
a wife or child, who cannot be compelled to give tefti-
mony againft the hufband or parent, ob reverentiam
perjonce et metum perjurii. Though the witnefs whofe
propinquity to one of the parties is objefled to, be
as nearly related to the other, the objettion ftands
good.
13. The teftimony of infamous perfons is rejected,
i. e. perfons who have been guilty of crimes that law
declares to infer infamy, or who have been declared
infamous by the fentence of a judge 5 but irifamia faEii
does not difqualify a witnefs. Pupils are inhabile vit-
r.efles*, being, in the judgment of law, incapable of the
impreflions of an oath. And in general w'itneffes o-
therwife exceptionable may, where there is a penury of
witneffes arifing from the nature or circumftances of
the fa£t, be received cum nota ; that is, their teftimo¬
ny, though not quite free from fufpicion, is to be con¬
joined with the other evidence, and to have fuch weight
given it as the judge ftiall think it deferves.
14. All witneffes, before they are examined in the
caufe, are purged of partial counfelj that is, they muft
declare that they have no intereft in the fuit, nor have
given advice how to conduct it j that they have got
neither bribe nor promife, nor have been inflrufted how
to depofe ; and that they bear no enmity to either of
the parties. Thefe, becaufe they are the points put to
a witnefs before his making oath, are called initiala
tejlimonii. Where a party can bring prefent proof of a
witnefs’s partial counfel in any of the above particu¬
lars, he ought to offer it before the witnefs be fworn j
but, becaufe fuch objedtion, if it cannot be inftantly
verified, will be no bar to the examination, law allows
the party in that cafe to proteft for nprobator, before
the witnefs is examined 3 i. e. that he may be after¬
wards allowed to bring evidence of his enmity, or other
inability. Reprobator is competent even after fen¬
tence, where proteftation is duly entered 3 but in that
cafe, the party infilling muft confign 100I. Scots, which
he forfeits if he fuccumb. This adtion muft have the
concurrence of the king’s advocate, becaufe the con-
clufion of it imports perjury 3 and for this reafon, the
witnefs muft be made a party to it.
15. The interlocutory fentence or warrant, by which
■parties are authorized to bring their proof, is either by
way of adl, or of incident diligence. In an adl, the
lord ordinary who pronounces it is no longer judge
in the procefs 3 but in an incident diligence, Avhich is
commonly granted upon fpecial points, that do not
exhauft the caufe, the lord ordinary continues judge.
If a witnefs does not appear at the day fixed by the
warrant of citation, a fecond warrant is granted of the
nature of a caption, containing a command to meffen-
gers to apprehend and bring him before the court.
Where the party to whom a proof is granted, brings
none within the term allowed by the warrant, an inter¬
locutor is pronounced, circumducing the term, and pre-
A W. 693
eluding him from bringing evidence thereafter. Where Law of
evidence is brought, if it be upon an adl, the lord or- Sc°Uai)<L_
dinary on the adls, after the term for providing is elap- v
fed, declares the proof concluded 3 and thereupon a
ftate of the cafe is prepared by the ordinary on con¬
cluded caufes, which muft be judged by the whole
lords 3 but if the proof be taken upon an incident dili¬
gence, the import of it may be determined by the lord
ordinary in the caufe.
16. Where fadls do not admit a diredl proof, pre-Prefump-
fumptions are received as evidence which, in many cafes, fton5'
make as convincing a proof as the diredl. Prefump-
.tions are confequences deduced from faffs known or
proved, which infer the certainty, or at leaft a ftrong
probability, of another faf! to be proved. This kind
of probation is therefore called artificial, becaufe it re¬
quires a reafoning to infer the truth of the point in
queftion, from the faffs that already appear in proof.
Prefumptions are either, juris et de jure ; 2. juris ;
or, 3. hominis or judicis. The firft fort obtains, where
ftatute or cuftom eftablifhes the truth of any point upon
a prefumption 3 and it is fo ftrong that it rejefts all
proof that may be brought to elide it in fpecial cafes.
Thus, the teftimony of a witnefs, who forwardly offers
himfelf without being cited, is, from a prefumption of
his partiality, rejefted, let his charafter be ever fo
fair 3 and thus alfo, a minor, becaufe he is by law pre¬
fumed incapable of conduffing his own affairs, is upon
that prefumption difabled from afting without the con-
fent of his curators, though he ftiould be known to be¬
have with the greateft prudence. Many fuch prefump*
tions are fixed by ftatute.
17. Prrefumptiones juris are thofe which our law
books ordecifions have eftablilhed, without founding
any particular confequence upon them, or ftatuting
fuper prcefmvpto. Molt of this kind are not proper pre¬
fumptions inferred from pofitive fafts, but are founded
merely on the want of a contrary proof 3 thus, the legal,
prefumptions for freedom, for life, for innocence, &c.
are in effeff fo many negative propofitions, that fervi-
tude, death, and guilt, are not to be prefumed, with¬
out evidence brought by him who makes the allegation.
A-’ of them, whether they be of this fort, or proper
prefumptions, as they are only conjectures formed from
what commonly happens, may be elided, not only by
direCf evidence, but by other conjectures, affording a
ftronger degree of probability to the contrary. Prce-
fumptiones hominis ox judicis, are thofe which arife daily
from the circumftances of particular cafes3 the ftrength
of which is to be w eighed by the judge.
18. A jddio juris differs from a prefumption. Things FiElio
are prefumed, which are likely to be true 3 but a fic-juris.
tion of law affumes for truth what is either certainly
falfe, or at leaft is as probably falfe as true- Thus an
heir is feigned or confidered in law as the fame perfon
•with his anceftor. Fictions of law muft, in their ef-
fefts, be always limited to the fpecial purpofes of equity
for which they were introduced; fee an example, N0*
clxxxiii. 3.
Sect. III. Of Sentences and their Executions,
I. Property would be moft uncertain, if debateable
points might, after receiving a definitive judgment, be
brought again in queftion, at the plealure of. either of
ths
clxxxv.
6g4
Law of
Scotland.
jRes judica
tee.
Decrees in
faro.
Two confe
cutive in¬
terlocutors
are final.
Time limit
ed for ap¬
peals.
Decrees in
abfence.
Decrees re¬
viewed ei¬
ther by re-
tludtion or
usl'penfion.
the parties : every flate has therefore fixed the charac¬
ter of final to certain fenlences or decrees, which in
the Roman law are called res judicata, and which ex¬
clude all review or rehearing.
2. Decrees of the court of feffion, are either in faro
contradidlona, where both parties have litigated the
caufe, or in abfence of the defender. Decrees of the
feflion in foro cannot, in the general cafe, be again
brought under the review of the court, either on points
which the parties neglefted to plead before fentence
(which we call competent and omitted^, or upon points
pleaded and found infufficient (proponed and repelled).
But decrees, though in foro, are reverfible by the
court, where either they labour under elfential nulli¬
ties $ e. g. where they are ultra petita, or not con¬
formable to their grounds and warrants, or founded
on an error in calcul, &c. ; or where the, party againft
whom the decree is obtained has thereafter recovered
evidence fufficient to overturn it, of which he knew
not before.
3. As parties might formerly reclaim againft the
fentences of the feflion, at any time before extracting
the decree, no judgment was final till extradt j but
now, a fentence of the inner houfe, either not re¬
claimed againft within fix federunt days after its date,
or adhered to upon a reclaiming bill, though it cannot
receive execution till extradl, makes the judgment
-final as to the court of fefiiun. And by an order of
the houfe of lords, March 24. 1725, no appeal is to
be received by them from fentences of the leflion after
five years from extracting the fentence j unlefs the per-
fon entitled to fuch appeal be minor, clothed with a
hufband, non compos mentis, imprifoned, or out of the
kingdom. Sentences pronounced by the lord ordi¬
nary have the fame effect, if not reclaimed againft, as
if they were pronounced in prefence j and all petitions
againft the interlocutor of an ordinary muft be pre¬
ferred within eight federunt days after figning fuch in¬
terlocutor.
4. Decrees, in abfence of the defender, have not
the force of res judicata? as to him •, for where the de¬
fender does not appear, he cannot be faid to have fub-
jeted himfelf by the judicial contract which is implied
in litifeonteftation a party therefore may be reftored
againft thefe, upon paying to the other his cofts in re¬
covering them. The fentences of inferior courts may
be reviewed by the court of feflion,-—before decree, by
advocation,—-and after decree, by fufpenfion or reduc¬
tion $ which two laft are alfo the methods of calling in
queftion fuch decrees of the feflion itfelf, as can again
be brought under the review of the court.
5. Reduction is the proper remedy, either where
the decree has already received full execution by pay¬
ment, or where it decrees nothing to be paid or per¬
formed, but Amply declares a right in favour of the
purfuer. Sufpenfion is that form of law by which the
effect of a fentence condemnatory, that has not yet re¬
ceived execution, is flayed or poftponed till the caufe
be again confidered. The firft ftep towards fufpenfion
is a bill preferred to the lord ordinary on the bills.
This bill, when the defire of it is granted, is a war¬
rant for iffuing letters of fufpenfion which pa<s the fig-
net ; but if the prefenter of the bill ftiall not, within
14 days after palling it, expedite the letters, execu¬
tion may by ad of federunt 1677 proceed on the fen-
L A W. Part III.
tence. In pradice, however, it is ufual for the char- Law of
ger to put up a proteftation in the minute book for Scotland,
production of the fulpenlion, which may be expedited L
at any time before this is done 5 and if the fulpender
fhall allow the proteftation to be extraded, the fill
falls. Sufpenfions of decrees in foro cannot pafs, but
by the whole lords in time of feffion, and by three in
vacation time ; but other decrees may be fufpended by
any one of the judges. By the ad of federunt (17&7),
in order to remedy the abufe of prefenting a multipli¬
city of bills of fufpenfion of the decrees of inferior
judges in fmall cafes which have paffed in abftnce, it
is declared, that all bills of fulpenfion of decreets by
inferior judges, in ablenee of the defenders, in caufes
under 12I. fterling value, lhall be refufed and remitted
to the inferior judge, if competent ; the fufpender,
however, before being heard in the inferior court, re-
imburfing the charger of the expences incurred by him
previous to the remit.
-6. As fufpenfion has the effeft of flaying the execu-
tion of the creditor’s legal diligence, it cannot, in the muit glVe
general cafe, pafs without caution given by the fufpen-caution,
der to pay the debt, in the event it lhall be found due.
Where the fufpender cannot, from his low or fufpebt-
ed circumftances, procure unqueftionable fecurity, the
lords admit juratory caution, h e, ruch as the fufpen¬
der fwears is the beft he can offer ; but the reafons of
fufpenfion are, in that cale, to be confidered with par¬
ticular accuracy at palling the bill. Decrees in favour
of the clergy, of univerfities, hofpitals, or parifh-
fchoolmafters, for their ftipends, rents, or falaries,
cannot be fufpended, but upon produftion of dif-
charges, or on confignation of the fums charged for.
A charger, who thinks himfelf fecure without a cau¬
tioner, and wants defpatch, may, where a fufpenfion
of his diligence is fought, apply to the court to get
the reafons of fufpenfion fummarily difeuffed on the
bill.
7. Though he, in vhofe favour the decree fufpend-Snfpenfion,
ed is pronounced, be always called the charger, yet awhencom-
decree may be fufpended before a charge be given onPetent*
it. Nay, fufpenfion is competent even where there is
no decree, for putting a flop to any illegal a£t whatlb-
ever : thus, a building, or the exercife of a power
which one affumes unwarrantably, is a proper fubje£t
of fufpenfion. Letters of fulpenfion are confidered
merely as a prohibitory diligence •, fo that the fufpen¬
der, if he would turn provoker, muft bring an aftion
of reduftion. If, upon difeuffing the letters of fufpen-
lion, the reafons lhall be fuftained, a decree is pro¬
nounced, fufpending the letters of diligence on which
the charge was given Jimpliciter; which is called a de¬
cree of fufpenfion, and takes off the effeft of the decree
fufpended. If the reafons of fufpenfion be repelled,
the court find the letters of diligence orderly proceed¬
ed, i. e. regularly carried on : and they ordain them
to be put to farther execution.
8. Decrees are carried into execution, by diligence5Extr2(q:oa
either againft the perfon or againft the eftate of the of decrees,
debtor. The firft ftep of perfonal execution is by let¬
ters of horning which pafs by a warrant of the court
of feffion, on the decrees of magiftrates cf boroughs,
Iheriffs, admirals, and commiffaries. If the debtor
does not obey the will of the letters of horning within
dhe days of the charge, the charger, after denouncing
him
Chap. III.
L A W.
695
Law of
Scotland.
What per-
fons fecu-
red agaiwit
caption.
Frifoners
muft be
clofely con¬
fined.
him rebel, and regiftering the horning, may apply for
letters of caption, which contain a command, not only
to meffengers, but to magiftrates, to apprehend and
imprifon the debtor. All meffengers and magiftrates,
who refufe their afliftance in executing the caption, are
liable fibjidiarie for the debt } and fuch fubfidiary ac¬
tion is fupported by the execution of the meffenger,
employed by the creditor, exprefling that they were
charged to concur, and would not. Letters of caption
contain an exprefs warrant to the meffenger, in cafe he
cannot get accefs, to break open ail doors and other
lock-faft places.
9. Law fecures peers, married women, and pupils,
againft perfonal execution by caption upon civil debts.
Such commoners alfo as are defied to ferve in parlia¬
ment, are fecured againft perfonal execution by the
privilege of parliament. No caption can be executed
againft a debtor within the precinfls of the king’s pa¬
lace of Holyroodhoufe *, but this privilege of fanfluary
afforded no fecurity to criminals, as that did which was
by the canon law conferred on churches and religious
houfes. Where the perfonal prefence of a debtor, un¬
der caption, is neceffary in any of our fupreme courts,
the judges are empowered to grant him a proteflion,
for fuch time as may be fufficient for his coming and
going, not exceeding a month. Proteflion from dili¬
gence is alfo granted by the court of feffion under the
bankrupt ftatute, where it is applied for, with concur¬
rence of the truftee, or a certain number of the credi¬
tors, as the cafe may require.
10. After a debtor is imprifoned, he ought not to
be indulged the benefit of the air, not even under a
guard *, for creditors have an intereft, that their debtor
be kept under clofe confinement, that, by the fqualor
carceris, they may be brought to pay their debt : and
any magiftrate or jailor, who (hall fuffer the prifoner
to go abroad, without a proper atteftation, upon oath,
of the dangerous ftate of his health, is liable fubjidianb
for the debt. Magiftrates are in like manner liable if
they (ball fuffer a prifoner to efcape through the in-
fufticiency of their prifon : but if he (hall efcape un¬
der night, by the ufe of inftruments, or by open force,
or by any other accident which cannot be imputed to
the magiftrates or jailor, they are not chargeable with
the debt ; provided they (hall have immediately after
his efcape, made all poftible fearch for him. A cafe
lately occurred where a meffenger having apprehended
a perfon for a debt, upon letters of caption, delivered
him over to the provoft of the burgh, and took a re¬
ceipt for him. The provoft allowed him to remain at
the inn all night, and afterwards allowed him what is
called open goal, by which be had accefs to the court-
houfe, under the fame roof with the prifon, where he
tranfa&ed bufinefs. As the perfon at whofe inftance
he was apprehended upon the caption, confidered that
the magiftrates had not kept the debtor in prifon as
commanded by the letters, he brought an adlion againft
them for the debt, although the debtor had not fo
much as attempted t» make his efcape. It was con¬
tended by the magiftrates, that they were not liable,
having only followed the ufual praftice of the burgh :
but the court of feflion, confidering the magiftrafes as
principal keepers of the prifon, and as fuch having no
diferetionary power, were of opinion, that the debtor
had never been .imprifoned in the eye of law, and
therefore found the magiftraies liable ; and their judge- Law of
ment was affirmed upon an appeal. Regularly, no prifon- Scot.and.^
er for debt upon letters of caption, though he (hould porrn 0f
have made payment, could be releafed without letters of becating a
fufpenfion, containing a charge to the jailor to fet him-prifon«r,
at liberty ; becaufe the creditor’s difeharge could not
take off the penalty incurred by the debtor for con¬
tempt of the king’s authority : but to fave unneceffary
expence to debtors in fmail debts, jailors are empowered
to let go prifoners where the debt does not exceed 200
merks Scots, upon produftion of a difeharge in which
the creditor confents to his releafe.
11. Our law' from a coniideration of compaffion,Liberation
allows infolvent debtors to apply for a releafe from pri-uPon a cef~
fon upon a ceflio bonorumy L e. upon their making over-^0
to the creditors all their eftate real and perfonal. This ’ *
muft be infrfted for by way of adlion, to which all the
creditors of the prifoner ought to be made parties. The
prifoner mud, in this action, which is cognizable only-
by the court of feflion, exhibit a particular inventory
of his eftate, and make oath that he has no other eftate
than is therein contained, and that he has made no con¬
veyance of any part of it, fince his imprifonment, to-
the hurt of his creditors. He muft alfo make oath, whe¬
ther he has granted any difpofttion of his effects before
his imprifonment, and condefcend on the perfons to
whom, and on the caufe of granting it j that the court
may judge, whether, by any colluftve practice, he has
forfeited his claim to liberty.
12. A fraudulent bankrupt is not allowed this pri-not com-
vilege ; nor a criminal who is liable in any affythmentpetent to
or indemnification to the party injured or his executors,cielin‘
though the crime itfelf (hould be extinguiftied by ad11'1"2-
pardon. A difpofition granted on a cejjio bonorum is
merely in farther fecurity to the creditors, not in fatis-
fadlion or in folutum of the debts. If, therefore, the
debtor (hould acquire any eftate after his releafe, fuch
eftate may be attached by his. creditors^ as if there had
been no cejjia, except in fo far as is neceffary for his fub-
ftftence. Debtors, who are fet free on a cejfio bonorumy
are obliged to wear a habit proper to dyvours or bank-DyV011r5
rupts. The lords are prohibited to difpenfe with this habit,
mark of ignominy, unlefs, in the fummons and procefs
of cejjio, it be libelled, fuftained, and proved, that the
bankruptcy proceeds from misfortune. And bankrupts
are condemned to fubmit to the habit, even where no
fufpicion of fraud lies againft them, if they have been
dealers in an illicit trade.
13. Where a prifoner for debt declares upon oath,
before the magiftrate of the jurifdiftion, that he has
not wherewith to maintain himfelf, the magiftrate may
fet him at liberty, if the creditor, in conlequence of
whofe diligence he was imprifoned, does not aliment
him wuthin ten days after intimation made for that pur-
pofe. Eut the magiftrate may, in fuch cafe, detain him
in prifon, if the creditor choofes to bear the burden of
the aliment rather than releafe him. The ftatute au- A<ft of
thorizing this releafe, which is ufually called the
of grace, is limited to the cafe of prifoners for civil
debts.
14. Decrees are executed againft the moveable eftate Execution
of the debtor by arreftment or poinding; and againft:againftthe
his heritable eftate, by inhibition, or adjudication, jf^ebtor’s
one be condemned, in a removing or other procefs, to61
quit the pofftffion of lands, and refules, notwithitanding
6o6
Law of
Scotland.
Decrees ar¬
bitral.
SubmiiTion.
Powers of
arbiters.
Decrees ar¬
bitral, bow
far redu¬
cible.
elxxxvi.
Crimes,
public, and
private.
L .
a charge, letters of ejection are granted of courfe, or¬
daining the ftteriff to ejeft him, and to enter the obtain-
er of the decree into poffeflion. Where one oppofes by
violence the execution of a decree, or of any lawful di¬
ligence, which the civil magiftrate is not able by him-
felf and his officers to make good, the execution is en¬
forced manu militari.
15. A decree arbitral, which is a fentence proceed¬
ing on a fubmiffion to arbiters, has fome affinity with
a judicial fentence, though in moft refpefts the two dif¬
fer. A fubmiffion is a contraft entered into by two
or more parties who have difputable rights or claims,
whereby they refer their differences to the final deter¬
mination of an arbiter or arbiters, and oblige them-
felves to acquiefce in what ffiall be decided. Where
the day within which the arbiters are to decide, is left
blank in the fubmiffion, praflice has limited the arbi¬
ters power of deciding to a year. As this has proceed¬
ed from the ordinary words of ftyle, empowering the
arbiters to determine betwixt and the day of
next to come j therefore, where a fubmiffion
is indefinite, without fpecifying any time, like all other
contrails or obligations, it fubfifts for 40 years. Sub-
miffions, like mandates, expire by the death of any of
the parties fubmitters before fentence. As arbiters are
not veiled with jurifdidlion, they cannot compel wit-
neffes to make oath before them, or havers of writings
to exhibit them ; but this defeft is fupplied by the
court of feffion, who, at the fuit of the arbiters, or of
either of the parties, will grant warrant for citing wit-
neffes, or for the exhibition of writing. For the fame
reafon, the power of arbiters is barely to decide j the
execution of the decree belongs to the judge. Where
the fubmitters confent to the regiftration of the decree
arbitral, performance may be enforced by fummary di¬
ligence.
16. The power of arbiters is wholly derived from
the confent of parties. Hence where their powers are
limited to a certain day, they cannot pronounce fen¬
tence after that day. Nor can they fubje£t parties to a
penalty higher than that which they have agreed to in
the fubmiffion. And where a fubmiffion is limited to
fpecial claims, fentence pronounced on fubjedls hot fpe-
cified in the fubmiffion is null, as being «4*ro vires com-
promijfu
17. But, on the other hand, as fubmiffions are de-
figned for a moft favourable purpofe, the amicable com-
pofing of differences, the powers thereby conferred on
arbiters receive an ample interpretation. Decrees arbi¬
tral are not reducible upon any ground, except corrup¬
tion, bribery, or falfehood.
Sect. IV, Of Crimes.
I. The word crime, in its moft general fenfe, includes
every breach either of the law of God or of our coun¬
try •, in a mwre reftridled meaning, it fignifies fuch tranf-
greffions of law as are puniffiable by courts of juftice.
Crimes were, by the Roman law, divided into public
and private. Public crimes were thofe that were ex-
prefsly declared fuch by fome law or conftitution, and
which, on account of their more atrocious nature and
hurtful confequences, might be profecuted by any mem¬
ber of the community. Private crimes could be pur-
fued only by the party injured, and were generally pu-
A. W. Part III,
nifhed by a pecuniary fine to be applied to his ufe. By Law of
the law of Scotland, no private party, except the per- Scotland,
fon injured, or his next of kin, can accufe criminally : > J
but the king’s advocate, who in this queftion reprefents
the community, has a right to profecute all crimes in
vindittam public am, though the party injured ffiould re-
fufe to concur. Smaller offences, as petty riots, inju¬
ries, &c. which do net demand the public vengeance,
pafs generally by the appellation of delicls, and are pu-
nilhed either by fine or imprifonment.
2. The effence of a crime is, that there be an inten- what ef-
tion in the aCtor to commit; for an aftion in which fential t®
the will of the agent has no part is not a proper objedft cr‘mes*
either of rewards or punilhments ; hence arifes the
rule crimen dolo contrakitur. Simple negligence does
not therefore conftitute a proper crime. Yet where it
is extremely grofs, it may be puniffied arbitrarily. Far
lefs can we reckon in the number of crimes, thofe com¬
mitted by an idiot or furious perfon : but leffer degrees
of fatuity, which only darken reafon, will not afford a
total defence, though they may fave from the poena or-
dinaria. Aftions committed in drunkennefs are not to
be confidered as involuntary, feeing the drunkennefs
itfelf, which was the firft caufe of the a£tion, is both
voluntary and criminal.
3. On the fame principle, fuch as are in a ftate of
infancy, or in the confines of it, are incapable of a cri¬
minal action, dole not being incident to that age ; but
the precife age at which a perfon becomes capable of
dole, being fixed neither by nature nor by ftatute, is
by our practice to be gathered by the judge, as he belt
can, from the underftanding and manners of the per¬
fon accufed. Where the guilt of a crime arifes chiefly
from ftatute) the adtor, if he is under puberty, can
hardly be found guilty ; but, where nature itfelf points
out its deformity, he may, if he is proximus puber-
tati, be more eafily prefumed capable of committing it:
yet, even in that cafe, he will not be puniftied pcena or-
dinaria.
4. One may be guilty of a crime, not only by per-Acceftb-
petrating it himfelf, but being acceffory to a crimeries.or an
committed by another; which laft is by civilians ftyledand Part*
ope et conjilio, and, in our law phrafe, art and part. A
perfon may be guilty, art and part, either by giving
advice or counfel to commit the crime ; or, 2. By gi¬
ving warrant or mandate to commit it; or, 3. By ac¬
tually affifting the criminal in the execution. It is ge¬
nerally agreed by dodlors, that, in the more atrocious
crimes, the advifer is equally puniftiable with the cri¬
minal ; and that, in the flighter, the circumftances ari-
fing from the advifer’s leffer age, the jocular or carelefs
manner of giving advice, &tc. may be received as pleas
for foftening the puniffiment. One who gives mandate
to commit a crime, as he is the firft fpring of adlion,
feems more guilty than the perfon employed as the in-
ftrument in executing it *, yet the attor cannot excufe
himfelf under the pretence of orders which he ought
not to have obeyed.
5. Affiftance may be given to the committer of a
crime, not only in the adlual execution, but previous
to it, by furnifhing him, intentionally, with poifon,
arms, or the other means of perpetrating it. That fort
of affiftance which is not given till after the criminal
adt, and which is commonly called abetting, though rt
be of itfelf criminal, does not infer art and part of the
principal
Law of
Scotland.
Tunifli-
nient of
Blafphemy.
Chap. III. L
principal crime ; as if ona ftiould favour the efcape of
a criminal, knowing him to be fuch or conceal him
from jutiice.
6. Thofe crimes that are in their confequences moft
hurtful to fociety, are punilhed capitally, or by death ;
others efcape wdth a leffer punilhment, fometimes fixed
by ftatute, and fometimes arbitrary, i. e. left to the
difcretion of the judge, who may exercife his jurifdic-
tion, either by fine, imprifonment, or a corporal pu¬
nilhment. Where the punilhment is left, by law, to the
difcretion of the judge, he can in no cafe extend it to
death. The fingle efcheat of the criminal falls on con-
viftion, in all capital trials, though the fentence Ihould
not exprefs it.
7. Certain crimes are committed more immediately
againft God himfelf} others, againft the Hate ; and a
third kind, againft particular perfons. The chief crime
in the firft clafs, cognizable by temporal courts, is blaf-
phemy, under which may be included alheifm. This
crime confifts in the denying or vilifying the Deity by
fpeech or writing. All who ctnrfe God or any of the
perfons of the blefled Trinity, are to fuffer death, even
for a fingle aft ; and thofe who deny him, if they per-
fift in their denial. The denial of a Providence, or of
the authority of the holy Scriptures, is punilhable ca¬
pitally for the third offence.
8. No profecution can now be carried on for witch¬
craft or conjuration. But all who undertake from
their Ikill in any occult fcience, to tell fortunes, or dif
cover Jlolen goods, are to fuffer imprifonment for a year,
Hand in the pillory four times in that year, and find
furety for their future good behaviour.
9. Some crimes againft the ftate are levelled direftly
againft the fupreme power, and ftrike at the conftitu-
tion itfelf: others difcover fuch a contempt of law, as
tends to baffle authority, or flacken the reins of go¬
vernment. Treafon, crimen majeflatis, is that crime
which is aimed againft the majefty of the ftate ; and
can be committed only by thofe who are fubjefts of
that ftate either by birth or refidence. Soon after the
union of the two kingdoms in 1707, the laws of trea¬
fon, then in force in England, were made ours by
7 Ann. c. 21. both with regard to the fafts conftitu-
ting that crime, to the forms of trial, the corruption of
blood, and all the penalties and forfeitures confequent
on it.
10. It is high treafon, by the law of England, to
imagine the death of the king, queen confort, or of
the heir apparent to the crown j to levy war againft
the king, or adhere to his enemies j to counterfeit the
king’s coin, or his great or privy feal; to kill the chan¬
cellor, treafurer, or any of the 12 judges of England,
while they are doing their offices : which laft article is
by the forenamed aft 7 Ann. applied to Scotland, in
the cafe of flaying any judge of the feffion or of jufti-
ciary fitting in judgment. Thofe who wafti, clip, or
lighten, the proper money of the realm 5 who advifed-
ly affirm by writing or printing, that the pretender
has any right to the crown, that the king and parlia¬
ment cannot limit the fucceffion toil, or who hold cor-
refpondence with the pretender, or any perfon employ¬
ed by him, are alfo guilty of treafon.
11. The forms of proceedings in the trial of treafon,
whether againft peers or commoners, are fet forth in a
Imall treatife, publiflied by order of the houfe of lords
Vol. XI. Part II.
Treafon.
Pains of
treafan.
AW. 697
in 1709, fubjoined to a colleftion of ftatutes concern- Law of
ing treafon. By the conviftion upon this trial, the Scotland-
whole eftate of the traitor forfeits to the crown. His
blood is alfo corrupted, fo that,’on the death of an an-
ceftor, he cannot inherit; and the eftate which he
cannot take, falls to the immediate fuperior as efcheat,
ob defetlum heredis, without diftinguilhing whether the
lands hold of the crown, or of a fubjeft. No attain¬
der for treafon ftiall, after the death of the pretender
and all his fons, hurt the right of any perfon, other
than that of the offender, during his natural life j the
rights of creditors and other third parties, in the cafe of
forfeiture on treafon, muft be determined by the law of
England.
12. Mifprifion of treafon, from meprendre, is the over- Mifprifioa
looking or concealing of treafon. It is inferred by trcafon*
one’s bare knowledge of the crime, and not difcover-
ing it to a magiftrate or other perfon entitled by his
office to take examination ; though he fhould not in
the lead degree affent to it. The forefaid aft 7 Ann.
makes the Englifh law of mifprifion ours. Its punilh¬
ment is, by the law of England, perpetual imprifon¬
ment, together with the forfeiture of the offender’s
moveables, and of the profits of his heritable eftate,
during his life ; that is, in the ftyle of our law, his fingle
and liferent efcheat.
13. The crime oifedition confifts in the raffing com-Sedit on,
motions or difturbances in the ftate. It is either verbal
or real. Verbal fedition, or lealing-making, is infer¬
red from the uttering of words tending to create dif-
cord between the king and his people. It is punilhed
either by imprifonment, fine, or banilhment, at the dif-
eretion of the judge. Heal fedition is generally com¬
mitted by convocating together any confiderable num¬
ber of people, without lawful authority, under the pre¬
tence of redreffing fome public grievance, to the difturb-
ing of the public peace. Thofe who are convifted of
this crime are punilhed by the confifcation of their
goods ; and their lives are at the king’s will. If any
perfons, to the number of 12, lhall affemble, and being
required by a magiftrate or conftable to difperfe, lhall
neverthelefs continue together for an hour after fuch
command, the perfons difobeying lhall fuffer death and
confifcation of moveables.
14. Judges, who, wilfully or through corruption, Corruption
ufe their authority as a cover to injuftice or oppreffion,in
are punilhed with the lofs of honour, fame and dig¬
nity. Under this head may be claffed theftbote (from
bote, “ compenfation”), which is the taking a confi-
deration in money or goods from a thief to exempt
him from punilhment, or connive at his efcape from
juftice. A Iheriff or other judge, guilty of this crime,
forfeits his life and goods. And even a private perfon,
who takes theftbote, fuffers as the principal thief. The
buying of difputed claims, concerning which there is a
pending procefs, by any judge or member either of the
feffion or of an inferior court, is punilhed by the lols
of the delinquent’s office, and all the privileges thereto
belonging.
15. Deforcement is the oppofition given, or refill-Deforced
ance made, to meffengers or other officers, while theyment*
are employed in executing the law. The court of fef¬
fion is competent to this crime. It is punilhable with
the confifcation of moveables, the one half to the king,
and the other to the creditor at whofe fuit the diligence
4 T was
698
L A W.
Part III,
Law of
Scotland.
Breach of
arreftment
Foreftal-
See
Murder.
Sslf-mur-
ieu
‘Psnieide.
was ufed. Afmed perfons, to the number of three or
more, aflifting in the illegal running, landing, or ex¬
porting of prohibited or uncuftomed goods, or any who
lhall relift, wound, or maim any officer of the revenue,
in the execution of his office, are punilhable with death
and the confifeation of moveables.
16. Breach of arrejiment (fee N° Ixxviii. 5.) is a
crime of the fame nature with deforcement, as it im¬
ports a contempt of the law and of our judges. It fub-
jedis to an arbitrary corporal punilhment, and the ef-
cheat of moveables j with a preference to the creditor
for his debt, and for fuch farther fum as (hall be mo¬
dified to him by the judge. Under this head of crimes
againlt good government and police, may be reckon¬
ed the foref ailing of markets ; that is, the buying of
goods intended for a public market, before they are
carried there \ which for the third criminal adl infers
the efeheat of moveables j as alfo flaying falmon in
forbidden time, deftroying plough graith in time of
tillage, flaying or houg.-ing horfes or cows in time of
harveft, and deftroying or fpoiling growing timber $
as to the puniffiment of which, fee ftatutes 1503, c. 72.
— 1 $87, c. 82. and 1689, c. 16.—1 Geo. I. St. 2.
c. 48.
17. Crimes againft particular perfons may be di¬
rected either againft life, limb, liberty, chaftity, goods,
©r reputation. Murder is the wilful taking away of a
perfon’s life, without a neceffary caufe. Our law makes
no diftimflion betwixt premeditated and hidden homi¬
cide : both are puniffied capitally. Cafual homicide,
where the adlor is in fome degree blameable ; and ho¬
micide in felf-defence, where the juft bounds of defence
have been exceeded } are punilhed arbitrarily : but the
flaughter of night thieves, houfebreakers, affiflances in
mafterful depredations, or rebels denounced for capital
crimes, may be committed with impunity. The crime
of demembration^ or the cutting off a member, is joined
with that of murder : but in praftice its puniffiment
has been reftricted to the efeheat of moveables, and an
affythment or indemnification to the party. Mutilation,
or the difabting of a member, is puniftied at the difere-
tion of the judge.
18. Self-murder is as highly criminal as the killing
our neighbour $ and for this reafon, our law has, con¬
trary to the rule, crimina morte extinguuntur, allowed a
proof of the crime, after the offender’s death, that his
Angle efeheat might fall to the king or his donatory.
To this end, an aftion muft be brought, not before the
jufticiary, but the feffion, becaufe it is only intended ad
civilem effeElum, for proving and declaring the felf-mur-
der j and the next of kin to the deceafed muft be made
a party to it.
19. The puniffiment of parricide, or of the murder
of a parent, is not confined, by our law, to the crimi¬
nal himfelf. All his pofterity in the right line are de¬
clared incapable of inheriting } and the fucccffion de¬
volves on the next collateral heir. Even the curling
or beating of a parent infers death, if the perfon guilty
be above 16 years j and an arbitrary punilhment, if
he be under it. A prefumptive or ftatutory murder
Is conftituted by 1690, c. 21. by which any woman
who ftiall conceal her pregnancy, during its whoje
courfe, and (hall not call for, or make ufe^ of, help in
the birth, is to he reputed the murderer, if the child
be dead, or amiffing. This ad was intended to dif-
3
courage the unnatural pra&ice of women making away Law of
with their children begotten in fornication, to avoid Scotland, ^
church cenfures.
20. Duelling, is the crime of fighting in Angle com-Duelling,
bat, on previous challenges given and received. Fight¬
ing in a duel, without licenfe from the king, is puniffi-
able by death j and whatever perfon, principal or fie-
cond, lhall give a challenge to fight a duel, or fliall ac¬
cept a challenge, or otherwife engage therein, is punilh¬
ed by banilhment and efeheat of moveables, though no
adual fighting fhould enfue.
21. Haimfucken (from haim “ home,” and focken “ toHaimfuc-
feek or purfue”) is the affaulting or beating of a per-ken.
fon in his own houfe. The punilhment of this crime is
nowhere defined, except in the books of the Majefty,
which makes it the fame as that of a rape j and it is,
like rape, capital by our pra&ice. The affault muft
be made in the proper houfe of the perfon affaulted,
where he lies and rifes daily and nightly j fo that nei¬
ther a public houfe, nor even a private, where one is
only tranfiently, falls within the law.
22. Any party to a law fuit, who lhall flay, wound, Battery,
or otherwife invade his adverfary, at any period of time
between executing the fummons and the complete exe¬
cution of the decree, or lhall be acceffory to fuch inva-
fion, lhall lofe his caufe. The fentence pronounced on
this trial, againft him who has committed the battery,
is not fubjed to reduftion, either on the head of mi¬
nority, or on any other ground whatever: and if the
perfon profecuted for this crime lhall be denounced for
not appearing, his liferent, as well as Angle efeheat,
falls upon the denunciation.
23. The crime of wrongous imprifonment is inferred, Wrongous,
by granting warrants of commitment in order to trial, ™Prtlfon'
proceeding on informations not fubferibed, or without
expreffing the caufe of commitment; by receiving or
detaining prifoners on fuch warrants j by refufing to a
prifoner a copy of the warrant of commitment j by de¬
taining him in clofe confinement, above eight days af¬
ter his commitment j by not releafing him on bail,
where the crime is bailable *, and by tranfporting per¬
fons out of the kingdom, without either their own con-
fent, or a lawful fentence. The perfons guilty of a
wrongous imprifonment are punilhed by a pecuniary
mul£f, from 6000I. down to 400I. Scots, according to
the rank of the perfon detained ; and the judge, or
other perfon guilty, is over and above fubje&ed to pay
to the perfon detained a certain fum per diem propor¬
tioned to his rank, and is declared incapable of public
truft. All thefe penalties may be infilled for by a fum-
mary a&ion before the feffion, and are fubjeft to no mo-
dification.
24. Adultery, is the crime by which the marriage Adultery,
bed is polluted. This crime could neither by the Ro¬
man nor Jewiffi law be committed, but where the
guilty woman was the wife of another : by ours, it is
adultery, if either the man or woman be married. We
diftinguith between fimple adultery, and that which is
notorious or manifeft. Open and manifelt adulterers,
who continue incorrigible, notwithftanding the cen-
fures of the church, are punilhed capitally. This
crime is diftinguilhed by one or other of the following
charafters : where there is iffue procreated between
the adulterers j or where they keep bed and company
together notorioufly \ or where they give fcandal to
th©
Chap.
Law of
Scotland
Bigamy.
Ttice It
Rape.
Theft.
Refet of
theft.
Robbery,
III. L
the church, and are, upon their obftinate refuling to
liften to its admonitions, excommunicated. The pu-
nithment of fimple adultery, not being defined by fta-
tute, is left to the difcretion of the judge j but cuftom
has made the falling of the Angle efeheat one of its pe¬
nalties.
25. Bigamy is a perfon’s entering into the engage¬
ments of a lecond marriage, in violation of a former
marriage vow ftill fubfifting. Bigamy, on the part
of the man, has been tolerated in many Hates, before
the eftablifhment of Chriftianity, even by the Jews
themfelves j but it is prohibited by the precepts of the
gofpel, and it is punilhed by our law, whether on the
part of the man or of the woman, with the pains of
perjury.
26. Incejl, is committed by perfons who Hand with¬
in the degrees of kindred forbidden in Lev. xviii. and
is punilhed capitally. The fame degrees are prohi¬
bited in affinity, as in confanguinity, Lev. xviii. 13.
et feq. As this crime is repugnant to nature, all chil¬
dren, whether lawful or natural, Hand on an equal
footing : civilis ratio civilia jura corrumpere potejl, non
vero naturalia. It is difficult indeed to bring a legal
proof of a relation merely natural, on the fide of the
father •, but the mother may be certainly known with¬
out marriage.
27. There is no explicit ftatute making rape, or the
ravithing of women, capital \ but it is plainly fuppofed
in aft 1612, c. 4. by which the raviffier is exempted
from the pains of death, only in the cafe of the wo¬
man’s fubfequent confent, or her declaration that ffie
went off with him of her own free will \ and even then,
he is to fuller an arbitrary punilhment, either by im-
prifonment, confifcation of goods, or a pecuniary fine.
28. Theft is defined, A fraudulent intermeddling with
the property of another, with a view of making gain.
Our ancient law proportioned the punilhment of the
theft to the value of the goods llolen j heightening it
gradually, from a flight corporal punilhment to a ca¬
pital, if the value amounted to thirty-two pennies Scots,
which in the reign of David I. was the price of two
(beep. In feveral latter afts, it is taken for granted,
that this crime is capital. But where the thing Helen
is of fmall value, we confider it not as theft but as pic¬
kery, which is punifhed either corporally or by banilh-
ment. The breaking of orchards, and the Healing of
green wood, is punilhed by a fine, which rifes as the
crime is repeated.
29. Theft may be aggravated into a capital crime,
though the value of the thing flolen be trilling j as
theft twice repeated, or committed in the night, or by
landed men j or of things fet apart for facred ufes.
The receivers and concealers of Holen goods, knowing
them to be fuch, fuffer as thieves. Thofe who barely
harbour the perfon of the criminal within 48 hours
either before or after committing the crime, are punilhed
as partakers of the theft. Such as fell goods belong¬
ing to thieves or lawlefs perfons who dare not them¬
felves come to market, are punilhed with banilhment
and the efeheat of moveables.
30. Theft attended with violence is called robbery;
and in our old Hatutes, rief ox fouthrief; under which
clafs may be includedforning, or the taking of meat and
drink by force, without paying for it. Stouthrief came
at iaft to be committed fa audacioufly, by bands of men
Law ot
Scotiaru!.
A W. 699
affociated together, that it was thought neceffary to veH
all our freeholders with a power of holding courts up¬
on forners and rievers, and condemning them to death.
Nay, all were capitally puniffied, who, to lecure their
lands from depredation, paid to the rieveis a yearly
contribution, which got the name of black mail. An
aft alfo paffed, commanding to bamthment a band of
forners, who were originally from Egypt, called gypfies,
and adjudging to death all that fliould be reputed Egyp¬
tians, if found thereafter within the kingdom. Rob¬
bery committed on the Teas is called piracy, and is
puniffied capitally by the high admiral. Several of the
fafts which conflitute this crime are fet forth in a Bri-
tifh flatute, 8 Geo. I. c. 24.
31. Falfehood, in a large lenfe, is the fraudulent imi- Falfehocd.
tation or fuppreffion of truth, to the damage of another.
The 1 ives and goods of perfons convifted of ufing falfe
weights or meafures were, by our old law, in the king’s
mercy : and their heirs could not inherit but upon a
remiffion. The latefi fiatute againit this crime pu-
niflies it by confifcation of moveables. That particular
fpecies of falfehood, which confitls in the falfifying of
writings, paffes by the name of forgery. Our pracl ice Forgery,
has now of a long time, agreeably to the Roman law,
made this crime capital j unlefs the forgery be of exe¬
cutions, or other writings of fmaller moment $ in which
cafe, it is puniffied arbitrarily.
32. The writing muR not only be fabricated, but
put to ufe or founded on, in order to infer this crime.
And though it be Rriftly criminal, yet the trial of it
is proper to the court of feflion j but where improba-
tion is moved againH a deed by way of exception, the
inferior judge, before whom the aftion lies, is competent
to it ad civi/etn ejfeElum. When it is pleaded as an ex¬
ception, our praftice, to difeourage affefted delays,
obliges the defender, who moves it, to confign 40I.
Scots j which he forfeits, if his plea (hall appear calum-
33. Where a perfon, found guilty of forgery by the
court of feffion is by them remitted to the judiciary,
an indiftment is there exhibited againH him, and a
jury fworn, before whom the decree of feffion is produ¬
ced, in place of all other evidence of the crime, in re-
fpeft of which the jury find the pannel guilty ; fo that
that decree being pronounced by a competent court, is
held as full proof, or, in the flyle of the bar, wprobatio
probata.
34. Perjury, which is the judicial affirmation of a Perjury,
falfehood on oath, really conHitutes the crimen fa/f;
for he who is guilty of it does, in the moH folemn
manner, fubflitute falfehood in the place of truth. To
conHitute this crime, the violation of truth mufl be
deliberately intended by the fwearer ; and therefore
reafonable allowances ought to be given to forgetful-
nefs or mifapprehenfion, according to his age, health,
and other circumflances. The breach of a promiffory
oath does not infer this crime ; for he who promifes on
oath may fmcerely intend performance when he fwears,
and fo cannot be faid to call on God to atteR a falfe¬
hood. Though an oath, however falfe, if made upon
reference in a civil queftion, concludes the caufe, the
perfon perjured is liable to a criminal trial 5 for the ef«
ft-ft of the reference can go no further than the private
right of the parties.
35. Notwithftanding the mifehievous confequences
4 T 3 ' *
/
7co L A W. - Part III.
^La.wof of perjury to foeiety, it is not punilhed capitally, but
. ' ^7 confilcation of moveables, imprifonment for a year,
and infamy. The court of feffion is competent to per¬
jury incidenter, when, in any examination upon oath,
taken in a caufe depending before them, a perfon ap¬
pears to have fworn falfely : but in the common cafe,
that trial is proper to the judiciary. Subornation of
perjury confifts in tampering with perfons who are to
Iwear in judgment, by directing them how they are
to depofe : and it is punilhed with the pains of per-
jury.
Stellionate. 36. The crime of flellionate, from Jlellio^ includes
every fraud which is not diftinguilhed by a fpecial
name j but is chiefly applied to conveyances of the
fame numerical right, granted by the proprietor to dif¬
ferent difponees. The punilhment of ftellionate mult
neceifarily be arbitrary, to adapt it to the various na¬
tures and different aggravations of the fraudulent a«5ts.
The perfons guilty of that kind of it, which confiHs in
granting double conveyances, are by our law declared
infamous, and their lives and goods at the king’s mer¬
cy. The cognizance of fraudulent bankruptcy is appro¬
priated to the court of fellion, who may inflict any pu¬
nilhment on the offender that appears proportioned to
his guilt, death excepted.
Ufury. 37- The crime of ufury, before the Reformation,
conlifted in the taking of any intereft for the ufe of
money j and now in taking a higher rate of interelt
than is authorized by law. It is divided into ufura
manfejla, or direct; and velata, or covered. One may
be guilty of the firlt kind, either where he covenants
with the debtor for more than the lawful interell on
the loan-money : or where one receives the intereft
of a fum before it is due, fince thereby he takes a con-
fideration of the ufe of money before the debtor has
Teally got the ufe of it. Where a debt is clogged
with an uncertain condition, by which the creditor runs
the hazard of lofing his fum, he may covenant for a
higher intereft than the legal, without the crime of
u!ury : for there the intereft is not given merely in con-
fideration of the ufe of the money, but of the danger
undertaken by the creditor.
38. Covered ufury, is that which was committed un¬
der the mafk, not of a loan, but of fome other contraft;
e. g. a fale or an improper wadfet. And in general, all
obligations entered into with an intention of getting
more than the legal intereft for the ufe of money,
however they may be difguifed, are ufurious. As a
farther guard againft this crime, the taking more than
the legal intereft for the forbearance of payment of
money, merchandife, or other commodities, by way of
loan, exchange, or other contrivance whatever, or the
taking a bribe for the loan of money, or for delaying
its payment when lent, is declared ufury. Where ufury
is proved, the ufurious obligation is not only declared
void, but the creditor, if he has received any unlawful
profits, forfeits the treble value of the fums or goods
lent. Ufury when it is to be purfued criminally, muft
be tried by the judiciary : but where the libel con¬
cludes only for voiding the debt, or reftitution, the fef-
fion is the proper court.
I 39- Injury, in its proper acceptation, is the re¬
proaching or affronting our neighbour. Injuries are
either verbal or real. A verbal injury, when directed
againft a private perfon, confifts in the uttering contu-
4
melious words, which tend to expofe our neighbour’s Law of
character by making him little or ridiculous. It does Scotland,
not feera that the twitting one with natural defends v—
without any farcaftical refleftions, though it be inhu¬
man, falls under this defcription, as thefe imply no real
reproach in the juft opinion of mankind. Where the
injurious expreflions have a tendency to blacken one’s
moral character, or fix fome particular guilt upon him,
and are deliberately repeated in different companies, or
handed about in whifpers to confidants, it then grows
up to the crime of Hander : and where a perfon’s mo¬
ral chara&er, is thus attacked, the animus injuriandi is
commonly inferred from the injurious words themfelves,
unlefs fpecial circumftances be offered to take off the
prefumption, ex gr. that the words were uttered in
judgment in one’s own defence, or by way of informa¬
tion to a magiftrate, and had fome foundation in fa£t.
Though the cognizance of Hander is proper to the com-
miffaries, who, as the judices Chrijiianitatis, are the
only judges of fcandal ; yet, for ibme time pall, bare
verbal injuries have been tried by other criminal judges,
and even by the feflion. It is puniHied either by a
fine, proportioned to the condition of the perfons inju¬
ring and injured, and the circumflances of time and
place •, or if the injury import fcandal, by publicly ac¬
knowledging the offence j and frequently the two are
conjoined. The calling one a bankrupt is not, in fliift
fpeech, a verbal injury, as it does not affttft the perfon’s
moral chara&er} yet, as it may hurt his credit in the
way of bufinefs, it founds him in an a&ion of damages,
which muft be brought before the judge-ordinary.
A real injury is inflibled by any faft, by which a per¬
fon’s honour or dignity is affe&ed ; as ftriking one
with a cane, or even aiming a blow without ftriking 5
fpitting in one’s face •, affuming a coat of arms, or
any other mark of diftindlion proper to another, &c.
The compofing and publifliing defamatory libels may
be reckoned of this kind. Real injuries are tried by
the judge-ordinary, and puniftied either by fine or
imprifonment, according to the demerit of the offenders.
40. After having fhortly explained the feveral crimes
punifliable by our law, this treatife may be concluded
with a few obfervations on criminal jurifdiftion, the
forms of trial, and the methods by which crimes may
be extinguiftied. Criminal jurifdiftion is founded,
I. Ratione domicilii, if the defender dwells within the Criminal
territory of the judge. Vagabonds, who have no cer-juriidi<ftion,
tain domicile, may be tried wherever they are appre¬
hended. 2. Ratione delicti, if the crime was com¬
mitted within the territory. Treafon is triable, by
the Englifh law-, in any county that the king ftiould
appoint} and, by a temporary aft now expired, trea¬
fon committed in certain Scots counties was made tri¬
able by the court of jufticiary, wherever it fliould fit.
41. No criminal trial can proceed, unlefs the perfon What per-
accufed is capable of making his defence. Abfentsfons are not
therefore cannot be tried ; nor fatuous nor furious
perfons, durante furore, even for crimes committed
while they were in their fenfes. For a like reafon,
minors who had no curators, could not, by the Roman
law, be tried criminally j but our praflice confiders
every perfon who is capable of dole, to be alfo fuffi-
ciently qualified for making his defence in a criminal
trial.
42. No perfon can be imprifoned in order to ftand Commit-
ment.
Chap. III.
Law of
Scotland
Precogni¬
tion.
Form of
trial.
trial for any ciirse, without a warrant in Writing ex~
_ prefling the caufe, and proceeding upon a fubferibed
information, unlefs in the cafe of indignities done to
judges, riots, and the other offences fpecially mentioned
in 1701, c. 6. Every prifoner committed in order to
trial, if the crime of which he is accufed be not capi¬
tal, is entitled to be releafed upon bail, the extent of
which is to be modified by the judge, not exceeding
I 2,000 merks Scots for a nobleman, 6000 for a landed
gentleman, 2000 for every other gentleman or burgefs,
and 600 for any other inferior perfon. That perfons
■who, either from the nature of the crime with which
they are charged, or from their low circumltances,
cannot procure bail, may not lie for ever in prifon un-
tried^ it is lawful for every fuch prifoner to apply to
the criminal judge, that his trial may be brought on.
'J'he judge muft, within 24 hours after fuch applica¬
tion, iffue letters direfted to meffengers, for intimating
to the profecutor to fix a diet for the prifoner’s trial,
within 60 days after the intimation, under the pain of
wrongous imprifonment : And if the profeeutor does
not infifl: within that time, or if the trial is not finifhed
in forty days more when carried on before the judici¬
ary, or in thirty when before any other judge ; the
prifoner is, upon a fecond application, fetting forth
that the legal time is elapfed, entitled to his freedom,
under the fame penalty.
41. Upon one’s committing any of the grofler
crimes, it is ufual for a juftice of the peace, flieriflf, or
other judge, to take a precognition of the fafts, i. e.
to examine thofe who were prefent at the criminal aft,
upon the fpecial circumftances attending it, in order
to know whether there is ground for a trial, and to
ferve as a direftion to the profecutor, how to fet forth
the fafts in the libel •, but the perfons examined may
inlifl: to have their declarations cancelled before they
give teftimony at the trial. Juftices of the peace,
Iheriffs, and magiftrates of boroughs, are alfo autho¬
rized to receive informations, concerning crimes to be
tried in the circuit courts : which informations are to
be tranfmitted to the juftice-clerk 40 days before the
fitting of the refpeftive courts. To difeourage ground-
lefs criminal trials, all profecutors, where the defend¬
er was abfolved, were condemned by flatute, in cods,
as they fliould be modified by the judge, and befides
were fubjefted to a fmall fine, to be divided between
the fifk and the defender: And where the king’s ad¬
vocate was the only purfuer, his informer was made
liable. This fufficiently warrants the prefent praftice
of condemning vexatious profecutors in a pecuniary
mulft, though far exceeding the ftatutory fum.
44. The forms upon trial in criminal accufations,
differ much from thofe obferved in civil aftions, if we
except the cafe of fuch crimes as the court of feflion is
competent to, and of lefler offences tried before infe¬
rior courts. The trial of crimes proceeds either upon
indiftment, which is fometimes ufed when the perfon
to be tried is in prifon ; or by criminal letters iffuing
from the fignet of the julficiary. In either cafe, the
defender muft be ferved with a full copy of the indift-
snent or letters, and with a lift of the witneffes to be
brought again!! him, and of the perfons who are to
pafs on the inqueft, and 15 free days muft intervene
between his being fo ferved and the day of appearance.
A W. 7oi
When the trial proceeds upon criminal letters, the pri- Lawof
vate profecutor muft give fecurity, at raifing the let- | Scotland,
ters, that he will report them duly executed to the
judiciary, in terms of 1535, c. 35.5 and the defender,
if he be not already in prifon, is, by the letters, re¬
quired to give caution, within a certain number of days
after his citation ; for his appearance upon the day-
fixed for his trial: And if he gives none within the
days of the charge, he may be denounced rebel, which
infers the forfeiture of his moveables.
45. That part of the indiftment, or of the criminal
letters, which contains the ground of the charge againft
the defender, and the nature or degree of the punifh-
ment he ought to fuffer, is called the libel. All libels
muft be fpecial, fetting forth the particular fafts in.-
ferring the guilt, and the particular place where thefe
fafts were done. The time of committing the crime
may be libelled in more general terms, with an alter¬
native as to the month, or day of the month : but as
it is not prafticable, in moft cafes, to libel upon the.
precife circumftances of aceeflion that may appear in
proof, libels againft accefibries are fufheient, if they
mention, in general, that the perfons profecuted a:e
guilty art and part.
46. The defender in a criminal trial may raife letters
of exculpation, for citing witneffes in proof of his de¬
fences againft the libel, or of his objeftions againft any
of the jury or witneffes j which muft be executed to
the fame day of appearance with that of the indiftment
or criminal letters.
47. The diets ?f appearance, in the court of jufti-Diets of
ciary, are peremptory : the criminal letters muft be appearance,
called on the very day on which the defender is cited :
and hence, if no accufer appears, their effeft is loft,.
inftantw perit^ and new letters muft be raifed. If the
libel, er any of the executions, lliall to the profecutor
appear informal, or if he be diffident of the proof,,
from the abfeonding of a neceffary witnefs, the court
will, upon a motion made by him, defert the diet pro
loco et tempore; after which new letters become alfo
necefiary. A defender, who does not appear on the
very day to which he is cited, is declared fugitive j in
confequence of which his fingle efeheat falls. The
defender, after his appearance in court, is called the
pannel.
48. The two things to be chiefly regarded in a cri¬
minal libel, are, 1. The relevancy of the fafts, i, e. their
fufficiency to infer the conclufion; 2. Their truth.
The confideration of the firft belongs to the judge of
the court ; that of the other, to the jury or affize. If
the fafts libelled be found irrelevant, the pannel is
difmiffed from the bar j if relevant, the court remits
the proof thereof to be determined by the jury ; which
muft confift of 15 men picked out by the court from a
greater number, not exceeding 45, who have been all.
fummoned, and given in lift to the defender at ferving
him with a copy of the libel.
49. Crimes cannot, like debts, be referred to theprobation
defender’s oath j for no perfon is compellable to fw.ear of crime>
againft himfelf, where his life, limb, liberty, or eftate
is concerned, nor even in crimes which infer infamy j
becaufe one’s good name is, in right eftimation, as
valuable as his life. There is one exception however to
this rule in trying the crime of ufury, which may be
proved
703
Law of
Scotland.
L A W.
Part III,
Socii crimi
nis.
Verdidl of
Powers of
a jury.
SciiteiJces.
ExtiftAion
of crimes.
proved by the ufurer’s own oatb, natwhhftanding the
rule, Nemo tenetur jurare in fuam turpitudmem. Crimes
therefore are in the general cafe proveable only by the
defender’s free confeffion, or by writing, or by wit-
neffes. No extrajudicial confeflion, unlefs it is^ ad¬
hered to by the pannel in judgment, can be admitted
as evidence.
i;o. All objeftions relevant againft a witnefs in civil
cafes are alfo relevant in criminal. No witnefs is ad¬
mitted, who may gain or loie by the event of the
trial Socii criminisy or affociates in the fame crime,
are not admitted againft one another, except either in
crimes againft the ftate, as treafon ; in occult crimes,
where other witnefles cannot be had, as forgery •, or
in theft, or depredations committed in the Highlands.
The teftimony of the private party injured may be
received againft the pannel, where the king’s advocate
is the only profecutor, if from the nature of the crime,
there muit' needs be a penury of witnefles, as in rape,
robbery, &c.
31. After all the witneffes have been examined in
court, the jury are {hut up in a room by themfelves,
where they muft continue, excluded from all correfpon-
dence, till their verdi£l or judgment be fubfcribed by
the foreman (or chancellor) and clerk ; and according
to this verdi(ft the court pronounces fentence, either
abfolving or condemning. It is not neceffary, by the
law of Scotland, that a jury (hould be unanimous in
finding a perfon guilty *, the nanweft majority is as
fufficient againft the pannel, as for him. Juries can¬
not be puniftied on account of an erroneous verdi(ft,
either for or againft the pannel.
52. Though the proper bufmefs of a jury be to in¬
quire into the truth of the fa<fts found relevant by the
court, for which reafon they are fometimes called the
inquejls ; yet, in many cafes, they judge alfo in matters
of law or relevancy. Thus, though an obje&ion againft
a witnefs {hould be repelled by the court, the jury are
under no neceffity to give more credit to his teftimony
than they think juft : And in all trials of art and part,
where fpecial faffs are not libelled, the jury, if they
return a general verdiff, are indeed judges not only of
the truth, but the relevancy of the fafts that are fworn
to by the witneffes. A general verdi<ft, is that which
finds in general terms, that the pannel is guilty or not
guilty, or that the libel or defences are proved or not
proved. In a fpecial verdiift, the jury finds certain
faffs proved, the import of which is to be afterwards
confidered by the court.
53. Criminal judges muft now fufpend for fome
time the execution of fuch fentences as affeff life or
limb, that fo condemned criminals, whofe cafes deferve
favour, may have accefs to apply to the king far mercy.
No fentence of any court of judicature, fouth of the
river Forth, importing either death or demembration,
can be executed in lefs than 30 days; and, if north
of it in lefs than 40 days, after the date of the fentence.
But corporal puniftiments, lefs than death or difmem-
bering, e. g. whipping, pillory, &c. may be inflifted
eight days after fentence on this fide Forth, and twelve
days after fentence beyond it.
54. Crimes are extinguilhed, I. By the death of
the criminal: both becaufe a dead perfon can make
no defence, fo that his trial is truly a judging upon the Law of
hearing of one fide ; and becaufe, though his guilt Scot^a!1^<
{hould be ever fo notorious, he is after death carried ^
beyond the reach of human penalties: Such . trials
therefore can have no effe(ft, but to punifti the inno¬
cent heir, contrary to that moft equitable rule, Culpa
tenet fuos auElores. 2. Crimes may be extinguifhed by
a remiftion from the fovereign. But a remiflion, though
it fecures the delinquent from the public refentment,
the exercife of which belongs to the crown, cannot
cut off the party injured from his claim of damages,
over which the crown has no prerogative. Whoever
therefore founds on a remiflion, is liable in damages,
to the private profecutor, in the fame manner as if ha
had been tried and found guilty. Even general acts
of indemnity paffed in parliament, though they fecure
againft fuch penalties as law infli<fts upon the criminal
merely per modum pcencr, yet do not againft the pay¬
ment of any pecuniary fine that is given by ftatute
to the party injured, nor againft the demand of any
claim competent to him in name of damages.
55. Leffer injuries, which cannot be properly faid
to affeift the public peace, may be extinguilhed, either
by the private party’s exprefsly forgiving him, or by
his being reconciled to the offender, after receiving
the injury. Hence arifes the rule, DiJJimulatianetollitur
injurip. But where the offence is of a higher nature,
the party injured, though he may pafs from the pro-
fecution, in fo far as his private intereft is concerned,
cannot preclude the king’s advocate, or procurator-
fifcal, from infifting ad vmdi&am publicem.
56. Crimes are alfo extinguilhed by prefcription, prefcrjp.
which operates by the mere lapfe of time, without tion.
any ail either of the fovereign or of the private fufferer.
Crimes prefcribe in 20 years; but in particular crimes,
the prefcription is limited by ftatute to a {horter time.
No perfon can be profecuted upon the aft againft
wrongous imprifonment, after three years. High trea¬
fon, committed within his majefty’s dominions, fuffers
likewife a triennial prefcription, if indiftment be not
found againft the traitor within that time. All aftions
brought upon any penal ftatute made or to be made,,
where the penalty is appropriated to the crown, expire
in two years after committing the offence; and where
the penalty goes to the crown or other profecutor, the
profecutor muft fue within one year, and the crown
within two years after the year ended. Certain crimes
are, without the aid of any ftatute, extinguiftied by a
{horter prefcription than twenty years. By our old
law, in the cafes of rape, robbery, and hamefucken,
the party injured was not heard after a filence of
twenty-four hours; from a prefumption, that perfons
could not be fo grofsly injured, without immediately
complaining : And it is probable, that a profecutxon
for thefe crimes, if delayed for any confiderable time
wrould be call even at this day, or at leaft the punilh-
ment reftrifted. Leffer injuries fuffer alfo a Ihort pre¬
fcription ; law prefuming forgivenefs, from the nature
of the offence, and the filence of the party. The par¬
ticular fpace of time fufficient to eftablilh this pre¬
fumption muft be determined by the judge, according
to circumftances.
INDEX.
h A W.
7° 3
Accessories, what,
A8 of grace,
ABions, nature of,
different forts of,
Adjudications, what,
Adminicles,
Admiralty, court of,
Adultery,
Alienation by deed, what,
record,
fpecial cuftom,
devife,
I Arraignment, what,
Arbiters,
Arrejls, what,
Ajjignations, account of,
p. 617, 696
695
687
689
659
690
627
698
607
608
ib.
ib.
621
696
621
672
B.
and commitment, what, 621
Bankrupt eftates, fale of, 661
Baron, definition of a, 628
Bajlards incapable of legal fucceffion, 687
Battery, 698
Bigamy, . _ 699
Bijhops, jurifdiflion of, 631
Blafphemy, 697
Borough, definition of, 628
Breach of arreftment, 698
Brieves, 691
Britijh conftitution, 586
C.
Caption, 695
Cautionry, what, 669
Cejfio bonorum, 695
Chattels, difpoffeflion of, 613
CircumduBion, 693
Civil fociety, what, 585
Clergy, of the, 601
benefit of, what, 622
Combat, Angle, probation by, 691
Commitment, 700
Common law, what, 59°
three kinds of, 591
ConviBion, what, 621
Corporations, what, 602
Corruption in judges, 697
CbarAr, ecclefiaftical, 611
of fpecial jurifdi£Uon, ib.
of the cognizance of private
wrongs, ib.
commiffary, 631
Crimes, definition, &c. of, 696
probation of, 701
extinftion of, 702
prefcription of, ib.
INDEX.
Criminal jurifdi&ion, p.700
Crown, injuries proceeding from the, 614
D.
Decrees,
Defences,
Deforcement,
Demurrer, what,
Diets of appearance,
Dijlurbance, what,
Duelling,
Duvours habit,
E.
Entry by inventory, what,
hafp and ftaple,
a precept of clare conflat,
Equity, what,
EJlates in poffeflion, what,
upon condition,
in reverfion,
in feveralty, &c.
Exchequer, court of,
Execution, what,
F.
Falfehood,
Felonies, what,
FiBio juris,
Forejlalling,
Forgery,
Freehold eftates, what,
694
691
697
615
701
614
698
695
682
ib.
ib.
589
605
ib.
ib.
606
627
616
699
618
693
698
699
604
G.
God, offences againft,
Government, what,
different forms of,
Guardian, what,
H.
Haimfucken,
Heir apparent, defcription of an,
Hereditaments, corporeal,
incorporeal,
High treafon, what,
Holding, feveral kinds of,
Homicide, defcription of,
Hujband, defcription of a,
617
5B5
ib.
602
698
681
603
ib.
617
644
619
602
I.
Imprifonment, wrongous, 698
Inceff, 699
Individuals, offences againft, 619
habitations of, ib.
offences againft, 620
Inhibitions, account of, 658
Injury, 700
InterdiBions, regiftration of, 638
jurifdiftion of, 624
by whom named, 626
Judges, qualifications of, p. 626
Jury, 7°2
Juftice, college of, 626
offences againft, 618
K.
Kindred, degrees of, forbidden to
marry, 632
King, title of the, 599
family of the, 60O
councils belonging to the, ib.
duties of the, ib.
prerogative of the, ib.
revenue of the, ib.
L.
Laws, nature of, in general,
of revelation,
of nations,
municipal,
interpretation of,
of England,
civil,
canon,
written,
Litifcontefation,
Lord of regality, what,
Lyon king at arms, office of,
582
583
584
ib.
588
59°
595
ib.
596
691
627
629)
M.
Magiftrates, fubordinate, 601
Mandate, definition of, 668
Marriage, nature of, 634
Maflers, defcription of, 602
Minors, tutors of, 635
Mifprifton of treafon, 697
Mifprijions, what, 618
Murder, 698
N.
Nuifance, what, 613
°.
Oaths, probation by, 692
Obligations and contrafls, 667
diflolution of, 671
Offences, means of preventing, 620
P.
Parent, defcription of a,, 602:
Parliament, oi Cos, 599
Parricide, 698
Patronage, account of, 629
People, of the, whether natives, &c. 601
Perjury, 699
Perfonal property, injuries done to, 612'
Perfons, rights of, ib»
capable of committing crimes, 617
P leadings, yUxsX, 625
\ Poindings j.
7°4
Poindings^ nature ef, p. 673
Po/>e, jurifdiftion of the, 629
Prcemunire, what, 618
Precognition t 701
Prefcription^ of crimes, 702
positive, 675
negative, 676
Prefumptions, 693
Private -\yrongs, how redrefled, 610
Probation, various ways of, 691
Procefs, what, 615
Property, real, what, 603
injuries done to, 613
Profecution, various modes of, 621
Public wrongs, what, 616
R.
Rape, 699
ReduBion, 694
Refet of theft, 699
Remedies, purfuit of by a&ion, 614
Reprieve and pardon, whsft, 622
Rights, divilion of, 639
heritable, what, 640
acquired by feu, 647
tranfmiflion of, 650
redeemable, 651
moveable, 662
Robbery, 699
S.
Scotland, municipal law of, 622
common law of, 623
L A W,
Scotland, courts of, p. 624
prince of, 628
Sedition, 697
Self murder, 698
Sentences, 693
Sequejlration, what, 660
Servants, defeription of, 602
Servitudes, account of, 652
Socii ci iminis, 702
Spuilzies, 689
State, civil, 601
military and maritime, 602
Statutes, eonttruction of, 597
Stellionate, 700
Submiffion, 696
SubtraBion, what, 614
SucceJJion, nature of, 678
in moveables, 684
Summonfes, 691
Superior, cafualties due to the, 645
Sufpenjion, 694
System, the feodal, 603
T.
Teinds, defeription of, 656
Tenures, modern Englith, 604
ancient Englilh, ib.
Theft, 699
Things, rights of, 603
real, title to, 606
perfonal, what, 608
property in, 609
Index.
Things, title to, by occupancy, p. 609
by prerogative, ib.
Title by defeent, what, 60S
purchafe, jb.
occupancy, ib.
prefer iption, 607
forfeiture, ib,
alienation, ib.
cuftom, 609
fucceflion, ib.
gift> I ib.
bankruptcy, 610
teflament, ib.
Transference, action of, 69a
Tranfumpt, atlion of, ib,
Treafon, 697
Trejpafs, what, 613
Trial, fpecies of, 6x5
form of, 7 qj;
U- N ' ..'J
VerdiB, 702
VMy, 700
w.
Wakening, procefs of, 690
Wajle, what, . 614
Wife, defeription of a, 602
obligations of a, 633
inhibition of a, 634
Witnejfes, probation by, 692
Word, obligation by, 664
Writ, obligation by, ib.
Wrongs, and their remedies, what, 6x2
L A W
r-aw- LATV-Language. In England all law proceedings
Language. were formerly written, as indeed all public proceedings
were, in Norman or law French, and even the argu¬
ments of the counfel and decifions of the court w'ere in
the fame barbarous dialed! :—An evident and fliame-
ful badge, it mull be «wned, of tyranny and foreign
fervitude; being introduced under the aufpiees of
William the Norman, and his fons : whereby the ob-
fervation of the Roman fatirift was once more verified,
that Gallia cau/idicos docuit facunda Rritannos, This
continued till the reign of Edward III.} who, having
employed his arms fuccefsfully in fubduing the crown
of France, thought it unbefeeming the dignity of the
vidtors to ufe any longer the language of a vanquiflied
country. By a ftatute, therefore, paflfed in the 36th
year of his reign, it was enadled, that for the future
all pleas fhould be pleaded, fhown, defended, anfwered,
debated, and judged, in the Englifh tongue } but be
entered and enrolled in Latin: In like manner as Don
Alonfo X. king of Caftile (the great-grandfather of
our Edward III.) obliged his fubjedls to ufe the Ca»
ftilian tongue in all ’egal proceedings; and as, in 1286,
the German language was eftablilhed in the courts of
the empire. And, perhaps, if our legillature had then
diredled that the writs themfelves, which are mandates
from the king to his fubjedts to perform certain adts,
er to appear^at certain places, fhould have been framed
Blackjt.
Comment.
L A W
in the Englifh language, according to the rule of our Law-
ancient lawq it had not been very improper. But the Langu.age*
record or enrolment of thefe writs and the proceed- - ‘""v |T
ings thereon, which was calculated for the benefit of
pofterity, was more ferviceable (becaufe more durable)
in a dead and immutable language than in any flux or
living one. The pradlifers, however, being ufed to the
Norman language, and therefore imagining they could
exprefs their thoughts more aptly and more concifely
in that than in any other, ftill continued to take their
notes in law French ; and, of courfe, when thofe notes
came to be publifhed, under the denomination of re¬
ports, they were printed in that barbarous dialed!;
which, joined to the additional terrors of a Gothic black
letter, has occafioned many a ftudent to throw away
his Plowden and Littleton, without venturing to attack
a page of them. And yet in reality, upon a nearer
acquaintance, they would have found nothing very for¬
midable in the. language ; which differs in its gram¬
mar and orthography as much from the modern French,
as the didtion of Chaucer and Gower does from that of
Addifon and Pope. Befides, as the Englifh and Nor¬
man languages were concurrently ufed by our ancef-
tors for feveral centuries together, the two idioms have
naturally aflimilated, and mutually borrowed from each
other: for which reafon the grammatical conftrudlion
of each is fo very much the fame, that I apprehend an
Englifhman
LAW [ 70s ] LA W
ka'v“ EngllHiman (with a week’s preparation) would under- idea, and confequently no phrafes to exprefs them, Law-
. ‘^ngu‘ta-^ ftand the laws of Normandy, collefted in i\\Q\x gj'and come to be delivered in the Latin tongue. It would Language.
couftumicr, as well, if not better, than a hrenchman bred puzzle the molt claflical fcholar to find an appellation,
within the walls of Paris. in his pure Latinity, for a conftable, a record, ora
I he Latin, which fucceeded the French for the en- deed of feoffment: it is therefore to be imputed as
try and enrolment^ of pleas, and which continued in much to neceflity as ignorance, that they were ftyled
ufe for four centuries, anfwers fo nearly to the Englifh in our forenfic dialect, conjiobulanusy recordurn, and
(oftentimes word for word) that it is not at all furprif- feojfamentum. Thus again, another uncouth word of
ing it thould generally be imagined to be totally fa- our ancient laws (for I defend not the ridiculous bar-
bricated at home, with little more art or trouble than barifms fometimes introduced by the ignorance of mo-
by adding Roman, terminations to Englilh words, deni praftifers), the fubftantive murdrum, or the verb
Whereas in reality it is a very univerfal dialeft, fpread murdrare, however harfh and unclaffical it may feem,
throughout all Europe at the irruption of the northern was neceffarily framed to exprefs a particular offence ;
nations ; and particularly accommodated and moulded fince no other word in being, occidere, interf.cere, necare,
to anfwer all the purpofes of the lawyers with a pecu- or the like, was fufficient to exprefs the intention of
liar exa&nefs.and precifion. This is principally owing the criminal, ox quo animo the add was perpetrated;
t° t'16 fimplicity, or (if the reader pleafes) the poverty and therefore by no means came up to the notion of
and baldnefs of its texture, calculated to exprefs the murder at prefent entertained by law; viz. a killing
ideas of mankind juft as they arife in the human mind, with malice aforethought,
without any rhetorical flourifhes, or perplexed orna- A fimilar neceflity to this produced a fimilar effect
ments of ftyle : for it may be obferved, that thofe laws at Byzantium, when the Roman laws were turned into
and ordinances, of public as well as private communi- Greek for the ufe of the oriental empire ; for without
ties, are generally the moft eafily underftood, where any regard to Attic elegance, the lawyers of the im-
ftrength and perfpicuity, not harmony or elegance of perial courts made no fcruple to tranflate fdei commif-
expreffion, have been principally confulted in compil- Janos, KofcfAia-crx^iug ; cubiculum ; x.uZv>cteiov; flium-
ing them. 1 hefe northern nations, or rather their le- famihas, ts-xIox repudium, gg7ra^<evj compromii-
gillators., though they refoived to make ufe of the Latin Ko/xTr^o/xira-ov ; reverentia et obfequium, ^vsgivrtx kxi
tongue in promulging their laws, as being more du- ; and the like. They ftudied more the exact and
rable and more generally known to their conquered precife import of the words, than the neatnefs and deli-
^ubjefts than their own leutonic dialeffs, yet (either cacy of their cadence. And it may be fuggefted, that
through.choice or neceffity) have frequently intermix- the terms of the law are not more numerous, more un-
ed therein fome words of a Gothic original : which is, couth, or more difficult to be explained by a teacher,
more or lefs, the cafe in every country of Europe, and than thofe of logic, phyfics, and the whole circle of
therefore not to be imputed as any peculiar blemifti in Ariftotle’s philofophy ; nay, even of the politer art
our Englifti legal latinity. T. he truth is, what is ge- of architefture and its kindred ftudies, or the fcience
nerall.y denominated law-Latin is in reality a mere of rhetoric itfelf. Sir Thomas More’s famous legal
technical language, calculated for eternal duration, and queftion contains in it nothing more difficult, than the
eafy to be apprehended both in prefent and future times; definition which in his time the philofophers currently
and .on thofe accounts beft fuited to preferve thofe me- gave of their materia pnma, the groundwork of all na-
monals which are intended for perpetual rules of ac- tural knowledge ; that it is neque quid, neque quantum,
tion. I he rude pyramids of Egypt have endured from neque quale, neque aliquideorum quibus ens determinatur ;
the earlieft ages, while the more modern and more ele- or its fubfequent explanation by Adrian Heereboard, who
gant ftruftures of Attica, Rome, and Palmyra, have allures us, that materia prima non ef corpus, neque per
iunk beneath tne ftroke of time. formam corporeitatis, neque per fmplicem ejfentiam : ejl
As to the objection of locking up the law in a ftrange tamen ens, et quidem fubjlantia, licet incompleta; habetque
and unknown tongue, this is of little weight with re- aElum ex fe entitativum, et fmul ef potentia fubjeEliva,
gard to records ; which few have occafion to read, but The law, therefore, with regard to its technical phrafes,
fuch. as do, or ought to, underftand the rudiments of ftands upon the fame footing with other ftudies, and
Latin. And befides, it may be obferved of the law- requefts only the fame indulgence.
Latin, as the very ingenious Sir John Davis obferves This technical Latin continued in ufe from the time
of the law-French, “ that it is fo very eafy to be of its firft introduction, till the fubverfion of our an-
learned, that the meaneft wit that ever came to the cient conffitution under Cromwell : when, among many
fludy of the law doth come to underftand it almoft per- other innovations in the law, fome for the better and
feftly in ten days without a reader.” fome for the worfe, the language of our records was al-
It is true, indeed, that the many terms of art, with tered and turned into Englilh. But, at the reftoration
which the law abounds, are fufficiently harfh when of King Charles, this novelty was no longer counte-
Latinized (yet not more fo than thofe of other fciences), nanced ; the practifers finding it very difficult to ex-
and may, as Mr Selden obferves, give offence “ to prefs themfelves fo concifely or fignificantly in any o-
fome grammarians of fqueamifh ftomachs, who would ther language but the Latin And thus it continued
rather choofe to live in ignorance of things the moft without any fenfible inconvenience till about the year
ufeful and important, than to have their delicate ears I73°) when it was again thought proper that the pro-
wounded by the ufe of a word unknown to Cicero, ceedings at law ffnould be done into Englifh, and it
Salluft, or the other writers of the Auguftan age.” was accordingly fo ordered by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 26,
Yet this is no more than muft unavoidably happen w hen This was done, in order that the common people
things of modern ufe, of which the Romans had no might have knowledge and underltanding of what
Voc. XL Part II. 4 U was
Law.
JP 'achfi.
Comment-
L A W [
was alleged or done for and againfl tliem in
procefs and pleadings, the judgment and entries in
caufe. Which purpofe it is doubtful how well
rfwered ; but there is reafon to fufpeft,
it
^ Luci^ u mthat
the people, are now, after many years experience,
altogether as ignorant in matters of law as before. On
the other hand, thefe inconveniences have already
arifen from the alteration j that now' many clerks and
attorneys are hardly able to read, much lefs to under¬
hand, a record even of fo modern a date as the reign
of George I. And it has much enhanced the expence
of all legal proceedings : for fince the praflifers are
confined (for the fake of the ftamp duties, w'hich are
thereby confiderably inereafed) to write only a ftated
number of words in a (beet 5 and as the Englifh lan¬
guage, through the multitude of its particles, is much
more verbofe than the Latin j it follows, that the num¬
ber of iheets muh be very much augmented by the
change. The tranflation alfo of technical phrafes, and
the names of writs and other procefs, were found to
be fo very ridiculous (a writ of niji prim, quare impedit,
fieri facias, habeas corpus, and the reft, not being ca¬
pable of an Englifti drefs with any degree of feriouf-
nefs), that in two years lime a new' adl was obliged to
be made, 6 Geo. II. c. I4> which allows all technical
words to continue in the ufual language, and has
thereby defeated every beneficial purpofe of the former
ftatute.
Trial by Wager of LAW, (vadiatio legis) ; a fpecies
of trial, in the Englifh law, fo called, as another fpecies
is ftyled “ wager of battel,” vadiatio duellt, (fee Bat¬
tel); becaufe, as in the wager of battel, the defendant
gave a pledge, gage, or vadium, to try the cauie by bat¬
tel ; fo here he was to put in fureties or vadios, that at
fuch a day he wull make his law, that is, take the be¬
nefit which the law has allowed him. (See the article
Trial). For our anceftors confidered, that there
were many cafes where an innocent man, of good cre¬
dit, might be overborne by a multitude of falfe wit-
nefies ; and therefore eftablifhed this fpecies of trial,
by the oath of the defendant himfelf : for if he wull
abfolutely fwrear himfelf not chargeable, and appears to
be a perfon of reputation, he fhall go free, and for ever
acquitted of the debt, or other caufe of aftion.
The manner of waging and making law is this.
He that has waged, or given fecurity to make, his
law, brings with him into court eleven of his neigh¬
bours : a cuftom which we find particularly deferibed
fo early as in the league between Alfred and Guthrun
the Dane ; for by the old Saxon confiitution every
man’s credit in courts of law depended upon the opi¬
nion which his neighbours had of his veracity. . The
defendant then, (landing at the end of the bar, is ad-
monifhed by the judges of the nature and danger of a
falfe oath. And if he ftill perfifts, he is to repeat,
this or the like oath: “ Hear this, ye juftices, that I
do not owe unto Richard Jones the fum of ten pounds,
nor any penny thereof, in manner and form as the laid
Richard hath declared againft me. So help me God.”
And thereupon his eleven neighbours or compurga¬
tors lhall avow upon their oaths, that they believe in
their confciences that he faith the truth ; fo that him-
felf mull be fworn defideiitate, and the eleven de crcdu-
litate.
. in the old Swedifn or Gothic conftitution, wager
^06 ][ 1^ A V/
the of law was not only permitted, as it is in criminal Law,
cafes, unlefs the faft be extremely clear againft the
prifoner ; but was alfo abfolutely required, in many
civil cafes : which an author of their own very juftly Stiertihook,
charges as being the fource of frequent perjury. This, HE is,, c. i.
he tells us, was owing to the Popilh eccltliaftjcs, who
introduced this method of purgation from their canon
law ; and, having Town a plentiful crop of oaths in all
judicial proceedings, reaped afterwaids an ample har-
veft of perjuries : for perjuries were punilhed in part
by pecuniary fines, payable to the coders of the
church. But with us in England wager of law is ne¬
ver required; and then only admitted, where an action
is brought upon fuch matters as may be fuppofed to
be privately tranfadled between the parties, and where¬
in the defendant may be prefumed to have made fatis-
fadlion without being able to prove it. Therefore it
is only in actions of debt upon fimple contrail, or for
amercement, in actions of detinue, and of account,
where the debt may have been paid, the goods reftor-
ed, or the account balanced, without any evidence of
either. And by fuch wager of law (when admitted)
the plaintiff is perpetually barred ; for the law, in the
fimplicity of the ancient times, prefumed that no one
w ould forfwear himfelf for any worldly thing. Wager
of law, however, lieth in a real a£lion, where the te¬
nant alleges he was not legally fummoned to appear, as
W’ell as in mere perfonal contrafts.
The wager of law was never permitted but where
the defendant bore a fair and unreproachable charac¬
ter ; and it was alfo confined to fuch cafes where a
debt might be fuppofed to be difeharged, or fatisfac-
tion made in private, without any witnefl.es to atteft
it : and many other prudential reflriftions accompa¬
nied this indulgence. But at length it was confidered,
that (even under all its reftriftions) it grew too great
a temptation in the way of indigent and profligate men :
and therefore by degrees new' remedies were devifed,
and new forms of aftions were introduced, wherein no
defendant is at liberty to wage his lawr. So that now
no plaintiff need at all apprehend any danger from the
hardinefs of his debtor’s confcienee, unlefs he volunta¬
rily choofes to rely on his adverfary’s veracity,, by-
bringing an obfolete, inftead of a modern a£lion.
Therefore, one {hall hardly hear at prefent of an ac¬
tion of debt brought upon a fimple contradl : that be¬
ing fupplied by an aftion of trefpafs on the cafe for the
breach of a promife or ajfmvpfit; w herein, though the
fpecific debt cannot be recovered, yet damages may,
equivalent to the fpecific debt. And, this being an
action of trefpafs, no law can be waged therein. So,
inftead of an action of detinue to recover the very thing
detained, an asftion of trefpafs on the cafe in trover and
converfon is ufually brought ; wherein though the
liorfe or other fpecific chattel cannot be had, yet the
defendant lhall pay damages for the converfion, equal
to the value of the chattel ; and for this trefpafs alio
no wager of law is allowed. In the room of adlions
of account, a bill in equity is ufually filed : wherein,
though the defendant an two is upon his oath, yet fuch
oath is not conclufive to the plaintiff ; but he may
prove every article by other evidence, in contradiction
to what the defendant has fworn. So that wager or
law is quite out of ufe, being avoided by the mode of
biinping the aftion ; but ftdl it is not out or force.
0 0 ' And
L A W
r 707 1
L A W
L^w,
Cuftom-
houfe
Laws.
Hamilton's
Int oduc-
tion To
s- ercban-
■dij'e
And therefore, when a new ftatute infli&s a penalfy,
and gives an aftion of debt for recovaring it, it is
ufual to add, “ in which no wager of law fhall be al-
. lowed otherwife a hardy delinquent might efcape
any penalty of the law, by fwearing he had never in¬
curred, or elfe had difcharged it.
Cujiom-Houfe LAWS. The expedient of exa<5h"ng
duties on goods imported, or exported, has been a-
dopted by every commercial nation in Europe. The
attention of the Britilh legiflature has not been con¬
fined to the object of raifing a revenue alone, but they
have attempted by duties, exemptions, drawbacks,
bounties, and other regulations, to direft the national
trade into thofe channels that contribute moft to the
public benefit. And, in order to obtain every requi-
fite information, all goods, exported or imported,
whether liable to duty or not, are required to be en¬
tered at the refpedtive cuftom houfes $ and, from thefe
entries, accounts are regularly made up of the whole
British trade, diftinguifhing the articles, their quanti¬
ty and value, and the countries which fupply or receive
them.
The objects of the Britilh legifiature may be reduced
io the following heads.
Firft, To encourage the employment of Britilh {hip¬
ping and feamen, for the purpofe of fupplying our navy
when public exigencies require.
Secondly, To increafe the quantity of money in the
nation, by prohibiting the exportation of Britilh coin,
by encouraging exportation, and difcouraging impor¬
tation, and by promoting agriculture, fifheries, and
manufactures. For thefe purpofes, it is penal to en¬
tice certain manufacturers abroad, or export the tools
ufed in their manufactures : the exportation of raw
materials is, in moft inftances, prohibited ; and their
importation permitted free from duty, and fometimeS
rewarded with a bounty. The exportation of fome
goods, manufactured to a certain length only (for
example white cloth), is loaded with a duty, but per¬
mitted duty free when the manufacture is carried to
its fall extent. The importation of rival manufactures
Is loaded with heavy defies, or abfolutely prohibited.
Thefe reftriCtions are moft fevere towards nations with
which the balance of trade is fuppofed againft us, or
which are confidered as our moft formidable rivals in
power or commerce. Upon this principle the com¬
merce with France, till lately, laboured under the
heavieft reftriCtions.
Thirdly, To fecure us plenty of neceffaries for fub-
fiftence and manufacture, by difeouraging the expor¬
tation of fome articles that confume by length of time,
and regulating the corn trade according to the exigen¬
cies of the feafons.
Fourthly, To fecure the trade of the colonies to the
mother country, and preferve a mutual intercourfe, by
encouraging the-produce of their ftaple commodities,
and reftraining their progrefs in thefe manufactures
which they receive from us in exchange.
The foundation of pur commercial regulations is the
^amous aCt of navigation, which was firft enaCted dur
ing the time of the Commonwealth, and adopted by
the firft parliament after the Reftoration. The fub-
11 nee of this aCt, and fubf^quent amendments, is as
fo lows :
1. Goods from Afia, Africa, and America, may not
be imported, except in Britifti {hips duly navigated, or
Ihips belonging to the Brithh plantations ; and they
can only be imported from the place of their produe-
ti6n or manufacture, or the port where they are ufually
firft {hipped for tranfportation. Goods of the Spaniih
or Portuguefe plantations, imported from Spain and
Portugal in Britifti Ihips, bullion, and fome other in-
confiderable articles, are excepted.
The reftriftion on European goods is not univerfal,
but extends to feveral of the bulkieft articles. Ruffian
goods, mafts, timber, boards, fait, pitch, rofin, tar,
hemp, flax, raifins. figs, prunes, olives, oil, corn, fu-
gar, potafhes, wine, and vinegar, may not be import¬
ed, except in {hips belonging to Great Britain or Ire¬
land, legally manned j nor Turkey goods and currants,
except in (hips Britifli built ; or in Ihips belonging to
the country where thefe goods are produced or mam;-
faClured, or firft {hipped for exportation, and, if im¬
ported in foreign {hips, they pay alien’s duty.
In order to entitle a ftiip to the privileges of a Bri¬
tifti {hip, it muft be built in Britain, and belong en¬
tirely to Britifti fubjecls j and the matter, and three-
fonrths of the mariners, muft be Briiith fubjeChs, ex¬
cept in cafe of death, or unavoidable accidents. In
time of war, the proportion of Britifti mariners re¬
quired is generally confined to one-fourth ; and the
fame proportion only is required in the Greenland
filhery.
No goods may be imported into, or exported from,
the plantations in Afia, Africa, or America, except in
{hips built in Britain, Ireland, or the plantations, or
prize {hips, manned by Britiffi fubjeds, duly regiiter-
ed, and legally navigated.
The following goods, enumerated in the aCt of na¬
vigation and fubiequent ads, may not be exported
from the plantations, except to fume other plantation,
or to Britain : Tobacco, cotton wool, indigo, ginger,
furtic, and other dying wood, molaffes, hemp, copper
ore, beaver {kins and other furs, pitch, tar, turpentine,
mafts, yards, and boltfprits, coffee, pimento, cocoa-
nuts, whale fins, raw filk, pot and pearl allies. Rice
and lugar were formerly cor prehended in this lift, but
their exportation is now permitted under certain re-
ftridions.
Iron may not be imported to Europe, except to
Ireland •, and none of the non-enumeraied may be Im¬
ported to any country north of Cape Finifterre, except
the bay of Bifcay and Ireland.
2. For the more effeduai prevention of fmuggling,
no goods may be imported in v< ffels belonging to Bii-
tifh fubjeds ; and no wine, in any veiled whatever, un-
lefs the mafter have a manifeft on board, containing
the name, meafure, and built o; the flnp, the place to
which it belongs, and a di Ind enumeration of the
goods on board, and places wht re they were laden.
If the ftiip be cleared from any place under his maje-
fty’s dominions, the manifeft muft be attelied by the
chief officer of the cuftoms, or chief magiftrate, who
is required to tranfmit a copy thereof to the place of
deftxnation. Shipmafters muft deliver copies o{ this
manifeft to the firft cuftomhoufe officer who goes on
board within four leagues of the fliore, and alfo to the
fl^ft who goes on board within the limits of any port,
and muft deliver the original manifeft to the cuftom¬
houfe at their arrival, and make report of their cargo
4 U 3 upon
Cnftom-
houfe
Laws.
LAW [ 708 j LAW
Cuftcnv
houfe
Laws.
upon oath. If the report difagree with the manifeft,
or either difagree with the cargo on board, the ftiip-
mafter is liable in the penalty of 200I. The pro¬
prietors of the goods mull enter them, and pay the
duties within 20 days ; otherwife they may be carried
to the cuftomhoufe, and fold by auction, if not relie¬
ved within fix months j and the overplus of the value,
after paying duty and charges, paid to the proprie¬
tors.
3. The importation of cattle, beef, mutton, and
pork, except from Ireland, woollen cloths, malt, and
various articles of hardware, cutlery, and earthen ware,
is prohibited : Alfo the following goods from Germany
and the Netherlands 5 olive oil, pitch, tar, potalhes, ro-
fin, fait, tobacco, wines, except Rhenifli wine, and
Hungary wines from Hamburgh.
4. The importation of various other goods is re-
ilrifted by particular regulations, refpe&ing the time
and place of importation, the packages, the burden of
the fliip, the requifition of a licenfe, and other circum-
ilances.
To guard more effe£tually againft clandeftine trade,
the importation of fome articles is only permitted in
fhips of a certain burden, whofe operations are not ea-
fily concealed. Spirits mull be imported in (hips of
loo tons or upwards, except rum, and fpirits of Bri-
tilh plantations, which are only reftri&ed to 70 tons ;
wine, 60 tons j tea, tobacco, and fnuff, 50 tons ; fait,
40 tons. Wine, fpirits, and tobacco are alfo reftrifted
in refpeft of the packages in which they may be im¬
ported.
5. Diamonds and precious ftones, flax, flax feed, li¬
nen rags, beaver wool, wool for clothiers, linen yarn
unbleached, and moft drugs ufed in dyeing, may be im¬
ported duty free.
6. All goods imported are liable to duties, except
fuch as are exprefsly exempted. The revenue of cuf-
toms is of great antiquity in Britain, but was new-
modelled at the reftoration of Charles II. A fubfidy
of tonnage on wines, and of poundage, or is. per
pound value of other goods, was granted during the
king’s life, and, after feveral prolongations, rendered
perpetual. A book of rates was compofed for afcer-
taining thefe values 5 and articles not rated paid duty
according to the value, as affirmed upon oath by the
importer. If the goods be valued too low by the im¬
porter, the cuftomhoufe officer may feize them, upon
paying to the proprietor the value he fwore to, and
30 per cent, for profit } fuch goods to be fold, and
the overplus paid into the cuftoms. Various addi¬
tional duties have been impofed ; fome on all goods,
fome on particular kinds j fome according to the rates,
fome unconnefted with the rates 5 fome with an al¬
lowance of certain abatements, fome without any al¬
lowance 5 the greater part to be paid down in ready
money, and a few for which fecurity may be granted ;
often with variations, according to the (hip’s place
and circumftances of importation. The number of
branches amounted to upwards of 50 ; and fometimes
more than 10 were chargeable on the fame articles.
By this means, the revenue of the cuftoms has be¬
come a fubjeft of much intricacy. The inconveniences
which this gave rife to are now removed by the confoli-
dation ad j which appoints one fixed duty for each ar¬
ticle free from fradions, inftead of the various branches
to which they were formerly fubjed.
7. Goods of mofi: kinds may be exported duty free
when regularly entered j and thofe that have paid duty
on importation are generally entitled to drawback of
part, fometimes of the whole, when re-exported within
three years, upon certificate that the duties were paid
on importation, and oath of their identity. In fome
cafes, a bounty is given on manufadured goods, when
the materials from which they are manufadured have
paid duty on importation ; and manufadures fubjed to
excife, have generally the whole or part of the excife
duties returned.
8. The following goods are prohibited to be ex¬
ported } white affies, horns, unwrought hides of black
cattle, tallow, corn, brafs, copper, engines for knit¬
ting ftockings, tools for cotton, linen, woollen, filk,
iron and fteel manufadures, wool, weolfells, wool¬
len yarn, fullers earth, fulling clay, and tobacco-pipe
clay.
9. The objed of the laws refpeding the corn trade
is to encourage agriculture, by not only permitting the
free exportation, but rewarding it with a bounty when
the prices are low, and checking the importation by a
heavy duty j and to prevent i'carcity, by prohibiting
the exportation when the prices are high, and permit¬
ting importation at an ealy duty. Various temporary
laws have been enaded for theie purpofes, and fome¬
times other expedients employed in times of fcarcity,
fuch as prohibiting the diitillery from corn, and manu-
fadure of ftarch.
10. Bounties are allowed on the exportation of re¬
fined fugar, fail-cloth, linen under limited prices, filk
fluffs of Britilh manufadure, cordage, fpirits when bar¬
ley is under 24s. beef, pork, and the following kinds
of fifli, falmon, herrings, pilchards, cod, ling, flake, and
fprats.
Various other bounties are allowed for the encou¬
ragement of our fiftieries. Ships from 150 to 300
tons employed in the Greenland whale fifhery, and
conforming to the regulations prefcribed, are allowed
30s. per ton. Veffels employed in the herring fiffiery
receive 20s. per ton, beiides a bounty on the herrings
caught and cured, amounting in fome cafes to 4s. per
barrel. Other bounties are granted to a limited num¬
ber of the moft fuccefsful veffels employed in the her¬
ring and Newfoundland filheries, and in the fouthern
whale fiftiery.
It is unneceffary and impradicable, in this place, to
enter into a full detail of our cuftomhoufe laws. In¬
deed, all that can be admitted into a work of this
kind, muft convey but very imperfect information 5
and even that little becomes ufelefs in a fhort time
from alterations in the law. We have therefore only
marked the general outlines in the prefent article j
which, however, will be fufficient to enable the reader
to judge of the principles upon which the Britiffi legif-
lature has afted. How far the means employed have
contributed to the ends propofed, and how far the ends
themfelves are always wife ; or whether a trade encum¬
bered by fewer reftridtions would not prove more ex-
tenfive and beneficial j has often been a fubjedt of dif-
cuffion.
Mercantile LAWS, The laws relating to commercial
and
Cuftom¬
houfe
Laws,
Mercantile
Laws.
LAW [ 709 ] LAW
Mercantile and maritime affairs approach nearer to uniformity
Laws, through the different countries of Europe, than thoie
on ot^er hibjefts. Some of the fundamental regula-
L ^ ' . tir>na have been taken from the Roman law ; others
have been fuggeded by experience, during the pro-
grefs of commerce j and the whole have been gradual¬
ly reduced to a fyftem, and adopted into the laws of
trading nations, but with fome local varieties and ex¬
ceptions.
The Britilh legiflature has enafled many flatutesre-
fpecting commerce j yet the greater part of our mer¬
cantile law is to be collefled from the decifions of our
courts of jultice, founded on the cullom of merchants.
A proof of fuch cuftom, where no direft ilatute inter¬
feres, determines the controverfy, and becomes a pre¬
cedent for regulating like cafes afterwards. The exig¬
ence of a cuftom not formerly recognized, is, in Eng¬
land, determined by a jury of merchants.
The moft common mercantile contrails are tliofc be¬
tween buyer and feller j between faflor and employer;
between partners ; between the owners, mafters, ma¬
riners, and freighters of ftrips ; between infurers and
the owners of the fubjefl infured ; and between the
parties concerned in tranfafling bills of exchange. See
Factorage, Sale, Partkership, Insurance, Bill,
Sec. and the next article.
Maritime Laws. The moft ancient fyftem of mari¬
time laws is that of Rhodes, which was in force dur¬
ing the time of the Grecian empire, and afterwards
incorporated into the Roman law. Although, in fome
parts, not applicable to the prefent ftate of trade, and,
in others, now hardly intelligible, it contains the ground¬
work of the moft equitable and beneficial rules obferv-
ed in modern commerce. A like fyftem was fet forth
by Richard I. of England, called the Statutes of Oleron ;
and another, by the town of Wifby, in the ifland of
Gothland. From thefe fyftems, improved and enlarged
in the courfe of time, our general maritime law is de¬
rived. The jurifdi£lion of matters purely maritime
belongs, in England, to the court of admiralty, which
proceeds on the civil law ; but their proceedings are
fubjeft to the controul, and their decifions to the re¬
view, of the fuperior courts.
We fiiall here confider the obligations which fubfift
between the mafters or owners of (hips, the freighters,
and the furnilhers of provifions or repairs.
1. Mojlers and Freighters. A charter party is a con¬
trast between the mafter and freighters, in which the
ftiip and voyage is deferibed, and the time and condi¬
tions of performing it are afeertained.
The freight is moft frequently determined for the
whole voyage, without refpeft to time. Sometimes it
depends on the time.
In the former cafe, it is either fixed at a certain fum
for the whole cargo ; or fo much per ton, barrel bulk,
or other weight or meafure ; or fo much per cent, on
the value of the cargo. This laft is common on goods
fent to America; and the invoices are produced to af-
certain the value.
The burden of the (hip is generally mentioned in the
contraSl, in this manner, one hundred tons, or thereby ;
and the number mentioned ought not to differ above
5 tons, at moft, from the exaSt meafure. If a certain
fum be agreed on for the freight of the fhip, it muft
all be paid, although the Ihip, when meafured, Ihould
3
prove lefs, unlefs the burden be warranted. If the
(hip be freighted for tranfporting cattle, or Haves, at fo
much a head, and fome of them die on the paffage,
freight is only due for fuch as are delivered alive; but,
if for lading them, it is due for all that were put on
board.
When a whole ftiip is freighted, if the mafter fuffers
any other goods befides thole of the freighter to be put
on board, he is liable for damages.
It is common to mention the number of days that
the ftiip fliall continue at each port to load or unload.
The expreffion ufed is, work weather days ; to fignify,
that Sundays, holidays, and days when the weather
flops the work, are not reckoned. If the ftiip be de¬
tained longer, a daily allowance is often agreed on, in
name of demurrage.
If the voyage be completed in terms of the agree¬
ment, without any misfortune, the mafter has a right
to demand payment of the freight before he delivers
the goods. But if the fafe delivery be prevented by
any fault or accident, the parties are liable, according
to the following rules.
If the merchant do not load the fhip w ithin the time
agreed on, the mafter may engage with another, and
recover damages.
If the merchant load the fhip, and recal it after it
has fet fail, he muft pay the whole freight ; but if he
unload it before it fets fail, he is liable for damages
only.
If a merchant loads goods which it is not lawful to
export, and the fhip be prevented from proceeding
on that account, he muft pay the freight notwith-
ftanding.
If the fhipmafter be not ready to proceed on the
voyage at the time agreed on, the merchant maj load
the whole, or part of the cargo, on board another
ftiip, and recover damages ; but chance, or notorious
accident, by the marine law, releafes the mafter from
damages.
If an embargo be laid on the fhip before it fails, the
charter-party is diffolved, and the merchant pays the
expence of loading and unloading ; but if the embargo
be only for a fhort limited time, the voyage fhall be
performed when it expires, and neither party is liable
for damages.
If the ihipmafter fails to any other port than that
agreed on, without neceflity, he is liable for damages;
if through neeeflity, he muft fail to the port agreed on,
at his own expence.
If a ftiip be taken by the enemy, and retaken or
ranfomed, the charter-party continues in force.
If the mailer transfer the goods from his own (hip
to another, without neceflity, and they perifh, he is
liable for the value ; but if his own fhip be in immi¬
nent danger, the goods may be put on board another
fhip at the rifk of the owner.
If a ftiip be freighted out and home, and a fum
agreed on for the whole voyage, nothing is due tin it
return ; and the whole is loft if the ftiip be loft on the
return.
If a certain fum be fpecified for the homeward voy¬
age, it is due, although the fadlor abroad fhould have
no goods to fend home.
In the cafe of a ftiip freighted to Madeira, Caroli¬
na, and home, a particular freight fixed for the home¬
ward
Maritime
Laws.
L AW r 7
Maritime ward voyage, and an option referved for the factor at
^aws' Carolina to decline it, unlefs the (hip arrived before
^ j{t of March : the Ihipmafter, forefeeing he could not
arrive there within that time, and might be difap-
pointed of a frieght, did not go there at all. He
was found liable in damages, as the obligation was
abfolute on his part, and conditional only on the
other.
If the goods be damaged without fault of the fliip
or mafter, the owner is not obliged to receive them
and pay freight, but he mud either receive the whole,
or abandon the whole •, he cannot choofe thofe that are
in bed order, and rejedt the others. If the goods be
damaged through the infufficiency of the (hip, the
mader is liable for the fame *, but, if it be owing to
ftrefs of weather, he is not accountable. It is cudom-
ary for fhipmaders, when they fufpeft damage, to take
a protejl againjl wind and weather, at their arrival.
But as this is the declaration of a party, it does
not bear credit, unlefs fupported by collateral circum-
ilances.
If part of the goods be thrown overboard, or taken
by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight.
The (hipmader is accountable for all the goods re¬
ceived on board, by himfelf or mariners, unlefs they
peridi by the aft of God, or of the king’s enemies.
Shipmaders are not liable for leakage on liquors ;
nor accountable for the contents of packages, unlefs
packed and delivered in their prefence.
Upon a principle of equity, that the labourer is
worthy of his hire, differences arifing with regard to
freight, w;hen the cafe is doubtful, ought rather to be
determined in favour of the (liipmader.
2. Ship and Owners with Creditors. When debts are
contrafted for provifions or repairs to a (hip, or arife
from a failure in any of the above-mentioned obliga¬
tions, the (hip and tackle, and the owners, are liable
for the debt, as well as the mader.
By the mercantile law, the owners are liable in all
jr.afes, without limitation j but by datute, they are not
liable for embezzlement beyond their value of (hip,
tackle, and freight.
A (hipmader may pledge his (hip for neceffary re¬
pairs during a voyage ^ and this hypothecation is im¬
plied by the maritime law when fuch debts are con¬
trafted. This regulation is necefiary, and is therefore
adopted by all commercial nations*, for, otherwife, the
mailer might not find credit for neceffary repairs, and
the (hip might be lod. If repairs be made at different
places, the lad are preferable.
The relief againd the (hip is competent to the court
cf admiralty in England, only when repairs are fur-
nidied during the courfe of a voyage ; for the neceflity
of the cafe extends no further. If a (hip be repaired
at home (e. g. upon the river Thames), the creditor is
only entitled to relief at common law.
The creditor may fue either the mader or owners $
but if he undertook the work on the fpecial promife
of the one, the other is not liable.
If the mader buys provifions on credit, the owners
are liable for the debt, though they have given him
money to pay them.
If a (hip be mortgaged, and afterwards lod at fea,
ihe owners mud pay the debt j for the mortgage is
o ] LA W
only an additional fecurity, though there be no exprefs Ivladdmr
words to that purpofe in the covenant. Laws.
If a inip be taken by the enemy, and ranfomed, the
owners are liable to pay the ranfom, though the ran-
fomer die in the hands of the captors.
3. Owners of jhip and cargo with each other. There
is a mutual obligation which (ubfids between all the
owners of a (h p and cargo. In time of danger, it
is often neceffary to incur a certain lofs of part for
the greater fecurity of the red ; to cut a cable j to
lighten the (hip, by throwing part cf the goods over¬
board ; to run it afhore ; or the like : and as it is un-
reafonable that the owners of the thing expofed for
the common fafety (hould bear the whole lofs, it is
defrayed by an equal contribution among the proprie¬
tors of the (hip, cargo, and freight. This is the fa¬
mous Lex Rhodia de jatlu, and is now called a general
average.
The cuftom of valuing goods which contribute to a
general average, is not uniform in all places. They
are generally valued at the price they yield at the port
of dedination, charges dedufted ; and goods thrown
overboard are valued at the price they would have
yielded there. Sailors wages, clothes and money be-
longing to paffengers, and goods belonging to the king,
pay no general average j but proprietors of gold and
(ilver, in cafe of goods being thrown overboard, contri¬
bute to the full extent of their intered.
The following particulars are charged as general
average : Damage fudained in an engagement w ith the
enemy j attendance on the wounded, and rewards given
for fervice in time of danger, or gratuities to the wi¬
dows or children of the (lain 5 raniom •, goods given to
the enemy in the nature of a ranfom 5 charges of bring¬
ing the (hip to a place of fafety when in danger from
the enemy, or waiting for convoy ; charges of quaran¬
tine ; goods thrown overboard; mads or rigging cut j
holes cut in the (hip to clear it of water j pilotage,
when a leak is fprung j damage, when voluntarily run
aground, and expence of bringing it afloat j goods
lod by being put in a lighter j the long boat lod in
lightening the (hip in time of danger j hire of cables
and anchors ; charges of laying in ballad, viftualling,
and guarding the (hip when detained j charges at law,
in reclaiming the fliip and cargo j intered and commif-
fion on all thefe difburfi merits.
Though goods put on board a lighter, and lod, are
charged as a general average •, yet if the lighter be
faved, and the fliip with the red of the goods be lod,
the goods in the lighter belong to their refpeftive
proprietors, without being liable to any contribu¬
tion.
If part of the goods be plundered by a pirate, the
proprietor or (hipmader is not entitled to any contri¬
bution.
The effential circumdances that conditute a general
average are the fe j the Ids mud be the effeft of a vo¬
luntary aftion *, and the objeft of that aftion the com¬
mon fafety of the w hole. Quarantine, which is alknv-
ed, feems not to fall within this defeription.
4. Quarantine. See Quarantine.
q. Wrecks. See Vv RECK.
6. Imprtfs. See IMPRESSING.
7. Infurance. See Insurance,
' Game-
1
L A W [ 71
GAMK-Lawi. See the article Game.
Sir William Blackftone, treating of the alterations in
our laws, and mentioning franchiles granted of chafe
and free warren, as well to preferve the breed of ani¬
mals, as to indulge the fubjedt, adds, “ From a fimilar
principle to which, though the foveft laws are now mi¬
tigated, and by degrees grown entirely obfolete j yet
from this root has fprung a baftardflip, known by the
name of the game /nw, now arrived to and w antoning
in its higheft vigour : both founded upon the fame un-
reafonable notion of permanent property in wild crea¬
tures •, and both productive of the fame tyranny to the
commons 5 but with this difference, that the foreft laws
eltabliihed only one mighty hunter throughout the
land ; t/ie game laves have raifed a little Nimrod in
every manor. And in one refpeCt the ancient law' was
much lefs unreafonable than the modern j for the king’s
grantee of a chafe or free warren, might kill game in
every part of his franchife j but now, though a free¬
holder of lefs than loci, a year is forbidden to kill par¬
tridge upon his ovon eflate, yet nobody elfe (not even
the lord of the manor, unlefs he hath a grant of free
warren) can do it without committing a trejpafs fub-
jecling himfelf to an a cl ion.
Under the article Game, the deftroying fueh beafls
and fowls as are ranked under that denomination, was
obferved (upon the old principles of the foreft law)
to be a trefspafs and offence in all perfons alike, who
have not authority from the crown to kill game (which
is royal property) by the grant of either a free war¬
ren, or at leaft a manor of their own. But the laws
called the game laws have alfo inflicted additional pu-
niftiments (chiefly pecuniary) on perfons guilty of this
general offence, unlefs they be people of fuch rank or
fortune as is therein particularly fpecified. All perfons,
therefore, of w’hat property or diftin&ion foever, that
kill game out of their own territories, or even upon
their own eftates, without the king’s licence exprefied
by the grant of a franchife, are guilty of the firft ori¬
ginal offence of encroaching on the royal prerogative.
And thofe indigent perfons who do fo, without having
fuch rank or fortune as is generally called a qualifi¬
cation, are guilty, not only of the original offence, but
of the aggravations alfo created by the ftatutes for
preferving the game : which aggravations are fo fe-
verely punilhed, and thofe puniftunents fo implacably
infli&ed, that the offence againft the king is feldom
thought of, provided the miferable delinquent can make
his peace with the lord of the manor. The only ra¬
tional footing upon which this offence, thus aggravated,
can be conftdered as a crime, is, that in low and indi¬
gent perfons it promotes idlenefs, and takes them away
from their proper employments and callings : which is
an offence againft the public police and economy of
the commonwealth.
The ftatutes for preferving the game are many and
various, and not a little obfeure and intricate j it be¬
ing remarked, that in one ftatute only, 5 Ann. c. 14.
there is falfe grammar in no fewer than fix places, be-
fides other miftakes : the occafion of which, or what
denomination of perfons w ere probably the penners of
ihefe ftatutes, it is unneceffary here to inquire. It
may be in general fufficient to obferve, that the qua¬
lifications for killing game, as they are ufually called,
or more properly the exemptions from the penalties
1 ] la w
inflifted by the ilatule law, are, 1. The having a free- Gamj-
liold eftatc of t ool, per annum ; there being fitly times Lau’s*
the property required to enable a man to kill a par-
tridge, as to vote for a knight of the fture. 2. A
lealehold for 99 years of 150I. per annum. 3. Being
the fon and heir apparent of an efquire (a very loole
and vague defeription) or perfon of fuperior degree.—.
4. Being the owner or keeper of a for eft, park, chafe,
or warren. For unqualified perfons tranigrefling thefe
laws, by killing game, keeping engines for that pur-
pofe, or even having game in their cuftody, or for per-
fons (however qualified) that kill game or have it in
poffeflion, at unfeafonable times of the year, or unfea-
fonable hours of the day or night, on Sundays or on
Chriftmas day, there are various penalties affigned, cor¬
poral and pecuniary, by different ftatutes (after men¬
tioned), on any of w hich, but only on one at a time,
the juftiees may convift in a fummary wTay, or (in moft
of them) profeeutions may be carried on at the affizes.
And, laftly, by ftatute 28 Geo. II. c. 12. no perfon,
however qualified to kill, may make merchandile of
this valuable privilege, by felling or expofing to iaie
any game, on pain of like forfeiture as if he had no
qualification.
The ftatutes above referred to are as follow : No
perfon {hall take pheafants or partridges with engines
in another man’s ground, without licenfe, on pain of
10I. flat. 11 Hen. VIII. c. 13. If any perfon Ihall take
or kill any pheafants or partridges with any net in the
night time, they {hall forfeit 20s. for every pheafant,
and 1 os. for every partridge taken : and hunting with
fpaniels in Handing corn, incurs a forfeiture of 40s.
23 Eliz. c. 10. Thofe who kill any pheafant, par¬
tridge, duck, heron, hare, or other game, are liable
to a forfeiture of 20s. for every fowl and hare j and
felling, or buying to fell again, any hare, pheafant, &c.
the forfeiture is 10s. for each hare, &c. 1 Jac. I. c. 17.
Alfo pheafants or partridges are not to be taken be¬
tween the firft of July and the laft of Auguft, on pain
of imprifonment for a month, unlefs the offenders pay
20s. for every pheafant, &.c. killed : and conftables,
having a juftice of peace’s warrant, may learch for
game and nets, in the pofleffion of perfons not quali¬
fied by law to kill game or to keep fueh nets,.
7 Jac. I. c. 11. Conftables, by a w arrant of a juftice-
of peace, are to fearch houfes of fufpeifted perfons for
game: and if any game be found upon them, and they
do not give a good account how they came by the
fame, they {hall forfeit for every hare, pheafant, or
partridge, not under 55. nor exceeding 20s. And in¬
ferior tradefmen hunting, &e. are fubjedt to the pe¬
nalties of the adf, and may likewife be fued for tref-
pafs. If officers of the army or foldiers kill game with¬
out leave, they forfeit 5I. an officer, and 10s. a fol-
dier ; 4 and 5 W. and M. c. 23. Higglers, chapmen,
carriers, innkeepers, vidtuallers, &c. having in their
cuftody hare, pheafant, partridge, heath game, &c,
(except fent by feme perfon qualified to kill game),
{hall forfeit for every hare and fowl 5I. to be levied
by diftrefs and fale of their goods, being proved by one
witnefc, before a juftice j and for want of diftrefs {fiaH
be committed to the houfe of correction for three
months: one moiety of the forfeiture to the informer,
and the other to the poor. And felling game, or of¬
fering the fame to fale, incurs the like penalty 5 where¬
in-
LAW [ 7i
Game- jn hare nnd other game found in a iliop, &c. is ad-
^a'v8, judged an expofing to fale : killing hares in the night
is liable to the fame penalties : and if any perfons (hall
drive wild fowls with nets, between the frit day of July
and the firft of September, they fhall forfeit 5s. for
every fowl 5 5 Ann. c. 14. 9 Ann. c. 25. If any
unqualified perfon (hall keep a gun, he rtiall forfeit
10I. j and perlons being qualified may take guns from
thofe that are not, and break them ; 21 and 22 Car. II.
c. 25. and 3.3 Hen. VIII. c. 6. Onejuftice of peace, up¬
on examination and proof of the offence, may commit
the offender till he hath paid the forfeiture of 10I.
And perfons, not qualified by law, keeping dogs, nets,
or otker engines to kill game, being convifted thereof
before a juftice of peace, {hall forfeit 5I. or be fent to
the houfe of correftion for three months j and the
dogs, game, &c. (hall be taken from them, by the
ftatute 5 Ann. If a perfon hunt upon the ground of
another, fuch other perfon cannot juftify killing of his
dogs,, as appears by 2 Roll. Abr. 567. But it was
otherwife adjudged, Mich. 33 Car. II. in C. B.
2 Cro. 44. and fee 3 Lev. xxviii. In aflions of debt,
qui tam, &c. by a common informer on the ftatute
5 Ann. for 15]. wherein the plaintiff declared on two
feveral counts, one for 10I. for killing two partridges,
the other for 5I. for keeping an engine to deftroy the
game, not being qualified, &c. the plaintiff had a ver-
di<5t for 5I. only : this a61 ion was brought by virtue of
the flat. 8 Geo. I. See flat. 9 Geo. I. c. 22. See
likewife 24 Geo. II. c. 34. for the better prefervation
of the game in Scotland. By the flat. 26 Geo. II.
c. 2. all fuits and aflions brought by virtue of flat. 8
Geo. I. c. for the recovery of any pecuniary pe¬
nalty, or fum of money, for offences committed againft
any law for the better prefervation of the game, (hall
be brought before the end of the fecond term after the
offence committed.
By 28 Geo. II. c. x 2. perfons felling, or expofing
to fale, any game, are liable to the penalties inflidted
by 5 Ann. c. 14. on higglers, &c. offering game to
fale : and game found in the houfe or poffeffion of a
poulterer, falefman, fiftimonger, cook, or paftry cook,
is deemed expofing thereof to fale.
By 2 Geo. III. c. 19. after the firft June 1762, no
perfon may take, kill, buy or fell, or have in his cu-
llody, any partridge between 12th February and iff
September, or pheafant between iff February and iff
Oftober, or heath fowl between iff January and 20th
Auguft, or groule between iff December and 25th
July, in any year ; pheafants taken in their proper
feafon, and kept in mews, or breeding places excepted :
and perfons offending in any of the cafes aforefaid, for¬
feit 5I. per bird, to the profecutor, to be recovered,
with full cofts, in any of the courts at Weftminfter.
By this aft, likexvife, the whole of the pecuniary pe¬
nalties under the 8 Geo. I. c. 19. may be fued for, and
recovered to the foie ufe of the profecutor, with dou¬
ble cofts •, and no part thereof to go to the poor of
the parifti.
By 5 Geo. III. c. 14. perfons convifted of enter¬
ing warrens in the night time, and taking or killing
coneys there, or aiding or aflifting therein, may be
puniihed by tranfportation, or by whipping, fine, or
Imprifonment. Perfons convifted on this aft, not liable
to be convifted under any former aft. This aft does
2 ] LA W
not extend to the deftroying coneys in the day time, Game.
on the fea and river banks in the county of Lincoln, Laws,
&c. No fatisfaftion to be made for damages occafioned
by entry, unlefs they exceed is. It may not be improper
to mention an aft lately made, and not yet repealed,
viz. 10 Geo. III. c. 19. for prefervation of the game,
which (hows the importance of the objeft. It is thereby
enafted, That if any perfon kill any hare, &c. between
funfetting and funrifing, or ufe any gun, &c. for de¬
ftroying game, he ihall for the firft offence be imprifoned
for anytime not exceeding fix nor lefs than three months:
if guilty of a fecond offence, after conviftion of a firft,
to ije imprifoned for any time not exceeding 12 months
nor lefs than fix ; and ihall alfo within three days after
the time of his commitment, either for the firft or for
any other offence, be once publicly whipped.
By 25 George III. c. 50. and 31 George III. c. 21.
every perfon in Great Britain (the royal family ex¬
cepted), who (hall, after July 1. 1785, ufe any dog,
gun, net, or other engine, for the taking or deftruftion
of game (not afting as gamekeeper), (hall deliver in
a paper or account in writing, containing his name and
place of abode, to the clerk of the peace or his deputy,
and annually take out a certificate thereof j and every
fuch certificate {hall be charged with a ftamp duty of
2l. 2s. (and an additional ll. is. by 31 George III.
c. 21.) making in the whole 3I. 3s.—Every deputation
of a gamekeeper (hall be regiftered with the clerk of
the peace, and fuch gamekeeper (hall annually take out
a certificate thereof-, which certificate (hall be charged
with a ftamp duty of 10s. 6d. (and an additional 10s.
6d. by 31 Geo. III. c. 21.), making in the whole ll.
is.—The duties to be under the management of the
commiflioners of the ftamp office.
From and after the faid iff: of July Ij8j, the clerk
of the peace (hail annually deliver to perfons requiring
the fame, duly ftamped, a certificate or licenfe ac¬
cording to the form therein mentioned, for which he
{hall be entitled to demand is. for his trouble j and on
refufal or negleft to deliver the fame, forfeit 2ol.—
Every certificate to bear date the day when iffued, and
to continue in force to the ift day of July then fol¬
lowing, on penalty of 20I.
After the ift day of July 1785, any perfon that
fhall ufe any grehound, hound, pointer, fetting dog,
fpaniel, or other dog, or any gun, net, or engine, for
taking or killing of game, without a certificate, is
liable to the penalty of 20L And if any gamekeeper
(hall, for the fpace of 20 days after the faid ift day of
July, or if any gamekeeper thereafter to be appointed
fhall, for the fpace of 20 days next after fuch ap¬
pointment, negleft or refufe to regifter his deputation
and take out a certificate thereof, he is liable to the
penalty of 20I.
The clerks of the peace are to tranfmit to the
ftamp office in London alphabetical lifts of the certi¬
ficates granted in every year before the ift day of Au¬
guft under penalty of 2ol. Thefe lifts are to be kept
at the ftamp office in London, and there to be in-
fpefted on payment of is. : And the commiflioners of
the ftamp duties are, once or oftener in every year, as
foon as fuch lifts are tranfmitted to them, to caufe the
fame to be publifhed in the newfpapers circulating in
each county, or fuch public paper as they fhall think
Bioft proper.
Gamekeepers
L A W f
Gamekeepers were firft introduced by the qualifica¬
tion aft, 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. and 1’ubfequent lla-
tutes have made a number of various regulations re-
fpefting them. This authorifes lords of manors of the
degree of efquire, to appoint gamekeepers, who fhall
have power, within the manor, to feize guns, nets, and
Engines, kept by unqualified perfons to deftroy game.
By 5 Ann. c. 14. f. 14. lords and ladies of manors
are authorifed to empower their gamekeepers to kill
game •, but prohibited the latter, under pain of three
months imprifonment, from felling or difpofing of the
game fo killed, without the confent of the lord or lady,
under whole appointment they afted.
By 3 Geo. I. c. II. no lord of a manor is to ap¬
point any perfon to be a gamekeeper with power to
take and kill game, unlefs fuch perfon be qualified by
law fo to do, or be truly and properly a fervant to the
lord, or immediately employed to take or kill game,
for the foie ufe or benefit of the laid lord. Offences
Sgainff this aft to be puniffied with pecuniary fines.
Gamekeepers are enumerated among the different
Befcriptions of fervants, chargeable with the duty under
25 Geo. III. c. 43.
If any gamekeeper, who {hall have regiftered his
deputation, and taken out a certificate thereof, {hall
be changed, and a new gamekeeper appointed in his
Head, the firft certificate is declared null and void, and
the perfon afting under the fame, after notice, is liable
to the penalty of 20I. And any perfon in purfuit of
game, who {hall refufe to produce his certificate, or to
tell his name or place of abode, or {hall give in any
ialfe or fiftitious name or place of abode to any perfon
requiring the fame, who {hall have obtained a certifi¬
cate, is liable to the penalty of 50I.
The certificates are not to authorize perfons to kill
game at any time prohibited by lawq nor to give any
perfon any right to kill game, unlefs fuch perfon fnall
be qualified fo to do by the laws now in being, but {hall
be liable to the fame penalties as if this aft had not
paffed. [So that though by this aft qualified and
unqualified perfons are equally included, yet having a
certificate does not give an unqualified perfon a right to
kill game: the point of right {fill Hands upon the for¬
mer afts of parliament; and any unqualified perfon kil¬
ling game without a certificate, is not only liable to the
penalty inflifted by this aft, but alfo to all the former
penalties relating to the killing of game, &c.]
Witnefles refufing to appear on juftices fummons, or
appearing and refufing to give evidence, forfeit 10I.
The certificates obtained under deputations, not to be
given in evidence for killing of game by a gamekeeper
out of the manor, in refpeft of which fuch deputation
or appointments was given and made. Perfons coun¬
terfeiting {lamps to fuffer death as felons.
Penalties exceeding 20I. are to be recovered in any
of his majefty’s courts of record at Weftminfter j and
penalties not exceeding 20I. are recoverable before two
juftices, and may be levied by diftrefs. The whole of
the penalties go to the informer.
By 40 Geo, III. c. 50. perfons to the number of
two or more, found in any field, &c. or other open or
inclofed ground, between eight at night and fix in the
morning, from the firft day of Oftober to the firft of
February, or between the hours of ten at night and
four in the morning, from I ft February to firft Ofto*
Vol. XI. Part II.
3 ] LAW
ber, in each and every year, having any gun or en¬
gine to kill or take any hare, pheafant, partridge,
heathfowl, commonly called black game, or grous, com¬
monly called red game, or any other game ; or perfons
aiding them with offenfive weapons, may be apprehend¬
ed, and, on conviftion before a juftice, {hall be deem¬
ed rogues and vagabonds, within the meaning ®f 17
Geo. III. c. 5. &c.
Military Law. See Military and Marine.
LAW, John, the famous projeftor, was the eld-
eft fon of a goldfmith in Edinburgh, by Elizabeth
Campbell, heirefs of Lauriefton near that city $ and
was born about the year 1681. He was bred to no
bufinefs j but poflefled great abilities, and a very
fertile invention. He had the addrefs, when but a
very young man, to recommend himfelf to the king’s
minifters in Scotland to arrange the revenue accounts,
which were in great diforder at the time of fettling
the equivalent before the union of the kingdoms.
The attention of the Scottifti parliament being alfo
turned to the contrivance of fome means for fupply-
ing the kingdom with money, and facilitating the
circulation of fpecie, for want of which the induf-
try of Scotland languilhed •, he propofed to them,
for thefe purpofes, the eftabliftiment of a bank of a
particular kind, which he feems to have imagined
might ifiue paper to the amount of the whole value
of all the lands in the country : but this fcheme
the parliament by no means thought it expedient to
adopt.
His father dying about the year 1704, Law fuc-
ceeded to the fmall eftate of Lauriefton ; but the rents
being infufficient for his expences, he had recourfe to
gaming. He was tall and graceful in his perfon, and
much addifted to gallantry and finery; and giving a
fort of ton at Edinburgh, he w'ent commonly by the
name of Beau Law. He was forced to fly his coun¬
try, however, in the midft of his career, in confe-
quence of having fought a duel and killed his antago-
nift ; and in fome of the French literary gazettes it is
faid that he run off with a married lady. In his flight
from juftice he vifited Italy j and was banifhed from
Venice and Genoa, becaufe he contrived to drain the
youth of thefe cities of their money, by his fuperiority
in calculation, that is, by being a cheat and a {harper.
He wandered over all Italy, living on the event of the
moft lingular bets and wagers, which feemed to be ad¬
vantageous to thofe who were curious after novelty ,
but wrhich were always of the moft certain fuccefs with
regard to him. He arrived at Turin, and propofed
his fyftem to the duke of Savoy, who faw' at once,
that, by deceiving his fubjefts, he would in a ftiort
time have the whole money of the kingdom in his pof-
feflion : but that fagacious prince alking him how his
fubjefts W'ere to pay their taxes when all their money
fhould be gone, Law was difconcerted, not expefting
fuch a queftion.
Having been baniftied from Italy, and thns repulfed
at Turin, Law proceeded to Paris, where he w'as al¬
ready known as a prqjeftor. In the lifetime of Louis
XIV. he had tranfmitted his fchemes to Defmareft
and to Chamillard, who had rejefted them as dan¬
gerous innovations. He now propofed them to the
Due d’Orleans, who defired Noailles to examine
them, to be as favourable in his report as poflible, and
4 X tQ
LAW C 7
law. to remark fuch of them as were pra&kable. Noailles
called in the affiftance of feveral merchants and bank¬
ers, who were averfe to the fyftem. Law then propof-
ed the eftablilhment of a bank, compofed of a com¬
pany, with a ttock of fix millions. Such an inftitu-
tion promifed to be very advantageous to commerce.
An arret of the 2d March 1716 eftablifhed this bank,
by authority, in favour of Law and his affociates j two
hundred thoufand fhares were inftituted of one thou-
iand livres each ; and Law depofited in it to the value
of two or three thoufand crowns which he had accumu¬
lated in Laly, by gaming or otherwife. This eftablifh-
ment very much difpleafed the bankers, becaufe at the
beginning bufinefs was tranfacfed here at a very fmall
premium, which the old financiers had charged very
highly. Many people had at firft little confidence in
this bank ; but when it was found that the payments
were made with quicknefs and punctuality, they began
to prefer its notes to ready money. In confequence of
this, (hares rofe to more than 20 times their original
Value 5 and in 1719 their valuation was more than 80
times the amount of all the current fpecie in the king¬
dom. But the following year, this great fabric of falfe
credit fell to the ground, and almofi: overthrew the
French government, ruining feme thoufands of fami¬
lies ; and it is remarkable, that the fame defperate game
Was playing by the South fea directors in England, in
the fame fatal year, 1720. Law being exiled as foon
as the credit of his projeCts began to fail? retired to
Venice, where he died in 1729.
The principles upon which Law’s original fcheme was
founded, are explained by himfelf in A Difcourfe con¬
cerning Money and Trade, which he pub 1 idled in Scot¬
land where (as we have feen) he firfl. propofed it. “ The
fplendid but vifionary ideas which are fet forth in that
and fome other works upon the fame principles (Dr
Adam Smith obferves), itill continue to make an im-
preftion upon many people, and have perhaps in part
contributed to that excefs of banking which has of
late been complained of both in Scotland and in other
places.”
LAW, Edmund, D. D. bifiiop of Carlifle, was
born in the parifh of Cartmel in Lancafhire, in the
year 1703. His father who was a clergyman, held, a
fmall chapel in that neighbourhood j but the family had
been fituated at Alkham, in the county of Welt more-
land. He was educated for fome time at Cartmel
fchool, afterwards at the free grammar fchool at Ken¬
dal j from which he went, very^well infiruCted in the
learning of grammar fchools, to St John’s college in
Cambridge.
Soon after taking his firft degree, he was elefted fel¬
low of Chrift college in that univerfity. During his refi-
dsnee in which college, he became known to the pub¬
lic by a tranflation of Arcbbifhcp King’s Efiay upon
the Origin of Evil, with copious notes ; in which many
metaphyfical fubjedls, curious and interefting in their
own nature, are treated of with great ingenuity, learn¬
ing, and novelty. To this work was prefixed, under the
name of a preliminary dilTertation, a very valuable
piece, written by the reverend Mr Gay of Sidney col¬
lege, Our bifirop always fpoke of this gentleman in
terms of the greateft refpeeft. In the Bible, and in the
writings of Mr Locke, no man, he ufed to fay, was fo
\iw 11 verfed..
4 } LAW
He alfo, whilft at Chrift college, undertook and Law
went through a very laborious part in preparing for~v
the prefs an edition of Stephens’s Thefaurus. His ac¬
quaintance, during this his firft refidence in the univer¬
fity, was principally with Dr Waterland, the learned
mafter of Magdalen college ; Dr Jortin, a name known
to every fcholar; and Dr Taylor, the editor of the
Demofthenes.
In the year 1737 he was prefented by the univerfity
to the living of Grayftock in the county of Cumber¬
land, a redfory of about 300I. a-year. The advowfon
of this benefice belonged to the family of Howards of
Grayftock, but devolved to the univerfity, for this turn,
by virtue of an aft of parliament, which transfers to thefe
two bodies the nomination to fuch benefices as appertain,
at the time of the vacancy, to the patronage of a Homan
Catholic. The right, however, of the univerfity was
conte,fted 5 and it was not till after a law fait of two
years continuance that Mr Law was fettled in his living.
Soon after this, he married Mary the daughter of John
Chriftian, Efq. of Unerigg, in the county of Cumber¬
land j a lady whofe character is remembered with ten-
dernefs and efteem by all who knew her.
In 1743, he was promoted by Sir George Fleming,
bifhop of Carlifle, to the archdeaconry of that diocefe 5 -
and in 1746 went from Grayftock to refide at Salkeld,
a pleafant village upon the banks of the river Eden,
the reftory of which is annexed to the archdeaconry.
Mr Law was not one of thofe who lofe and forget
themfelves in the country. During his refidence at
Salkeld, he publilhed Confiderations on the jlheory of
Religion : to which were fubjoined, Refleftions on ths
Life and Charafter of Chrift 5 and an Appendix con¬
cerning the ufe of the wTords Soul and Spirit in ho-
ly Scripture, and the ftate of the dead there de-
feribed.
Dr Keene held at this time, with the bifhopric of
Chefter, the mafterlhip of Peterhoufe in Cambridge.
Defiring to leave the univerfity, he procured Dr Lav/
to be elefted to fucceed him in that ftation. This
took place in the year 1756 ^ in which year Dr Law
refigned his archdeaconry in favour of Mr Eyre, a bro¬
ther-in-law of Dr Keene. Two years before this, he
bad proceeded to bis degree of doftor of divinity : in
his public exercife for which, he defended the doflrine
of what is ufually called the “ fleep of the foul.”
About the year 1760, he was appointed head libra¬
rian of the univerfity; a fituation which,-as it pro¬
cured an eafy and quick accefs to books, was peculiar¬
ly agreeable to bis tafte and habits. Some time after
this, he was alfo appointed cafuiftical profeffor. In
the year 1762, he fuftered an irreparable lofs by the
death of his lady ; a lofs in itfelf every way affii&ing,
and rendered more fo by the fituation of his family,
which then confifted of eleven children, many of them
very young. Some years afterwards, he received feve¬
ral preferments, which were rather honourable expref-
fions of regard from his friends, than of much advan¬
tage to his fortune.
By Dr Cornwallis, then bifiiop of Litchfield, after-
varcls archbilhop of Canterbury, who had been his
pupil at Ghrift college, he was appointed to the arch¬
deaconry of Staffordfhire, and to a prebend in ths
church of Litchfield. By his old acquaintance Dr
Green, bifliop of Lincoln, he w as made a prebendary
Z
LAW t 7
tvFtlrat cliurch. But in tKe year 1767, by the inter¬
vention of the duke Newcaftle, to whofe inter eft in
the memorable conteft for the high fte ward tin p of the
univerfity, he had adhered in oppohtion to iome temp¬
tations, he obtained a ftall in the church of Durham.
The year after this, the duke of Grafton, who had a
ftiort time before been elected chancellor of the univer-
fttv, recommended the matter of Peterhoufe to his ma-
jeity for the bithopric of Carlifle. This recommenda¬
tion was made not only without folicitation on his part
or that of his friends, but without his knowledge, until
the duke’s intention in his favour was fignffied to him
by the archbiihop.
* About the year 1777, Biftiop Law gave to the pu¬
blic a handfome edition, in three volumes quarto, of the
Works of Mr Locke, with a Life of the Author, and a
Preface. Mr Locke’s writings and character he held
in the higheft efteem, and feems to have drawn from
them many of his own principles : He was a difciple of
that fchool. About the fame time he publifhed a tract,
which engaged fome attention in the controverfy con¬
cerning fubicription } and he publilhed new editions of
bis two principal works, with conliderable additions,
and fome alterations.
Dr Lavr held the fee of Carlifle almoft 19 years*,
during which time he twice only omitted {pending the
fummer months in his diocefe at the bifhop’s refidence
at Bofe Caftle $ a fituation with which he was much
pleafed, not only on account of the natural beauty of
the place, but becaufe it reltored him to the country in
which he had fpent the belt part of his life. In the
year 1787 he paid this vilit in a ftate of great weaknefs
and exhauftion : and died at Rofe Caftle about a month
after his arrival there, on the 14th day of Auguft, and
in the 84th year of his age.
The life of the biftiop of Carlifle w-as a life of incef-
fant reading and thought, almoft entirely directed to
nietapbyfical and religious inquiries. Befides the works
already mentioned, he publifhed, in 1734 or I735» a
very ingenious Inquvy into the Ideas of Space and I ime,
&c. in which he combats the opinions of Dr Claike
and his adherents on thefe fubjefts: but the tenet by
which his name and writings are principally diftinguifh-
ed, is “ that Jefus Chrift, at his fecond coming, will,
by an aift of his power, reftore to life and confcioufnefs
the dead of the human fpecies, who by their own na¬
ture, and without this interpofition, would remain in
the ftate of infenfibility to which the death brought
upon mankind by the fin of Adam had reduced tnem.
lie interpreted literally that faying of St Paul,
j Cor. xv. 21. “ As by man came death, by man
came alfo the refurreftion of the dead.'’ i his opi¬
nion had no other effeft upon his own mind than to in-
creafe his reverence for Chriftianity, and for its divine
Founder. He retained it, as he did his other fpecula-
tive opinions, without laying, as many are wont to do,
an extravagant ftrefs upon their importance, and with¬
out pretending t« more certainty than the iubjt <ft al¬
lowed of. No man formed his own conclufions with
more freedom, or-treated thofe of others with gre ater
candour and equity. He never quarrelled with any
perfon for diff ring from him, or confidered that dif¬
ference as a firfficient reafon for queftioning any man’s
fincerity, or judging meanly of his underftanding. He
was zealoufly attached to religious liberty, becaufe he
5 ] LAW
thought that it leads to truth ; yet from bis heart be
loved peace. But he did not perceive any repugnancy
in theie two things. There was nothing in his elevation
to his bifhopric w hich he ipoke of with more .plealure,
than its being a proof that decent freedom of inquiry
was not difeouraged.
He w as a man of great foftnefs of manners, and oif
the mildeft and moft tranquil dilpofition. His voice
was never railed above its ordinary pitch. His counte¬
nance feemed never to have been ruffled ; it preferved
the fame kind and compofed afpedt, truly indicating the
calmnefs and benignity of his temper. He had an utter
diflihe of large and mixed companies. Next to h«
books, his chief fatisfadtion was in the ferious conver-
fatiem of a literary companion, or in the company of
a few friends. In this lort of fociety he would open
his mind with great unrefervednefs, and with a pecu¬
liar turn and (prightlinefs of expreffion. His perion
w as low, but well formed : his complexion fair and de¬
licate. Except occafional interruptions by the gout,
he had for the greateft part of his life enjoyed good
health ; and when not confined by that diltemper, was
full of motion and a&ivity. About nine years before
his death, he was greatly enfeebled by a fevere attack
of the gout in bis ftomach j and a fhort time after that,
loft the ufe of one of his legs. Notwithftanding his
fondnefs of exercile, he rtfigned himfelf to this change,
not only without complaint, but without any fenfihle
diminution of his eheerfulnefs and good humour. His
fault (for we are not writing a panegyric) was the ge¬
neral fault of retired and ftudious charadfers, too great
a degree of inaction and facility in his public ftation.
The modefty, or rather balhfulnefs of his nature, to¬
gether with an extreme unwillingnefs to give pain, ren-
dei’ed him fometimes lefs firm and efficient in the admi-
niftration of authority than was requifite. But it is the
condition of human morality, 'ihere is an oppofition
between fome virtues which feldom permits them to
fubfift together in perfe£Hon.
The bifhop was interred in his cathedral church,
in which a handfome monument is ere&ed to his me¬
mory.
LAWBURROWS, in Scots Law, See Law, Part
III. N° clxxviii. 16.
LA WEN BURG, Duchy of, a territory of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, bounded by the
duchy of Holftein on the north and weft, by the duchy
of Mecklenburg on the oaft, and by the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg, from which it is feparated by the river
Elbe, on the well j being about 85 miles long, and 20
broach The chief towns are Lawenburg, Molen,
Wittemburg, and Ratzeburg. It belongs to the elec¬
torate of Hanover.
Lawenburg, a city of Germany in the circle of
LoW’er Saxony, and capital of a duchy of the lame
name. It is a fmall but populous town, fituated on the
Elbe, under the brow of a very high hill, from whence
there is a delightful profpeft over the adjacent country.
It has a caftle on an eminence, and is convenient for
trade. E. Long. 10 48. N. Lat. 53. 22.
Lawenburg, a town of Germany in Farther Pome¬
rania, and the chief place to the territory of the fame
name belonging to the eleftor of Brandenburg.
LAWLESS COURT, a court faid to be held an¬
nually on the King’s Hill at Rochford in Effex, on the
4X2 Wednefday
L A W [ 71
2,aw!efs Wednefday morning after Michaelmas day at cock-
Lawrenc crow'ng» "’here they whifper, and have no candle, nor
■ aw;ence any pen and ink, but only a coal. Perfons who owe
fuit, or fervice, and do not appear, forfeit double their
rent every hour they are miffing.
This fervile attendance, Camden informs us, was
impofed on the tenants for cenfpiring at the like un-
feafonable hour to raife a commotion. The court be¬
longs to the honour of Raleigh, and to the earl of
Warwick *, and is called /a“lu/gA, from its being held at
an unlawful hour.
L AWINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia *, formerly imperial, but now fubjeft to the
duke of Neuburg. Here the duke of Bavaria, in
1704, fortified his camp to defend his country againft
the Britiffi forces and their allies commanded by the
duke of Marlborough, wffio forced their intrenchments.
It is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 10. 29. N. Lat,.
48* 33, . . , ■ . .
LAWN, a fpacious plain in a park, or adjoining
to a noble feat. As to the dimenfions of a lawn l In
a large park, it ffiould be as extenfive as the ground
will permit $ and, if poffible, it ffiould never be lefs
than 50 acres: but in gardens of a moderate extent, a
lawn of 10 acres is fufficient: and in thofe of the lar¬
ged fize 15 acres. The bed fituation for a lawn is
in the front of the houfe : and here, if the houfe front
the ead, it will be extremely convenient \ but the mod
defirable afpedt for a lawn is that of the fouth-ead.
As to the figure of the lawn, fome recommend an ex-
adt fquare, others an oblong fquare, fome an oval, and
others, a circular figure : but neither of thefe are to
be regarded. It ought to be fo contrived, as to fuit
the ground; and there ffiould be trees planted for
ffiade on the boundaries of the lawn, fo the fides may
be broken by irregular plantations of trees, which, if
there are not fome good profpedts beyond the lawn,
ffiould bound it on every fide, and be brought round
pretty near to each end of the houfe. If in thefe
plantations round the lawn, the trees are placed irre¬
gularly, fome breaking much forwarder on the lawn
than others, and not crowded too clofe together, they
, will make a better appearance than any regular plan¬
tations can poffibly do-, and if there are variety of
trees, properly difpofed, they will have a good effedt j
but only thofe which make a fine appearance, and
grow large, ftraight, and handfome, ffiould be admit¬
ted here. The moll; proper trees for this purpofe, are
the elm, oak, chefnut, and beech; and if there are
fome clumps of evergreen trees intermixed with the
others, they w ill add to the beauty of the whole, efpe-
cially in the winter feafon } the bell forts for this pur¬
pofe are Lord Weymouth’s pine, and the filver and
fpruce firs.
Lawn, in manufactures, a fine fort of linen, remark¬
able for being ufed in the lleeves of the clerical drefs of
biffiops.
LAWRENCE, St, the largeft river in North A-
merica, proceeding from Lake Ontario, from which it
runs a courfe of 700 miles to the Atlantic ocean.
From Lake Ontario to Montreal, this river has the
name of Iroquois, and after taking a north-eaft courfe
it embofoms the ifland of Montreal, above which it re¬
ceives Ottawas from the weft, forming feveral iflands of
^reat fertility. From Montreal it takes the name of
5 1 LAY
St Lawrence, and palling by Quebec, it meets the tree Law
more than 400 miles from the lea, and is fo far navi- j|
gable for large veffels. Having received in its courfe
St John’s, Seguina, Lefprairies,TroisRivieres,andnum- v
berlefs other Imaller ftreams^ it falls into the ocean at
Cape Rofieres, by a mouth about 90 miles broad. The
principal entrance into the gulf of St Lawrence from
the Atlantic ocean, is between capes Ray and Breton.
It contains a number of illands, viz. St John’s, at its
fouthern extremity, on the coaft of New Brunfwick
and Nova-Scotia j Anticofti, at the mouth of the St
LawTence, befides a number of fmall illands.
Prince Edward’s illand, about 120 miles in length,
with a population of 8oco perfons, is allb in the gulf
of St Lawrence. Plere a new lettlement was made by
Lord Selkirk in 1803, compoied of a colony of emi¬
grants amounting to 800, from the Highlands of Scot¬
land.
LAWSON1A, Egyptian Privet, a genus of
plants belonging to the oftandria clals j and in the na¬
tural method ranking with thofe of which the order is
doubtful. See Botany Index.
LAWYER, a counfellor, or one who is learned or
Ikilled in the law. See Counsellor, Barrister,
and Serjeant.
LAY, a kind of ancient poem among the French,
confiding of very Ihort verfes.
There were two forts of lays; the great, and the
little. The firft was a poem confifting of twelve cou¬
plets of verfes, of different meafures. The other was a
poem confifting of fixteen or twenty verfes, divided into
four couplets.
Thefe lays were the lyric poetry of the old French
poets, who were imitated by fome among the Engliffi.
They were principally ufed on melancholy fubjefts,
and are faid to have been formed on the model of the
trochaic verfes of the Greek and Latin tragedies.
Father Morgues gives us an extraordinary inftance
of one of thefe ancient lays, in his Treatife of French
Pofetry.
Sur Pappuis du monde
^ue faut U qidon fonde
D'e/poir ?
Cette mer profondc,
En debris feconde
Fait voir
Calme au matin, Conde
Et Cor age y gronde
Le foir.
LAT-Brothers, among the Romanifts, thofe pious
but illiterate perfons, who devote themfelves at fome
convent to the fervice of the religious. They wear a
different habit from that of the religious ; but never
enter into the choir, nor are prefent at the chapters;
nor do they make any other vow except of conftancy
and obedience. In the nunneries there are alfo lay
fifters.
LAY-Man, one who follows a fecular employment,
and has not entered into holy orders.
LAYERS, in Gardening, are tender (hoots or twigs
of trees, laid or buried in the ground, till, having
(truck root, they are feparated from the parent tree,
and become diftindt plants.—The propagating trees by
layers is done in the following manner : The branches
of the trees are to be flit a little way, and laid under
LEA [7
layers the mould for about half a foot j the ground fhould
.11^ be firft made very light, and after they are laid they
  (liould be gently watered. If they will not remain
eafily in the pontion they are put in, they muft be
pegged down with wooden hooks : the belt feafon for
doing this is, for evergreens, toward the end of Au-
guft, and, for other trees, in the beginning of Febru¬
ary. If they are found to have taken root, they are
to be cut off from the main plant the fucceeding win¬
ter, and planted out. If the branch is too high from
the ground, a tub of earth is to be raifed to a proper
height for it. Some pare off the rind, and others
twill the branch before they lay it, but this is not ne-
ceffary. The end of the layer Qrould be about a foot
out of the ground j and the branch may be either tied
tight round with a wire, or cut upwards from a joint,
or cut round for an inch or two at the place, and it is
a good method to pierce feveral holes through it with
an awl above the part tied with the wire.
L AYING THE land, in Navigation, the ftate of
motion which increafes the diffance from the coaft,
fo as to make it appear lower and fmaller, a circum-
ilance which evidently arifes from the intervening con¬
vexity of the furface of the fea. It is uled in con-
tradillimflion to railing the land, which is produced by
the oppofite motion of approach towards it. See
Land.
LAZAR house, or Lazaretto, a public build¬
ing, in the nature of an hofpital, to receive the poor,
and thofe afflifted with contagious diftempers. In
feme places, lazarettos are appointed for the perform¬
ance of quarantine ; in which cafe, thofe are obliged
to be confined in them who are fufpefted to have come
from places infected with the plague.
LAYSTOFF, or Lowestoff, a town of Suffolk
117 miles from London, feems to hang over the fea,
and its chief bufinefs is fifning for cod in the North fea,
and for herring, mackarel, and fprats, at home. The
church is at fome diftance, but there is a chapel in the
town. Having been a part of the ancient demefnes
of the crown, this town has a charter and a feal, by
the former of which the inhabitants are exempted from
ferving on juries. Some take this to be the moll
eallern part of Britain.
LAZULI, Lazulite, or Lapis LAZULT, a fpecies
of mineral belonging to the filiceous genus. See La¬
zulite, Mineralogy Index.
LEACHLADE, a town of Gloucefterfhire, 12
miles eaft from Cirenceiler, 29 miles from Gloucefter,
and 77 from London. The river Thames waters it on
the fouth and call fides, and divides it from Wiltffire
and Berklhire. The Leach runs through the north
fide of the parilh. The Thames river is navigable for
barges of 50 tons burden, but want of water during
part of the year makes the navigation very uncertain.
The church is a large handfome building, with double
aides, fupported by two rows of fluted pillars.
LEAD, one of the metals, of a white colour incline
ing to blue, the lead duftile, the leaft elaflic, and the
lead: fonorous, of the whole, butpoffeffing a confiderable
degree of fpecific gravity. See Chemistry and Mi¬
neralogy Index.
White Lead, or Cerufe. See Chemistry Index.
Black LEAD, or Plumbago, a fpecies of mineral be-
7 ] LEA
longing to the elafs of Injlammables. See GRAPHITE, lead.
Mineralogy Index. . Leaf-
Milled Lead. See Chemistry Index. "r ^
Poifon of Lead. See Poison.
Sheet Lead. See Plumbery.
LEAF, a part of a plant extended into length and
breadth in fuch a manner as to have one fide didin-
guifhable from the other. This is Miller’s definition.
Linnaeus denominates leaves “ the organs of motion,
or mufcles of the plant.”—The leaves are not merely
ornamental to plants j they ferve very ufeful purpofei,
and make part of the organs of vegetation.
The greater number of plants, particularly trees,
are furnifhed with leaves : in mufhrooras, and fhrubby
horfe tail, they are totally wanting. Ludwic defines
leaves to be fibrous and cellular proceffes of the plant,
which are of various figures, but generally extended
into a plain membranaceous or fkinny fubdance. They
are of a deeper green than the footdalks on which
they dand, and are formed by the expanfion of the
veffels of the dalk, among which, in feveral leaves,
the proper veffels are didinguiihed by the particular
tade, colour, and fmell, of the liquors contained with¬
in them.
By the expanfion of the veffels of the dalk, are pro¬
duced feveral ramifications or branches, which, crofs-
ing each other mutually, form a kind of net : the
melhes or interdices of which are filled up with a ten¬
der cellular fubdance, called the pu/p, pith, or paren¬
chyma. This pulpy fubdance is frequently confumed
by certain fmall infects, whild the membranous net
remaining untouched exhibits the genuine Ikeleton of
the leaf.
The net in quedion is covered externally with an
epidermis or fcarf Ikin, which appears to be a conti¬
nuation of the fcarf Ikin of the dalk, and perhaps
of that of the dem. M. de Sauffure, a judicious na-
turalid, has attempted to prove, that this fcarf {kin,
like that of the petals, is a true bark, compofed itfelf
of an epidermis and cortical net; thefe parts feem to
be the organs of perfpiration, which ferve to diffipate
the fuperfluous juices.
The cortical net is furnilhed, principally on the
furface of the leaf, with a great number of fuckers or
abforbent veffels, dedined to imbibe the humidity of
the air. The upper furface, turned towards heaven,
ferves as a defence to the lower, which looks down¬
ward *, and this difpofition is fo effential to the vege¬
table economy, that, if a branch is overturned in fuch
a manner as to dedroy the natural diredlion of the
leaves, they will, of themfelves, in a very fhort time,
refume their former pofition : and that as often as the
branch is thus overturned.
Leaves, then, are ufeful and neceffary organs; trees ‘
perith when totally diveded of them. In general,
plants dript of any of their leaves, cannot Ihoot vigo-
roufiy : witnefs thofe which have undergone the de¬
predations of infeftsj witnefs, likewife, the very com¬
mon practice of dripping off fome of the leaves from
plants, when we would fufpend their growth, or di-
minilh the number of their dioots. This merhod is
fomt times obferved with corn and the efculent graffes j
and, in cold years, is praftifed on fruit trees and vines,
to render the fruit riper and better coloured; but in
this
!L E . A _ t 7
_ this cafe it is proper to wait tiil tke fruits have acqui-
ea^lie' red their full bulk, as the leaves contribute greatly to
their growth, but hinder, when too numerous, that ex-
quifite rectifying of the juices, which is fo neceffary to
render them delicious and palatable.
When vegetation ceafes, the organs of perfpiration
and infpiration become fuperfluous. Plants, therefore,
are not always adorned with leaves : they produce new
ones every year j and every year the greater part are
totally diverted ol them, and remain naked during the
winter.
Leaf InfcB. See Cimex, Entomology Index.
I.EAE-Skeletons. One help for acquiring a know¬
ledge of the anatomy of plants, is the art of reducing
leaves to fkeletons, which may be done by expofing
the leaves to decay for fome time foaked in water, by
which means the fofter will be feparated from the in-
' ternal harder parts. By carefully wiping, prefling, and
rtnfing them, the harder parts may be obtained from
the reft alone and entire. Some have been able to fe-
parate the outer covering on both ftdes from the woody
net, and even to fplit the latter into two. A naturalift
in the year 1645 firft conceived the idea of making
leaf-lkeletons by employing decompofition for that pur-
pofe, aftifting it by feveral ingenious operations of art.
When the method of producing thefe fkeletons was
publicly known, numberlefs preparations of them were
everywhere attempted. So much did leaf-fkektons
afterwards engage the attention of philofophers, that
one Seligmann wrote a treatife on the various methods
which may be employed in their preparation.
The art alfo of railing trees from leaves has been
long known, the firft account of which was publifhed
by Ageftino Mandirola, an Italian of the Francifcan
order, who allures us that he produced trees from the
leaves of the cedar and lemon tree. In the garden of
Baron de Munchhaufen, a young tree was obtained
from a leaf of the Union a Ri-vo, which yielded fruit the
fecond year : It is more than probable that the multi¬
plication of the opuntia or Indian fig, firft fuggerted the
idea of fuch experiments, for every joint of that plant
when ftuck into the earth, and properly nurtured,
throws out roots and grows.
Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given
to the notches of their pinions.
Gold LEAF, ufually lignifies fine gold beaten into
plates of exceeding thinnefs, which are employed in
the arts of gilding, &c. See GOLD Leaf
LEAGUE, a meafure of length, containing more
or fewer geometrical paces, according to the different
ufages and cuftoms of countries. A league at ft a,
where it is chiefly ufed by us, being a land meafure
moftly peculiar to the French and Germans, contains
3000 geometrical paces, or three Englilh miles, i he
French league iometimes contains the fame meafure,
and in fome parts of France it confifts of 3500 paces :
the mean or common league confifts of 2400 paces,
and the little league of 2CCO. The Spanifh leagues
sre larger than the French, 17 Spanifh leagues ma¬
king a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 69-I- Engliih
ft a tut e miles. The Dutch and Gt rman leagues con¬
tain each four geographical mile1-. The Perlian leagues
are pretty near of the fame extent with the Spanifh ;
that is, they are rqu’l to four ] tab an mUes, which is
pretty near to what Herodotus calls the length of the
13 1 LEA
Perfian paritfang, which contained 30 ftadia, eight Ieagn«
whereof, according to Strabo, make a mile. The II
word comes from leuca or ieuga, an ancient Gaulifh ,.
word for an itinerary meafure, and retained in that
fenfe by the Romans. Some derive the word Icuca
from /ew£95, “ white as the Gauls, in imitation of
the Romans, marked the fpaces and diftances of their
roads v ith white ftones.
League alfo denotes an alliance or confederacy be¬
tween princes and dates for their mutual aid, either m
attacking fome common enemy, or in defending them-
ftlves. The word comes from Iga, which, in the cor¬
rupt Latin, was ufed for a confederacy: Qua nuts cum
alioligatur.
Leagues, among the Greeks, were of three forts:
I. SvYihixn, or w hereby both parties were
obliged to ceale from hoftilities, without even moleft-
ing the allies of each other •, 2. ETStficcgia, whereby they
engaged to lend afliftance to each other in cafe of in-
vafion j and, 3. 'Svfiputfctsi, whereby they engaged to
have the fame friends and enemies, and to affift each
other upon all occafions. All thefe leagues were con¬
firmed with oaths, and imprecations, and facrifices.
The victims moft generally ufed were a boar, ram, or
goat, fometimes all three 5 and fometimes bulls and
lambs. They cut out the tefticles of the animal, and
flood upon them while they fwore •, and fome of the
hair of the viflim was diftributed to all prefent. Then
they cut the animal’s throat, which was called 6fzw
'Tif.wuv, in Latin, jferzV-e feedus. This done, they repeat¬
ed their oaths and imprecations, calling the gods to
witnefs the honefty of their intentions. A libation
w'as then made of wine, which at this time was mixed,
to imply their cbnjumftion and union ; while this w-as
pouring out, they prayed that the blood of him who
fhould break the treaty might be poured out in like
manner. Upon thefe occafions no part of the viftim
was eaten. Still further to increafe the foleirmity of
this obligation, the league was engraven upon brafs,
fixed up in places of public concourfe, and fometimes
read at the (olemn games. Some exchanged certain
(rvfs.^\x, or tejferce, upon the occafion, and frequently
fent ambaffadoss on fome appointed day, to keep them
in mind of their engagements to each other.
The ceremonies of the Romans in making leagues
were performed by the Fecia/es. See FEciai.es.
LEAGUES of the Grifons, are a part of Switzerland,
confifting of three fubdivifions, viz. the upper league,
the league of the houfe of God, and the league ot the
ten jurifdifHons. See the article GRISONS.
L'he LEAGUE, by way of eminence, denotes that fa¬
mous one on foot in France, from the year 1376 to
I $93. Its intent was to prevent the fucceflion of
Henry IV who was of the reformed religion, to the
crow n $ and it ended with his abjuration of that faith.
The leaguers, or confederates, were cf three kind?.
The st-ealous leaguers aimed at the utter deftruftion nett
only of the Huguenots, but alfo of the miniftry. The
Spnnift) leaguers had princi) ally in view the transfer¬
ring the crown of France to the king of Spain, or the
infanta his daughter. The moderate leaguers aimed on¬
ly at the extirpation of Calvinifm, without any altera¬
tion of the government.
LEAK, at fea, is a hole in the ftiip, through which
the water comes in. A (hip is faid to fpnng a leak
when
LEA r 7
I^ak wlien flie begins to leak or to let in the water. The
11^ manner of hopping a leak is to put into it a plug
L^‘v ' . wrapped in oakum and well tarred, or in a tarpawling
clout, which keeps out the water, or nailing a piece
of Iheet lead on the place. Seamen fometimes hop a
leak by thrufting a piece of fait beef into it. The
fea water, fays Mr Boyle, being frether than the brine
imbibed by the beef, penetrates into its body, and
caufes it to fwell fo as to bear ftrongly againfl the
edges of the broken plank, and thereby Hops the influx
of the water. A ready way to find a leak in a fhip is
to apply the narrower end of a fpeaking trumpet to
the ear, and the other to the fide of the fhip where the
leak is fuppofed to be \ then the noife of the water if-
fiiing in at the leak will be heard diftin£tly, whereby
it may be difcovered..
LEAKAGE, the ftate of a vefifel that leaks, or lets
water or other liquid ooze in or out.
Leakage, in commerce, is an allowance of 12 per
cent, in the cuftoms, allowed to importers of wines for
the wafle or damage it is fuppofed to have received in
the paffage : an allowance of two barrels in 22 is al-
fo made to the brewers of ale and beer by the excife
office.
LEAKE, Richard, mafter gunner of England,
was born at Harwich in 1629, and wras bred to the
fea. At the Reftoration, he was made mailer gunner
of the Princefs, a frigate of 50 guns •, and in the firft
Dutch war diflinguiflied himfelf by his Ikill and bra-
- very in two extraordinary adfions ; one againfl 15 fail
of Dutch men of war; and another in 1667 againfl two
Danes in the Baltic, in which the commanding offi¬
cers of the Princefs being killed or defperately wound¬
ed, the command, according to the rules of war at
that time, fell to the gunner. In 1669, he was promot¬
ed to be gunner of the Royal Prince, a firfl rate man
of war. He was engaged, with his two Tons, Henry
and John, in the battle againfl Van Tromp, in 1673 j
when the Royal Prince had all her marts ffiot away,
near 400 of her men killed and difabled, and moft of
her upper tier of guns difmounted. As (he lay thus
like a wreck, a great Dutch man of war came down
upon her with two fire (hips, either to burn or carry
her off; and Captain Rooke, afterwards Sir George,
thinking it impoffible to defend her, ordered the men
to fave their lives, and the colours to be ftruck. Mr
Leake hearing this, ordered the lieutenant off the quar¬
ter deck, and took the command upon himfelf, fay¬
ing, “ The Royal Prince (hall never be given up to
the enemy while I am alive to defend her.” The un¬
daunted fpirit of the brave gunner infpired the fmall re-
fidue of the (hip’s company with refolution j they re¬
turned with alacrity to the fight, and under the direc¬
tion of this valiant gunner and his two fons funk both
the fire ffiips, and obliged the man of war to ffieer off;
and having thus faved the Royal Prince, he brought
her into Chatham. But Mr Leake’s joy in obtaining
this viftory was damped by the lofs of Henry, his
eldeft fon, who was killed near him. Soon after, Mr
Leake was preferred to the command of a yacht, and
alf» made gunner of Whitehall. In 1677, obtain¬
ed a grant for life of the office of mailer gunner of
England, and ftorekeeper of the ordnance at Wool¬
wich. By this poll he had full fcope -dor his genius.
19 ] LEA
He accordingly, among other things, invented the Leafee,
eufhee piece j and contrived to fire a mortar by the
blaft of a piece, which has been ufed ever fince. He
was alfo the principal contriver of what the French
call inferna/s, ufed at the bombardment of St Malo’s
in 1693. Mr Leake had afurprifing genius for all in¬
ventions of this kind •, and had frequent trials of ikill
with French and Dutch gunners and engineers in
Woolwich warren, at which King Charles II. and the
duke of York were often prefent, and he never failed
to excel all his competitors : nor was he lefs (killed in
the art of making compofitions for fireworks j of which
he likewife made frequent trials with equal fuecefs.
Leake, Sir John, an Englilh admiral, diftinguifh-
ed by his bravery and fuccefs, was born in 1656, and
was taught mathematics and gunnery by Mr Richard
Leake his father, who was mafter gunner of Eng¬
land. Entering early into the navy, he dillinguiffi-
ed himfelf under his father in 1673, memorable
engagement between Sir Edward Spragg and Van
Tromp, when but 16 years of age ; and being after¬
wards made captain, he fignalized himfelf, among
other occafions, by executing the defperate attempt of
convoying fome victuallers into Londonderry, which
obliged the enemy to raife the fiege ; and at the
famous battle of La Hogue. In 1702, being made
-commodore of a fquadron, he deftroyed the French
trade and fettlements at Newfoundland, and reftored
the Engliffi to the poffeffion of the whole ifland. On
his return he was created rear admiral; foon after, he
was made vice admiral of the blue, and was afterwards
knighted. Fie was engaged with Admiral Rooke in
taking Gibraltar : foon after which, he particularly di=
ftinguiffied himfelf in the general engagement off Ma¬
laga $ when commanding the leading fquadron of the
van, confiding only of fix drips, he drove that of the
enemy, confiding of 13, ©ut of the line of battle, fo dif¬
abled that they never returned to the fight. In 1705,
he relieved Gibraltar, which the French had befieged
by fea, and the Spaniards by land, fo feafonably, that
the enemy was to have attacked the town that very night
in feveral places, and would undoubtedly have made
themfelves mafters of it. Five hundred Spaniards had,
by the help of rope ladders, climbed up the rocks by
a way that was thought inaceeffible. At the fame time
they had got a great number of boats to land 3000 men-
at the New Mole, who, by making a vigorous affault
on the fide next the fea, were to draw the garrifon to
oppofe the attack, while the 500 concealed men ruffi-
ed into the town. Thefe being the next day drawn
by hunger out of their ambufeade, were difcovered ; on
which Sir John affifting the garrifon with failors and
marines, they were attacked with fueh vigour, that,
though they had taken an oath not to furrender to the
Engliffi, 190 common foldiers and 35 officers took,
quarter : 200 were killed on the fpot and the reft,
who endeavoured to make their efcape, fell headlong
down the rock. He was foon after made vice admiral
of the white, and then twice relieved that fisrtrefs.
The laft time, he attacked five (hips of the French
fleet coming out of the bay, of whom two were ta¬
ken, and two run afhore and were deftroyed : Baron
Pointi died foon after, of the wounds he received in.
the battle 3 and in a few days the enemy railed the
fiege.
LEA [ 720 ] LEA
fiege. In the year 1705 Sir John was engaged in the
reduftion of Barcelona •, and the next year relieved that
city, when it was reduced to the laft extremity, and
obliged King Philip to raj e the liege. Soon after he
took the city of Carthagena $ from whence proceed¬
ing to Alicant and Joyce, both thefe fubmitted to
him ; and he concluded the exploits of that year with
the reduction of the city and iiland of Majorca. Up¬
on his return home, Prince George of Denmark made
him a prefent of a ring valued at 400!. and he had the
honour of receiving 1000I. from the queen as a reward
for his fervices. Upon the unhappy death of Sir
Cloudelly Shovel, in 1707, he was made admiral of
the white, and commander in chief of her majefty’s
fleet j and the next year, furprifing a convoy of the
enemy’s corn, he fent it to Barcelona, and thus faved
both that city and the confederate army from the dan¬
ger of famine : foon after convoying the new queen
of Spain to King Charles her confort, her majefty
made him a prefent of a diamond ring of 500I. va¬
lue. He then proceeded to the ifland of Sardinia,
which he reduced to the obedience of King Charles 5
and foon after aflilted the lord Stanhope in the conqueft
of Minorca. Then returning home, he w'as appointed
one of the council to the lord high admiral j and in
1709 was made rear admiral of Great Britain. He
was feveral times chofen member of parliament for Ro-
chefter; and in 1712 conduced the Englifh forces to
take poffeflion of Dunkirk. But upon the acceffion
of King George I. he was fuperfeded, and allowed a
penfion of 600I. a-year. After this he lived privately
till his death, which happened at his houfe in Green¬
wich in 1720.
Leake, Stephen Martin, Efq. fon of Captain Mar¬
tin, went through different ranks in the heralds of¬
fice till he came to be garter. He was the firft per-
fon who wrote profeffedly on our Englilh coins, two
editions of his “ Hiftorical Account” of which were
publifhed by him with plates, under the title of Num-
mi Britannici Hiftoria, London, 1726, Bvo. •, the fe-
cond, much improved, London, J745, 8vo. He print¬
ed, in 1750, “ The Life of Sir John Leake, knight,
admiral of the fleet,” &c. to whom he was indebted
for a eonfiderable eftate •, which the admiral deviled to
truftees for the ufe of his fon for life *, and upon his
death to Captain Martin (who married Lady Leake’s
filler) and his heirs: By which means it came to the
Captain’s fon $ who, in gratitude to the memory of Sir
John Leake, wrote an accurate account of his life, of
which only 50 copies were printed. In 1766, he print¬
ed alfo 50 copies of “ The Statutes of the Order of
the Garter,” 41©. He died in 1773 •, and was buried
in his chancel in the parifh church of Thorp in Effex,
cf which manor he was lord.
LEANDER, in poetic hiflory, a young man of
Abydos in Alia. He ufed to fwim over the Hellef-
pont by night to vifit Hero his miltrefs, who fet forth
a light to guide him : but in a tempefluous winter
night he was drowned ; upon which Hero feeing him
dead on the fliore, call herfelf headlong from the tower,
and died alfo. See Hero.
LEAO, in Natural H’Jlory, a mineral fubllance ap¬
proaching to the nature of the lapis lazuli, found in
the Ealt Indies, and of great ufe in the Chinefe por¬
celain manufa£lures, as it affords the finelt blue they Leao
are poffeffed of. jj
LEAP, in Mufic, is when the fong does not pro¬
ceed by conjoint degrees, as when between each note sr~'
there is an interval of a third, a fourth, fifth, &c.
Leap 7ear. See Year, and Chronology, N° 24.
Lover''s Leap. See Leucata.
LEAPING, or Vaulting, was an exercife much
ufed both amongfl: the Greeks and Romans. The
Grecians called it AXftx, and performed it with weights
upon their heads and Ihoulders. Sometimes they car¬
ried the weights in their hands, which were of differ¬
ent figures, but generally oval, and made with holes
or covered vvith thongs, through which the contend¬
ers put their fingers. Thefe weights were called
uXTvi£if. The conteft was who could leap the higheft
and fartheft. The place from whence they jumped
was called and that to which they leaped,
trxecfifiivx, becaufe the ground was there dug up. This
exercife was performed in the fame manner by the Ro¬
mans.
LEAR, the name of a Britilh king, faid in old
chronicles to have fucceeded his father Bladud, about.
A. M. 3160. The llory of this king and his three
daughters is rvell known, from Shakefpeare’s excellent
tragedy founded on it.
LEASE, from the French leifer, demittere, “ to let,”
in law, a demife, @r letting of lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments, unto another for life, term of years, or at
will, for a rent referved.
A leafe is either written, called an indenture, deed-
roll, or leafe in writing j or by word of mouth, called
leafe parole.
All ellates, interells of freehold, or terms for years
in lands, &c. not put in writing and figned by the
parties, ftiall have no greater effect than as eftates at
will j unlefs it be of leafes not exceeding three years
from the making } wherein the rent referved Avail be
two-thirds of the value of the things demifed. Leafes
exceeding three years muff be made in writing j and
if the fubftance of a leafe be put in writing, and fign¬
ed by the parties, though it be not fealed, it Avail have
the effect of a leafe for years, &.c.
An alignment differs from a leafe only in this, that
by a leafe one grants an intereft lefs than his ow n, re-
ferving to himfelf a reverfion ; in aflvgnments he parts
with the whole property, and the aflignee ffands to all
intents and purpofes in place of the aflignor.
Lease, in Scots Law. See Tack.
Lease and Releafe, a fpecies of conveyance ufed
in the Engliflv law, firfl invented by Serjeant Moore,
foon after the ftatute of ufes, and now the nvoft com¬
mon of any, and therefore not to be Avaken •, though
very great lawyers (as particularly Mr Noy) have
formerly doubted its validity. It is thus contrived :
A leafe, or rather bargain and fale, upon feme pecu¬
niary conlideration, for one year, is made by the te¬
nant of the freehold to the leffee or bargainee. Now
this without any enrolment, makes the bargainor
Hand feifed to the ufe of the bargainee, and veils in
the bargainee the ufe of the term for a year •, and then
the Aatute immediately annexes the poffejjian. He
therefore, being thus in poffeflion, is capable of re¬
ceiving a releafe of the freehold and reverfion, which
mu ft
LEA [ 721 ] LEA
Lcafe muft be made to a tenant in pofledion : and according-
II ly, the next day, a releafe is granted to him. This
ea^ er‘ . is held to fupply the place of livery of feifin j and fo
a conveyance by leafe, and releafe is faid to amount to
a feoffment.
LEASH, among fportfmen, denotes three creatures
of any kind j but chiefly grehounds, foxes, bucks, and
hares.
The term leafh alfo fignifies a line to hold in a hunt¬
ing dog j and a fmall long thong of leather, by which
a falconer holds his hawk.
LEASING-making, in Scots Law, the uttering of
words tending to excite difcord between the king and
his people \ alfo called verbal/edition.
LEATHER, the Ikin of leveral forts of beafts
dreffed and prepared for the ufe of various manufadtu-
rers, whole bufinefs it is to make them up.
Dyeing of LEATHER, Skins, <b’c. Blue is given by
fleeping the fubjedt a day in urine and indigo, then
boiling it with alum : or it may be given by tempering
the indigo with red wine, and walhing the Ikins there¬
with. Red is given by walhing the fkins, and laying
them two hours in galls, then wringing them out, dip¬
ping them in a liquor made with liguftrum, alum, and
verdigris in water j and laftly, in a dye made of Bra¬
zil wrood, boiled with ley. Purple is given by wetting
the Ikins with a folution of roche alum in warm water;
and, when dry again, rubbing them with the hand
with a decodtion of logw'ood in colder. Green is given
by fmearing the Ikin with fap-green and alum-water
boiled. Dark green is alfo given with Heel filings and
fal ammoniac fteeped in urine till foft, then fmeared
over the Ikin ; which is to be dried in the {hade. Sky
colour is given with indigo fteeped in boiling water,
and the next morning warmed and fmeared over the
ikin. 7ellow, by fmearing the Ikin over with aloes
and linfeed oil diffolved and drained ; or by infufing it
in weld. Orange colour is given by fmearing wdth fuf-
tic berries boiled in alum water j or, for a deep orange,
with turmeric.
ProceJ/es for Dyeing LEATHER Red and Yellow as
praLhfed in Turkey, with diredhons for Preparing and
Tanning the Skins; as communicated by Mr Philippo, a
native of Armenia, who received from the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, Lfc. one hundred pounds, and
alfo the gold medal of the Society, as a reward for dfco-
Venng this fecret.
I. Pirft Preparation of the Skins, both for Red and
fellow Leather, by dreffiny them in Lime. Let the Ikins,
dried with the hair on, be firft laid to foak in clean
water for three days ; let them then be broken over
the flelh fide, put into freih water for twm days longer,
and afterwards hung up to drain half an hour. Let
them now be broken on the flelh fide, limed in cold
lime on the fame fide, and doubled together with
the grain fide outward. In this ftate they muft be
hung up within doors over a frame for five or fix days,
till the hair be loofe ; which muft then be taken off,
and the Ikins returned into the lime pit for about
three weeks. Take them out, and let them be well
worked flelh and grain, every fixth or feventh day du¬
ring that time : after which, let them be walhed ten
times in clear water, changing the water at each walh¬
ing. They are next to be prepared in drench, as be¬
low mentioned.
Vol. XL Part II.
2. Second Preparation of the Skins for both the Red Leather.
and fellow Dyes by drenching. After fqueezing the
water out of the Ikins, put them into a mixture of bran
and water, warm as new milk, in the following pro¬
portions ; viz. about three pounds of bran for five
Ikins, and water fufficient to make the mixture mo¬
derately fluid, which will be about a gallon to each
pound of bran. In this drench let the Ikins lie three
days ; at the end of which time they muft be well
worked, and afterwards returned into the drench two
days longer. They muft then be taken out and rub¬
bed between the hands; the water fqueezed from
them, and the bran fcraped off clear from both tides
of the Ikins. After this they muft be again w'alhed
ten times in clear water, and the water fqueezed out
of them.
Thus far the preparatory procefs of all the Ikins,
whether intended to be dyed red or yellow, is the
fame ; but afterwards thofe which are to be dyed red,
muft be treated as follows.
3. Preparation in Honey and Bran of Skins that
are to be dyed Red. Mix one pound of honey with
three pints of lukewarm water, and ftir them together
till the honey is diffolved. Then add two double
handfuls of bran ; and taking four Ikins (for which the
above quantity of the mixture will be fulficient) work
them well in it one after another. Afterwards fold up
each Ikin feparately into a round form, with the fltlh
fide inwards ; and lay them in an earthen pan, or other
proper veffel ; if in the fummer, by the fide of each
other ; but in the winter, on the top of each other.
Place the veffel in a Hoping pofition, fo that fuch part
of the fluid as may fpontaneoully drain from the Ikins,
may pafs from them. An acid fermentation will then
rife in the liquor, and the Ikins will fw ell confiderably.
In this ftate they muft continue for feven or eight
days ; but the moifture that drains from them mull
be poured off, once or tw ice a-day, as occafion may re¬
quire. After this a further preparation in fait is ne-
ceffary ; and which muft be performed in the following
manner.
4. Preparation in Salt, of the Skins to be dyed Red.
After the Ikins have been fermented in the honey and
bran, as above mentioned, let them be taken out of that
mixture on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed
with dry common lea fait, in the proportion of about
half a pound to each Ikin ; the fait muft be well rub¬
bed and worked with them. This will make them con-
trafl again, and part with a further confiderable quan¬
tity of moifture ; which muft be fqueezed out by draw¬
ing each Ikin feparately through the hands. They
muft next be fcraped clean on both fides from the bran,
fuperfluous fait, and moifture that may adhere to them.
After which, dry fait muft be ftrewed over the grain-
fide, and well rubbed in with the hand. They are
then to be doubled with the flelh fide outwards, length-
wife from neck to tail, and a little more dry fait muft
be thinly ftrewed over the flelh fide, and rubbed in ;
for the two laft operations, about a pound and a half
of fait will be fufficient for each Ikin. They muft then
be put, thus folded on each other, between two clean
boards, placed Hoping, breadthwife ; and a heavy
W’eight laid on the upper board, in order gradually to
prefs out what morfture they will thus part w ith. In
this ftate of preffure, they muft be continued two days
leather.
LEA [72
or longer, till it is convenient to dye them, for which
they will then be duly prepared.
5. Preparation of the Red Dye, in a proper propor¬
tion for four Skins. Put eight gallons of water into a
copper, with feven ounces of ihenan (a) tied up in a
linen bag. Light a fire under a copper ; and when the
water has boiled about a quarter of an hour, take out
the bag of fhenan, and put into the boiling fluid or
lixivium, lit, Two drams of alum j 2diy, Two drams .
pomegranate bark ; 3dly, Three quarters of an ounce
of turmeric 5 4thly, Three ounces of cochineal 5 jLhly,
Two ounces of loaf fugar. Let the whole mixture boil
about fix minutes, then cover the fire, and take out a
quart of liquor, putting it into a flat earthen pan ; and
when it is as cold as new milk, take one fkin, folded
lengthwife, the grain fide outwards, and dip it in the
liquor, rubbing it gently with the hands. Ihen taking
out the fkin, hang it up to drain, and throw away the
fuperfluous dye. Proceed in the fame manner with the
remaining three fkins } repeating the operation of each
fkin feparately, eight times, fqueezing the fkins by
drawing them through the hands before eachfrefh dip¬
ping. Lay them now on one fide of a large pan, let
Hoping, to drain off as much of the moifture as will run
from them without prelfure, for about two hours, or till
they are cold j then tan them as below directed.
6. Tanning the Red Skins. Powder four ounces of
the bell white galls in a marble mortar, fifting it
through a fine fieve. Mix the powder with about three
quarts of water, and work the fkins well in this mix¬
ture for half an hour or more, folding up the fkins four¬
fold. Let them lie in this tan for 24 hours ; when they
mult be worked again as before ; then taken out, fcra-
ped clean on both fides from the firft galls, and put
into a like quantity of frefh galls and water. In this
frefii mixture they muff be again well worked for three
quarters of an hour ; then folded up as before, and left
in the frefh tan for three days. On the fourth day
they muff be taken out, walked clean from the galls in
feven or eight frefh quantities of water, and then hung
up to dry.
7. Manner of Dr effing the Skins after they are tanned.
When the fkins have been treated as above,- and are
very near dry, they fhould be fcraped with the proper
inflrument or fcraper on the flefh fide, to reduce them
to a proper degree of thicknefs. They are then to be
laid on a fmooth board, and glazed by rubbing them
with a fmooth glafs. After which they muff be oiled,
by rubbing them with olive oil, by means of a linen
rag, in the proportion of one ounce and a half of oil
2 ] LEA
for four fkius : they are then to be grained on a grain- Leather,
ing board, lengthwife, breadthwife, and cornerwile, or -v—«
from corner to corner.
8. Preparations with Galls, for the Skins to be dyed
Yellow. After the four fkins are taken out of the
drench of bran, and clean wafhed as before directed in
the fecond article, they mufl be very well worked, half
an hour or more, in a mixture of a pound and a half of
the befit white galls, finely powdered, with two quarts
of clean water. The fkins are then to be feparately
doubled lengthwife, rolled up with the fieih fide out¬
wards, laid in the mixture, and clofe prefled down on
each other, in which ftate they muft continue two whole
days. On the third day let them be again worked in.
the tan } and afterwards fcraped clean from the galls,
with an ivory or brafs inftrument (for no iron muft
touch them). They mult then be put into a frefh tan,
made of two pounds of galls finely powdered, with a-
bout three quarts of water, and well worked therein
15 times. After this they muft be doubled, rolled up
as before, and laid in the fecond tan for three days.
On the third day a quarter of a pound of white iea-
falt muft be worked into each fkin 5 and the fkins dou¬
bled up as before, and returned into the tan, till the
day following, when they are to be taken out, and well
waihed fix times in cold water, and four times in wa¬
ter lukewarm. The water muft be then well fqueezed
out, by laying the fkins under preflure, for about half
an hour, between two boards, with a weight of about
200 or 300 pounds laid upon the uppermoft board,
when they will be ready for the dye.
9. Preparation of the Yellow Dye, in the proper pro¬
portion for four Skins. Mix fix ounces of cafliari gehi-
ra (b), or dgebira, or the berries of the eaftern rham-
nus, with the fame quantity of alum ; and pound them
together till they be fine, in a marble or brafs mortar,
with a brafs peftle. Then dividing the materials, thus
powdered, into three equal parts of four ounces each,
put one of thofe three parts into about a pint and a half
of water, in a china or earthen veffel, and ftir the mix¬
ture together. Let the fluid Hand to cool, till it will
not fcald the hand. Then fpreading one of the fkins
flat on a table, in a warm room, with the grain-fide up¬
permoft, pour a fourth part of the tinging liquor, pre¬
pared as above dire&ed, over the upper or grain-fide,
fpreeding it equally over the fkin with the hand, and
rubbing it well in. Afterwards do the like with the
other three fkins, for which the mixture firft made will
be lufficient.
This operation muft be repeated twice more on each
fkin
(a) Shenan is a drug much ufed by dyers in the eafl; and may eafily be procured at any of the ports of Syria
and Africa, in the Levant. It is the eaftern jointed-kali, called by botanifls/fl/fcorv/o ; and grows in great
plenty in thofe and other parts of the eaft. There is a leffer fpecies of the falicornia on our coaft, which, from it^
preat affinity with the fhenan, might be prefumed to have the fame qualities. On fome trials, however, it has not
appeared to anfwer the intention of the ffienan ; but it will be prudent to purfue the examination of this, fur¬
ther, as fome unknown circumftances in the collecting or ufing the Englifti falicornia might occafion the mifcar-
riage. But be this as it may, the eaftern fhenan may, at all events, be eafily procured in any quantity, at a
very trifling expence, by any of the captains of Turkey ftiips, at Aleppo, Smyrna, &c.
(b) The caffiari gehira is the berries of an eaftern rhamnus, or buckthorn tree j and may be had at Aleppo,
and other parts of the Levant, at a fmall price. The common Avignon .or yellow- berries may be fubfiituted^
but not with fo good an effeCt j the caffiari gehira being a ftronger and brighter yellow dye, both for this uie
and alfo that of colouring paper hangings, &c.
l
LEA [ 723 ] LEG
feather. fkJn feparately, with the remaining eight ounces of the
powder of the berries, and alum, with the above-men¬
tioned due proportions of hot water, put to them as
before directed.
The Ikins, when dyed, are to be hung up on a
wooden frame, without being folded, with the grain-
fide outwards, about three quarters of an hour to drain j
when they muft be carried to a river or ftream of run¬
ning water, and well waflied therein fix times or more.
After this they muft be put under preffure for about an
hour, till the water be well fqueezed out j afterwards
the fkins muft be hung up to dry in a warm room.
This being done, the Ikins are to be dreffed and
grained as before directed for thofe dyed red $ except
the oiling, which muft be omitted.
Blacking LEATHER. In the tanning of leather it
is fo much impregnated with the aftringent parts of
oak bark, or with that matter which ftrikes a black
with green vitriol, that rubbing it over three or four
times with a folution of the vitriol, or with a folution
of iron made in vegetable acids, is fufficient for ftaining
it black. Of this we may be convinced by dropping
a little of the folution on the unblacked fide of com¬
mon fiioe leather. This operation is performed by the
currier ; who, after the colouring, gives a glofs to the
leather with a folution of gum arabic and fize made
in vinegar. Where the previous aftringent impregna¬
tion is infufficient to give due colour, and for thofe
forts of leather which have not been tanned, fome galls
or other aftringents are added to the folution of iron ;
and in many cafes, particularly for the finer forts of
leather, and for renewing the blacknefs, ivory or lamp¬
black is ufed. A mixture of either of thefe with lin-
leed oil makes the common oil blacking. For a fhin-
ing blacking, fmall beer or water is taken inftead of
oil, in the quantity of about a pint to an ounce of the
Ivory black, with an addition of half an ounce of
brown fugar and as much gum arabic. The white of
an egg, fubftituted for the gum, makes the black
more (hining, but is fuppofed to hurt the leather, and
make it apt to crack. It muft be obvious, however,
that all thefe compofitions admit of a great many varia¬
tions.
Gilding of LEATHER. Take glair of the whites of
eggs, or gum water, and with a bruih rub over the
leather with either of them : then lay on the gold or
filver, and, letting them dry, burnifii them. See the
articles Gilding and Burnishing.
To drefs or cover LEATHER with Silver or Gold. Take
brown-red j grind or move it on a ftone with a muller,
adding water and chalk $ and when the latter isdiiTol-
ved, rub or lightly daub the leather over with it, till
it looks a little whitifh ; and then lay on the leaf-filver
or gold before the leather is quite dry, laying the leaves
a little over each other, that there may not be the leaft
part uncovered j and when they have well clofed with
the leather, and are fufficiently dried on and hardened,
rub them over with an ivory polilher, or the foretooth
of a horfe.
By feveral ftatutes, regulations are made for the tan¬
ning and manufafturing of leather ; and by the 27th
Geo. III. c. 13. a duty is laid upon all hides and Ikins
imported, and drawbacks allowed on the exportation
thereof. Several duties are alfo impofed on hides and
ikins tanned in Great Britain, of what kind foever, as
fet forth in fchedules annexed to the faid aft. By the
23 Geo. III. c. 37. further regulations are made re-
Ipeding the faid duties, which are under the manage¬
ment of the officers of exeife.
LEAVEN, a piece of four dough, ufed to ferment
and render light a much larger quantity of dough or
paile. See Bread, Barm, and Baking.
Leaven was ftriilly forbidden by the law of Mofes
during the feven days of the pafibver; and the Jews, in
obedience to this lawq very carefully purified their
houfes from all leaven as loon as the vigil of the feaft
began. Nothing of honey or leaven was to have place
in any thing prefented to the Lord, upon his altar,
during this folemnity. If, during the feaft, the leaft
particle of leaven was found in their houfes, they ima¬
gined the whole was polluted, for a little leaven leaven-
eth the whole lump. Leaven, in its figurative fenfe,
fignifies the bad paffions of envy and malice, and ran¬
cour, which four the temper, and extend their ferment
over the focial affections •, whereas unleavened bread
implies fincerity and truth. It is frequently ufed for
any kind of moral contagion.
LEAVES of plants. See Leaf.
Colours extraBedfrom LEAVES. See COLOUR-Mak-
ing, N° 37.
LEBADEA, or Lebadia, an ancient town of
Boeotia, on the borders of Phocis, fituated between
Helicon and Chaeronea, near Coronaea. In it ftood
the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius, which whoever went
to confult, defcended into a fubterraneous gulf.
LEBED A, an ancient fea port town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Tripoli, with a pretty good harbour,
and an old caftle, feated on the Mediterranean fea j in
E. Long. 14. 50. N. Lat. 32. 10.
LEBEDOS, reckoned among the twelve ancient
cities of Ionia, was fituated to the fouth of Smyrna.
It was the refidence of ftage-players, and the place
where they met from all parts of Ionia, as far as the
Hellefpont, and celebrated annual games in honour of
Bacchus, (Strabo). It was overthrown by Lyfima-
chus, who removed the inhabitants to Ephefus ; fearce
ever after recovering itfelf, and becoming rather a vil¬
lage than a town, (Horace).
LEBEN, or Lebena, in /Indent Geography, one
of the port towns of the Gortynians, near the promon¬
tory Leon, on the fouth-eaft fide of Crete j famous for
a temple of Aidculapius in imitation of that of Cyre-
naica.
LEBRIXA, an ancient, ftrong, and pleafant town
of Spain, in Andalufia ; feated in a territory abound¬
ing in corn, wine, and a great number of olive trees,
of whofe fruit they make the beft oil in Spain. VV.
Long. 5. 32. N. Lat. 36. 52.
LEBUS, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and in the marquifate of Brandenburg,
with a bilhop’s fee, fecularized in favour of the houfe
of Brandenburg. It is feated on the river Oder, in E.
Long. 14. 44. N. Lat. 52. 28.
LECCE, a rich, populous, and tneft beautiful town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples and in the Terra
d’Otranto, of which it is the chief place, and the fee
of a biihop. E. Long. 18. 28. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LECCO, a town of Italy in the duchy of Milan,
feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Como. E. Long.
9. 23. N. Lat. 45. 5.
4 Y 2
LECHLADE,
1
LEG [ 724 ] LEE
Lechlade LECHLADE, a town of Gloucefterftiire in Eng-
i! land, tested at the confluence of the rivers Lech and
^,,1 'j'jiames# ■^y> Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 51. 42.
LECHNICH, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the lower Rhine, and in the eledtorate of Cologne.
E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 30. 40.
LECTI, beds or couches, were of two kinds amongft
the Romans, as being dettined to two different ufes, to
lie upon at entertainments, and to repofe upon for
nightly reft. 1 he firft were called leBi trichniares, the
other leBi cubicularii. See Beds.
LECTICA, was a litter or vehicle in which the
Romans were carried. It was of two kinds, covered
and uncovered. The covered ledlica is called by Pliny
cubiculum viatorum, a traveller’s bedchamber : And in¬
deed we are informed that Auguftus frequently ordered
his fervants to flop his litter that he might fleep upon
the road. This vehicle was carried by fix or eight men
called leBicarii. The ledfiea differed from the fella,
for in the firft the traveller could recline himfelf for
lleep, in the latter he was obliged to fit. The leftica
was invented in Bithynia ; the fella was a Roman ma¬
chine, and efteemed the more honourable of the two.
Ledfica w'as alfo the name of the funeral bed or bier
for carrying out the dead.
LECTICARII, among the Romans, fervants who
carried the Lectica.
LECTICARIUS was alfo an officer in the Greek
church, whofe bufinefs it was to bear off the bodies of
thofe w’ho died, and to bury them. Thefe were other-
W’ife denominated decani and copiatce.
LECTIO, Reading. Confidered in a medicinal view,
it is faid by Celfus, lib. i. cap. 4. to be bad, efpecially
after fupper, for thofe whofe heads are weak ; and in
lib. i. cap. 8. he recommends reading with an audible
voice for fuch as have weak ftomachs. It is alfo
diredled by Paulus iEginetus as an exercife, lib. i.
cap. 19.
LECTISTERNIUM, a folemn ceremony obferved
by the Romans in times of public danger, wherein an
entertainment was prepared with great magnificence,
and ferved up in the temples. The gods were invited
to partake of the good cheer, and their ftatues placed
upon couches round the table in the fame manner as
men ufed to fit at meat, The firft ledftifternium held
at Rome was in honour of Apollo, Latona, Diana,
Hercules, Mercury, and Neptune, to put a flop to a
contagious diftemper which raged amongft the cattle,
in the year of Rome 354. At thefe feafts the Epulo-
nes prefided, and the facred banquet was called epulum.
See Epulo, Epulum, &c.
Something like the leftifternium was occafionally
obferved among the Greeks, according to Cafau-
bon.
LECTORES, among the Romans, fervants in great
men’s houfes, who were employed in reading while their
mafters were at fupper. They were called by the
Greeks ANA.GNOSTJE.
LECTOURE, an ancient and ftrong town of France,
in Gafcony, with a caftle and a bifhop’s fee *, feated
on a mountain, at the foot of which runs the river
Gers. E. Long. o. 42- N. Lat. 43. 56.
LECTURERS, in England, are an order of preach¬
ers in parifh churches, diftinft from the redtor, vicar,
and curate. They are chofen by the veftry, or chief
3
inhabitants of the parifh, fupported by voluntary fub- Le&urerj
fcriptions and legacies, and are ufually the afternoon I)
preachers in the Sunday fervice. The term is alfo, ^ee‘
more generally applied to thofe who preach on Sun- v
day, or on any ftated day of the week, in churches,
or other places of public worfliip. By 13 and 14 Car. II.
cap. 4. lecturers in churches, unlicenled, and not con¬
forming to the liturgy, fhall be difabled, and fhall alfo
fuffer three months imprifonment in the common gaol 5
and two jufiices, or the mayor in a town corporate,
fhall, upon certificate from the ordinary, commit them
accordingly. Where there are ledfures founded by the
donations of pious perfons, the ledfurers are appointed
by the founders without any interpofition or confent of
redtors of churches, &c. though with the leave and ap¬
probation of the bifhop ; fuch as that of Lady Moyer’s
at St Paul’s. But the ledlurer is not entitled to the
pulpit, without the confent of the redlor or vicar, who
is poflefTed of the freehold of the church.
LEDA, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of King
Thefpius and Eurythemis, who married Tyndarus king
of Sparta. She was feen bathing in the river Eurotas
by Jupiter, when fhe w as feme few days advanced in her
pregnancy, and the god, ftruck with her beauty, re-
folved to deceive her. He perfuaded Venus to change
herfelf into an eagle, while he affumed the form of a
fwan, and after this metamorphofis Jupiter, as if fear¬
ful of the tyrannical cruelty of the bird of prey, fled
through the air into the arms of Leda, who willingly
flickered the trembling fwan from the aflaults of his
fuperior enemy. The carefles with which the naked
Leda received the fwan, enabled Jupiter to avail him¬
felf of his fituation, and nine months after this ad¬
venture the wife of Tyndarus brought forth two eggs,
of one of which fprung Pollux and Helena, and of the
other Caftor and Clytemneftra. The tw-o former were
deemed the offspring of Jupiter, and the others claimed
Tyndarus for their father. Some mythologifts attri¬
bute this amour to Nemefis and not to Leda ; and
they farther mention, that Leda was intrufted i\ith
the education of the children w'hich fprung from the
eggs brought forth by Nemefis. To reconcile this di-
verfity of opinions, others maintain that Leda received
the name of Netnefs after death. Homer and Hefiod
make no mention of the metamorphofis of Jupiter into
a fwan, w'hence fome have imagined that the fable
was unknown to thofe two ancient poets, and probably
invented fince their age.
LEDBURY, a town of Herefordftiire in England.
It is a well built town, feated on a rich clay foil, and
inhabited moftly by clothiers, who carry on a pretty
large trade. W. Long. 2. 2C. N. Lat. 52. 6.
LEDESMA, an ancient and ftrong town of Spain,
in the kingdom of Leon, feated on the river Tome, in
W. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 47- 2.
LEDGER, the principal book wherein merchants
enter their accounts. See Book-keeping.
LEDUM, Marsh Cistus, or WildRofmary ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs \ and in
the natural method ranking under the 18th order, Bu
comes. See Botany Index.
LEE, an epithet ufed by feamen to diftinguifh that
part of the hemifphere to which the wind is direfted,
from the other part whence it arifes*, which latter is
accordingly called to windward. This expreflion is
chiefly.
LEE [7
chiefly ufed when the wind crofles the line of a (hip’s
courfe, fo that all on a fide of her is called to 'wind-
weird, and all on the oppofite fide to leeward. Hence,
Under the LeE> implies farther to the leeward, or
farther from that part of the horizon whence the wind
blows : as,
Under the Lee of the fhore ; i. e. at a Ihort diftance
from the Ihore which lies to windward. This phrafe
is commonly underftood to exprefs the fituation of a
vefiel anchored, or failing under the weather-lhore,
where there is always fmoother water, and lefs danger
of heavy feas, than at a great diftance from it.
Lee Larches, the fudden and violent rolls which a
(hip often takes to the leeward in a high fea, parti¬
cularly when a large wave ftrikes her on the weather-
fide.
Lee-Side, all that part of a (hip or boat which lies
between the maft and the fide fartheft from the direc¬
tion of the wind •, or otherwife, that half of a (hip
which is prefled down towards the water by the effort
of the fails, as feparated from the other half by a line
drawn through the middle of her length. That part
of the (hip which lies to windward of this line is
accordingly called the weather-fide. I hus admit a (hip
to be failing fouthward, with the wind at eaft, then is
her (larboard or right fide the leefide; and the lar¬
board, or left, the weatherfide.
LEE-Stone. See LEE- Penny.
LEE.-Way. See Navigation.
LEE, Nathaniel, a very eminent dramatic poet
of the laft century, was the fon of a clergyman, who
gave him a liberal education.—He received his firft
rudiments of learning at Weftminfter fchool; from
whence he went to Trinity college, Cambridge.—
Coming to London, however, his inclination prompt¬
ed him to appear on the theatre •, but he was not
more fuccelsful in reprefenting the thoughts of other
men, than many a genius befides, who have been
equally unfortunate in treading the ftage, although
they knew fo well how to write for it. He produced
11 tragedies, all of which contain a very great por¬
tion of true poetic enthufiafm. None, if any, ever
felt the paffion of love more truly j nor could any one
deferibe it with more tendernefs. Addifon commends
his genius highly; obferving, that none of our Eng-
li(h poets had a happier turn for tragedy, although
his natural fire and unbridled impetuofity hurried him
beyond all bounds of probability, and fometimes were
quite out of nature. The truth is, this poet’s imagi¬
nation ran away with his reafon •, fo that at length he
became quite crazy j and grew’ fo mad, that his friends
were obliged to confine him in bedlam, where he made
that famous witty reply to a coxcomb fcribbler, who
had the cruelty to jeer him with his misfortune, by
obferving that it was an eafy thing to write like a mad¬
man :—“ No (faid Lee), it is not an eafy thing to
write like a madman *, but it is very eafy to write like
a fool.” Lee had the good fortune to recover the ufe
of his reafon fo far as to be difeharged from his me¬
lancholy confinement 5 but he did not long furvive his
enlargement, dying at the early age of 34. Cibber, in
his Lives of the Poets, fays he periftied unfortunately
in a night ramble in London ftreets.—His Theodofius
and Alexander the Great are flock plays, and to this
day are often a£led with great applaufe. The late Mr
si LEE
Barry was particularly fortunate in the chara&er of Lee
the Macedonian hero. fee~t>e
LEE-Penmj, or Leefione, a curious piece of antiqui- *
ty belonging to the family of Lee in Scotland, and of
which the following account has been given in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for December 1787.
It is a (tone of a dark red colour and triangular
(liape, and its fize about half an inch each fide. It is
fet in a piece of filver coin, which, though much de¬
faced, by fome letters ftill remaining is fuppofed to be a
(hilling of Edward I. the erofs being very plain, as it is
on his (hillings.—It has been, by tradition, in the Lee
family fince the year 1320 j that is, a little after the
death of King Robert Bruce, who having ordered his
heart to be carried to the Holy Land, there to be
buried, one of the noble family of Douglas was fent
with it, and it is faid got the crowned heart in his
arms from that circumftance : but the perfon who car¬
ried the heart was Simon Locard of Lee, whojuft about
this time borrowed a large fum of money from Sir
William de Lendfay, prior of Air, for which he grant¬
ed a bond of annuity of ten pounds of filver, during the
life of the faid Sir William de Lendfay, out of his
lands of Lee and Cartland. The original bond, dated
1323, and witnefled by the principal nobility of the
country, is ftill remaining among the family papers.
As tins was a great fum in thofe days, it is thought
it was borrowed for that expedition ; and from his
being the perfon who carried the royal heart, he
changed his name to Lockheart, as it is fometimes
fpelled, or Lockhart, and got a heart within a lock
for part of his arms, with the motto Corda ferata pan-
do.—This Simon Lockhart having taken prifoner a
Saracen prince or chief, his wife came to ranfom him j
and on counting out the money or jewels, this (lone
fell out of her purfe, which (lie haftily fnatched up :
which Simon Lockhart obferving, infilled to have it,
elfe he would not give up his prifoner. Upon this the
lady gave it him, and told him its many virtues, viz.
that it cured all difeafes in cattle, and the bite of a
mad dog both in man and bead. It is ufed by dip¬
ping the (lone in water, which is given to the difeaf-
ed cattle to drink ; and the perfon who has been bit,
and the wound or part infefted, is walked with the
water. There are no words ufed in the dipping of the
(lone, or any money taken by the fervants, without
incurring the owner’s difpleafure. Many are the cures
faid to be performed by it, and people come from all
parts of Scotland, and even as far up in England as
Yorkftiire, to get the water in which the (lone is
dipped, to give their cattle, when ill of the mur¬
rain efpecially, and black leg.—A great many years
ago, a complaint was made to the ecclefiaftical courts
againft the laird of Lee, then Sir James Lockhart, for
ufing witchcraft.—It is faid, when the plague was laft
at Newcaftle, the inhabitants fent for the Lee-penny,
and gave a bond for a large fuai in truft for the loan $
and that they thought it did fo much good, that they
offered to pay the money, and keep the Lee-penny: but
the gentleman would not part with it. A copy of this
bond is very well attefted to have been among the fa¬
mily papers, but fuppofed to have been fpoiled, along
with many more valuable ones, about 50 years ago, by-
rain getting into the charter room, during a long mi¬
nority, and no family refiding at Lee.
LEE [ 726 1 LEE
We have given this biftory, not on account of the
utility of the information, but as a proof of the fuper-
ftition of the times. None of the virtues which the
ftone was formerly fuppofed to poffefs, are now aferibed
to it, excepting, we believe, in the cafe of fume of the
difeafes of cattle j and even thefe in more enlighten¬
ed times will become daily lefs numerous and lefs
powerful.
LEECH, in Zoology. See Hirudo, Helmintho¬
logy Index.
Leeches, in a fliip, the borders or edges of a fail
which are either Hoping or perpendicular.
The leeches of all fails whofe tops and bottoms are
parallel to the deck, or at right angles to the maft, are
denominated from the (hip’s fide, and the fail to which
they belong •, as the Jlarboard leech of the main-fail,
the lee leech of the fore-top fail, &c. But the fails
which are fixed obliquely on the mafts have their
leeches named from their fituation with refpe£t to the
(hip’s length j as the fore leech of the mizen, the after-
leech of the jib or fore-ftay fail, &c.
LEECH Lines, certain ropes fattened to the middle
of the leeches of the main-fail and fore-fail, and com¬
municating with blocks under the oppofite fides of the
top, whence they pafs downwards to the deck, ferving
to trufs up thofe fails to the yard as occafion requires.
See Brails.
LEECH Rope, a name given to that part of the bolt-
rope to which the border or (kirt of a fail is fewed. In
all fails whofe oppofite leeches are of the fame length,
it is terminated above the earing, and below the clue.
See BoLT-Rope, Clue, and Earing.
LEEDS, a town of the weft riding of Yorkfhire,
196 miles from London, has a magnificent ftone bridge
over the river Aire to the fuburbs. It was incorpo¬
rated by King Charles I. with a chief alderman, nine
burgeffes, and 20 affiftants ; and by Charles II. wdth
a mayor, 1 2 aldermen, and 24 afliftants. It has been
a long time famous for the woollen manufacture, and
is one of the largeft and moft flouriftiing towns in the
county, yet had but one church till the reign of
Charles I. By means of inland navigation, it has com¬
munication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Kibble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. *, which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, Lancafter, Weftmortland, Chefter, Stafford, War¬
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. Here is a long
ttreet full of (hops, and a hall for the fale of cloth, built
in 1758. The merchants of this place, York, and Hull,
(hip them off at the latter port, for Holland, Hamburgh,
and the north. After ringing of the market-bell at fix
or feven in the morning, the chapmen come and match
their patterns, when they treat for the cloth with a whif-
per, becaufe the clothiers (landings are fo near each
other ; and perhaps 20,000). worth of cloth is fold in an
hour’s time. At half a hour after eight the bell rings
again, when the clothiers make room for the linen-
drapers, hardware men, (hoemakers, fruiterers, &c. At
the fame time the (hambles are well ttored with all forts
of fi(h and fle(h ; and 500 horfe loads of apples have
been counted here in a day. There is a magnificent
hall, where they alfo fell great quantities of white
cloth ; and here is a noble guildhall, with a fine marble
ilatue of Queen Anne, ereCled about the year 1714.
Its river being navigable by boats, they fend other
goods, befides their cloth, to Wakefield, York, and
Hull, and furnifli York with coals. There is a houfe
called Red hall, becaufe it w'as the firft brick building
in the town, and King Cnarles I. had an apartment in
it, which is ever fince called the King's chamber. There
is another place called Tower hill, on which there was
once a tower j befides which, there was a cattle which
King Stephen befieged in his march to Scotland.
Here was alfo a park, where are now inclolures.
There is a workhoufe here of free ftone, where poor
children are taught to mix wool, and perform other
eafy branches of that manufacture, and a part of it has
been ufed many years as an hofpital for the reception
of the aged poor. Here are three alms houfes, and two
charity fchools of blue coat boys to the number of 100.
In the ceiling of St Peter’s, its only parochial church,
the delivery of the law to Mofes is finely painted in
frefco by Parmentier. It is a venerable free ftone pile
built in the cathedral falhion, and feems to have been
the patch work of feveral ages. The increafe of build¬
ing in Leeds in the year 1786, was nearly 400 houfes.
The population in 1801 amounted to 30,669. There
is a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe here, erefted in 1691,
called the new chapel, which is the ftatelieft, if not the
oldeft, of that denomination in the north of England :
and in the town and its fuburbs are feveral other meet-
ing-houfes, as is always obfervable in towns of great
trade and manufacture. It is noted for feme medicinal
fprings $ one of which, called St Peter's, is very cold,
and has been found very beneficial in rheumatifms,
rickets, &e. Here is an hofpital for relief of the poor
who had been honed and induftrious, endowed with
Sol. a-year, befides 10I. a-year for a mafter to read
prayers and inftruft them ; alfo a free fchool. Its mar¬
kets are Tuefdays and Saturdays, and the market-laws
are more ftriCtly obferved here than anywhere. It has
two fairs in the year. Leeds, though a large town,
fends no members to parliament.
LEEK. See Allium, Botany Index ; and for its
culture, fee Gardening.
Lelk, a town of Staffordlhire in England, 155
miles from London. It lies among the barren moor¬
lands, has a manufaClure of buttons, a market on Wed-
nefday, and feven fairs in the year. In the church¬
yard, at the fouth-eaft corner of the chancel, are the
remains of a Danifli crofs, now upright, and 10 feet
high from the ground, beneath which are three fteps.
In Blue-hills in the neighbourhood are coal mines j
and a fait dream comes from thence, which tinges the
(tones and earth through which it runs with a rufty co¬
lour, and, with the infufion of galls, turns as black as
ink. Here are rocks of a moft furprifing height, with¬
out any turf or mould upon them.
LEER, in glafs-making, a fort of third furnace,
intended to anneal and cool by proper degrees the
veffels when made. This properly comprehends two
parts, the tower and leer. The tower is that part
which lies direCtly above the melting furnace, with a
partition between them of a foot thick, in the midft
whereof there is a round hole, placed exa£lly over the
furnace, through which the flame ar d heat pafs into
the tower: on the floor of this tower the veffels are
fet to anneal. There are two openings by which the
veffels are put into this tower, and after (landing there
LEE
forrie time, they are put into iron pans, which by de¬
grees are drawn out all along that part of this furnace,
which is properly called the leer ; which is five or fix
yards long, that the velfels may cool by degrees. This
leer is continued to its tower and arched all along, and
is ?ibout four feet wide, and high within. The glaffes
are cool by that time they are brought to the mouth of
this, which enters into a room where the glaffes are
placed when taken out.
LEES, the groffeft and moft ponderous parts of li¬
quors, which, being feparated by fermentation, fall to
the bottom. The word comes from the French lie;
and that either from hmus, “ mud,” or from Lyeus,
one of the furnames of Bacchus •, or, according to Du
Cange, from lia, a corrupt Latin word fignifying the
fame. The vinegar-makers make a great trade of
the lees of wine dried and made into cakes, after hav¬
ing fqueezed out the remains of the liquor in preffes.
LEE F, or Court Leet Qleta vifus franci plegii)y
is a court of record, ordained for punifhing offences
againft the crown } and is faid to be the moft ancient
court of the land. It inquires of all offences under
high treafon ; but thofe w'ho are to be puniffned with
lofs of life or rm-mber, are only inquirable and pre-
fentable here, and to be certified over to the juftiees
of aflize, (Stat. I. Edvv. III.). And this court is called
the view of frank pledge, becaufe the king is to be there
certified by the view of the fteward, how many people
are within every leet, and have an account of their good
manners and government j and every perfon of the
age of 12 years, who hath remained there for a year
and a day, may be fworn to be faithful to the king,
and the people are to be kept in peace, &c. A leet
is incident to a hundred, as a court baron to a manor :
for by grant of a hundred, a leet paffeth ; and a hun¬
dred cannot be without a leet.—The ufual method of
punifliment in the court leet, is by fine and amerce¬
ment •, the former affeffed by the fteward, and the lat¬
ter by the jury.
LEETAKOO, a confiderable town in fouthern A-
frica, fituated in 26° 30' S. Eat. and 27® E. Long. A
river runs through the midft of it, which from the extent
of the channel muft be fometimes of confiderable magni¬
tude. This town, w'hich w'as difcovered by a miflion from
the Cape of Good Hope in 1801 and 1802, is computed
to be fully of as great extent as CapeTown 5 but the exa£t
number of the houfes, fays Mr Barrow, could not be
afcertained, owing to the irregularity of the ftreets and
the lownefs of the buildings. It contains, according to
fome, about 10,000 inhabitants of all defcriptions,
while others make them amount to nearly 15,000.
The ground plan of every houfe is a complete circle,
from 12 to 15 feet diameter } the floor confifts of hard
beaten clay, raifed four inches above the fiarface of the
enclofure. One-fourth of it, commonly facing the eaft,
is entirely open, the other three-fourths walled up with
clay and ftones, to the height of about five feet. The
people depofit their valuable articles in another apart¬
ment defcribed w ith the fame radius as the former, fuch
as fkin clothing, ivory ornaments, knives and other ar¬
ticles, which to them are of effential fervice. In this
alfo the elder part of the family take their repofe, and
the children deep in the half-clofed viranda.
The whole houfe is covered with a roof in the form
of a tent, fupported by poles built into the wall. The
r 727 1
LEG
roof is thatched with reeds, bound together with lea¬
thern thongs. The inhabitants preferve their grain and
pulfe in large clay veflfels adjacent to the houfe, exhi-,
biting the appearance of large oil jars, and fome of them
containing about 200 gallons.
The regularity and decorum with which the people
of Leetakoo conduft themfelves, give a very favourable
opinion of them, as being greatly fuperior to favages,
and evince them to be bordering on a ftate of civiliza¬
tion, which it would be no difficult matter to introduce
among them. They are friendly, peaceable, and in-
offenfive, and appear to live under a government which
may be denominated purely patriarchal, and the chief
of confequence muft be the idol of the people. They
do not appear to have any particular form of religious
worfhip, in the common acceptation of that word, yet
they circumcife all male children, and dance in a circle
the whole night of the full moon. They feem alfo to
believe that there is a power diredting the operations of
nature, who is infinitely fuperior to themfelves, and to
whofe influence they are fubje£L Barrow's Travels to
Cochin-China. Appendix.
LEEWARD Ship, a veflel that falls much to leeward
of her courfe, when failing clofe hauled, and confe-
quently lofes much ground.
To LEEWARD, towards that part of the horizon
which lies under the lee, or whither the wind bloweth.
Thus, “We faw a fleet under the lee," and, “ We faw
a fleet to leeward" are fynonymous expreffions.
LEG, in Anatomy, the whole leffer extremity
from the acetabula of the offa innominata, com¬
monly divided into three parts, viz. the thigh, the
leg properly fo called, and the foot. See Anatomy,
N0 60.
LEGACY, in Scots L.aw, a donation by one perfon
to another, to be paid by the giver’s executor after his
death. See Law, N° clxxxi. 3.
LEGATE, a cardinal or bilhop, whom the pope
fends as his ambaffador to fovereign princes. See Am¬
bassador.
There are three kinds of legates, viz. legates a
latere, legates de latere, and legates by office, or legati
nati: of thefe the moft confiderable are the legates a
latere, the next are the legates de latere. See the ar¬
ticle Latere.
Legates by office are thofe who have not any parti¬
cular legation given them ; but who, by virtue of their
dignity and rank in the church, become legates: fuch
are the archbfthop of Rheims and Arles : but the au¬
thority of thefe legates is much inferior to that of the
legates a latere.
The power of a legate is fometimes given without
the title. Some of the nuncios are invefted with it.
It was one of the ecclefiaftical privileges of England
from the Norman conqueft, that no foreign legate
fhould be obtruded upon the Englifh, unlefs the king,
ffiould defire it upon fome extraordinary emergency^,
as when a cafe was too difficult for the Englifti pre¬
lates to determine.
The term legate comes from legatus, which Varro
derives from legere, “ to choofe 5” and others from le-
gare, delegare, “ to fend, delegate.”
Court of the LEGATE, was a court obtained by Car¬
dinal Wolfey of Pope Leo X. in the ninth year of
Henry YIII. wherein he,, as legate of the pope, had
power
Lectakoo
n
Legate.
/
LEG r 728 ] LEG
Legate
power to prove wills, and difpenfe with offences a-
gainft the fpiritual laws, &.c. It was but of Ihort con¬
tinuance.
LEGATEE, in Scots Law, the perfon to whom a
legacy is provided.
LEGATIO libera, was a privilege frequently ob¬
tained of the {fate, by fenators of Rome, for going
into any province or country, upon their own private
bufinefs, in the quality of /egati or envoys from the fe-
nate, that the dignity of this nominal office might fe-
cure them a good reception, and have an influence
cn the management of their concerns. The cities and
towns through which they palled were obliged to de¬
fray their expences.—This was called libera legatio,
becaufe they might lay afide the office as foon as
they pleafed, and were not encumbered with any attual
truft.
LEG AT US, a military officer amongft the Ro¬
mans, who commanded as deputy of the commander
in chief. The legati, at their firft inftitution, were not
fo much to command as to advife. They were gene¬
rally chofen by the confuls, with the approbation of
the fenate. As to the number of the legatt, we have
no certain information, though we may upon good
grounds affign one to every legion. In the ablence of
the conful or proconful, they had the honour to ufe the
fafces.
Under the emperors there were two forts of legatt,
confulares and prcetorii. The firfl commanded whole
armies, as the emperors lieutenant-generals j and the
other had the command of particular legions.
The leg at i under the proconfuls in the provinces,
ferved forjudging inferior cauTes, and management of
fmaller concerns, remitting things of great moment to
the governor or prefident himfelf. rl his was the ori¬
ginal office of the legati, as was hinted above •, though,
as we have feen, they were afterwards admitted to com¬
mand in the army.
LEGEND, any idle or ridiculous flory told by
the Romanilfs concerning their faints, and other
perfons, in order to fupport the credit of their reli¬
gion.
The legend w as originally a book ufed in the old
Romiffi churches, containing the leflbns to be read at
divine fervice •, hence the lives of the faints and mar¬
tyrs came to be called legends, becaufe chapters w'ere
read out of them at matins, and at the refedlories of
religious houfes. Among thefe the golden legend, legend,
which is a colle£Uon of the lives of the faints, was re-
ceived in the church with great applaufe, which it
maintained for 200 years j though it is fo full of ridi¬
culous and romantic itories, that the Romanifts them-
felves are now affiamed of it.
Legend is alfo ufed by authors to fignify the words
or letters engraven about the margin, &c. of coins. Thus
the legend of a French crown is, sit NOMEN DOMINI
BENEDICTVM } that of a moidore, IN hoc signo vinces :
on thofe of the laft emperors of Conftantinople, we find
IESVS CHRISTVS BASILEVS BASILEON, IHS XPS NIKA,
IESVS CHRISTVS VINCIT.
Legend is alfo applied to the infeription of medals,
which ferves to explain the figures or devices reprefent-
ed on them. In ftriclnefs, the legend differs from the
infeription j this laft properly fignifying words placed
on the reverfe of a medal, in lieu of figures.
It feems as if the ancients had intended their medals
ffiould ferve both as images and as emblems j the for¬
mer for the common people, and the other for perfons
of tafte and parts j the images to reprefent the faces of
princes j emblems their virtues and great adtions j fo
that the legend is to be looked on. as the foul of the
medal, and the figures as the body.
Every medal has properly two legends •, that on the
front, and that on the reverfe. The firft generally
ferves only to diftinguiffi the perfon by his name, titles,
offices, &c. the latter is intended to exprefs his noble
and virtuous fentiments, his good deeds, and the ad¬
vantages the public has reaped by him. This, however,
does not hold univerfally ; for fometimes we find the
titles ffiared between both fides, and fometimes alfo the
legend.
In the medals of cities and provinces, as the head
is ufually the genius of the place, or at leaft fome
deity adored there, the legend is the name of the city,
province, or deity, or of both together j and the re¬
verfe is fome fymbol of the city, &c. frequently with¬
out a legend, fometimes with that of one of its magi-
ftrates.
Legends generally commemorate the virtues of
princes, their honour and confecrations, fignal events,
public monuments, deities, vows, privileges, &c. which
are either in Latin or Greek, or a mixture of both,
and are intended to eternize their names, and the be¬
nefits done by them to the empire.
LEGERDEMAIN,
OR SLEIGHT OF HAND,
A DENOMINATION given to certain deceptive
performances, which either depend altogether on
dexterity and addrefs, or derive but a fmall degree
of aid from philofophical principles. Of thefe we {hall
prefent our readers with a fele&ion of the beft that
have been either explained in books or publicly exhi¬
bited.
Sect. I. Performances with Cups and Balls.
Prelimi- The following method of exercifing this fimple and
nary expla- ingenious amufement is that pra&ifed by one Mr
nations. 0
Kopp a German, whofe performances are defervedly
prefered to thofe of former artifts. In this, however,
as in all the other branches belonging to the art
of legerdemain, it is not fufficient that a perfon has
the requifite dexterity or Height of hand $ it is neceffary
alfo to take off the attention of the fpedators by fome
entertaining difeourfe •, which not only prevents difeo-
very, but adds greatly to the amufement of the com¬
pany ; for which reafon, fuch difeourfe is inferted in
this article.
To play this part properly, the performer on cups
and
$e£L I.
Perform¬
ances with
Gups and
Balls.
Plate
CCXG.
*2- «•
Tig. 2.
I,'2- 3*
Fig. 4.
Fi
f-S*
and balls ought io provide himfelf with a bag about
12 inches long, and from eight to ten in depth. The
infide mud; be furnifhed with a number of pockets
toj for holding the feveral articles necelfary in the amufe-
rr.ent j and this bag the performer mull; hang before
him.
The materials neceffary for the performer are,
1. Three white polilhed tin cups, reprefented by
A, B, and C (fig. 1.) in the lhape of a truncated cone
with a double ledge D towards the bafe. This ledge,
■which is about half an inch in breadth, ferves to raife
the cups eafily by, admitting alfo the hand to pafs a
fmall cork ball (fee fig. 5.). The upper part E of the
cup ought to be hollowed in the form of a fphere, fuf-
fieient to contain the balls without their appearing
above the upper edge of the cups.
2. It is alfo neceffary to have a fmall rod, called Ja¬
cob's ; which is ufually made of ebony, and neatly
tipt with ivory at both ends. This is frequently ufed
for ftriking on the cups j and being held in the hand
where the balls are alfo kept, it gives the operator an
opportunity of keeping that hand generally (hut, or of
varying its pofition, in order to avoid being difcovered.
The balls are made of cork, blackened by (light burn¬
ing on the outfide.
The dexterity in performing this operation confifts
in artfully fecreting a ball in the right hand, and mak¬
ing it to appear or difappear in the fame hand. The
fecreting it between the fingers is called conjuring the
ball, at which time the fpeftators are to fuppofe that
it is kept in the other hand, or that it w-as pafled under
a cup j but if it is made to reappear when held fecretly
in the hand, they mud believe that it came out of the
place lad touched by the fingers.
Conjuring the ball is performed by putting it between
the -place of the thumb A and the finger B (fig. 2.),
conveying it with the thumb, by rolling it upon the
fingers the length of the line BC, moving the middle
finger D to a didance, and placing the ball at the junc¬
tion of the fingers C (fig. 3.) j but in this part of the
operation it is neceffary to hold the ball rather tight,
led it (liould fall down and difeover the fecret. In or¬
der to make it appear, we mud bring back the ball
the fame way from C to D $ and every time that it is
conjured, or made to difappear, as well as when it is
made to reappear, the palm of the hand fliould be
turned from the fide of the table on which the opera¬
tor is playing.
While this part of the trick is performing, the ope¬
rator mud let the fpe&ators know that the ball has
been paffed under a cup, or into another hand ; and in
the fird cafe he makes a motion with the hand (as
reprefented fig. 4.), indicating that he had thrown it
through the cup j at which time alfo he conjures it,
approaching the two fingers of the right hand towards
the left, which lad he holds open, and makes a motion
as if the ball had been placed there, (hutting the left
hand indantly. It is alfo to Jbe fuppofed, at every
time when a ball feems to be placed below a cup, that
it has been held in the left hand j and when he raifes
the cup with the right hand, as in fig. 5. the left hand
mud be opened, and he reds the ball at that indant
upon the hollow of the other, (liding it along the
fingers.
At the time the ball is to be put fecretly under
Vol. XL Part If.
LEGERDEMAIN.
729
the cup, it (hould lie between the two fingers of the Perform-
right hand (fig. 5.). With this hand he raifes the cup ; ances with
and placing it on the table, lets go the ball, which, ac- CTusnd
cording to its pofition in fig. 6. (hould be found near '■ r ;
the edge of the cup when taken into the hand. If heFig. 6.
would put the ball fecretly betw-een the two cups, it
mud be let go by jerking it towards the bottom of the
cup which he holds, and places it Very quickly on that
in which the ball is to be found. When the ball is in
this fituation, if the operator (hould want it to difap¬
pear, he mud raife the two cups with his right hand,
and draw out hadily that under which the ball is pla¬
ced j at the fame, indant lowering with his left hand
the other cup, under which he places it.
In fpeaking of the tricks which follow, terms are
made ufe of which explain whether what is faid be
feigned or true j of wEich terms explanations are given,
and numbers adapted to the explanations of the differ¬
ent operations which follow.
\» put the ball under the cup: Really done, with
the fingers of the right or left hand.
II. To put the ball under the cup, or in the hand.——
A feigned conjuration ; pretending to dmt it up in the
left hand, which is afterwards opened, in order to have
it fuppofed that the ball is under the cup or elfe-
where. See fig. 3.
III. To pafs the ball under the cup.—The ball fuppo¬
fed to be conjured is to be really introduced*
IW To pafs the ball betiueen the cups, is likewife
real.
V. T® tr.ahe the ball which is between the cups difap¬
pear.—This is likewife real $ and performed, as has al¬
ready been deferibed, by drawing back with much pre¬
cipitation and dexterity the cup on which it is placed,
and lowering upon the table that which is above,
and under which the ball mud of confequence be
found.
VI. To tahe the ball. Real.—It is taken between
two fingers of the right hand, and fhown before conju¬
ration.
VII. To tahe away the ball from under the cup.
This is done by taking it away in the fight of the fpec-
tators.
VIII. To draw the ball. Feigned j or by pretend¬
ing to draw it from the end of the rod, from the cup,
or any other place, by bringing into the fingers the
ball which was fecreted.
IX. To throw the ball through the cup, is to conjure
it in pretending to throw it.
X. To raife up the cups. This is really done in three
ways ; viz. either with the right hand, the rod, or
the left hand. The firll is when the ball is to be fe¬
cretly inferted in returning the cup to its place. In the
fecond, the rod is to be put on the tops of the cups to
turn them over again, fo that the balls may be (hown
which were to be pafled into them. The third is when
the operator intends to (how that no balls are in the
cups, or that there are (bme.
XI. To cover a cup. This is really done, by taking
-with the right hand that which is to be put over ano¬
ther, and introducing at the fame time a ball between
the two.
XII. To recover a cup. It is done by taking with
the left hand the cup to be put over or above, without
introducing any thing into it.
4Z
Th
730
Perform-
apees witla
Cups and
Balls.
L E G E R D
The Performances
I. To put a ball under each cup, and take it out again.
Having placed on the table the three cups and little
rod, as (hown in fig. I. the performer mult begin his
manoeuvres, by endeavouring to amufe the fpectators
with feme kind of entertaining difcourfe. Nothing.can
be more apropos than the origin of the little rod and
cups j and he muft be very afliduous in this fort of dif¬
courfe, to take off the eyes of the fpeftators as much
as poflible. The following may be a fpecimen of the
manner in which he ought to add refs his audience :
There are many perfons who meddle with the play
of the cups and balls, and yet know nothing about
them. This is by no means extraordinary : even I
who now' play before you, pretend to know but little.
Nay, fome time ago, I was fuch a novice as to think
of playing before a numerous afiembly with glafs cups,
in which,you may guefs I did not meet with great ap-
plaufe. I do not indeed nraftife this method but be¬
fore fuch as are aflually blind j neither do I play with
China cups, left, through awkwardnefs in feigning to
break their handles, I ihould do fo in reality. Thefe
are the cups which anfwer my purpofes. They are
made of fuch metal as the alchymifts attributed to
Jupiter and Mars, or, to fpeak more properly and in¬
telligibly, they are made of tin. Behold and examine
thefe cups (fhowing the cups to the company, and putting
them on the table) : All my feience, and it is in that in
which it is admirable, confifts in deceiving the eyes,
and paffing the balls into the cups without your per¬
ceiving how it is done. I advife you therefore to pay
no attention to my words, but to examine well my
hands, (Jhovaing his hands). If there is in this com¬
pany any perfon who has the misfortune to ufe fpefla-
cles, he may retire j but the moft clear lighted will fee
nothing there.
tc Here is the little Jacob’s rod ( fioiving the rod
with the left hand) ; that is to fay, the magazine from
which I take all my balls {taking fecretly with the other
hand a ball from his bag, which he hides between his fn-
gersf There is not one in England fo well furnilhed.
Obferve, that the more I take from it the more re¬
main : I draw from it (VIII.) this ball (fhowing it,
and placing it upon the table, (I.). Obferve that there
is nothing under the cups (fhowing the infde of the
cups'), and that I have no other ball in my hands,
{ /bowing his hands). I take (VI.) this ball. I put it
(II.) under the firft cup. I draw (VIII.) a fecond
ball from my little rod, and I put it under this fecond
cup {a&ually done). It is proper here to tell you,
"that the generality of thofe who play the cups only
feign to put the balls there •, but I do not deceive you,
and I actually put them there. {He raifes the cup B,
and taking the ball which he has put under it into his
right hand fingers, fhows it to the company). I return
it (II.) under the fame cup. I take (VIII.) this third,
and put it (II.) in the fame way under this laft cup.
You are about to fay that this is not very extraordi¬
nary, and that you could do it a< well yourfelves. I
agree with you : but the difficulty confifts in taking out
thefe balls again through the cups, ffrik-ing the firjl
cup with the rod). I take (VIII,) this firfl: ball
{ flowing it). I put it (H.) into my hand, and fend
it to Coftftantinople, {lie opens the left hand). I take
E M AI N. Sea. !.
(VIII.) this (friking with the rod on the fecond cup'). Per form-
I put it (IJ.) into my hand, and I fend it to the Eaft pnfeswna,
Indies, /opening his left hand). 1 take (VIII.) the j^iis
laft and I put it (I.) on the table : Obferve that there 
are no more under any of thefe cups /turning down the
cups 'with the rod).
2. With the fugle ball remaining on the table to pafs a
ball through each of the cups, and to take it offrom the
fame. “ I return the cups to their places, and take
(VI.) this ball, and I put it under this firft cup. I
lake it back again (VIII.) : obferve that it-is not there
now, /railing (X.) the cup with the left hand). I put
it (II.) under this other cup: I take it out again (Vllf.)
in the fame manner, /raijing (X.) the cup). I put it
(II.) under the laft cup, and take it out again (VIII.).
/raping the /of cup with the left hand, and placing the
ball on the table).
3. With the Jingle be l remaining on the table, to take',
away a ball through two or three cups.—In this per¬
formance the three cups are diftingui&ed by A, B, C,
as in fig. 1.
“ I never have any ball fscreted in my hands, as
the greateft part of them, who play the cups and balls
have /Jhovoing his hands). I take (VI.) this ball, and'
I put it (II.) under this cup B. I cover it (XII.)
with this cup C, and I take again (VIII.) this ball
through the two cups /flows the ballplacisig it on the
table, returns afterwards the cup C to its place, and
raifes (X.) the cup B to fhow that there is nothing
there). I take again (VI.) this fame ball. I put it
(II.) under the fame cup B : I cover it (XII.) with
the two other cups C and A ; and I take out (VIII.)
th is ball through the three cups /Jb owing it and placing
it on the table).
4. With the fugle ball remaining on the table, to pafs
the fame bail from cup to cup.-—“ I now beg of you to
pay every poffible attention, and you will very di-
ftinftly fee this ball pafs from one cup into the other
/putting the cups at a greater dpi a nee jrom each other).
I take (VI.) this ball, and I put it (II.) under the
cup C : there is nothing under this cup B /raping it,
introducing the ball and taking the rod in his hand). I
command that which I have put under the cup to pafs-
under that B. You fee it /moving the end of the rod-
from one cup to the other, as if he followed the ball) :
obferve that it is palled /raifng the cup with his left
hand, and taking the ball with Ins right, flows it to the
company). I return it (II.) under this cup B j there-
is nothing under this A /raping the cup with his right
hand, and introducing the ball there). I am going to
pafs it under this laft cup A. Look well; come near:
/making as if feeing it he would fhow with the end of
the rod the path that it took). You did not fee it pafs ?
I am not muckdurprifed : I did not fee it myfelf j how¬
ever, here it is under the cup /raifng tie cup A, and
placing it on the table).
5. With the fame ball remaining on the table. The
cups being covered, to pafs a ball from one into the other,
without raping them up.—I ’.jos very right in telling
you, that the moft clear fighted would not fee very
much •, but for your comfort, here is a trick in which
you will fee nothing at all. I take this ball, and put;
it (II.) under this cup B. I cover it (XL) with the
two other cups /taking one in each hand, and introdu¬
cing the ball upon the cup B) : pay attention; that there
is
Se&. I.
LEGERDEMAIN-,
Perform. is abfolut&ly notliiflg in tny bands (/hawing them). I
&"cess c°mmand this ball to mount up upon the firft cup
BaiJs!1 (taking up the two cups, and putting thetn in their places,
■ he flows that it has mounted). I return (II.) this ball
under the fame cup B. I cover it as before (cotters it
in taking a cup in each hand, and introducing a hall be¬
tween the fecond and third cup). I take (the enli/ hall
with which he plays beifiq under the third cup, he can¬
not JIjow it, but adds as if he had taken it out, and puts
it into the fingers cf his left hand, which he holds in the
sir, in condu&ing the hand from one fide to the other).
I take the ball, which is under thefe three cups 5 and I
throw it through the hr ft cup (feigning to throw it) :
obferve that I have not conjured the ball, having
nothing in my hands (fioowing them); it is palled,
however, (railing the firfi cup with the left hand, put¬
ting tire ball upon the table and the cups in their
places).
6. With the jingle ball remaining on the table, to pafis
a ball through the table and two cups.—“ You are un¬
doubtedly furpriied, that, having but a Angle ball, I
have been able, after having fliown it to you, to pafs it
under this cup without railing it; but let not that aftft-
nilh you : I have fecrets much more wonderful. I con¬
vey, for example, the fteeple of one village into an¬
other : I have Sympathetic quadrants, with which a
converfation may be held at 200 leagues diflance : I
have a hying chariot which can conduct me to Rome
in three days. I will fhow all thefe curiofities as foon
as my machines are entirely completed ; that is to fay,
in a few centuries : but to amufe you till the arrival
of all thefe prodigies, 1 now continue the entertainment
of the cups and balls. I put (II.) this ball under the
cup A. I take it away again (VIII.) (Jloowing it,
and feigning to put it into his left hand fingers). I co¬
ver (XI.) this cup with the two others B and C (intro¬
ducing the ball between thefe two cups, ufing always the
right hand, and feigning fill to hold it in his left), and I
pafs this fame ball through the table and the two cups
(putting the left hand under the table). There it is
palled fiaifing the firfi cup').
7. With the fame ball. A ball having been put under
a cup, to take it away again, and to pafs it between two
others.—“ Here is again a very pretty trick : I take
this ball, and I put it (II.) under this cup A. Ob-
fcrve, that there is nothing under the others (fioowing
them and introducing the ball under the cup C), nor in
rny hands : I take this ball, which is under the cup A
{feigning to take it out, and raifng the bottom of the
cup fo that the fpedlators may not attend to his fingers.
I cover this cup C with the two others A and B, and
I throw it (IX.) through thefe two cups failing them,
andfhowing them that the ball is pafied there.)
8. With this Jingle ball and a [hilling ; to pafs a ball
from one hand into the other.—“ I take this ball •, I put
jt (II.) into this hand, and I put into the other the
{hilling. In which hand do you think th® ball is ? or
in which do you think the Ihilling may be {Whatever
anfwer the fpeciato'' makes, the performer fnows him that
he 1 r mfiaken, and that the whole is in the right hand; and
this truth ferves as a pretence to take a ball from the bag
in putting the fhilling back into it).
The performer may, however, without breaking the
connexion of thefe operations, difpenfe with this trick,
and feign to drop the balls he plays with, which affords
him a pretence for taking another.
9. With the ball remaining on the table, and that which
is fecretly taken out of the bag ; to pafs under a cup the
two balls put under the others.—The operator goes on
with his difeourfe : “ In order to give you ftill farthet
amufement, I take this ball and cut it in two {taking
it in his left hand, and holding the rod with his right;
feigning to cut it, he puis afterwards the rod oti the table,
and brings back to his fingers ends the ball which he took
Out of the bag). Nothing is fo commodious as to be
able in this manner to multiply the balls. When I am
in want of money, I cut them again and again, until
I may have had five or fix bufligls {placin'* the two balls
mt the table). Obferve that there is nothing under this
cup A. I put there (II.) this firft ball 1 there i$
nothing more under the two other cups {introducing
the ball under the cup B). I take this fecond ball, and
I put it (II.) under the cup C : there is now a ball
under thefe two cups A and C. I take away (VIII.)
from this cup C this ball, and I throw it (IX.) through
the middle cup B : obferve that it is paftVd {raifng the
cup B, and introducing there the fecond ball). I com¬
mand this, which is under the other cup A, to pafs
under the fame cup B {raifng this cup, and [bowing
that they are both there, and placing them on the table).
10. With the two balls which are upon the table.
Two balls having been put under the fame cup, to paj's
them tinder two others.—“ When I was at college, the
tutor told me, it was neeeflary to know how to do my
exercife in two ways. I have juft now palled thefe
two balls into the middle cup ; I arn now to make them
go out; the one is not more difficult for me than the
other. I take therefore thefe two balls, and place them
under this cup B {putting one ball under the cup, and
conjuring the other) ; obferve that there is nothing un¬
der the cup A, nor under the other C {introducing int*
this lafi the ball that he conjured) : I command one of
thefe balls, which are under the middle cup, to pafs
under the one or the other of thefe two cups A and C,
Behold it already gone {railing the cup B to Jhow that
there is no more than a fing/e ball; and taking, wi/h the
right hand, the ball which is underneath, he fiows it,
and puts it (II.) under the fame cup B). Let us fee in¬
to which cup it has paffed {rajing immediately the cup
A, and introducing the ball that he took from the cup
B) : here it is under (this cup C {raffing the cup) ; I
command the other ball to pafs under this cup A {he
raifes it, and jhows that it pajfcd there).’1'' This trick
is frequently done with three balls, but it appears much
more extraordinary with two.
11. With thefe two balls-, a third which he [hows, and
a fourth fecreted in his hands ; to pafs three balls under
the fame cup.~~-li All this is but a trifle; I am going to
ftiow you another trick with three balls {taking out of
the bag a third ball, and placing it on the table, fecreting
at the fame time a fourth in his hand). Obierve that
there is nothing under any of thefe cups (raffing them,
and introducing them under the cup C). I take this firft
ball, and throw it (IX.) through this eup C. Obferve
that it is palTed {raffing (X.) the cup with the right
hand) ; I take this fecond ball, and throw it (XI.)
through the fame cup. There it is paffed {raffing (X.)
again the cup) ; I take the third, and I make it pafs the
4 Z 2 fame
73-t
Perform-
tttv'cs witf*
Cups an'4
Balls.
13*
Perform- fame (raying (X.) the cup) andflowing that thefe are
and* un^er ^ie three).
'"balls.11 12* With the three balls remaining under the cup, and
1— that held fecretly in the hand; to pafs two balls from one
cup into another, at the choice of a perfon, without touch¬
ing any of the cups.—“ Here is another in which I have
never been able to comprehend any thing ; but it will
aftonifh you much (rai/ing the cup C, and taking away
the three balls from their places, he puts them under each
cup, and in rai/ing the cup C introduces there the fourth
ball which he heldfecretly in his hand). I take this ball
(that which is under the cup B), and I put it (II.) un¬
der the fame cup. I take this (the ball from the cup
A), and I place it (I.) under the fame cup (putting
there alfo that which was fecreted in his hand): I take
this laft, and I throw it (IX.) through the cup C $ and
to (how that I do not deceive you, behold it paffed
(rai/ing (X.) the cup that has been fixed upon, which
fuppofe to be C, and /hewing that there are two). I
take again thefe two balls, and put them under the cup
^ C (putting realh) but one) : obferve that there is no more
under this cup B (introducing there the ball that he had
jufi taken away, and flowing that he had no other in his
hand) ; I command one of thefe balls, which are under
this cup C, to go and join that which is under this A.
Obferve that it is paffed. There ! (raifing the cup C,
and returning the two balls under the fame cup, and raif¬
ing C, in order to flow that there is but' a fingle one;
and he places it again under the fame cup : he does not
raifie the cup B under which a ball remains).
13. With the three balls that were*placed upon cups,
and that which remains hidden under the middle cup ; to
pafs under the fame cup the balls put under the others.—
“ I take this ball (that which is upon the cup C), and I
put it (II.) under the fame cup C ; and I order it to
pafs into this cup B : there it is paffed (in raifing this cup
he introduces a third ball). I take this third ball, and
put it (II.) under this cup C 5 and I command it to
pafs into the cup B along the table, and in the fight
of the fpeftators (taking the rod in his left hand, feigning
to fhow the way that it paffed between the two cups).
You did not fee it then ? Here it is (He draws it
(VIII.) from the end of the rod, which appears to fhow
it). Go quickly (throwing it (IX.) through the cup
JB $ and flowing that they are all three there, and that
there is nothing under the two others ; placing afterwards
three of the balls on the table, and fecreting the fourth in
his hand).
14.. With the three balls remaining upon the table, and
shat which is held fecretly in his hand.—Multiplication
of the balls.
For this trick there mull be a tin vafe (fee fig. 8.),
at the bottom of which there muff be contrived a falfe
bottom A, which will fall down at pleafure \ that is to
lay, in reverfing it upon the table, by means of a fmall
trigger placed at the bafe of one of the handles B, in¬
troducing previoufly between the falfe and true bot¬
toms a dozen of balls. The operator goes on with hia
difeourfe.
“ If any of the company believe in witches, I
would give my advice that they ftrould believe in them
no longer 5 as what I am about to do is much more
lurprifing than the feats of any witch.—I put (I.)
thefe three balls under the three cups you fee on the
table ; I take away (VIB) this firft hd[\(thai which is
4
Sea. I.
under the cup C), and I put it (II.) into-this vafe. I Perfcrm-
take this, and I alfo put it (II.) into the vafe. I Krues
take away (VII.) this third (that which is under the CuPs..ailC*
cup A), and I throw it (IL) the fame way.” (Every 1'3^ 5’ _j
time that he ra fes one of the cups to take away the bail,
he introduces that which, always remains fecreted in his
right hand 1 and this he repeats, confiantly taking out one
ball and putting in another, till he has introduced all the
twelve balls ; after which he refumes his dfcourfe).
“ You imagine, perhaps, that I always make ufe of the
fame balls j but to prove the contrary, here they are,
(inverting the vafefo as to turn them all out).
In this trick, if the vafe be well made, the infide
may be ihow.n, and it may even be previoufiy invert¬
ed in which cafe, it will not be fuppofed that any
balls have been put into it.
15. With the three balls remaining under each of the
cups, and that which is hidden in his hand $ to pafs one
ball under loch of the three cups.
“ I put all thefe balls into my pocket. I take
(VI.) this (the one fecreted in his hand), and I make
it pafs through the table under this firlt cup C, (con¬
juring it). I take another from my bag, (/hawing the
fame ball). I make it pafs in the fame manner through
this B, (conjures it again). I take a third (flowing
fill the fame), and I make it pals under this laft cup
A (conjuring it). Here are all the three paffed (turn¬
ing over the cups, and in taking them up again introduces
the ball that he has in his hand under the cup B, and puts
the three balls upon the three cups.
16. With the three balls put upon each cup, end that
which was introduced under the middle cup ; to draw
two balls through the fame cup.—1,1 There will be want¬
ed now only two balls.” Here the operator takes
that which is under the cup C, and pu.s it (II.) in¬
to his bag. He takes in the fingers of his right hand
the ball which is on the cup B, flrowing it 5 and with
the other covers the cup B, with that palling (IV.)
there the ball which he feigned to put into his bag.
He then takes the ball which is under the cup A
with the right hand j and, ftiowing a ball in each
hand, tells the company that he put them (II.) under
the cup A ; though he actually puts but one, which
he holds in his left. He then drav-s one of thefe
balls through the fame cup A, (bowing it, and pla¬
cing it upon the cup C. He then railes the cup A,
and takes the ball which is under it with his right
hand, adding, li There remains but one more.” While
pronouncing thefe words, he puts it (II.) under the
cup. “ I take (adds he) the other ball,” (raifng
the cup, and flowing that it is there no longer) ; then,
taking one of the two balls which Teemed to remain
alone, he puts it (II.) into his bag, faying, “ I return
this into my bag.”
17. With a ball which is hidden under the middle cup,
another hidden under that which covers it, that which re.
mains in the hand, and a fourth which is upon the table ;
to pafs the fame ballfuccejfvely through the three cups—
The preceding trick was only on purpofe to prepare
the fpeftators for this j as they now imagine that the
performer played only with one ball. He may now
addrefs them in the following manner :
“ I am now going to make a very pretty trick with
this fingle ball. I forgot to (how it to you at the.
beginning : I cover (XI.) thefe cups (putting the cup
A
LEGERDEMAIN.
Sea. I. L E G E R
Perform-^ A upon C and B). I take (VI.) this ball, and I
and'1 ^r0W ^ (IX.) through the firit cup j” (railing (X.)
the cup Pl. with the right hand). He then ihows that it
U—V——' is paffed between C and A ; and, putting it in its
place, he introduces there that which he has in his
hand. “ I take (fays he) (VI.) this fame ball, and
I throw it through the other cup C j” and while he
lays fo, he raifes (X.) the cup C, Ihowing that it has
palled, introducing there that which he has in his hand,
and putting it in the place of the former. “ I take
again (continues he) (VI.) this fame ball, and I throw
it (IX.) through that laft cup B,” (raijing (IX.)///.?
cup B). During which time he takes away the ball
from under it with his left hand, then places it on the
table, and returns the cup to its place, introducing there
the ball which he has in his left hand.
i 8. With the three baits which are under the cups, that
which is on the table, and two which he takes from
the bag ; to pa/s under a cup the balls put under the two
others without rnifing thefe laft.—Tiie performer may
proceed in his difcourfe in the following manner :
“ Let us now return to the order of the entertain*
ment which I have interrupted, and continue to play
with three balls.” He now takes two balls from his
bag, by which means he in fa£l: plays with fix balls,
though he pretends to play only with three. Thefe
two balls, together with that which remains on the
table, he puts on the top of each cup. “ I take
(fays he) (VI.) this ball, (that which is on the cup C).
I throw it (IX.) through that cup : there it is pal-
fed.” He now raifes (X.) the cup, (hows it; and
thus has an opportunity of introducing the ball which
he has in his hand. “ I take (VI.) this {the ball winch
is under the cup B), and throw it (IX.) through the cup
B.” At this he raifes the cup with his left hand,
fiiowing that it has pafled, and covering it again. “ I
take again (VIII.) this ball from the fame cup, and
throw it (IX.) through that C : obferve that it is pal¬
led.” Then, railing up (X.) the cup C, lliowing that
there are then two there, he introduces other two
which he had in his hand. “ I take (fays he) (IV.)
this ball (that which is under the cup A), and I throw
it (IX.) through the fame cup A. There ! it is paf¬
led,” (railing the cup C) : after which he Ihows the three
tails, and introduces there that which was in his hand,
putting the three balls upon the table.
19. With the three balls which remain under the cups,
and the three others which remain upon the table; to pnfs
feparately the three balls through each cup. In this
manoeuvre the performer puts again the three balls
which are upon the table upon the top of each cup.
He takes that w'hich is on the cup C, and throws it
(IX.) through the fame cup ; and* while he announ¬
ces this to the company, he raifes (X.) the cup : tak¬
ing away (VIII.) the ball, lliowing that it has pafled,
introducing there that which was in bis hand, and
putting the fame ball upon the fame cup. He then
takes that which is upon the cup B, and throws it
(IX.) through the fame cup •, fhows that it is paffed,
takes it away (VII.) and introduces the ball that
was in his hand under this cup, putting it in like
manner on the cup. Then he takes the ball which is
on the cup A, and throws it (IX.) through the fame
cup A. As he announces its paffage he raifes the cup,
taking away (VIL) and lliowing the ball j inlrodu-
D E 14 AIN. 733
cing in the fame manner that which was in his Hand; Perform-
putting this firit at the top of the cup A, and then a^CSs^h
ihows that it is not in his hand, and that he has but ^Hs.15
three balls. w—y—
20. With the three balls remaining upon the table, and
thofe which are under each cup. Having put the balls
into the bag, to make them return under the cups.—“ I
take thefe three balls, and I return them into my bag,
(keeping one in his hand). Behold to w’hat all is redu¬
ced that I had to Ihow you for your amufement. I
did know fome more very pretty tricks, but I have
forgot them. (Pretending to mufefor a moment'): Ah!
I ftill remember two or three very pleafing ones-.
Come, my little balls ! Return under the cups, (turn¬
ing over the cups'). See how nimble they are, and obe¬
dient at the fame time ;” (covering them again with the
cups). .
2f. With the three balls which are under the cups,
and that in his hand; to pafs the balls through the two
cups.—Here the operator begins with taking away
(VII.) the ball which is under the cup C ; he covers
it with the cup B j and paffes (III.) the other ball
which he has in his right hand between the two cups.
He then takes (VI.) the ball which he had in his left
hand, and throws it (IX.) between the two cups B and
C. In announcing its paffage he raiies the cup (X.),
Ihows that it is paffed, and introduces the ball in his
hand. He then takes the ball under the cup B, and
throws it (IX.) through the two cups C and B. An¬
nouncing to the company its paffage, he raifes (X.)
the cup, and Ihows that there are two balls, introdu¬
cing (III.) at the fame time the third. He then takes
the lail bail, viz. that which is under the cup A, co¬
vers again with the left hand the two cups B and C,_
and throws (IX.) the third ball through thefe two
cups. Pie then announces their paffage, raifes the two
cups, and Ihows the three balls, covering again the cup
C with the two others.
22. With the three balls which are upon the cup C,
and the one in his hand; to take out the three through
two cups.—“ I take (fays the performer) (VIII.) the
firft ball, and put it (II.) into my bag. I take
(VIII.) in the fame manner the fecond, and I put
it alfo into my bag. I take (VIII.) the third, and
I put it into my bag, (putting in really that which he
had in his hand). While he defires the fpeftators to
obferve that there are no more in the cups, he raiies
the cup A with the left hand, and, putting it in its-
place, raifes with the right hand the cup C. In fup-
porting it with the cup B, he puts it down quickly,
and a little on the fide of B, and at the fame time
places C on the table, under which will be found the
three balls, which had not time to feparatt.
23. Wnh the three balls remaining under the middle cup,
and three others taken out of the bag; to pafs, in one
a&ion, three balls through a cup.—This trick is be¬
gun by the performer taking three balls from his bag,
and putting them on the top of the cup B, which he
covers with the cup A. Ordering them to difappear
and to pafs under the cup C, he takes away very fud-
denly with the left hand the cup B, as is done in the
preceding trick, leaving in the middle of the play the
cup C, under which the balls are found. Taking thern^
then away, and replacing them on the fame cup, he
jaakes them return again in the fame manner under the
cups
734 ' LEGERDEMAIN. Seel. II.
Perform- cup C. At laft lie takes ilie tliree balls, and putting
— them in his bag, pretends to pafs them through the
jjall's. tahle under the eup where the others were. He then
w—y—returns two or three of thefe laft balls into his bag,
and takes two white balls, which he puts upon the
table.
24. With the blacli hall remaining on the table, two
other white balls, and a black one which he holds fecret-
ly in his hand; to pafs three balls from one cup into an¬
other.
N. B. To make the balls white, they are rubbed
with a little chalk inftead of being blackened with the
candle.
“ Let us now (fays the operator) have a trick to
prove that I do not conjure the balls. There is nothing
under this cup C, (introducing the black ball that was in
his handf There is no great thing under this B. I
place there thefe three balls, {jhe three which are
upon the table, of which he conjures the white one).
There is nothing more under this third cup A, (intro¬
ducing there the white ball). I order one of thefe two
white balls which are under the cup B, to pafs under
this A.” With thefe words he raifes the cup B ; and
taking the white ball in the fingers of his left hand,
and the biack one in thofe of the right, he (hows them,
faying, “ Obferve that there is but one white one.
I put again thefe two balls under the cup B.”
While fpeaking thus he puts the white one under the
cup, and conjures the other, while feigning to put it
-in with that of the left hand. He then announces its
pafl'age ; and while he does fo, raifes the cup A,
and introduces the black ball. Commanding then the
black ball to pafs under the cup A, he raifes the cup
B, takes in his right hand fingers the ball which is
there, and fhows it. “ I put it again (fays he) (II.)
under this cup (conjuring it) ; and I {how you that it
is palTed under this A, (introducing there the white ball).
I order at laft the white ball, which is under this cup
B, to pafs into this A.” While telling the company
that it is paired, he raifes the cup A, and puts the
three balls upon each cup, the black one upon the
middle.
25. With the three balls put at the top of the cups, and
that which has been inferted under one of them in the pre¬
ceding trick ; to change the colour of the balls. The ope¬
rator goes on with his difeourfe : “ If there is any one
here who knows how to play the cups and balls, he
will do veil to obferve, that it is not pofllble to do
this trick by the common method, and with three
balls only. However I have no more, (flsowing his
hands). I take this white ball (that which is upon the
cup C), and I throw it (IX.) through this cup (the
fame under which he left a black ball in the preceding
trick). I take this black ball (with the left hand
dingers); there is nothing under this cup B, (intro¬
ducing there the white ball). I throw it (IX.) through
this cup B, (taking again the ball into his right handfin¬
gers). I take this other white ball, (with his left hand
fingers). There is nothing under this tup A, (intro¬
ducing the blackball): I throw it (IX.) through the
cup A, (taking it again into his right hand fingers
to conjure it). Obferve that they have all changed
their colour,” (covering each of them with their cups).
26. With the three baits winch are left under the cups,
two white balls, and a black one that he took trick by trick
2
from his bag ; to change the ji%es of the balls.*—\n per- P.- norm-
forming this trick the operator takes away the white ances with
ball which is under the cup C with his left hand fin- ur- la)ds.
gers, and, railing the cup with his right, introduces "
there a white ball which he took out of his bag. The
white ball which he introduces is kept in his hand with
the fourth and little finger ; and he raifes the cup in
the fame manner as when he introduces the balls.
In turning over the cup afterwards, he advances his
hand to introduce this ball. Thefe balls (hould be fill¬
ed with horfe hair or paper, fo that they may be very
light, and make no noife. The operator then tells his
company, that he makes the bail pafs through the
table under the fame cup ; and while he fpeaks thus,
he takes the ball again in his right hand, and while
putting his hand under the table, he takes a black ball
out of the bag. He then takes away the ball from
the cup B, introducing the black one in its ftead.
He then tells the fpeftators, that he makes it repafs
through the table ; and, while he tells them fo, he takes
a white ball ■, then, while taking away that which is
under the cup A, he introduces that ball, making it
repafs in the fame manner through the table, and at
laft ftiows them to the company, and covers them with
their cups.
27. With the three halls which are under the cups, two
other black balls, and a white one that was taken triek by
trick from his bag; to pafs the balls from one cup into
another.-—“Oblerve well (fays the operator), that there
are two white balls under thefe two cups A and C,
and a black one under this (raifng the cups). I cover
again thefe three balls (covering each of them with a
cup). I make to pafs out through the table the white
ball which is under the cup C.” Here he takes a white
ball from his bag 5 and in order not to fail, the black
and white balls ftrould be in feparate pockets. Having
taken out the ball, he puts the firft into his bag, tell¬
ing the company that there is now nothing under the
cup C •, and while he fays fo, he raifes it, holding the
ball with his little finger, proceeding in his difeourfe
as follows: “ I take away this ball (that which is under
the cup A), and I pafs it through the table under the
cup C (taking a biack ball from his bag.’1'1) While
the paffage of this ball is announced, he raifes the cup
C to take it away and ihow it •, introducing there
this black ball, “ I put it again (fays he) this other-
white ball into my bag, and I command the black
one which is under the cup B to pafs under this. It
is no longer under this cup j” and while he fays fo,
he raifes the cup B, in fupporting with his little fin¬
ger the ball which remains there. Announcing its
paffage, he raifes the cup C and Ihows the ball ; taking
it afterwards into the left hand, throws it into the air j
returning it into his right hand, and feigning to throw
it into the air a fecond time, he lets it fall into his
bag j calling bis eyes upwards and downwards as if
he faw it fall upon the cup B ; he raifes this cup, and
{hows it to the fpedlators, as the former, paffed through
the cup.
Sect. II. Performances with the Cards.
Previous to the performances with cards, it will be
necelTaiy to explain the method of making the pafs 5
that is, bringing .a certain number of cards from the
bottom
Seft. 51,
LEGERD
Plate
CCXCI.
Perform- bottom of the pack to the top 5 as many of thefe per-
ances with formances depend on that manoeuvre.
the Carr,j pack 0| car(js in y0ur rJgbt hand, fo that
Of making paloa of your hand may be under the cards : place
thepafs. the thumb of that hand on one hde of the pack, the
firft, fecond, and third fingers on the other fide, and
your little finger between thofe cards that are to be
brought to the top and the reft of the pack. Then
place your left hand over the cards, in fuch a manner
that the thumb may be at C (fig. 20, 21.), the fore
finger at A, and the ether fingers at B.
The hands and the two parts of the cards being thus
difpofed, you draw off the lower cards confined by the
little finger and the other parts of the right hand, and
place them, with an imperceptible motion, on the top
of the pack.
It is quite necefiary, before you attempt any of the
experiments that depend on making the pafs, that you
can perform it fo dexteroufly that the eye cannot dif-
tinguilh the motion of your hand j otherwife, inftead
of deceiving others, you will expofe yourfelf. It is al-
fo proper that the cards make no noife, as that will oc-
cafion fufpicion. This dexterity is not to be attained
without fome practice.
There is a method of preparing a pack of cards by
Inferting one or more that are a fmall matter longer or
wider than the reft ; which preparation will be necef-
fary in feveral of the following experiments.
The card of 2* Have a pack in which there is a long card ; open
divination, the pack at that part where the long card is, and pre-
fent the pack to a perfon in fuch a manner that he will
naturally draw that card. He is then to put it into
any part of the pack, and flmffie the cards. You take
the pack, and offer the fame card in like manner to a
fecond or third perfon j obferving, how'ever, that they
do not ftand near enough to fee the card each other
draws. You then draw feveral cards yourfelf, among
which is the long card, and alk each of the parties if
his card be among thefe cards, and he will naturally
fay Yes, as they have all drawn the fame card. You
then ftiuffle all the cards together, and cutting them at
the long card, you hold it before the firft perfon, fo
that the others may not fee it, and tell him that is his
card. You then put it again into the pack, and ftmf-
fling them a fecond time, you cut again at the fame
card, and hold it in like manner to the fecond perfon,
and fo of the reft (a).
If the firft perfon fiiould not draw the long card,
each of the parties muft draw' different cards ; when
cutting the pack at a long card, you put thofe they
have drawn over it j and feeming to fhuffle the cards
indiferiminately, you cut them again at the long card
* and fiiow one of them his card. You then ftiuffle and
cut again, in the fame manner, and fhowr another per¬
fon his card, and fo on : remembering, that the card
drawn by the laft perfon is the firft next the long card,
and fo of the others.
This experiment may be performed without the long
EM AIN.
735
card, in the following manner. Let a pevfon draw Perform-
any card whatever, and replace it in the pack : you
then make the pafs, and bring the card to the top of ■ . \ j
the pack, and ftiuffle them without lofing fight of that
card. You then offer tl]at card to a fecond perfon,
that he may draw it, and put it in the middle of the
pack. You make the pafs and ftiuffle the cards a fe¬
cond time in the fame manner, and offer the card to a
third perfon, and jfo again to a fourth or fifth, as is
more fully explained further, on.
3. You let a perfon drawT any four cards from the The four
pack, and tell him to think on one of them. When he confedera-*
returns you the four cards, you dexteroufly place twotc^Car
of them under the pack and two on the top. Under
thofe at the bottom you place four cards of any fort j
and then, taking eight or ten from the bottom cards,
you fpread them on the table, and alk the perfon if the
card he fixed on be among them. If he fay No, you
are lure it is one of the two cards on the top. You
then pafs thofe tvro cards to the bottom, and drawing
off the loweft of them, you alk him if that is not his
card. If he again fay No, you take that card up, and
bid him draw bis from the bottom of the pack.
If the perfon fay his card is among thofe he firft
drew from the bottom, you muft dexteroufly take up
the four cards that you put under them, and, placing
thofe on the top, let the other two be at the bottom
cards of the pack, which you are to draw in the man¬
ner before deferibed.
4. After a card has been drawm, you place it under Efivinaflcsi
the long card, and by ftiuffling them dexteroufly you1?5" t5le
bring it to the top of the pack. Then lay or throw the"’0*''’*
pack on the ground, obferving where the top card lies.
A handkerchief is then bound over your eyes, in fuch
a manner however that you can fee the ground, which
may be eaftly done. A fword is then put into your
hand, with which you touch feveral of the cards, feem-
ingly in great doubt but never lofing fight of the top
card, in which at laft you fix the point of the fvvord, ,
and prefent it to him who drew it. T wo or three cards
may be difeovered in the fame manner, that is, by
placing them under the long card, and then bringing
them to the top of the pack.
5. You muft have in the pack two cards of the fame ^he tmnf*
fort, fuppofe the king of fpades. One of thde is to be^“^ble
placed next the bottom card, which may be the feven ‘
of hearts, or any other card. The other is to be pla¬
ced at top. You then ftiuffle the cards without dif-
placing thofe three cards, and ftiow a perfon that tha
bottom card is the feven of hearts. Then drawing that
card privately afide with your finger, which you havs
wetted for that purpofe, you take the king of fpades
from the bottom, which the perfon fuppofes to be the
feven of hearts, and lay it on the table, telling him to. •
cover it with his hand. You then ftiuffle the cards
again, without difplacing the firft and laft card, and
pafling the other king of fpades at the top to the bot¬
tom, you ftiow it to another perfon. You then draw
that
(a) There is frequently exhibited another experiment, fimilar to this, which is by making a perfon draw ths •
long card j then giving him the pack, you tell him to place his card where he pleafes and ftiuffle them, and you 1
will then name his card or cut the pack where it is. You may alfo tell him to put the pack in hi? pocket, .and - '*
you will draw the card) which you may eafily do by the touch.
736
Perform¬
ances with
t]ie-Cards.
LEGERDEMAIN. Sea. II.
and taking the bottom card, ing ace of hearts under the foot of another perfon. Perform-
Tlre in-
cempre-
henlibie
tranfpo-
fition.
To name
feveral
cards that
two perfons
have drawn.
The two
convertible
gees.
that privately away ;
which will then be the feven of hearts, you lay that on
the table, and tell the fccond perfon, who believes it to
be the king of fpades, to cover it with his hand.
You then command the feven of hearts, which is
fuppofed to be under the hand of the firft perfon, to
change into the king of fpades j and the king of fpades,
which is fuppofed to be under the hand of the fecond
perfon, to change into the feven ©f hearts j and when
the two parties take their hands off, and turn up the
cards, they will fee to their no fmall aftcnifhment, af¬
ter having fo carefully obferved the bottom cards, that
your commands are punctually obferved.
6. Take a card, the fame as your long card, and
rolling it up very clofe, put it in an egg, by making a
hole as fmall as poflible, and which you are to fill
up carefully with white wax. You then offer the long
card to be drawn •, and when it is replaced in the pack,
you {huffle the cards feveral times, giving the egg to
the perfon who drew the card, and, while he is break¬
ing it, you privately withdraw the long card, that it
may appear, upon examining the cards, to have gone
from the pack into the egg. The experiment may be
rendered more furprifing by having feveral eggs, in
each of which is placed a card of the fame fort, and
then giving the perfon the liberty to choofe which egg
he thinks fit.
This deception may be ftlll further diverfified, by
having, as moft public performers have, a confederate,
who is previoufly to know the egg in which the card
is placed j for you may then break the other eggs, and
{how that the only one that contains a card is that in
which you direffed it to be.
7. Divide a piquet pack of cards into two parts by
a long card. Let the firft part contain a quint to a
king in clubs and fpades, the four eights, the ten of
diamonds, and ten of hearts j and let the other part
contain the two quart majors in hearts and diamonds,
the four (evens, and the four nines (b).
Then fhuffle the cards, but obferve not to difplace
any of thofe cards of the laft part which are under the
long card. You then cut at that card, and leave the
pack in two parts. Next, prefent the firft of thofe
parts to a perfon, and tell him to draw two or three
cards, and place the remainder on the table. You
prefent the fecond parcel in like manner to another.
Then having dexteroufly placed the cards diawn by
the firft perfon in the fecond parcel, and thofe drawn
by the fecond perfon in the firft parcel, you fliuffle the
cards, obferving to difplace none but the upper cards.
Then fpreading the cards on the table, you name thofe
that each perfon drew 5 which you will very eafily
do, by obferving the cards that are changed in each
parcel. '-j V' • & * : ■-.s; -■ ^
8. On the ace of fpades fix, with foap, a heart, and
on the ace of hearts, a fpade, in fuch a manner that
they will eafily flip off.
Show thefe two aces to the company j then taking
the ace of fpades, you defire a perfon to put his foot
upon it, and as you place it on the ground, draw
away the fpade. In like manner you place the feem-
You then command the two cards to change their
places 5 and that they obey your command, the two . “
perfons, on taking up their cards, will have ocular
demonftration. A deception fimilar to this is fome-
times praftifed with one card, fuppofe the ace of
fpades, over which a heart is placed (lightly. After
(bowing a perfon the card, you let him hold one end
of it, and you hold the other, and while you amufe him
with difeourfe, you Aide off the heart. Then laying
the card on the table, you bid him cover it with his
hand. You then knock under the table and command
the heart to turn into the ace of fpades. By deceptions
like thefe, people of little experience and much con¬
ceit are frequently deprived of their money, and ren¬
dered ridiculous.
9. You muft be prepared with two cards, like thofe The fifteen
reprefented by fig. 22. and with a common ace and a thoufand
five of diamonds. •’vres'
The five of diamonds and the two prepared cards
are to be difpofed as in fig. 23. and holding them in
your hand, you fay, “ A certain Frenchman left
15,000 livres, which are reprefented by thefe three
cards, to his three fons. The two youngeft agreed to
leave their 5000, each of them, in the hands of the
elder, that he might improve it.” While you are tell¬
ing this (lory, you lay the 5 on the table, and put the
ace in its place, and at the fame time artfully change
the pofition of the other two cards, that the three cards
may appear as in fig. 24. You then refume your dif*
courfe, “ The eldeft brother, inftead of improving the
money, loft it all by gaming, except 3000 livrts, as
you here fee.” You then lay the ace on the table,
and, taking up the 5, continue your ftory : “ The
eldefi, forry for having loft the money, went to the
Eaft Indies with thefe 3000, and brought back 15,000.”
You then (how the cards in the fame pofition as at firft,
in fig. 22.
To render this deception agreeable, it muft be per¬
formed with dexterity, and (hould not be repeated, but
the cards immediately put in the pocket j and you
(hould have five common cards in your pocket, ready
to (how, if any one (hould defire to fee them.
10. Take a parcel of cards, fuppofe 40, among To tell the
which infert two long cards : let the firft be, for ex-number of
ample, the 15th, and the other the 26th, from the toP*“erJhbJth8
Seem to (huffle the cards, and then cutting them at a
the firft long card, poife thofe you have cut off in your
hand, and fay, “ there (hould be here 15 cards.” ^ Cut
them again at the fecond long card, and fay, “ There
are here only 11 cards.” Then poifing the remainder,
you fay, “ here are 14 cards.”
11. Several different cards being Jhown to different To name
perfons) that each of them may fx on one of thofe cards ; feveral
to name that on which each perfon has fixed.—
muft be as many different cards (hown to each perfon ferent pCr=
as there are perfons to choofe : therefore, fuppofe there fons have
are three perfons, then to each of them you muft (how fixed,
three cards j and telling the firft perfon to retain one
in his memory, you lay thofe three cards down, and
(how three others to the fecond perfon, and fo to the
third.
The cards may be divided in any other manner that is eafy to be remembered.
The msgk
ring.
Sect. 21.
third. \ ou tiien take up the fir ft perfon’s cards, and
lay them down one by one, feparately, with their faces
upward. You next place the fecond perlbn’s card
over the firft, and in like manner the third perfon’s
card over the fecond’s $ fo that in each parcel there will
be one card belonging to each perfon. You then alk
each of them in which parcel his card is 5 and when
you know that, you immediately know which card it
is $ for the firfl perfon’s card will always be the firft,
the fecond perfon’s the fecond, and the third perfon’s
the third, in that parcel where they each fay his card
is.
This experiment may be performed with a fingle per¬
fon, by letting him fix on three, four, or more cards.
In this cafe you muft fhow him as many parcels as he
is to choofe cards, and every parcel muft confift of
that number, out of which he muft fix on one $ and
you then proceed as before, he telling you the pared
that contains each of the cards.
3 2. Make a ring large enough to go on the fecond
or third finger (fig. 15.) in which let there be fet a
large tranfparent ftone, to the bottom of which muft
be fixed a fmall piece of black filk, that may be
either drawn afide or expanded by turning the ftone
round. Under the filk is to be the figure of a fmali
card.
Then make a perfon draw the fame fort of card as
that at the bottom of the ring, and tell him to burn it
in the candle. Having firft ftiown him the ring, you
take part of the burnt card, and reducing it to powder,
you rub the ftone with it, and at the fame time turn it
artfully about, fo that the fmall card at bottom may
come in view.
13. To change one card into 'Provide a ma¬
hogany tea caddy about four or five inches deep, and
long enough to admit a common fized playing card :
(fee fig. 9.). This caddy muft be furnilhed with a
moving falfe bottom B, moveable upon hinges on the
infide edge of the front A. This bottom may be
made of brafs, tin, or lead j and the falfe bottom muft
be fo exadlly fitted, that it cannot, from a flight view,
be diftinguifhed from the other. The infide of both
caddy and falfe bottom ought to be lined with black
or other dark-coloured cloth or velvet, fo that it may
not make any noife in falling down. It would be pro¬
per that the falfe bottom thould rife with a fpring to¬
wards the front, and it muft be kept tight, with a brafs
fpring catch (<?, fig. 10.) ferewed to the left fide of
the box near the top, and which is hid by the cloth
covering. The end of this fpring proje&s a little into
the front. It is driven back, to let go the falfe bottom,
by means of a fmall bent wire bb let into the front of
the caddy ; and this pin is moved by the bolt c, which,
when the hex is locked, fhoots out againft it, by rea-
fon of the fpring being driven in $ by which means
the bottom fprings down, and covers the card placed in
the box.
Before you attempt to ftiow any trick with this cad¬
dy, a card muft be placed, in the infide between the
front A and the falfe bottom B, fpringing up the bot¬
tom afterwards againft the front j after which it is
ready for ufe, and (hown openly tp the company with¬
out any danger of a difeovery.
Two perfons may now be defired to draw two dif¬
ferent cards from a pack, one of which muft be the
VOL. XI. Part II.
LEGERDEMAIN.
The magic
tea caddy.
Plate
ccxc.
, . . 737
fame with the one concealed in the caddy. Taking Pcrform-
this card from the perfon who drew it, you put it in ances wuh
the pack, pretend to fhuffle it, but keep the card ei- the ^aids-.
ther upper molt or undermoft, fo that you can eafily
find it afterwards. Defiring then the other perfon to
come forward and put his. card very attentively into
the caddy, you in the mean time fecretly convey away
from the pack the card drawn by the other; then,
giving him the key, you delire the caddy to be locked
up. After fome pretended conjurations, defire him to
unlock it again and take out the card which he will
find not to be his, but that drawn by his neighbour :
his card being apparently vanilhed from the caddy, as
the other is from the pack.
14 Provide two pieces of pafteboard A and B ffig.Thetwo
II.) of equal dimenfions, 34- inches long and threeport-
broad. Place thefe befide one another, as Ihown infoIios‘
the figure. Take then a very fmooth filk ribbon, and
put a band of it from C to E towards the edge of the
pafteboard A, and another from D to F in fuch a man¬
ner as to come beyond the pafteboard, and to admit of
being folded over at the two ends. This muft be glued
on the back of the board A at the places C and D,
and at the back of the board B at the places E and F.
Place two other bands in a fimilar manner on the
pafteboard B, turning them over on the back of the
lame board at the places I and L, and at the back of A
at the places G and H. Thefe two bands ftiould fall
in the infide of the pafteboard, according to the breadth
of the ribbons. The two pafteboards being now placed
the one upon the other, will form a kind of port-folio,
one of the fides of which will always be hinged when
the other is opened. Four fmall bands of the fame
ribbon are to be put at the four extremities of the
fides MNQR of the two pieces of pefteboard ; obfer-
ing that they pafs below the bands already placed.
Glue their ends in the fame manner as their ends at
the back of the boards, ornamenting alfo the two lides
O and P of the pafteboard B with pieces of the fame
ribbon j but thefe fix laft bands are of no ufe in the
performance.
Two pieces of paper folded like the cover of a letter
muft now be provided, large enough to cover the two
ribbons GI and HE, as well as the fpace contained
within them. Glue one of thefe upon the two rib¬
bons, and apply the other below this j fo that the up-
permoft of thefe two wrappers may fall exa&ly over
the other, enclofing and hiding the two ribbons en¬
tirely. A fecond port-folio fimiiarly conftrufted is
now to be provided, and both of them covered with
coloured paper from the fides where the ribbons are
glued and folded.—The deceptions with thefe port¬
folios are as follows:
(1.) Two cards, chofen at random, having been /hut up
in two feparate places ; to make them pafs reciprocally from
the one into the other.—The port-folios being conftrudt-
ed in the manner above deferibed j if you open one of
them either on the one fide or on the other, one of
the paper wrappers will always be vifible j and thus it
will naturally be fujtpofed that there is no more but
one. Having then fecretly enclofed a card in each of
the wrappers of the port-folios, procure a pack of
cards that has but two forts, and caufe two perfons
fairly draw two -^ards fimilar to the firtt. Prefent then
a port-folio, opA>, to the firft perfon who drew a card.
5 A fimilar
738 .
Perform- fimJlar to that which was placed in the fecond, defiring
an es with ^jm tQ p]aee {t jn t}ie wrapper which he finds vacant.
. Take back then the port-folio j and, m placing it on
the table, artfully turn it over : having placed likewife
in the vacant wrapper of the fecond port-folio the card
drawn by the fecond perfon j and putting it in the
fame way upon the table, command the cards recipro-
cally to pafs from the one port-folio into the other j
and open them fo that each of the perfons may take
out the card which the other inferted.
(2.) A card being Jbut up in the port folio ; to tnahe it
return into the pack.—To perform this, procure a pack
which has two cards of the fame kind. One of thefe
is to be openly drawn, and the perfon who has done
fo mult be told to fhut it up under the wrapper of one
of the port-folios j and inform him that you will make
it return into the pack. Give him the port-folio to blow
upon 5 and on opening it, prefent him with the empty
wrapper, to fhow him that his card is not there j after
which, prefenting him w ith the pack, he will find there
the other card, which he will naturally imagine to be
the one he put into the wrapper.
(3;) To make an anfvoer appear to a quejlion fecretly
written.—Tranfcribe 6n different cards a certain num¬
ber of queftions, and on others the fame queftions with
their anfwers ; taking care to have the handwriting as
much alike as poffible, fo that no difference can eafily
be perceived. The fame caution muft be obferved with
regard to the cards themfelves •, which, for that reafon,
ought to be plain ones. Having written with a pen¬
cil at the bottom of the firft queftions their correfpond-
ing anfwers, Ihut up one of them fecretly in the port¬
folio and prefenting them to any perfon, let him
draw as by chance that which is fimilar to the one thus
fhut up. Make him then place in the other wrapper
the queftion w hich he had drawn ; and telling him that
you are about to write an anfwer even through the
port-folio, take a glafs, and pretend to read in it the
anfwer to the queftion. Open it afterwards, fo that he
may take out the other card himfelf, and he will ima¬
gine it to be the one he felefted.
In performing this trick, it will be proper to have a
port-folio of the fame kind with the two defcribed,
which opens only at one fide, and which confequently
has but one wrapper. This muft be fhown to fuch as
feem to be too inquifitive, and will be of ufe to prevent
them from entertaining any idea that the folio opens
- upon both fides. The former muft therefore be imme¬
diately put into the pocket, in order to give an oppor¬
tunity of drawing out the'other in cafe the port-folio
fhould be afked for.
The card in 15. Provide a mirror, either round, as A (fig. 18.)
the mirror, or oval, the frame of which muft be at leaft as wide as
Plate a carci. The glafs in the middle muft be made to
CCXtT move jn ^ tw0 gV00ves CD and EF, and fo much
of the quickfilver muft be fcraped off as is equal to
the fize of a common card. You will obferve that
Sea. II.
the glafs muft likewife be wider than the diftance be- Perfcrm-
tween the frame by at leaft the width of a card. ances with
Then palte over the part where the quickfilver is , ‘e ^ar ^
rubbed off a piece of pafteboard, on which is a card
that muft exaftly fit the ipace, which muft at firft be
placed behind the frame.
This mirror muft be placed againft a partition,
through which is to go two firings, by which an afiift-
ant in the adjoining room can eafily move the glafs in
the grooves, and confequently make the card appear or
difappear at pleafure (c).
Matters being thus prepared, you contrive to make
a perfon draw the fame fort of card with that fixed to
the mirror, and place it in the middle of the pack: you
then make the pafs, and bring it to the bottom •, you
then direct the perfon to look for his card in the mir¬
ror, when the confederate behind the partition is to
draw it fiowly forward, and it will appear as if placed
between the glafs and the quickfilver. While the card
is drawing forward, you Hide off the card from the bot¬
tom of the pack, and convey it away.
The card fixed to the mirror may eafily be changed
each time the experiment is performed. This experi¬
ment may alfo be made with a print that has a glafs
before it and a frame of fufficient width, by making
a flit in the frame through which the card is to pafs j
but the effedl will not be fo ftriking as in the mirror.
16. Place a vafe of wood or pafteboard AB (fig. The mar-
19.) on a bracket L, fixed to the partition M. Let^^ous
the infide of this vafe'be divided into five parts, c, d,
e, f g ; and let the divifions c and d be wide enough
to admit a pack of cards, and thofe of e^f g, one card
only.
Fix a thread of filk at the point H, the other end of
which pafling down the divifion </, and over the pulley
I, runs along the bracket L, and goes out behind the
partition M.
Take three cards from a piquet pack, and place
one of them in each of the divifions e,f g, making
the filk thread or line go under each of them. In
the divifion c, put the pack of cards from which you
have taken the three cards that are in the other di¬
vifions.
Then take another pack of cards, at the top of
which are to be three cards of the fame fort with
thofe in the three fmall divifions j and making the
pafs, bring them to the middle of the pack, and let
them be drawn by three different perfons. Then give
them all the cards to Ihuffle •, after which place the
pack in the divifion d, and tell the parties they ftiall
fee the three cards they drew come, at their command,
feparately out of the vafe.
An affiftant behind the partition then drawing the
line with a gentle and equal motion, the three cards
will gradually rife out of the vafe. Then take the
cards out of the divifion r, and (how that thofe three
cards are gone from the pack.
The
LEGERDEMAIN.
(c) This experiment may be performed without an afliftant, if a table be placed againft the partition, and
the firing from the glafs be made to pafs through a leg of it, and communicate with a fmall trigger, which you
may eafily pufti down with your foot j and at the fame time wiping the glafs with your handkerchief, as if to
make the card appear the more confpipuous. It may alfo be diverfified, by having the figure of a head, fuppof©
that of fome abfent friend, in the place of the card. 3
Se&. III.
Perform- The vafe muft be placed fo high that the infide
theCCaTdsh ca.nnot be. f’een ^ tbe company. You may perform
this experiment alfo without an affiftant, by fixing a
weight to the end of the filkline. which is to be placed
on a fupport, and let down at pleafure by means of a
fpring in the partition.
Thedivi- 17. Let a fmall perfpe&ive glafs be made, that is
wide enough, at the end where the objeft glafs is
glafs.1 V8 P^ced, to hold a table fimilar to the following.
LEGERDEMAIN'. 739
requires no great pra&ice ; the two principal points Experi-
are, the making the pafs in a dexterous manner, and a"ient:> with
certain addrefs bv which vou influence a uerfnn tn Hraw ^ymPat{ie
tic Inks.
1.131
2.231
3-331
4.121
5.221
6.321
7.1 r 1
8.211
9-311
10.. 132 19.133
11.. 232 20.233
12.. 332 21.333
13.. 122 22.123
14.. 222 23.223
15.. 322 24.323
16.. 112 25.113
17.. 212 26.213
i8”312 27.313
_ Take a pack of cards that confifts of 27 only, and
giving them to a perfon, defire him to fix on any one,
thefi Ihuffle them, and give the pack to you. Place
the 27 cards in three heaps, by laying down one al¬
ternately on each heap ; but before you lay each card
down, th iw- it to the perfon, without feeing it your-
felf; and when the three heaps are finilhed, afk him
at what number, from 1 to 27, he will have his card
appear, and in which heap it then is ? Then look at
the heap through the glafs, and if the firft of the three
numbers which Hands againft that number it is to ap¬
pear at be t, put that heap at top ; if the number be 2,
put it in the middle ; and if it be 3, put it at bottom.
Then divide the cards into three heaps, in the fame
manner, a fecond and third time, and his card will
then be at the number he chofe.
For example : Suppofe he defire that his card {hall
be the 20th from the top, and the firft time of making
the heaps he fays it is in the third heap : you then
look at the table in the perfpeclive, holding it at the
fame time over that heap, and you fee that the firft
figure is 2 ; you therefore put that figure in the mid¬
dle of the pack. The fecond and third times you in
like manner put the heap in which he fays it is, at the
bottom, the number each time being 3. Then look¬
ing at the pack with your glafs, as if to difcover which
the card was, you lay the cards down one by one, and
the 20th card will be that he fixed on.
You may ftiow the perfon his card in the fame man¬
ner, without a Iking him at what number it {hall appear,
by fixing on any number yourfelf.
The foregoing experiments with the cards will be
found fufficient to explain moft others of a fimilar na¬
ture that have or may be made: the number of which
is very great. To perform thofe we have defcribed
certain addrefs by which you influence a perfon to draw
the card you prefent. Thofe that are performed by v 
the long card are in general the moft ealy, but they
are confined to a pack of cards that is ready prepared j
whereas thofe which depend on making the pafs, may
be performed with any pack that is offered.
SECT. III. Experiments ’with Sympathetic Inks.
|[See Sympathetic INK.\
Experiments with Class I.
I. Make a book of 70 or 80 leaves 5 and in the The book
cover at tne end of it let there be a cafe which opens of fate,
next the binding, that it be not perceived.
At the top of each right hand page write any quef-
tion you pleale j and at the beginning of the book let
there be a table of all thofe queftions, with the number
of the page where each is contained. Then write with
common ink on ieparate papers, each about half the
fize of the pages in the book, the fame queftions that
are in the book, and under each of them write, with
the ink made of the impregnation of faturn, or the fo-
lution of bifmuth, the anfwer.
Soak a double paper in the vivifying liquor made of
quicklime and orpiment, or the phlogifton of the liver
of iulphur, and place it, juft before you make the
experiment, in the cafe that is in the cover of the
book.
Then deliver fome of the papers on which the quef¬
tions are wrote to the company ; and, after.they have
chofen fuch as they would have anfwered, they put
them in thofe leaves where the fame queftions are con¬
tained, and, (hutting the book for a few minutes, the
fulphureous fpirit with which the paper in the cover
of the book is imbibed, will penetrate the leaves, and
make the anfwers vifible, which will be of a brown co¬
lour, and more or lefs deep in proportion to the time
the book has been clofed (d).
_ 2. Make a box about four inches long, and three
wjde, as ABCD, and quite (hallow. Let it (hut with vdfo^^or-
hinges and faften with a hook ; and let it have two trait,
bottoms, the lowed of wood, that draws out by afi&* ^
groove, and the uppermoft of pafteboard. Between
thefe two bottoms is to be placed a paper dipped in
the vivifying liquor mentioned in the laft experiment.
Let there be alfo a board of the fame fize with the
infide of the box, which being placed in it may prefs
a paper againft the pafteboard bottom.
Then take feveral pieces of paper of the fame fize
with the infide of the box, and draw on them the
figures of men and women, in different attitudes and
employments, as walking, riding, reading, writing,
&c. Thefe figures muft be drawn with a new pen, or
pencil, dipped in the impregnation of faturn.
Being thus provided, and having privately placed
the paper dipped in the vivifyingdiquor between the two
bottoms, you tell a perfon you will (how him what an
5 A 2 abfent
. (D ) ^ a weigbt be placed upon the book, the effeft will be the foone* produced. Or you may put the book
in a box that will prefs it clofe down; ' r
740
Experi¬
ments with
Sympathe¬
tic Inks.
LEGERDEMAIN.
Sea. III.
The artifi¬
cial hand.
abfent friend of his is doing at the prefent hour. You
then give him the paper adapted to the employment
you intend, and tell him to write his friend’s name at
the bottom, that you may not change the paper.
Then placing that paper next the pafteboard bottom,
and putting the piece of wood over it, you {hut the
box. After amufing him with difcourfe for three or
four minutes, you take out the paper, when he will
fee his friend in the employment you have afligned
him.
3. Let a workman make a hand of wood, as in fig.
16. fixed at the end next the elbow to the piece E,
the ends of which go through the fcrews CD and EF.
The fore and middle fingers, and the thumb, are to
be moveable at their joints. There muft go a wire
through the arm, that is fixed at one end to the fore
finger, and at the other to the piece E, round which
it is to move : under the two joints of the two fingers
are alfo placed two fmall fprings, which are to raife
it up.
To the fore finger and thumb fix two fmall rings,
through which a pin may be put, fo as not to impede
their motion. Under the arm at the point I, place a
fmall brafs roller, which ferves to fuftain the arm.
The pedeftal on which this hand is placed muft be
at leaft a foot long, if the hand be of the natural fize,
and about eight inches wide. The pedeftal muft be
hollow, and at the part ST there muft be an opening
about three inches long and two inches wide j the
whole pedeftal may be covered with a thin fluff, by
which the hole will be concealed. There is to be a
valve, or fort of trap door, on the infide of the pedef¬
tal, which is to fallen againft the opening.
Over the hand and pedeftal place a glafs frame, as
in the figure •, cover the hand with fine leather of flefti
colour, and decorate the arm with a ruffle and cuff,
which will entirely conceal the machinery.
Then take a number of cards, and write on them
different queftions j and on the fame number of papers
write, with the impregnation of lead, the anfwers.
Give the cards to any one, and let him choofe a quef-
tion ; and you place the paper with the anfwer under
the pen in the hand, letting him firft fee there is no
writing on it (e). Now the pedeftal being placed
againft a partition, the end F is to go through it.
Therefore an afflftant, upon a fignal given, turns a
handle fixed to F j and, as the piece E turns round,
the wires that move the fingers and thumb are alter¬
nately lengthened and (hortened, by which their joints
are kept in continual motion; and the fcrew at the
fame time turning gently from F towards G, gives the
whole arm a motion which very much refembles that
of nature (s’).
The hand and pen ferve here merely to affift the il-
lufion : but if a bit of fponge, dipped in the vivifying Experi-
liquor, be placed at the end of the pen, as it goes over msruswitH
the writing on the paper, it will make it become gra-
dually vifible, and in this cafe the trap door and dip- — f
ped paper may be omitted (g).
Deception with Class II.
4. Take feveral pieces of paper, of a fize that you The wri-
can put in any book that will go into your pocket, and ting againiT
write at the top of each of them a queftion, with com-tiie wa!h
mon ink, and under it write the anfwer with the fo-
lution of gold or filver. Give any of thefe papers,
clofely wrapt up, to a perfon, and tell him to place
it againft the wall of his chamber, and keeping the
door locked he will next day find the anfwer wrote
on it.
As the gold ink will fometimes give a yellow caft
to the paper, you may previoufly give a flight tin&ure
of that kind to the papers you ufe for this purpofe.
Deception with Class III.
5. On different papers draw the figures of feveral Mag*cal
leaves or flowers with one of the colourlefs juices men-veSetatl0ns'
tioned: then take one of the correfponding leaves or
flowers, and laying it on an iron plate, over a chafing-
dilh of hot coals, let it burn to allies. Put thefe allies
into a fieve, in which there is fome very fine fteel fi¬
lings, and fift them over the paper on which the flower
is drawn, when they will adhere to the glutinous li¬
quor, and form im exadl reprefentation of the figure of
the leaf or flower.
Deceptions with Class IV.
6. Make a little triangular box, each fide of which The talif-
is to be about five inches, and let its infide be divi-man, fig. 7.
ded into three parts. The firft part A, which makes
the bottom of the box, is to be covered by the fecond
part B, in form of a cafe, and let the top C exa&ly
cover the part B, as is expreffed in the figure and the
profiles.
Upon the bottom of the box let there be a plate of
copper, about one-twentieth of an inch thick, on
which let there be a number of hieroglyphic charac¬
ters contiguous to each other, and cut in different forts
of metal.
On the top of the cover place a knob O, that goes
through it, and to which the copper triangle Q is to be
fixed occafionally, in fuch manner as it may go into the
cafe B. There muft be a fpace of one quarter of an
inch between the triangle £) and the bottom of the
cafe B ; into which another plate of copper, of that
thicknefs, may be placed..
The outfide of this talifman may be decorated with
uncommon-
(e) The paper dipped in the vivifying liquor is to be previoufly placed againft tne opening in the table,.and
fupported by the trap door. . - t , , ,
(f) This might be performed without an affiftant, by means of a trigger placed m the leg 01 the table, and
communicating with the handles, which the operator might thruft down with his foot. Where expence is not
regarded, there may be a complete figure of a man in wood, or plafter of Paris, feated by the table.
(G) You may alfo have a glafs ink-ftand with fome of the vivifying liquor, into which the pen may be dip ¬
ped, and it will then appear to write with common ink. The fpeftators (hould not be permitted to come very
near this machine, which may be applied to feveral pther purpofes.
3
Sed, III.
LEGERDEMAIN.
741
Sympaths
tic Inks.
The fibyls,
fig- 5*
Experi-^ uncotnmon figures or cliaraifterSj to give it the appear-
jr,ents with ance 0f greater myftery.
On feveral pieces of paper, of the fame fize with the
1 infide of the talifman, write different queftions in com¬
mon ink, and write the anfwers in thofe different forts
of fympathetic ink that appear when heated, obferv-
ing that each word of the anfwer is to be wrote in a
different ink.
Having properly heated the triangle, and placed it
under the cover, you introduce the talifman, and tell
any one of the company to choofe one of the papers
on which the queftions are wrote, and place it in the
talifman, and he will immediately have an anfwer
wrote on that paper, the words of which will be of
different colours, according to the different metals of
which the talifman is compofed. The paper being
placed in the talifman, and the cover placed over it,
the heat of the triangle will make the anfwer vilible
in a few moments. This experiment may be repeat¬
ed if the triangle be made fufficiently hot ; and two
papers may be placed in the talifman at the fame
time.
This deception, when well executed, occafions a
furprife that cannot be conceived by a mere defcrip-
tion.
7. Make a wooden pedeftal AB, about ten inches
long, eight wide, and one deep : and at one end ere£f a
box C, about ten inches high, eight broad, and two and
a half deep.
The top of the pedeftal muft Aide in a groove, on
which infcribe a dial M, of fix inches diameter, and
which is to be divided into nineteen equal parts, in
twelve of which write the names of the months, and
mark the refpedf ive figns of the zodiac; and in the
feven other divifions, which muft be next the end B,
write the days of the wreek, and mark the figures of
the planets. Next the inner circle NO, make an
opening into the box, of about one-tenth of an inch.
On the centre of the dial place an index that turns
freely on its centre.
Within the pedeftal place a pulley P, about four
inches diameter, which is to turn on an axis that is
dire&ly under the centre of the dial j and on the up¬
per part of that axis fix a bent index R, which comes
out at the opening made by the inner circle (h), and
paffes over thofe feven divifions only on which are /wrote
the days of the week.
Within the box C, let there be two rollers S and
T, as in the figure : let that of S contain a fpring j
and at the end of T let there be a pulley V, of three
quarters of an inch diameter, round which goes a
firing or thread that paflfes under the fmall pulley X,
and is faftened to that of P : fo that when the laft
pulley makes about one-third of a turn, that of V may
make three or four turns.
There muft alfo be a fcroll of paper, about two feet
long, and each end of which muft be pafted to one of
the rollers. In the front of the box, between the two
rollers, make an aperture D, about four inches long,
and one inch and a half wide : to this opening let there Experi-
be a little flap or Aider, by which it may be clofed at™^®^*1
pleafure. . > tic Inks.’
The apparatus being thus difpofed, place the index u—y—uj
R fuccelfively againft each of the divifions marked
with one of the planets j and as the paper is gradually
wound up the roller, mark, againft that part which is
at the aperture D, the name of one of the following
fibyls:
The Hellefpontian"
Cumean
Artemifian
Phrygian fibyl.
Albunean
Perfian
Libyan
On each of the feven cards write a different que-
ftion, and draw one of the feven planets. Next take
a memorandum book that contains feven leaves, and
on each of them write the name of one of the fore¬
going fibyls j in each of the leaves place feveral pieces
of paper, and on each of them write, with the fym¬
pathetic ink that does not appear till the paper is heat¬
ed, different anfwers to the fame queftion.
Then give a perfon the feven cards on which the
queftions are wrote, and tell him to choofe one of them
privately, and conceal the reft, fo that it cannot pofiibly
be known which of them he has chofen.
Next, tell him to place the index that points to the
month againft that in which he was born (1), and to
place the index of the planets againft that which is on
the card he has chofen, and which is to prefide over
the anfwer : you tell him to do this privately, that
no one may fee him, and after that to cover the dial
with his handkerchief. Then let him open the door
that is before the aperture in the box, and tell you the
name of the fibyl there vifible.
You then open the memorandum book, and taking
®ut the papers that are in the leaf where the name of
the fibyl juft mentioned is wrote, you defire him to
choofe any one of them he thinks proper. The talif¬
man ufed in the laft experiment being properly heated,
is then to be introduced, when you direct the perfon
to put the blank paper into it j and taking it out
a few moments after, he will find the anfwer to his
queftion.
To make this operation appear the more extraordi¬
nary, it will be proper to have a fmall prefs or cup¬
board, at the back of which there is a door that
opens into an adjoining room, by which means an af-
fiftant having prepared the talifman, may place it in
the cupboard the moment before it is wanted. This
contrivance will be ufeful on many other occafions.
8. Provide an urn of wood or metal about fix The magis-
inches high, and two and a half diameter in the wideft urn,
part, and of fuch figure in other refpe<fts as you think
proper (fee fig. 9.). Let there be a cylinder of cop¬
per C, (fig. 10.) of about one-eighth of an inch dia¬
meter,
(h) If the axis be made to pafs through the top of the pedeftal, this opening will not be neceffary.
(1) Thefe months and the index are of no other ufe than to give the experiment an air of greater my.
fiery.
ExperU meter, which is to fill a hole AB made in the urn.
mcnts wkI}'j'he top of this cylinder is to be in the top of the urn,
tklnk^* t^iat i* may he eafily taken out. To this urn there
»■—y- .1 rouft be a cover D, which fits it exa£tly.
On a fmall fquare piece of paper draw the figure of
a flower or leaf, with that fort of fympathetic ink
whofe colour moft refembles it. You then prefent fe-
veral forts of flowers or leaves to a perfon, and defire
him to choofe any one of them. Then put that flower
on a chafingdifh of hot coals j and taking the pa¬
per on wrhich it is fecretly drawn, you give it to the
perfon to examine, and then put it in the urn, having
previoufly heated the cylinder (k).’ Then taking fome
of the allies of the burnt flower, you ftrew them over
the paper, after which you take it out and fhow the
company the figure of that flower. While the flower
is burning, you may fprinkle fome powder over it, fup-
pofe that of faltpetre $ and by that, mixed with the
allies of the flower, the company may imagine the effeft
is produced.
The prefs or cupboard mentioned in the preceding
experiment, will be here very convenient for heating
the cylinder and placing it in the urn. A fimilar de¬
ception may be performed by putting the paper in a
copper veflel, that may be placed on an iron plate over
the chafingdifh in which the flower is burnt. But this
method has not fo myfterious an appearance as the
other, and in fome perfons may caufe a fufpicion that
the effeft is produced by heat.
The con- 9. To perform this experiment, you muft obferve,
vertible that there are feveral letters which may be changed
cards. jnto 0tqjerSj without any appearance of the alteration $
as, the a into d, the c into <7, d, g, 0, or the z into
I?, d, or /, the / into the 0 into a, d, g, or the v in¬
to//, &c.
Take a parcel of cards, fuppofe 20, and on one of
them write, with the ink of the fourth clafs, the word
/aw (l), and on the other, with the fame ink, the
words o/d woman ; then holding them to the fire, they
will both become vifible. Now' you will obferve, that
by altering the a in the word law into d, and adding
0 before the /, and oman after the to, it becomes old
woman. Therefore, you make thofe alterations with
the invifible ink, and let it remain fo. On the reft of
the cards you write any words you think fit.
Prefent the cards in fuch a manner to two perfons,
that one of them fhall draw the word law, and the
other the words old woman. You then tell the perfon
who drew the word law, that it fhall difappear, and
the words on the other card fhall be wrote in its place ;
and that you may not change the cards, defire each of
the parties to write his name on the cards. Then put¬
ting the cards together, and holding them before the
fire, as if to dry the names juft wrote, the word law will
prefently change into old woman.
This experiment may be varied by fixing on a word
that may be changed into three other words, and mak¬
ing four perfons draw the cards on which thofe words
e& HI.
are wrote j and it may be further diverfified by choof- Experi-
ing three fuch words, as that the firft can be changed rr’ems with
into the feeond, and the fecond into the third. You Stic mks'"
then tell him who drew the firft word, that it fhall be v
changed into that drawn by the fecond perfon ; and
him you tell, that his word fhall be changed into that
of the third perfon. »
10. Write on feveral flips of paper different quef-The oracu-
tions, and fuch as may be anfwered by the name ofbu letters.,
fijme perfon ; for example, Who is the merriett man
in the company ? Anfwer, Mr * * *. To whom will
Mifs * * * be married ? Anfwer, To Mr * * *,
Thefe queftions are to be wrote in the fympathetic
ink of this clafs, and expofed to the fire, and the an-
fwers wrote in the fame ink, and left invifible. The
papers are to be folded in form of letters, and in fuch
manner that the part where the name is wrote fhall be
diredly under the feal, and the heat of the wax will
make it vifible. Then give the letter to the perfon
who requires the anfwer, and he will find it plainly
wrote.
A deception fimilar to this may be made with a
number of blank cards, on each of which an ace of
fpades is drawn with the invifible ink ; then let a per¬
fon choofe any one of them, and enclofe it in a letter-
cafe, prepared in fuch a manner that the figure of the
ace fhall be diredly under the feal, and on opening the
letter it will be immediately vifible.
Deceptions with Class V.
11. Have a box that is divided into three parts af-The incom-
ter the fame manner as the talifman in the 21ft experi-,jre^enfibie
ment, except that, inilead of being triangular, it muft 11 ‘
be of a long fquare, (fee fig. 14.). Divide its top B
into two equal parts D and E, as in fig. 13. and to the
part D adjuft a plate of copper L, about one quarter
of an inch thick, and under both the plate L and the
opening E place a cloth. The upper part C muft have
a button by which it may be fixed on the cover B, fo
as to appear of one piece with it.
At the bottom of the box place a piece of cloth, or
other fluff, on which you may ftamp certain myfterious
charaders, and obferve that the bottom of the cover
muft reft upon the cloth. .
Then provide a flip of paper GH (fig. 12.) of the
fame fize with the bottom of the box j and at each
end oflt w'rite, with the green fympathetic ink, the
name of a different card, and make fome private mark
by which you can tell at which end each name is
wrote (m).
Take a parcel of cards, and offer thofe two of them
whofe names are wrote on the paper to the two per¬
fons, that they may draw them. You tell the parties
to keep their cards to themfelves, and you propofe to
make the names of thofe cards appear upon a flip of
paper, which you put into the box. You then afk
which name of the two cards fhall appear firft. The
copperplate being previoufly heated and placed in the
cover,
LEGERDEMAIN.
(k) There are fome forts of fympathetie inks that require much more heat than others.
(l) Thefe letters fhould not be joined.
(m) That there may be no fufpicion of the paper being prepared, you may cut it from a whole fhcet, befer©
the company, having previoully wrote the names.
Sea. III.
LEGERDEMAIN.
Experi- cover, you put it over that end of the paper on which
inents with*s tjie name required, and it will prefently appear,
tie Inks. J- ^en taking the paper out and (howing the name
U. v.i .1 wrote, you put it in again, turning the other end to
the fide of the box where the plate is, and it will in
like manner become vifible.
The firft name may be made to difappear at the
fame time that the fecond appears, if the cloth at the
end oppolite to that where the plate is be made damp.
Winter 12. Take a print that refembles winter, and trace
changed over the proper parts of the trees, plants, and ground,
into fpnng. green fympathetic ink ; obferving to make
fome parts deeper than others, according to their di-
ftance. When thofe parts are dry, paint the other
obje£l:s with their natural colours. Then put the print
in a frame with a glafs, and cover the back of it with
a paper that is parted over its border only.
When the print is expofed to the heat of a mode¬
rate fire, or to the warm rays of the fun, all the grafs
and foliage will turn to a pleafing green ; and if a yel¬
low tint be given to fome parts of the print, before the
fympathetic ink be drawn over, this green will be of
different fhades 5 and the fcene that a minute before
reprefented winter, will now be changed to fpring.
When this print is placed in the cold, winter will again
appear, and will again be driven away by the warm
rays of the fun. This alternate change of feafons may
be repeated as often as you pleafe j remembering,
however, as was before obferved, not to make the
print at any time too hot, for then a faded autumn will
for ever remain.
Deceptions with Class VIL
The r^vivi- 13. Provide a number of artificial flowers, fuch as
fied bou- rofes, jonquils, pinks, or any other you find conveni-
^uets' ent. Thefe flowers muft be made of white thread or
filk, and their leaves of parchment. Dip the rofes in
the red fympathetic ink, the jonquils in the yellow,
the pinks in the violet, and their leaves in a folution,
of fait or tartar. When they are all dry, form them
into fmall bouquets, which will all appear white, and
may be ufed in this experiment, either the day they
are dipped, or feveral days after.
You take one of thefe bouquets, and after fhowing
the company that every part of it is white, you dip it
in an infufion of any of the blue flowers mentioned
under the article COLOUB-Making, N° 13. and, drawing
it prefently out, all the flowers and leaves will appear
in their natural colours (n). v
The tranf- 14. Write on a paper, with the violet liquor, as
cclorated many letters or words as you pleafe 5 and afk any per-
wntmg. pon wjiet}ier he have that writing turn to yellow,
green, or red.
Have a fponge with three fides that you can readily
diftinguifh, and dip each of its fides in one of the three
fympathetic inks. Draw the fide of the fponge that
correfponds to the colour the perfon has chofen, over
743
the writing once only ; and it will dirc£lly change to Mifcella-
the colour required (o). neous Per¬
formances.
Sect. IV. Mifcellaneous Performances.
15. A perfon having an even number of counters in one To tell odds
hand, and an odd number in the other, to tell in which hand01 evens*
the odd or even number is.—Let the perfon multiply the
number in his right hand by an odd number, and the
number in his left hand by an even number, and tell
you if the fum of the produfts added together be odd
or even. If it be even, the even number is in the
right hand j but if it be odd, the even number is in the
left hand.
Example.
I. Number in the
right hand
Multipliers
Their fum 68
2. Number in the 7
right hand ^ ^
Multipliers 3
21
&
In the left 18
2
Their fum 57
16. To tell, by the dial of a watch, at what hour any To tell at
perfon intends to rife.—Let the perfon fet the hand of w^at ^our
the dial to any hour he pleafes, and tell you w hat hour f^tends uT
that is: and to the number of that hour you add, inrife<
your mind, 12. Then tell him to count privately the
number of that amount upon the dial, beginning with
the next hour to that on which he propofes to rife,
and counting backwards, firft reckoning the number
of the hour at which he has placed the hand. An ex¬
ample will make this plain.
Suppofe the hour at which he intends to rife be 8,
and that he has placed the hand at 5. You add 12 to
5, and tell him to count 17 on the dial, firft reckon¬
ing 5, the hour at which the index ftands, and count¬
ing backwards from the hour at which he intends to
rife; and the number 17 will neceflarily end at 8,
which fbows that to be the hour he chofe.
That the hour at which the counting ends muft be
that on which he propofed to rife, will be evident oft
a little refledlion 5 for if he had begun at that hour and
counted 12, he would neceffarily have come to it again j
and calling the number 17, by adding 5 to it, only
ferves
(n) The liquor fhould be put in a fort of jar with a narrow neck, that it may not be feen by the company :
and vou (hould draw the flowers gently out that the liquor may drop if thin, and they may have time to acquire
their colours.
(p) The fponge {hould be well cleaned immediately after the experiment.
LEGERDEMAIN.
7 44
Mifcella- ferves to difguife the matter, but can make no Fort of
neous Per- difference in the counting.
formances. ^ ^ x x be multiplied by any one of
The magi- the nine digits, the two figures of the produft will al-
.calcentury.ways be fimilar. As follows:
ji ii II II ii it ii ii ii
i 234 56789
11 22 33 44 .55 66 77 88 99
Place a parcel of counters on a table, and propofe
to any one to add, alternately, a certain number of
thofe counters, till they amount to 100, but never
to add more than 10 at a time. You tell him, more¬
over, that, if you flake firft, he (hall never make the
even century, but you will. In order to which, you
muft firft flake I, and remembering the order of the
above feries, 11, 22, 33, &c. you conftantly add, to
what he flakes, as many as will make one more than
the numbers of that feries, that is, as will make 12,
23, 34, &c. till you come to 89, after which the other
party cannot make the century himfelf, nor prevent you
from making it.
If the other party has no knowledge of numbers,
you may flake any other number firft, under ten, pro¬
vided you take care to fecure fome one of the laft terms
as 56, 67, 78, &c.
This deception may be performed with other num¬
bers ; and in order to fucceed, you muft divide the
number to be attained by a number that has one digit
more than wrhat you can flake each time, and the
remainder will be the number you muft firft flake.
Obferve, that, to be fure of fuccefs, there muft be al¬
ways a remainder. Suppofe, for example, the num¬
ber to be attained is 52, making ufe of a pack of cards
inftead of counters, and that you are never to add
more than 6: then divide 52 by the next number above
6, that is, by 7, and the remainder, which is 3, will be
the number you muft flake firft; and whatever the other
flakes, you muft add as much to it as will make it equal
to the number by which you divided, that is 7* Ihere-
fore, if his firft flake be 1, you muft flake 6, &c. fo
that your fecond flake will make the heap 10, your
third flake will make it 17, and fo on, till you come
to 45, when, as he cannot flake more than 6, you muft
make the number 52.
In this, as in the former cafe, if the other perfon
has no knowledge of numbers, you may flake any
number firft under 7 5 or you may let him flake firft,
only taking care to fecure either of the numbers 10,
17, 24, 31, &c. after which he cannot make 52, if
you conftantly add as many to his flake as will make
To tell A perfon privately fixing on any number, to tell
what nuai- that number, —After the perion has fixed on a
fcer 3 Per- number, bid him double it and add 4 t° that fum, then
Jy fixes on. multiply the whole by 5 j to the product let him add
12, and multiply the amount by JO. From the fum.of
the whole let him dedufl 320, and tell you the remain¬
der ; from which, if you cut off the two laft figures, the
number that remains will be that fixed on.
Example,
Let the number chofen be - - 7
Which doubled is - ' J4
And 4 added to it, makes -
Which multiplied by 5, gives
To which 12 being added, it is
That multiplied by 10, makes
From which deducting 320, the remainder is
And, by ftriking off the two cyphers, it becomes
the original number - - - .7
19. Three dice being thrown on a table, to tell the To tell the
number of each of them, and the order in which theijfiand. number of
Let the perfon who has thrown the dice double the j^rown u
number of that next his left hand, and add 5 to that
fum j then multiply the amount by 5, and to the pro-without
du£t add the number of the middle die $ then let the feeing
whole be multiplied by 10, and to that produfl add the1*16111*
number of the third die. From the total let there be
fubtra&ed 250, and the figures of the number that re¬
mains will anfwer to the points of the three dice as they
ftand on the table.
Example. Suppofe the points of the three dice thrown
on the table to be 4, 6, and 2,
Then the double of the firft die will be - 8
To which add “ " - * 5
33
5
That fum multiplied by 5 will be - 65
To which add the number of the middle die 6
71
And multiply the fum by - - 10
710
To that produft add the number of the third die 2
Form the total - - - -712
Subtrad ‘ - - - 250
And the three remaining figures - - 462
will anfwer to the numbers on the dice, and {how the
order in which they ftand.
20. Some perfon in company having put a ring privately x0 tell oa
on one of his fingers >• to name the perfon, the hand, the what fin-
finger, and the joint, on which it is placed—Let a third Ker> joint»
perfon double the number of the order in which he^’^^
{lands who has the ring, and add 5 to that number \ privattiy
then multiply that fum by 5, and to the produft add put.
jo. Let him next add I to the laft number if the.
ring be on the right hand, and 2 if on the left, and
multiply the whole by 10 : to this product he muft add
the number of the finger (counting the thumb as the
firft finger), and multiply tbe whole again by 10. Let
him then add the number of the joint $ and, laftly, to
the whole join 35.
He is then to tell you the amount of the whole, from
which you are to fubtradl 3535, and the remainder
will confift of four figures, the firft of which will ex-
prefs the rank in which the perfon {lands, the fecond
the hand (the number 1 fignifying the right hand, and
2 the left), the third number the finger, and the fourth
the joint.
Example. Suppofe the perfon who Hands the third
in order has put the ring upon the fecond joint of the
thumb of his left hand j then
The
Sed. IV.
13 Mifcella-
qq neons Per-.
^ iormances.
102.
1020
700
Legerdemain.
/YyATA1 CCXC.
E.MiioAell^/Sn£i
a
Legerdemain
/‘a. /v'AVY:rr/.
/'Vf/./O.
Bottom,
2
Thumb
r/f.' Tcr/Z/f *
Sea IV.
LEGERDEMAIN.
Mifceila- The double of the rank of the third perfon is
n;ou3 Per- Tq which add . .
rrvrnn a nrr»c
Multiply the fum by
To which add
And the number of the left hand
Which being multiplied by
To which add the number or the thumb
And multiply again by
Then add the number of the joint
And laftly the number
6
5
11
5
55
10
2
6?
10
670
I
745
From which deducing
The remainder is
6747
3535
3212
Of which, as we have faid, the 3 denotes the third per¬
fon, the 2 the left hand, the 1 the thumb, and the laft
2 the fecond joint.
The burnt 2i. Cover the outiide of a fmall memorandum book
gored ^ ^ paper, and in one of its infide covers make
a flap to open fecretly, and obferve there muft be no¬
thing over the flap but the black paper that covers the
book.
Mix foot with black or brown foap, with which rub
the fide of the black paper next the flap; then wipe it
quite clean, fo that a white paper prefled againft it will
not receive any mark.
Provide a black lead pencil that will not mark with¬
out preffing hard on the paper. Have like wife a fmall
box, about the fize of the memorandum book, and that
opens on both fides, but on one of them by a private
method. Give a perfon the pencil, and a flip of thin
• paper, on which he is to write what he thinks proper :
you prefent him the memorandum book at the fame
time, that he may not write on the bare board. You
tell him to keep what he writes to himfelf, and direft
him to burn it on an iron plate laid on a chafingdifh of
coals, and give you the afhes. You then go into ano¬
ther room to fetch your magic box above defcribed,
and take with you the memorandum book.
Having previoufly placed a paper under the flap in
the cover of the book, when he prefles hard with the
pencil, to write on the paper, every ftroke, by means
of the fluff rubbed on the black paper, will appear on
that under the flap. You therefore take it out, and
put it into one fide of the box.
You then return to the other room, and taking a
flip of black paper, you put it into the other fide of
the box, ftrewing the allies of the burnt paper over it.
Then (baking the box for a few moments, and at the
fame time turning it dexteroufly over, you open the
Dther fide, and (how the nerfon the paper you firfl put
Vol. XL Part II.
in, the writing on which he will readily acknowledge Mifcella-
to be his. foTmances"
22. Take two guineas and two (hillings, and grind ■ ^ *
part of them away, on one fide only, fo that they may The tranf-
be but of half the common thicknefs j and obferve thatpofable
they muft be quite thin at the edge: then rivet a gui-P‘eces’
nea and a (hilling together. Lay one of thefe double
pieces with the (hilling upwards, on the palm of your
hand, at the bottom of your three firtt fingers ; and
lay the other piece, with the guinea upwards, in like
manner, in the other hand. Let the company take
notice in which hand is the guinea, and in which the
(hilling. Then as you (hut your hands, you naturally
turn the pieces over j and when you open them again,
the (hilling and the guinea will appear to have changed,
their places.
23. Provide a round tin box, of the fize of a large The pene*
fnuff box ; and in this place eight other boxes, which tia.tive
will go eafily into each other, and let the lead of them^U‘Ma’
be of a lize to hold a guinea. Each of thefe boxes
(hould (hut with a hinge : and to the lead of them there
muft be a fmall lock, that is fattened with a fpring, but
cannot be opened without a key : and obferve that all
thefe boxes muft (hut fo freely, that they may be all
clofed at once. Place thefe boxes in each other, with
their tops open, (fee fig. 12.) in the draw er of the table
on which you make your experiments ; or, if you pleafe,
in your pocket, in fuch a manner that they cannot be
difplaced.
Then a(k a perfon to lend you a new guinea, and_
defire him to mark it, that it may not be changed.
You take this piece in one hand, and in the other you.
have another of the fame appearance *, and putting
your hand in the drawer you (lip the piece that is
marked into the lead box, and, (hutting them all at
once, take them out. Then (bowing the piece you
have in your hand, and w'hieh the company fuppoie
to be the fame that was marked, you pretend to
make it pafs through the box, and dexteroufiy convey
it away.
You then prefent the box, for the fpe&atcrs do not
yet know there are more than one, to any perfon in
company •, who, when he opens it, finds another, and
another, till he comes to the laft, but that he cannot
open without the key (fee fig. 13.) which you then
give him, and retiring to a diftant part of the room,
you tell him to take out the guinea himfelf, and fee if
it be that he marked.
This deception may be made more furprifing, by-
putting the key into the fnuff box of one of the com¬
pany j which you may do by afldng him for a pinch of
his fnuff, and at the fame time conceal the key, which
muft be very fmall, among the fnuff: and when the
perfon who is to open the box aiks for the key, you tell
him that one of the company has it in his fnuff box.
This part of the deception may likewife be performed
by means of a confederate.
24. ABCD, fig. 15. reprefents a fmall wooden box The three
feven or eight inches long, two and a half broad, magic pie.
and half an inch deep $ the bottom of which, by meanstur“-
of two crofs pieces, is divided into three equal parts. CCX*^
EFGH reprefents the lid, which is faftened to the hot- fig.
tom by a hinge, and has in front a fmall plate (haped
like a lock, and two fmall eyes for hooks which ferve to
fatten it when it is (hut. ILM are three fmall flexible
5 B fpnngs,
745
Mifcella- firings, flat, and about incb long. NOP are three
ptous Per- W00cJen tablets of the fame fize, upon which are mark-
^ ormances,^ £tj t^e f5gUres 4, and 5. The tablets are of different
thicknefles, and the difference is fo froall as not to be
perceived by the eye. The oatlide of the box is cover¬
ed with fhagreen or reorocco leather, and on the infide
with fdk taffety ; thefe coverings being indifpenfably
neceffary to hide the three fmall fprings above men¬
tioned, Fig. 14. flrows the two hinges E and F bent
clofe to the top of the lid ABCD ; the piece of brafs
G, fimilar to a lock, being alfo curved to the lid. A
fmall brafs feud is rivetted upon the end of each of
thefe fprings mferted into the lid, and paffes through
the curved part of each of the hinge.vand the lock $ lo
that on the outlide they appear as the heads of Imall
pin', which fallen them upon the lid. Theft fmatl finds
will be elevated more or lefs according to the thick-
nefles of the tablets, t at they may be (hut up in each
of the partitions in which they may be found placed •,
fo that the tablet N elevates them more than the tablet
o, and the latter lefs than P ; though thele elevations
are but barely fenfible to the light or touch, and that
by a perfon aceuftomed to look at or handle them.
Thus it may be eafily known in whatever order the
tablets are placed, however carefully fhut j and con-
fequently the numbers named as enclofed.
Give now the box to any indifferent perfon, leave
him at liberty to form with the tablets any number he
pleafes, defiring him to return the box well fiiut up ;
then taking the box, and determining by the, touch,
or rather by the eye, what order the tablets are in, it
will be very furprifing to hear you declare the number
without feeing it.
N. B. It will {till be equally poffible to difeover the
number, though the tablets fhould be returned with
the bottom upwards, or even though one fhould be
withdrawn in order to defeat your defign ; particularly
if care had been taken to make the finds remain even
with the plates when a number is omitted.
The name- 25. To difeover any particular counter which has been
ticai table, fecretly placed within a box that turns upon it.—This
table, which is made of wood, is reprefented by A,
fig. 16. It is of an hexagonal fhape, and about three
or four inches diameter. For the fake of neatnefs in
appearance, a proportionably fized pillar with a foot is
fixed to it. Round a centre there turns a fmall round
box B of about i inch diameter in the infide, the lid of
which takes off at B. At the bottom of this box,
near the circumference in the infide, is fixed a brafs
pin to fit a hole made in a flat ivory counter fhown
at fig. 17. The pin and counter are reprefented
in fig. 18. which is a flat view of fig. 16. with the
lid of the box B taken off. Oppofite to the pin b,
in the fame figure, D reprefents a fine dot defigned as
a fecret mark on the outfide of the box, which ferves
always as a guide to the number of the counter private¬
ly placed in the infide of the box, as is afterwards par¬
ticularly explained. Upon one of the corners of the
table is an ivory mark C, fig. 16. and 18. which ferves
to place the fpot a upon the counters in its proper pofi-
tion See fig. 17., There are 12 counters fitted to the
box B, marked 10, 20, &c. as far as 1 20, on the mid¬
dle of each. On each of thefe counters is the hole b,
fig. 17. and 18. which goes over the pin in the bottom
*>f the box ) and on one fide of this hole a red or black
2
Sea IV.
fpot is placed in the following manner. When N° 10 Mifceila-
is put into the box, the fpot mull be fo far to the left peoii* fer-
hand of the hole, that when it is brought to the mark ° iT!^nces,|i
C, fig. 18. the hole b will be oppofite to the fide mark¬
ed I. When N° 20 is put in, the fpot being brought
to the mark C will carry the hole to the corner mark¬
ed 2. When N° 30 is put in, and the fpot brought
oppofite to C, the hole will be brought againil the fide
marked 3, as is Ihown in the figure, and fo on for the
reff. Therefore, as oppofite to the brafs pin, or hole
on the counter on the outfide of the box B, there is a
fec ret mark D already mentioned, this mull ferve as an.
index to the number contained in the box, according
as it is oppofite to a fide or corner of the table.
Give now the table with the box and the t 2 coun¬
ters to any 'perfon, and defire him to put one of the
counters fecretly into the box, keeping the rtll to
himfelf ^ and, after having placed the hole over the
pin in-the box, to place particularly, by turning the
box round, the fpot a againil the mark C on the table.
Let him then- cover the box, give you the table, and
keep the counters himfelf. Obftrve then privately
what fide or corner the fecret outfide marked ID Hands
againil, reckon the tens accordingly, and tell him the
number.
26. To draw out of the well with a bucket any one
offour liquors which have been previoify mixed and put vceli.
into it.-—Provide two tin cylinders ol ieven or eight
inches height ; the diameter of the largell, reprefented
by AB fig. 19. to be four inches, and that ot the leall,
CD two inches. Place the fmall one within the larger,
and connect them together by foldering to them lour
tin partitions, making the equal fpaces e,/, h. Turn
a piece of wood three inches thick, hollow withinfide,
and lined with tin, of which a fedlion is given, fig. 20.
Into this the exterior cylinder fhould be cloiely fitted
at a and b. Another circle of wood (of which a fcdlion
is given fig. 21.), hollowed at rr, b, and c, is alio to ba
procured, and which may cover exactly the (pace be¬
tween the two cylinders ; and, lallly, let the whole be
conllrudled in fuch a manner, that when thefe three fe-
parate pieces are placed together, they may reprefent
a well, as in fig. 22. The two brafs or wooden pil¬
lars AA, with the axis and handle C, ferve to let down
and draw up a fmall glafs bucket B, an inch and a
half in diameter. Make alfo four tin refervoirs of the
fame height with the cylinder, and fo fl-aped as to
fill the four fpaces e,fg, h, (fig. 19.) which muff be
well clofed at their extremities B and C. On the top
of each make a fmall hole about the tenth part of an
inch diameter, and folder at the bafe C a Imall tube
D, the end of which fliould be bent towards the infide
of the well when the rtlervoir is placed in it. Solder
on the top of each refer voir a fmall fpring lever and
prop AEDE, fig 23. ri he fpring will ferve always to
preis the end of the lever D down upon the hole at
the top of the refervoir B ; and in order to cover it
more perfifily, a fmall piece of leather is to be glued
on to the end of the lever D. Laftly, A fmall peg or
ftud C is placed at the end of each of the levers, and
which mull be clofe to the under part of the wooden
circle which covers the refervoirs. To conceal thefe
ftuds, and at the fame time to be able to preis upon
them with the fingers, circular apertures, as {la wn in
fig, 21. mull be made in the piece of wood, the top
covered
LEGERDEMAIN.
Sea. IV.
L E G E E
Milcella- covered with a piece of vellum, and the whole neatl7
reous iJer- pajntecJ with oil colour.
formaOces. '■jr i r-irr' i"
^  , it now you plunge one ot theie reiervons perpendi¬
cularly into any liquor, hi preffing on the ftud, fo as
to uncover the hole at the top, it will be filled with
the liquor in proportion to the depth to which it is
immerged 5 and as long as the lever continues to prefs
upon the hole by means of the fpring, the liquor can¬
not run out for want of air, though it will do fo the
moment the ftud is prefled upon and the air admitted.
If the refervoir is properly placed, then the liquor
will flow out of it into the glafs bucket when let down
to a proper depth.
Fill now the four refervoirs with the four different
liquors j putting them in their places, and covering
them -with the circular top. Take a quantity of the
fame liquor, mix them well together, and pour the
whole into the well ; after which you may draw out
any one which the company defires, by letting dow'n
the bucket, and preflingv fecretly upon the ftud be¬
longing to the refervoir which contains it, and which
will thus difcharge the liquor it contains.
The refuf- 2']. Provide a fmall tin mortar, that is double, as
citated ^ g ^ whofe bottom B turns round on an axis,
I’l/fe ky means of a fpring which communicates with the
CGXCI. piece C. There muft be a hollow fpace under the
falfe bottom. To the under, fide of the bottom faften,
by a thread of fine filk, a flower, with its (talk and
leaves.
Then take a flower that exa&ly refembles the other,
and plucking it from the ftalk, and all the leaves from
each other, put them into the mortar, and pound them
with a fmall peftle ; after which you fliow the mortar
to the company, that they may fee the parts are all
bruifed.
Then taking the mortar up in your hands, you hold
it over the flame of a lamp or candle, by whofe warmth
the flower is fuppofed to be reftored j and at the fame
time prefling the piece at C, the bottom will turn
round, the bruifed parts defeend into the fpace under
the bottom, and the whole flower will be at top : you
then put your hand into the mortar, and eafily break¬
ing the fllk thread, which may be very fhort as well as
fine, you take the flower out and prefent it to the com¬
pany.
There is an experiment fimilar to this, in which a
live bird is concealed at the bottom of the mortar, and
one that is dead is pounded in it: after which, by the
motion of the bottom, the live bird is fet at liberty.
But furely the pounding a bird in a mortar, though it
be dead, muft produce, in perfons of any delicacy, more
difguft than entertainment.
The lumi- ■ 28. Procure a tin box ABCD (fig. 1.) about eight
nous oracle, inches high, four wide, and two deep, and let it be
fixed on the wooden ftand E. On two of the infides
let there be a groove FG 5 and in the front an opening
I, three inches wide and one high.
At the back of the box let there be a little tin door,
that opens outward, by which two wax candles M may
be put in. Let the top of the box have a cover of the
CCXGI.
DEM AIN. 747
fame metal, in which there are feveral holes, and which Mifcella-
may be taken off at pleafure. ' neous Per-
Provide a double glafs OP (fig. 2.) conftru&ed in ;orm^(
the fame manner as that in the laft experiment. On
one of its fides you are to pafte a black paper, the
length of which is to be divided into three parts, and
the breadth into fifteen j in eve;y two of thefe fifteen
divifions you cut out letters, which will make in the
whole three anfwers to three queftions that may be
propofed. On the other fide of the glafs pafte a very-
thin paper, and to the top faften a fmall cord, by
which they may be made to rife or defeend in the
groove FG.
Then take a flip of pafteboard PtS (fig. 3.) one inch
and a half wide and three inches long, which is to be
divided into fifteen equal parts fimilar to thofe of the
paper OP, and cut out fpaces, as in the figure, fo that
this paper Aiding horizontally before OP, will either
cover or conceal the letters cut in that.
This pafteboard is to Aide between two brafs wires,
and is to be faftened to one fide of the box, by a firing
that communicates with a fmall brafs fpring j and to
the other fide, by a firing faftened to the box by a
fmall piece of wax, fo fituated that the firing may be
eafily fet at liberty by the heat of the candles placed
in the box.
Take a parcel of cards, and write on them different
queftions, three of which are to correfpond with the
anfwers on the glafs. Shuffle thefe cards, and let a
perfon draw any one of the three queftions. Then by
railing the glafs, you bring the anfwer againft the hole
in the front of the box. You next place the candles
in the box, the heat of which will melt the wax that
holds the paper RS, which being then drawn by the
fpring, the anfwer will be vifible j and in proportion
as the eompofition between the glaffes becomes diluted
by the increafe of the heat, the letters will become
more ftrongly illuminated.
The letters cut in the paper may be made to anfwer
feveral different queftions, as has been explained in
other experiments j and the whole parcel of cards may
eonfift of queftions that may be anfwered by one or
other of the three divifions of the paper.
29. Make a thin box ABCD (fig. 4.), with a dover A flower
M, that takes off. Let this box be fupported by the Proclu.cec^
pedeftal FGHI, of the fame metal, and on which there its
is a little door L. In the front of this box is to be a'“
glafs O.
In a groove, at a fmall diftance from O, place a
double glafs of the fame fort with that in the laft expe¬
riment. Between the front and back glaffes place a
fmall upright tin tube fupported by the crofs piece R.
Let there be alfo a fmall chafingdilh placed in the pe¬
deftal FGHI. The box is to be open behind. You
privately place a flower (qJ in the tin tube R; and
prefenting one that refembles it to any one (r), defire
him to burn it on the coals in the chafingdifti.
You then ftrew fome powder over the coals, which
may be fuppofed to aid the afties in producing the
flower j and then put the chafingdifti on the pedeftal
5 B 2 under
(eq ) This flower muft not be placed fo near as to make it in the leaft degree vifible.
(r) You may prefent feveral flowers, and let the perfon choofe any one of them. In this cafe, while he is
burning
748 LEGERDEMAIN. Sea. IV.
neo^Per Un<^e.1 t^ie ^ox“ ^ t^e ^eat degrees melts the com- For entertaining experiments, illuftons, See. of a phi- Mifcella.
Ibrraance^" P°^^on between the glaffes, the flower will gradually lofophical nature, fee the articles ACOUSTICS, Catop- neous Pcr'
appear *, but when the chafingdifh is taken away, and trios, Chromatics, Dioptrics, PyrotechnicSj Sci- t':ru‘ance^
the power of the aflies is fuppofed to be removed, the ENCE, Amufements of,
flower foon difappears.
LEG
X.eger Line, LEGER LINE, in Mufc, one added to the ftaff of
Leghorn. five lines, when the afeending or defeending notes run
very high or low j there are fometimes many of thefe
lines both above and below the ftaff, to the number of
four or five.
LEGHORN, anciently called Liburnus Portus, but
by the modern Italians Livorno, a handfome town of
Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, and a free port, about
30 miles fouth-weft from Florence, in the territory of
Pifa. The only defeft of the harbour is its being too
thallow for large ftiips. Cofmo I. had this town in
exchange for Sarzana, from the Genoefe j and it is the
only fea port in the duchy. It was then but a mean
unhealthy place j but is now very handfome, and well
built, with broad, ftraight, parallel ftreets. It is alfo
well fortified 5 but wants good water, which muft be
brought from Pifa, 14 miles diftant. It is about two
miles in circuit, and the general form of it is fquare.
Part of it has the convenience of canals 3 one of which
is five miles in length, and, joining the Arno, merchan-
dife and paffengers are thus conveyed to Pifa. The
port, confifting of two havens, one for the duke’s gal¬
leys, and the other for merchant fhips, is furrounded
with a double mole, above a mile and a half in length,
and defended, together with the town, by a good ci¬
tadel, and 12 forts. Roman Catholics, Jews, Greeks,
Armenians, Mahometans, and even the Englifh fa£lo-
ry, are indulged in the public exercife of their religion ;
but other Proteftants muft be fatisfied with the pri¬
vate. The trade carried on here is very great, and
moft of it paffes through the hands of the Jews.
Though only two piafters, or feudi, are paid for every
bale, great or fmall, imported or exported, yet the
duties on all provifions and commodities brought from
the continent to the town are very heavy. The num¬
ber of the inhabitants is faid to be about 45,00c 3 and
one-third of thefe are Jews, who live in a particular
q.uarter, but without any mark of diftinttion, and have
a fine fynagogue. They have engroffed the coral ma¬
nufactory, have a confiderable trade, and poffefs the
chief riches of the place. The garrifon confifts of
2000 men. The walks on the ramparts are very
agreeable. There is good anchorage in the road j but
fliips riding there are much expofed to the weather
and the Barbary corfairs. The number of Englifn
families in Leghorn, fome years ago, amounted to a-
bout 36 3 and they were formerly much favoured by
the government. The pow’er of the inquifition islimit-
L E G
ed to ecclefiaftical matters and Roman Catholics. There Leghorn-
are a great many Turkifti Haves here, brought in by the
duke’s galleys, who are often fent out on a cruize a- . " _
gainft the corfairs of Barbary. The lighthoufe Hands
on a rock in the fea 3 near which is the lazaretto,
where quarantine is performed. Another fource, from
which the duke draws a great revenue, is the monopoly
of brandy, tobacco, and fait 3 but that, with the heavy
duties, makes provifiofis dear. The Turks, who are
not flaves, live in a particular quarter, near that of the
Jew's. The common proftitutes alfo have a particular
place afligned them, out of which they muft not be
feen, without leave from the commiffary. The number
of the rowers in the galleys, whether Turkxfti flaves,
criminals, or volunteers, is about 2000. In the area
before the darfena or inner harbour, is a fine ftatue of
Duke Ferdinand, with four Turkifh flaves, in bronze,
chained to the pedeftal. The ducal palace is one of
the fineft ftruClures in the town, and the ordinary refi-
dence of the governor. Leghorn is the fee of a bifhop,
and has a noble cathedral 3 but the other churches are
not remarkable. Leghorn did not efcape thofe changes
In which the French revolutionary war involved the
towns and ftates of Italy. E. Long. 10. 6. N. Lat.
43- 32-
LEG IO VII. Gemina, in Ancient Geography, a
town or ftation of that legion in Afturias. Now Leon,
capital of the province of that name in Spain.
W. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 43.—Another Legio, a town
of Galilee 3 from which Jerome determines the diftances
of the places in Galilee 3 not a bare encampment,
though the name might originally be owing to that cir-
cumilanee. It lay 15 miles to the weft of Nazareth, be¬
tween Mount Tabor and the Mediterranean. Now
thought to be I^egune
LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot
W'hich confifted of different numbers at different periods
of time. The word comes from the Latin legere, to
cheofe 3 becaufe, when the legions were railed, thdy
made choice of fuch of their youth as were moft pro¬
per to bear arms.
In the time of Romulus the legion confifted of 3000
foot and 300 horfe 3 though, after the reception of the
Sabines, it was augmented to 4000, In the war with
Hannibal, it was raifed to 5000, after this it funk to
4000 or 4500 3 this was the number in the time of Po¬
lybius. The number of legions kept in pay together,
differed according to times and occafions. During the
confular
burning the flower, you fetch the box from another apartment, and at the fame time put in a correfponding
flower, which will make the experiment ftill more furprifing.
LEG [7
confular ftate four legions were fitted up every year,
Sregiflator. ancj divided between the two confuls 5 yet we meet with
the number of 16 or 18, as the fituation of affairs re¬
quired. Auguftus maintained a ftanding army of 23 or
25 legions; but this number in after times is feldom
found. The different legions borrowed their names
from the order in which they were raifed ; hence we
read of legio prir/ia, fecunda, tertia : but as there might
be many primee, fecundee, tert'ue, &c. they were fur-
named from the emperors, as Augujla, Claudiana, Gal-
Liana, F/avia, Ulpia, Trajana, Antoniana, &c. or from
the provinces which had been conquered by their means,
as Parthica, Scytkica, Gallica, slrabica, &c. or from
the deities under whofe protection the commanders had
particularly placed themfelves, Miner via, A/pollinaris,
&c. or from the region where they were quartered, as
Cretenjis, Cyrenaica, Britannica, &c. or from particu¬
lar accidents, as adjutrix, niartia, fulmi-vatrix, rapax,
viclrix.
Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each cohort
into 10 companies, and each company into two centu¬
ries. The chief commander of the legion was called
legalus, i. e. lieutenant.
The ftandards borne by the legions were various; at
firft, the ftandard was a wolf, in honour of Romulus’s
nurfe ; afterwards a hog, which animal was ufually
facrificed at the conclufion of a treaty, to indicate that
war is undertaken with a view to peace ; fometimes a
minotaur, to remind the general of his duty of fecrecy,
of which the labyrinth was an emblem, and confe-
quently the minotaur •, a horfe was alfo borne, alfo a
boar ; and Marius, we are told, was the firft who chan¬
ged all thefe for the eagle.
LEGISLATOR, a lawgiver, or perfon who efta-
blifties the polity and laws of a ftate. Such was Mo¬
les, among the Jews 5 Lycurgus, among the Lacedse-
monians, &c. See MOSAIC Law.
The firft laws amonglt the Athenians feem to have
been thofe of Thefeus; for what we can find earlier
than this period is involved in fable. After Thefeus
came Draco the archon, whofe law's were faid, for
their feverity, to have been written with blood : by his
laws every offence was punithed with death 5 fo that
dealing an apple, and betraying their country, were
treated as equal crimes. Thefe law's were afterwards
* repealed by Solon, except fuch as related to murder:
By way of diftinftion, Draco’s laws were called Qiv/xtt,
and Solon’s Nepei. The laws of Solon v/ere in a great
meafure fufpended during the ufurpation of Pififtratus ;
but, after the expulfion of his family, were revived with
fome additions by Clifthenes. After this, the form of
government was again changed, firft by the four hun¬
dred, and afterwards by the thirty tyrants j but thefe
ftorms being over, the ancient laws were again reftored
in the archonftiip of Euclides, and others eftablfthed
at the inftances of Diocles, Ariftophon, and laft of all,
©f Demetrius the Phalerian. This is a (hortlketch of
the hiftory of the Athenian legiflation, before that
ftate fubmitted to the Roman yoke. But many laws
were enafted by the fuffrages of the people on parti¬
cular exigencies ; the decrees of the fenate continued
to have the force of laws no longer than a year. If a
new' law w as to be propofed to the affembly, it was ne-
ceffary to write it upon a white tablet, and fix it up
fome days before the meeting, left their judgment
4
49 ] LEI
Ihould be caught by furprife. The laws were carefully Legifhtor
revifed every year j and if any of them, from a change . II.
of circumftances, were found unfuitable or prejudicial,
they were repealed : This was called rav
becaufe the fuffrages w'ere given by holding up
of hands. The firft laws amongft the Grecians were
unwritten and compofed in verfe, that the common,
people might with more eafe commit them to memory,
Solon penned his laws upon wmoden tablets, called
; and fome authors with great probability affert,
that they w'ere written in the manner called
from left to right, and from right again to left, in the
fame manner as oxen walk the furrows in plowing,
thus,
EK AIOS AP
.Y0Z3W15X
It was againft the law for any perfon to erafe a decree ^
and certain perfons, called were appointed
to prevent any corruption ; whole bufinefs it was allb
to tranferibe the old and enter the new ones.
At Rome the people were in a great meafure their
own legillators ; though Solon may be faid, in fome
fenfe, to have been their legiflator, as the decemviri,
who were created for the making of laws, borrowed a
great number from thofe of Salon. See Lex.
With us the legillative power is lodged in the king,
lords, and commons affembled in parliament. See Law
and Parliament.
LEGITIMATION, an aft whereby illegitimate
children are rendered legitimate. See Bastard.
LEGITIME, in Scots Law, that fhare of the move-
able effefts belonging to a hufband and vvife, which up¬
on the hufband’s death falls to the children. See Law
Index.
LEGUMEN, or Pod, in Botany ; a fpecies of feed-
veffel which has two valves or external openings en-
clofing a number of feeds that are fattened along one
future only. In this laft circumrtance the feed-veffei
in queftion differs from that termed by botaniftsfiHqua,
in which the enclofed feeds are fattened alternately to
both the futures or joinings of the pod.
The feed-veffel of all the pea bloom or butterfly-
ftiaped flowers, the diadelpuia of Linnaeus, is of this
pod kind. Such, for inftance, is the feed-veffel of the
pea, vetch, lupine, and broom.
LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to all plants
whofe fruit is a legumen.
LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William de, an eminent
mathematician and philofopher, was born at Leipfic
in Saxony in 1646. At the age of 15 years, he applied
himfelf to mathematics at Leipfic and Jena •, and in
1663, maintained a thefis de Principiis Individuationis.
The year following he was admitted mafter of arts.
He read wdth great attention the Greek philofophers j
and endeavoured to reconcile Plato with Ariftotle, as
he afterwards did Ariftotle with Des Cartes. But the
ftudy of the law was his principal view 5 in which fa¬
culty he was admitted bachelor in 1665. The year
following he would have taken the degree of doftor y
but was refufed it on pretence that he was too young,
though in reality becaufe he had raifed himfelf feveral
enemies by rejefting the principles of Ariftotle and the
fchoolmen. Upon this he vrent to Altorf, where he
maintained a thefis de Cajibus Perplexis, with fuch ap-
plaufe*
'L El [ 75° 1 LEI
Leibnitz, plaufe, that he had the degree of doctor conferred on
Leibnitzian l-nra> He might have fettled to great advantage at
Fhilofonliy. pajrjs . ]3U(. as jt woujcl }iave been neceffary to have
^ embraced the Roman Catholic religion, he refufed all
offers. In 1673, he went to England •, where he be¬
came acquainted with Mr Oldenburg, fecretary of
the Royal Society, and Mr John Collins, fellow of
that fociety. In 1676, he returned to England, and
thence went into Holland, in order to proceed to
Hanover, where he propofed to fettle. Upon his ar¬
rival there, he applied himfelf to enrich the duke’s li¬
brary with the bell books of all kinds. The duke dy¬
ing in 1679, his fuccellor Erneft Auguftus, then bi-
Ihop of Oinaburgh, {bowed our author the fame fa¬
vour as his predeceffor had done, and ordered him to
write the hiftory of the houfe of Brunfwick. He un¬
dertook it, and travelled over Germany and Italy in
order to colledl materials. The eleftor of Branden-
burgh, afterwards king of PruiTia, founded an acade¬
my at Berlin by his advice •, and he was appointed
perpetual prefident, though his affairs would not per¬
mit him to relide conftantly at Berlin. Tie projected
an academy of the fame kind at Drefden 5 and this de-
lign would have been executed, if it had not been pre¬
vented by the confuiions in Poland. He was engaged
likewife in a fcheme for an univerfal language. His
writings had long before made him famous over all
Europe. Befide the office of privy counfellor of juf-
tice, which the eleftor of Hanover had given him, the
emperor appointed him in 1711 aulic counfellor ; and
the czar made him privy counfellor of juflice,- with a
penfion of 1000 ducats. He undertook at the fame
time the eftablifhment of an academy of fcience at
Vienna ; but the plague prevented the execution of'it.
* Plowever, the emperor, as a mark of his favour, fet¬
tled a penfion on him of 2000 florins, and promifed
him another of 4000 if he would come and refide at
Vienna. He would have complied with this offer, but
he was prevented by death in 1716. Elis memory was
io ftrong, that in order to fix any thing in it, he had
no more to do but to write it once 5 and he could even
in his old age repeat Virgil exaftly. He profeffed the
Lutheran religion, but never went to fermon $ and up¬
on his deathbed, his coachman, who wTas his favourite
fervant, defiring him to fend for a miniffer, he refufed,
faying, he had no need of one. Mr Locke and Mr Mo-
lyneux plainly feem to think that he vras not fo great
a man as he had the reputation of being. Foreigners
afcribed to him the honour of an invention, of which,
it is faid, he received the firft hints from Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s letters, who had difcovered the method of fluxions
in 1664 and 1665. But it would be tedious to give a
detail of the difpute concerning the right to that in¬
vention. See Fluxions.
LEIBNITZIAN Philosophy, or the philofophy
of Leibnitz, is a fyftem of philofophy formed and pub-
liftred by its author in the laft century, partly in emen¬
dation of the Cartefian, and partly in oppofition to the
v Newtonian. The bafis of Mr Leibnitz’s philofophy
was that of Des Cartes 5 for he retained the Cartefian
fubtile matter, with the univerfal plentitude and vor¬
tices *, and reprefented the univerfe as a machine that
fhould proceed for ever by the laws of mechanifm, in
the moft perfefl ftate, by an abfolute inviolable necef-
fity, though in fome things he differs from Des Car^
tes. After Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy was pub- Leibnitziaa
lilhed in 1687, he printed an eflay on the celeftial mo- Fhilofophy.
tions, Act. Erud. 1689, where he admits of the circu-
lation of the ether with Des Cartes, and of gravity
with Sir Ifaac Newton 5 though he has not reconciled
thefe principles, nor ftiown how gravity arofe from the
impulfe of this ether, nor how to account for the pla¬
netary revolutions, and the laws of the planetary illa¬
tions in their refpeCtive orbits. That which he calls
the harmonica/circulation, is the angular velocity of any
one planet, which decreafes from the perihelium to the
aphelium in the fame proportion as its difiance from
the fun increafes ; but this law does not apply to the
motions of the different planets compared together :
becaufe the velocities of the planets, at their mean di~
fiances, decreafe in the fame proportion as the fquare
roots of the numbers expreffing thofe difiances. Be-
fides, his fyftem is defective, as it does not reconcile
the circulation of the ether with the free motions of
the comets in all directions, or wdth the obliquity of
the planes of the planetary orbits 5 nor refolve other
objections to which the hypothefis of the plenum and
vortices is liable. Soon after the period juft mention¬
ed, the difpute commenced concerning the invention of
the method of fluxions, which led Mr Leibnitz to take
a very decided part in oppofition to the philofophy of
Sir Ifaac Newton. From the wifdom and goodnefs of
the Deity, and his principle of a fufficient reafon, h@
concluded that the univerfe was a perfect work, or the
belt that could pofiibly have been made ; and that other
things, which w ere incommodious and evil, were permit¬
ted as neceffary confequences of wEat was belt : the
material fyftem, confidered as a perfect machine, can
never fall into diforder, or require to be fet right; and
to fuppofe that God interpofes in it, is to leffen the ikill
of the Author, and the perfection of his work. Bla
exprefsly charges an impious tendency on the philofophy
of Sir Ifaac Newton, becaufe he afferts, that the fabric
of the univerfe and courfe of nature could not continue
for ever in its prefent ftate, but would require, in pro-
cefs of time, to be re-eftablilhed or renewed by the
hand of its Former. The perfection of the univerfe,
by reafon of which it is capable of continuing for ever
by mechanical laws in its prefent ftate, led Mr Leib¬
nitz to diftinguifh between the quantity of motion and
the force of bodies } and, whilft he owns, in oppofition
to Des Cartes, that the former varies, to maintain that
the quantity of force is for ever the fame in the uni¬
verfe, and to meafure the forces of bodies by the fquares
of their velocities.
This fyftem alfo requires the utter exclufion of
atoms, or of any perfectly hard and inflexible bodies.
The advocates of it allege, that according to the law
of continuity, as they call a law of nature invented for
the fake of the theory, all changes in nature are pro¬
duced by infenflble and infinitely fmall degrees; fo that
no body can, in any cafe, pafs from motion to reft, or
from reft to motion, without palling through all pof-
fible intermediate degrees of motion : w hence they con¬
clude, that atoms or perfectly hard bodies are impof-
fible : becaufe if two of them fhould meet with equal
motions, in contrary directions, they would neceffarily
flop at once, in violation of the law of continuity.
Mr Leibnitz propofes two principles as the founda¬
tion of all our knowledge; the firft, that it is impof-
fible
L E 1 [ 75i ] LEI
^ ' ,Ii a 5" anc^ ^n8 fame time, penfations ate dire£led j fo they concluded^ that if thisheibnitzian
. . ^, Villen, he ia) s, is tiie foundation of ipeculative trutli : end was propofed, it muft be acconipliflied. Hence
the other is, that nothing is without a fufficient rea- the dodtrine of neceffity, to fulfil the purpofes of a pre- , LciCe"tfc‘“,
Ion why it thornd be fo rather than otherwife and by deftination founded in wifdom and goodnefs j a necef-
tnts piinciple, according to him, wre make a tranfition fity, phyfical and mechanical, in the motions of ma-
from abftiacted truths to natural phiiofophy. Hence terial and inanimate things, but a neceffity moral and
be concludes, that the mind is naturally determined, fpiritual in the voluntary determinations of intelligent
m its volitions and eledtions, by the greateft apparent beings, in confequence of propellent motives, which
good, and l.iat it is impoffible to make a choice be- produce their effedts with certainty, though thefe ef-
tween ^things perfedlly like, which he calls indifcerni- fedls be contingent, and by no means the offspring of
b.es; from ’hence he infers, that two things perfedl- an abfolute and effentially immutable fatality. Thefe
ly like could not have been produced even by the Dei- principles, fays the fame writer, are evidently applica-
\ an^ rejedts a vacuum, partly becaufe the parts ble to the main doctrines of Calvinifm \ by them pre-
of it muft be fuppofed perfedtly like to each other. deftination is confirmed, though modified with refpedl
I'or tlie lame realon he alio rejedts atoms, and all fi- to its reafons and its end 5 by them irrefiftible grace
payticies of imntei, to each of which, though (irreliftible in a moral ienfe) is maintained upon the
divilible in infinitum, he aferibes a monad (Act. Lipfiae hypothefis of propellent motives and a moral neceffity :
1698, p. 435;) or adtive kind of principle, endued, the perfeverance of the faints is alfo explicable upon
as he lays, with perception and appetite. 1 he effence the lame fyftem, by a feries of moral caufes producing
of fubfiance he places in adtiun or activity, or, as he a feries of moral effedts.
expn ff s it, in fomething that is between acting and LEICESTER, the capital of a county of the fams
the faculty of adting. He affirms abfolute reft to be name in England, upon the river Leire, now called
impoffible ; and holds motion, or a fort of nifus, to be Sours. Fiona its fituation on the Fofl'e way, and the,
effential to all material fubftances. Each monad he many coins and antiquities difeovered here, it feems
deferibes as repielentative of the whole univerfe from probable that it was a place of lome note in the time
its point of fight } and after all, in one of his letters he of the Romans. In the time of the Saxons it was a
tells us, that matter is not a fubftance, but a fubjlan- bifhop’s fee, and afterwards fo repaired and fortified
tiatum, or phenomene bien fonde. He frequently urges by Edelflida, that it became, according to Matthew
the comparifon between the effedts of oppofite motives Paris, a moft wealthy place, having 32 parifli churches5
on Lire mind, and of weights placed in the feales of a but in Henry the Second’s reign it was in a manner
balance, or of powers adting upon the fame body with quite ruined, for joining in rebellion againft him with
contrary directions. His learned antagonift Dr Clarke Robert earl of Leicelter. In the reign of Edward III.
denies that there is a fimilitude between a balance however, it began to recover by the favour of his fon
moved by weights, and a mind adting upon the view Henry Plantagenet, duke and earl of Lancafter, who
of certain motives 5 becaufe the one is entirely paffive, founded and endowed a collegiate church and hofpital
and the other not only is adted upon, but adts alfo. here. It is a borough and corporation, governed by
The mind, he owns, is purely paffive in receiving the a mayor, recorder, Reward, bailiff, 24 aldermen, 48
Impreftion of the motive, which is only a perception, common council men, a folicitor, a town clerk, and
and is not to be confounded with the power of adting two chamberlains. It had its nrit charter from King
after, or in comequence of, that perception. The dif- John. The freemen are exempt from paying toll in
ference between a man and a machine does not confift all the fairs and markets of England. It has three
only in feniation and intelligence, but in this power of hofpitals; that mentioned above, built by Henry Plan-
acting alfo. I he balance, for want of this power, can- tagenet duke of Lancafter, and capable of fupporting
not move at all when the weights are equal j but a free 100 aged people decently j another, eredled and en-
agent, he lays, when there appear two perfedtly alike dowed in the reign of Henry VIII. for 12 poor lazars 5
• reafonable ways of adting, has ftill within itfelf a power and another for fix poor widows. The caftle was a pro¬
of choofing ; and it may have itrong and very good rea- digious large building, where the duke of Lancafter
fans not to forbear. kept his court. The hall and kitchen ftill remain en-
I he tranftator of Moffieim’s Eeclefiaftical Hiftory tire, of which the former is very fpacious and lofty y
obferves, that the progrefs of Arminianilm has de- and in the tower over one of the gateways is kept the
dined in Germany and feveral parts of Switzerland, in magazine for the county militia. There was a famous
confequence of the influence of the Leibnitzian and monaftery here, anciently called from its fituation in
Wolfian phiiofophy. Leibnitz and Wolf, by attacking the meadows, St Alary de Praiis or Pre’z. In thefo
tnart liberty of indifference, which is fuppofed to im- meadows is now the courfe for the horfe race. It is
ply the power of adting not only without, but againft, faid that Richard III. who was killed at the battle of
motives, ftruck, he fays, at the very foundation of the Bofworth, lies interred in St Margaret’s church. The
Arminian lyftem. He adds, that the greateft poffible chief bufinefs of Leicefter is the flocking trade, which
perfedtion of the univerfe, confidered as the ultimate hath produced in general to the amount of 6o,oool.
end of creating goodnefs, removes from the dodtrine a-year. In a parliament held here in the reign c£
of predeftination thofe arbitrary procedures and nar- Henry V. the firft law for the. burning of heretics was
row views with which the Calvinifts are fuppofed to made, levelled againft the followers of Wickliffe, who
have loaded it, and gives it a new, a more pleafing, was redtor of Lutterworth in this county, and where
and a more phi'lofophical afpedt. As the Leibnitzians his pulpit is faid ftill to remain. The town fuffered
laid down this great end as the fupreme objedt of God’s greatly in the civil wars, by two fucceffive fieges. It
univerfal dominion, and the hope to which all his dif-- has given the title of earl to feveral noble families.
The
lietcefter
. 1] .
Leighlin.
LEI [ 752 ] LEI
The prefent earl was created in 1784, and is the mar¬
quis of Townthend’s fon. Its market on Saturday is
one of the greateft in England for provifions, efpecial-
ly for corn and cattle. The population in 1801 was
eflimated at 17,000.
Leicestershire, an inland county of England, in
form almolt circular. It has Nottinghamlhire and
Derbylhire to the north j Rutlandlhire and Lincoln-
Ihore on the eaft j Warwicklhire on the weft, from
which it is parted by the Roman military way called
Wat ling Jlreet; and by Northamptonftnre on the fouth j
and is about 1 70 miles in circumference. As it lies
at a great diftance from the fea, and is free from
bogs and marfties, the air is fweet and wholefome. It
is a champaign country in general, and abundantly
fertile in corn and grafs, being watered by feveral ri¬
vers, as the Soure, or Sare, which pafies through the
middle of it, and abounds in excellent falmon and other
fifti ; the Wreke, Trent, Eye, Senfe, Auker, and
Aven. Thefe rivers being moftly navigable, greatly
facilitate the trade of the county. In fome parts
there is a great fcarcity of fuel, both wood and coal j
but in the more hilly parts there is plenty of both, to¬
gether with great flocks of flieep. Befides wheat, bar¬
ley, oats, and peafe, it produces the beft beans in
England. They grow fo tall and luxuriant in fome
places, particularly about Barton in the Beans, that
they look, towards the harveft time, like a foreft 5 and
the inhabitants eat them not only when they are green
as in other places, but all the year round ; for which
reafon their neighbours nickname them bean bellies.
They have plenty of good wool, of which they not on¬
ly make great quantities of {lockings, but fend a great
quantity unmanufactured into other parts of England.
They make great profit of their corn and pulfe ; and
likewife breed great numbers of coach and dray horfes.
It is not uncommon to rent grafs farms from 500I. to
2000I. a-year. It is in the midland circuit, and dio-
cefe of Lincoln : and fends four members to parlia¬
ment, two for Leicefter, and two for the county. It
contains 200 parifties and 130,000 inhabitants.
LEIGH, Sir Edward, a very learned Englilh-
man, was born at Shawel in Leicefterfhire, and edu¬
cated at Magdalen hall, Oxford. He was a member
of the long parliament, and one of the members of the
houfe of commons who were appointed to fit in the af-
fembly of divines. He was afterwards colonel of a re¬
giment for the parliament; but in 1648 was number¬
ed among the Prefbyterians who were turned out, and
in December he was imprifoned. From this period to
the Reftoration he employed himfelf in writing a con-
fiderable number of learned and valuable books, which
{bowed profound learning, a knowledge of the lan¬
guages, and much critical fagacity ; and of which a
lift is given by Antony Wood. Sir Edward died at
his houfe called Rufhall Hall, in Staftordfhire, June 2.
1671 ; and was buried in the chancel of Rufhall
church.
LEIGHLIN, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Carlow, and province of Leinfter ; about
43 miles from Dublin, near the river Barrow. It is a
borough, and formerly returned two members to parlia¬
ment ; patronage in the bifhop of the diocefe, this being
a biftiopric united to Ferns. At the eaft end of the
church of Old Leighlin is a famous ivell covered with
great afh trees, and dedicated to St Lafarian. This
place was formerly a city, though now a very mean vil¬
lage, and the cathedral has been kept in good repair.
It was a foie biftiopric, founded in 632, and joined to
Ferns in 1600. It is reported, that Gurmundus a Da-
nifti prince was buried in this church. The laft biftiop
of Leighlin before its union with Ferns, was the right
reverend Robert Grave, who coming by fea to be in-
flailed, fuffered ftiipwreck in the harbour of Dublin,
and periftied in the waves. This cathedral was burnt
to the ground, it is faid, by lightning; and rebuilt,
A. D. 1232, then dedicated to St Lafarian or Lazari-
nus, before mentioned ; fince the fees were joined, it is
made ufe of as a parifh church. Leighlin bridge is
fituated about two miles from this village ; it was de-
ftroyed by the Irifti in 1577* Here are the remains of
a caftle and of an old abbey. This is a poll town, and
has fairs in May, September, and Oflober.
LEIGHTON, Robert, archbilhop of Glafgow.
During Cromwell’s ufurpation, he was minifter of a
church near Edinburgh, and diftinguiftied himfelf by
his charity, and his averfion to religious and political
difputes. The minifters were then called over yearly
in the fynod, and were commonly aflced, Whether they
had preached to the times ? “ For God’s fake (anfwer-
ed Leighton), when all my brethren preach to the
times, fuffer me to preach about eternity.” His mo¬
deration, however, giving offence, he retired to a life
of privacy. But foon after, he was called by the una¬
nimous voice of the magiftrates, to prefide over the col¬
lege of Edinburgh ; where, during ten years, he dif-
played all the talents of a prudent, wife, and learned
governor. Soon after the Reftoration, when the ill-
judged affair of introducing Epifcopacy into Scotland
was refolved on, Leighton was confecrated biftiop of
Dunblane, and immediately gave an inftance of his
moderation : for when Sharpe and the other biftiops in¬
tended to enter Edinburgh in a pompous manner,
Leighton remonftrated againft it; but finding that what
he laid had no weight, he left them, and went to Edin¬
burgh alone. Leighton, in his own diocefe, fet fuch a
remarkable example of moderation, that he was revered
even by the moft rigid of the oppofite party. He went
about, preaching without any appearance of pomp ;
he gave all he had to the poor ; and removed none of
the minifters, however exceptionable he might think
their political principles. But finding that none of the
other bifhops would be induced to join, as he thought,
properly in the work, he went to the king, and refign-
ed his bilhopric, telling him he would not have a hand
in fuch oppnreflive meafures. Soon after, the king and
council, partly induced by this good bifhop’s remon-
ftrances, and partly by their own obfervations, refolved
to carry on the caufe of Epifcopacy in Scotland on a
different plan ; and with this view, Leighton was per-
fuaded to accept of the archbiftiopric of Glafgow, on
which he made one effort more ; but finding it not in
his power to ftem the violence of the times, he refigned
his archbifhopric, and retired into Suffex, where he de¬
voted hitofelf to a£ls of piety. He died in the year
1684. Fie was of a moft amiable difpofition, ftridl in
his life, polite, cheerful, engaging in his manners, and
profoundly learned. He left many fermons and ufeful
tradls, which are greatly efteemed.
LEINSTER, the eaftern province of Ireland, bound¬
ed
Leighlin
li
Leinfter
LEI [ 753 1 LEI
Leinfler ed by Ulfter on the north ■, St George’s, or the Irifh
II channel, on the eaft and fouth •, and by the provinces
, of Connaught and Munfter on the weft. The capital
city of this province and of the kingdom is Dublin.
It contains 12 counties, viz. Carlow, Dublin, Kil¬
dare, Kilkenny, King’s county, Longford, Louth,
Meath, Queen’s county, Weft Meath, Wexford, and
Wicklow. It is the moft level and bell cultivated pro¬
vince in the kingdom j containing 2,642,958 Irilh
plantation acres, 858 parilhes, 99 baronies, and 53
boroughs; it is about 1 24 miles long and 74 broad,
and expends from 510 45' to 550 45' north latitude.
Dermond king of Leinfter marrying his daughter Eva
to Strongbow earl of Pembroke, on his deceafe made
him his univerfal heir j whereby the earl inherited
the province, of Leinfter, and was afterwards enfeoff¬
ed of it by Henry II. He died in 1176, and left an
only daughter Ifabel, efpoufed to William Marlhal earl
of Pembroke *, by her he had five fons, who fucceed-
ed to his great eftates in Leinfter. This province
gives title of duke to the ancient and noble family of
Fitzgerald. In the early ages, this diftri£l was almoft
one continued foreft, and was principally the feat of
the Kififelaghs.
LEIPSIC, a large, ftrong, and populous town of
Mifnia in Germany, with a caftle, and a famous uni-
verfity. It is neat, and regularly built, and the ftreets
are lighted in the night •, it carries on a great trade,
and has a right to flop and fell the merchandifes de-
figned to pafs through it, and the country for 75 miles
round has the fame privilege. There are three great
fairs every year, at the beginning of the year, Eafter
and Michaelmas, which laft 15 days each. There are
fix handfome colleges belonging to the univerfity, be-
fides the private colleges. The townhoufe makes an
indifferent appearance, but the exchange is a fine ftruc-
ture. The town was taken by the king of Pruflia in
the late war, but given up by the peace in 1763. It
is feated in a plain between the rivers Saale and Muld,
near the confluence of the Playffe, the Elfter, and the
Barde. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 51. 19.
LEITH, (anciently called Inverleith), the port of
Edinburgh, is feated on the banks of the Forth, about
two miles from the capital. It is built on both fides of
the harbour; by which it is divided into two parts,called
‘North and South Leith. The communication between
tliefe w as by a ftone bridge of three arches founded by
Robert Ballantyne abbot of Holyroodhoufe in 1493, but
fome time ago pulled down. The harbour is formed by
the conflux of the rivulet called the Water of Leith with
the frith of Forth. The depth of water, at neap tides is
about nine feet; but in high fpring tides, it is about
16 feet. In the beginning of the 18th century, the
town council of Edinburgh improved the harbour at
an enormous expence, by extending a ftone pier a con-
fiderable way into the fea. In 1777, they eredled an
additional ftone quay towards its weft fide. Upwards
of 100 fliips could then lie conveniently in this port :
but it can now admit of a much greater number, in con-
fequence of having lately undergone great improve¬
ments. In order to enlarge it, the old bridge was
pulled down, and an elegant drawbridge erected a
little to the eaft ward of the former fite. It is accom¬
modated with wet and dry docks, and other conveni¬
ences for fhip-building, which is there carried on to
Vol. XL Part II.
fome extent, as veffels come to Leith to be repaired
from many parts of Scotland. A new bafon was com¬
pleted and opened in 1805, which affords a fate and
convenient ftation for trading veffdsj and another is now
(1813) in confiderable forwardnels. The road of Leith
affords good anchorage for ihips of the greateft fize.
About the clofe of the American war, when the
people wrere alarmed by the appearance of Paul Jones
in the frith with no more than three armed veffels,
threatening to deftroy all the ftiips in the roads and
harbour, a battery was eredled to the weftward of the
citadel, mounting nine guns. A party of artillery with
a confiderable park is conftantly ftationed at the bat¬
tery, which is kept in excellent repair.
The harbour of Leith was granted to the commu¬
nity of Edinburgh by King Robert in 13295 but the
banks of the harbour belonged to Logan of Reftalrig,
a turbulent and ambitious baron, from whom the citi¬
zens w'ere under the neceflity of purchafing the bank
or wafte piece of ground between the houfes and the
rivulet above mentioned, for the purpofes of wharfs, as
well as for erefting (hops and granaries, neither of
which they could do before. As the fituation of Leith,
however, is much more convenient for trade than that
of Edinburgh, which is two miles diftant from the har¬
bour, the inhabitants of the metropolis have fallen upon
various methods of reftraining the trade of Leith. They
firft purchafed, from Logan of Reftalrig, an exclufive
privilege of carrying on every fpecies of traffic in the
town of Leith, and of keeping warehoufes and inns
for the entertainment of ftrangers in that place 5 and
in 1483, the town council prohibited, under fevere
penalties, the citizens of Edinburgh from taking
into partnerftiip any inhabitant of Leith. To free
themfelVes from this oppreflion, the people of Leith
purchafed the fuperiority of their town from Logan of
Reftalrig, for 3000I. Scots, and it was erected into
a burgh of barony by the queen regent, Mary of Lor¬
raine, who promifed to ereft it into a royal borough.
She died, however, before this was accomplifhed;
and upon her death, Francis and Mary, in violation of
the private rights of the people of Leith, refold the
fuperiority to the town of Edinburgh, to whom it has
fince been confirmed by grants from fucceflive fove-
reigns.
On the breaking out of the difturbances at the Re¬
formation, the queen regent caufed the whole town to
be fortified, that the French troops might have a more
ready inlet into the kingdom. It was accordingly
furrounded with a wall, having eight baftions: but
this wall w'ent no farther than the ftreet now called
Bernard''s nook, becaufe at that time the fea came
up the length of that ftreet 5 and even as late as 1623,
a heufe fituated exactly where the weigh-houfe is at
prefect, is defcribed as bounded on the eaft by the
“ fand of the fea-lhore,’’ All that fpace, therefore,
on which the row @f houfes neareft the harbour of
Leith now ftanda, has been gained fince that time
from the fea.
In the time of Charles I. a fortification was erected
at Leith by the Covenanters. Cromwell built a ftrong
fort at the place ftill called the citadel in North Leith j
but it was pulled down on the reftoration of Charles II.
by order of government. A gate with portcullifes
are the prefent remains of that fortification.—A pa-
5 G lace
L E I
L.fth. lace alfo appears to have formerly flood here, fituated
at the north-eaft boundaries of the former town, on
the fpot where the prefent weigh-houfe ftands. It was
deftroyed by the Englifh in the time of Henry VIII.
The remains of this building, called the king's %vorky
with a garden, and a piece of wafte land that furround-
ed it, was erefted into a barony by James VI. and
beftowed upon Bernard Lindfay of Lochill, groom
of the chamber to that prince. He is faid to have
fully repaired, and appropriated it to the recreations
of the court; but it foon fell from its dignity, and be¬
came fubfervient to much more ignoble purpofes. The
tennis court was converted into a weigh-houfe ; and
the ftreet which bounds it ftill bears the name of the
founder, from whence it is called Bernard'’s nook.
As Teith lay within the parifh of Reftalrig, the
church of Reftalrig was of confequence the place of
worlhip for the inhabitants of Leith •, but in 1650
the Aflfembly ordered that church to be pulled down
as a monument of idolatry, fo that Leith wanted a
parifh church for upwards of 50 years. During that
period they reforted for worfhip to a large and beau¬
tiful chapel already built, and dedicated to St Mary,
which is now called South Leith Church; and in 1609
this chapel w'as by authority of parliament declared
to be the parilh church of the diftrift : fo that Reftal¬
rig is now in the parifh of South Leith, as the latter
was formerly in that of Reftalrig. In I772> a
of eafe was eredled by the inhabitants, as the parifh
church was infufficient to contain the number of hear¬
ers. There are alfo an Epifcopal and feveral diflenting
congregations in Leith. North Leith is a parifh by
itfelf, and the church which is propofed (1807) to be
rebuilt, is fituated at what was the north end of the
old bridge.
Though a very great trade is carried on between
Leith and many foreign ports, yet the articles of ex¬
port and import fludluate fo much, that it would be
ufelefs to enter into any details either as to fpecies or
quantity. In general, the imports from France, Spain,
■and Portugal, are wines, brandy, and fruits $ from
the Weft Indies and America, rice, indigo, rum, fu-
gar, and logwood. But the principal foreign trade of
Leith is by the eaftern feas, for the navigation of which
it is moft happily fltuated. To Germany, Holland,
and the Baltic, it exports lead, glafs ware, linen and
woollen fluffs, and a variety of other goods ; and from
thence it imports immenfe quantities of timber, oak
bark, hides, linen rags, pearl afhes, flax, hemp, tar, and
many other articles. The Baltic trade has long been
carried on to a great extent, owing no doubt to the vaft
increafe of new buildings in Edinburgh and its envir¬
ons. The coafting trade is a principal branch for the
ihipping at Leith, including thofe which belong to other
ports on the Forth, which are faid to make about one-
fourth of the tonnage of the Leith veflels. The (hips
employed in the London trade are in general of a large
fize, elegantly conftrufted, well manned, and furnifh-
ed with excellent accommodations for paffengers. I he
largeft fhips in this port, however, are thofe employed
in the Greenland fifhery.
The (hipping at Leith renders the demand for ropes,
fail cloth, and cordage, very confiderable \ and difler-
ent companies carry on thefe manufa&ures, befldes
private perfons who deal lefs conflderably. The firft
L E I
of thofe companies was eftablifhed in the oegxnning of Leith.
the 18ih century. This has proved a profperous and ' v—-
lucrative concern.
In the middle of the 17th century, a manufaflory of
green glafs was eftablifhed at the citadel of Leith.
Chopin bottles were fold at 4s. 6d. per dozen, and
other bottles in proportion, boon afterwards this ar¬
ticle was manufadlured alfo in North Leith j and in
1707, chopin bottles were fold at 2s. 6d. per dozen,
and fo on proportionably. That houfe being burnt
down in 1746, a new houfe was built the following
year on South Leith fands, and an additional one in
1764. Two companies are now (1807) engaged in
the glafs manufacture; the one for common bottles, and
the other for window glafs and cryftal ware of all
forts.
Manufa&ures of foft foap and candles were ere&ed
by St Clair of Roflin and fome merchants ; the for¬
mer in 1750, and the latter in 1770 : a manufacture
of hard foap was alfo eftablifhed in I770, Befides
thefe, there are a confiderable manufafture for making
cards with which wool is combed, a great carpet fac¬
tory, and feveral iron forges. There was alfo a fugar
houfe : but it has been given up, as has likewife Mr
St Clair’s foap work.
There is befide a branch of the Britifh Linen Com¬
pany, a banking houfe in Leith, called the Leith Bank¬
ing Company, who iffue notes and carry on bufinefs to a
confiderable extent. An elegant building for the ac¬
commodation of this company is now (1807) erecting.
The inhabitants of Leith were divided into four
claffes; and thefe ereiRed into corporations by the queen
dowager, Mary of Lorraine. Thefe were mariners,
maltmen, trades, and traffickers. The firft of thefe
confifted of fhipmafters and failors ; the fecond, of
malt-makers and brewers ; the third, of coopers, ba¬
kers, fmiths, wrights, &c. ; and the fourth, of mer¬
chants and fhopkeepers. Of thefe corporations the
mariners are the moft confiderable. They obtained
from Mary of Lorraine a gift, afterwards ratified by
William and Mary, of one penny duty on the ton of
goods in the harbour of Leith, for the fupport of their
poor. This duty, which not many years ago did not
amount to 40I. a-year, now rifes from 70I. to 120L
as trade flourifhes. For the fame purpofes the fhip-
mafters alfo pay 6d. a pound out of their otvn wages
annually; and the like fum they give upon the wages
of their failors. From thefe and other donations, this
corporation is enabled to pay from 6ocl. to 700I. a-
year to their poor. Oppofite to South Leith church
there is a large houfe belonging to them, called the
Trinity Hofpital, becaufe originally confecrated to the
Holy Trinity. In this houfe fome of their poor ufed
formerly to be maintained, but now' they are all out-
penfioners. Befides other apartments, this hofpital
contains a large handfome hall for the meetings of toe
corporation. Adjoining to the fchool houfe there is
another hofpital, called King James',s Hofpital; which
bears upon its front the cypher and arms of that prince.
Here fome poor women belonging to the other corpo¬
rations are maintained.
As the town of Leith was very ill fupplied with wra-
ter, and the ftreets were neither properly cleaned nor
lighted, an aft for remedying thefe defefts was pafled
in the year 1771, appointing certain perfons from
among
[ 75+ 1
L E L [7 =
Leith mong tlie rnagiftrates of Edinbmgli, lords of fefiion,
^ ,*1 ( inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith, and members of
.the corporations of Leith, commijjioners of police; em¬
powering them to put this aft in execution ; and, for
that purpofe, to levy a fuih not exceeding 6d. in the
pound upon the valued rent of Leith. The great
change which has fince taken place on the ftreets of
Leith (hows the good effeft of this aft, and that it has
both been judicioufly prepared, and attentively execu¬
ted. Leith, however, has never been well fupplied
with water ; that brought in pipes from Lochend in the
eaftern part of the pariih is not of a good quality, for
it is not derived from fprings.
Leith was computed to contain, in 1801, above
15,000 inhabitants. The government of the town is
veiled in a magiftrate fent from Edinburgh, having ad¬
miral’s power j and in two refiding bailies elefted by
the town council.
LEITRIM, a county of Ireland, htuated in the pro¬
vince of Connaught, is bounded on the north by the bay
of Donnegal and part of Fermanagh, on the louth and
weft by Sligo and Rofcommon, and on the eaft by Fer¬
managh and Cavan. It is a fruitful county j and,
though mountainous, produces great herds of black cat¬
tle •, but has few places of note. It contains 206,830
Irifh plantation acres, 21 parilhes, 5 baronies, and 2
boroughs, and formerly fent fix members to parliament j
and is about 42 miles long, and 17 broad.
Leitrim, the {hire town of the county of that
name, is pleafantly fituated on the banks of the river
Shannon, about 80 miles from Dublin ■, and appears
to have been formerly a place of fome note. St Mac
Liegus, fon of Cernac, was bilhop here: and his fef-
tival is obferved on the 8th of February.
LEIXLIP, a poll and fair town of Ireland plea¬
fantly fituated in the county of Kildare and province
of Leinfter, about eight miles from Dublin. Near it
are the ruins of the church and caftle of Confy. The
caftle of Leixlip is beautifully fituated on the banks of
the river Liffey : it is a fine edifice, with large and
pleafant gardens, at one fide of which Is a fine water¬
fall called the Salmon leap, there being plenty of that
fpecies of fi(h hereabouts. A mile from this is Caftle-
town, the magnificent feat of Mr Conolly.
LELAND, John, a celebrated Englifti antiquary,
was born in London about the year 1507. Having
loft his parents when a child, he had the good for¬
tune to find a friend and patron in one Mr Thomas
Miles, who placed him in St Paul’s fchool, of which
the grammarian Lilye was mailer. From that fchool
he was fent to Chrift’s college, Cambridge ; whence,
after fome years refidence, he removed to All Souls,
Oxford. From Oxford he went to Paris, chiefly with
a defign to ftudy the Greek language, which at that
time was but little underitood in this kingdom. On
his return to England he took orders, and was foon
appointed chaplain to King Henry VIII. who alfo
gave him the reftory of Poppeling, in the marfhes of
Calais, appointed him his librarian, and in 1533
granted to him by commiftion under the great feal,
the office of king’s antiquary j an office never borne
by any other perfon before or fince. By this com-
miffion he was empow'ered to fearch for ancient writ¬
ings in all the libraries of colleges, abbeys, priories,
&c, in his majefty’s dominions. We are told by his
5 ] L E L
laft biographer, that he renounced Popery foon after Le'ai a.
his return to England ; but he quotes no authority. —"
Be this as it may, in 1536 he obtained a difpenia-
tion to keep a curate at Poppeling, and fet out on his
journey in fearch of antiquities. In this employment
he fpent fix years, during which time he vifited every
part of England where monuments of antiquity were
to be expefted. After his return, in the year I542> he
was prefented by the king to the rich reftory of Hafe-
ley in Oxfordffiire $ and in the following year he gave
him a prebend of King’s college, now Chrift’s church,
in Oxford, befides that of Eaft: and Weft Knowle, in
the cathedral of Salifbury. Being thus amply pro¬
vided for, he retired to a houfe of his own in the pariftt
of St Michael le Querne in London, where he fpent
fix years more in digefting the materials which he had
collefted. King Henry VIII. died in 1547, and in
a ffiort time after, poor Leland loft his fenfes. He was
at firft feized with a deep melancholy, which was fuc-
ceeded by a total deprivation of his reafon. In this
dreadful ftate he continued till the beginning of the
year 1552, when he was happily releafed by death.
He was buried in the church of St Michael le Querne, '
which was deftroyed by the fire in 1666. Mr Leland
is remembered as a man of great learning, an univer-
fal linguift, an excellent Latin poet, and a moft inde¬
fatigable and fkilful antiquary. On his death, King
Edward VI. gave all his papers to Sir John Checke,
his tutor and Latin fecretary of ftate. The king dying,
and Sir John being obliged to leave the kingdom, he
gave four folio volumes of Leland’s colleftions to
Humphrey Purefoy, Efq. which in 1612, were by
his fon given to William Burton, author of the hiftory
of Leicefterftrire. This gentleman alfo became pof-
fefled of the Itinerary in 8 vols folio, which, in 1632,
he depofited in the Bodleian library. Many other of
Leland’s manuferipts, after the death of Sir John
Checke, fell into the hands of Lord Paget, Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil, and others, which at laft fortunately came
into the poffeffion of Sir John Cotton. Thefe manu¬
feripts were of great ufe to all our fubfequent antiqua¬
rians, particularly Camden, Sir William Dugdale,
Stowe, Lambard, Dr Batteley, Ant. Wood, &c. His
Itinerary throughout moft parts of England and Wales,
was publifhed by Mr Hearne, 9 vols. 8vo, in 1710-11 j
as was alfo his CollcBanea de rebus Britannicis, 6 vols.
8vo, in 1715.
Lf.LAND, John, a diftinguiffied writer in defence of
Chriftianity, was born at Wigan in Lancaffiire in 1691,
of eminently pious and virtuous parents. Tiiey took
the earlieft care to feafon his mind with proper inftruc-
tions } but, in his fixth year, the fmallpox deprived
him of his underftanding and memory, and expunged
all his former ideas. He continued in this deplorable
ftate near a twelvemonth, when his faculties feemed to
fpring up anewr j and though he did not retain the
lead: traces of any impreffions made on him before the
diftemper, yet he now difeovered a quick apprehenfion
and ftrong memory. In a few years after, his parents
fettled in Dublin, which fituation gave him an eafy
introduftion to learning and the fciences. When he
was properly qualified by years and ftudy, he was call¬
ed to be pallor to a congregation of Proteftant diffen-
ters in that city. He was an able and acceptable
preacher, but his labours were not confined to the pui-
5 C 2 pit-
L E L r 756 ] LEM
Leland pit. The many attacks made on Chriftianity, and by
j' tome writers of no contemptible abilities, engaged him
. to confider the fubjeft with the exafteft care, and the
molt faithful examination. Upon the moft deliberate
inquiry, the truth and divine original, as well as the
excellence and importance of Chriftianity, appearing
to him with great luftre, he publilhed anfwers to feve-
ral authors who appeared fucceflively in that caufe.
He was indeed a mafter in this controverfy j and his
hiftory of it, ftyled “ A View of the Deiftical Writers
that have appeared in England in the laft and prefent
Century,” &c. is very greatly and defervedly efteem-
ed. In the decline of life he publiftied another labo¬
rious work, entitled “ The Advantage and Neceflity
of the Chriftian Revelation, (hown from the State of
Religion in the ancient Heathen World, efpecially
with refpedl to the Knowledge and Worlhip of the One
true God $ a Rule of Moral Duty, and a State of Fu¬
ture Rewards and Punifhments: to which is prefixed,
a long and preliminary Difcourfe on Natural and Re¬
vealed Religion,” 2 vols 410. This noble and exten-
five fubjeft, the feveral parts of which have been {light¬
ly and occafionally handled by other writers, Leland
has treated at large with the greateft care, accuracy,
and candour. And, in his “ View of the Deiftical
Writers,” his cool and difpaftionate manner of treating
their arguments, and his folid confutation of them,
have contributed more to deprefs the caufe of atheifm
and infidelity, than the angry zeal of warm difputants.
But not only his learning and abilities, but alfo his
amiable temper, great modefty, and exemplary life, re¬
commended his memory to general efteem and affec¬
tion. He died in 1766.
LELEGEIS, the ancient name of Miletus, from
the Leleges, the firft inhabitants of it.
LELEGES, anciently a people of Afia, of Greek
original: the name denoting “ a colleftion of people:”
they firft occupied the iftands ; then pafling over to the
continent, they fettled partly in Myfia on the Sinus
Adramyttenus, and partly in that part of Ionia next
Caria.—There were Leleges alfo of Laconia. Thefe
went to the Trojan war with Altes their king. Achilles
plundered their country, and obliged them to retire to
the neighbourhood of Halicarnalfus, where they fixed
their habitation.—The inhabitants of Laconia and of
Megara alfo bore this name for feme time, from Lelex
one of their kings.
LELEX, an Egyptian who came with a colony to
Megara, where he reigned about 200 years before the
Trojan war. His fubje&s were called from him Ze/e-
ges.—Alfo the name of a Greek who was the firrt king
of Laconia in Peloponnefus. His fubje&s were alfo
called Lieges, and the country where he reigned Le-
legia.
LELY, Sir Peter, an eminent painter, was born
in Weftphalia in the year 1617. He w-as placed as a
difciple with Peter Grebber at Haerlem 5 and in 1641
was induced, by the encouragement Charles I. gave to
the fine arts, to come to England. He became ftate-
painter to Charles II. who knighted him ; and being as
complete a gentleman as a painter, that king took plea-
furein converfing with him. He praftifedportrait paint¬
ing, and fucceeded fo well that he was preferred before
all his contemporaries. Hence he became perpetually
involved in bufinefs j fo that he was thereby prevented
3
from going into Italy to finifh the courfe of his ftu- Lely
dies, which in his younger days he was very defirous II
of: however, he made himfelf amends, by getting the Lcniery'
beft drawings, prints, and paintings, of the moft cele- ^
brated Italian mafters. Among thefe were the better
part of the Arundel Colleftion, which he had from
that family, many whereof were fold after his death at
prodigious rates, bearing upon them his ufual mark
of P. L.—The advantage he reaped from this collec¬
tion, the beft chofen of any one of his time, appears
from that admirable ftyle which he acquired by daily
converfing with the works of thofe great mafters. In
his corredl draught and beautiful colouring, but more
efpecially in the graceful airs of his heads, and the
pleafing variety of his poftures, together w ith the gentle
and loofe management of the draperies, he excelled
moft of his predeceflors. Yet the critics remark, that
he preferved in almoft all his female faces a drowfy
fweetnefs of the eyes peculiar to himfelf j for which he
is reckoned a mannerift. The hands of his portraits
are remarkably fine and elegantly turned j and he fre¬
quently added landfcapes in the back grounds of his
pidtures, in a ftyle peculiar to himfelf, and better fuit-
ed to his fubjeft than moft men could do. He excel¬
led likew’ife in crayon painting. He was familiar with,
and much refpe&ed by, perfons of the greateft emi¬
nence in the kingdom. He became enamoured of a
beautiful Englifn lady, to whom he was fome time af¬
ter married $ and he purchafed aneftate at Kew in the
county of Surrey, to which he often retired in the lat¬
ter part of his life. He died of an apoplexy in 1680
at London ; and was buried at Covent Garden church,
where there is a marble monument eredted to his me¬
mory, with his bull, carved by Mr Gibbons, and a La¬
tin epitaph, written, as is faid, by Mr Flatman.
LEMBERG, a town of Poland, capital of Red
Ruflia, feated in the palatinate of Lemburg, on the ri¬
ver Pelteu. It is pretty well fortified, and defended by
two citadels, one of which is feated on an eminence with¬
out the town. The fquare, the churches, and the pub¬
lic buildings, are magnificent \ and it is a large and rich
trading place. It has a Roman Catholic archbiftiop,
and an Armenian as well as a Ruffian biftiop j but the
Proteftants are not tolerated. The city was reduced
to the laft extremity by the rebel Cofl’acs and Tartars,
and was forced to redeem itfelf with a large fum of mo¬
ney. In 1672, it was befieged in vain by the Turks j
but in 1704, was taken by ftorm by Charles XII. of
Sweden. E. Long. 23. 59. N. Lat. 49. 51.
LEMERY, Nicholas, a celebrated chemift, bom
at Rouen in Normandy in 1645. After having made
the tour of France, he, in 1672, commenced an ac¬
quaintance with M. Martyn apothecary to Monfieur
the Prince \ and performed feveral courfes of chemiftry
in the laboratory of this chemift at the Hotel de Conde;
which brought him to the knowledge and efteem of
the prince. He provided himfelf at length with a la¬
boratory of his ow n, and might have been made a doc¬
tor of phyfic : but he chofe to continue an apothecary,
from his attachment to chemiftry, in which he opened
public lectures j and his confluence of fcholars was fo
great as fcarcely to allow him room to perform his
operations. The true principles of chemiftry in his
time were but ill underftood j Lemery was the firft:
who abolilhed the fenfelcfs jargon of barbarous terms,
reduced
LEM [ 757 1 LEM
Lemery reduced the fcience to clear and fimple ideas, and pro-
11 mifed nothing that he did not perform. In 1681, he
Lemnos. was diifurbed on account of his religion *, and came to
England, where he was well received by Charles II. :
but affairs not promifing him the fame tranquillity, he
returned to France, and fought for (belter under a doc¬
tor’s degree j but the revocation of the edidt of Nantz
drove him into the Romilh communion to avoid perfe-
cution. He then became affociate chemift and penfion-
ary in the Royal Academy of Sciences, and died in
1715. He wrote, A courfe of chemiftry ; An univer-
fal pharmacopoeia; An univerfal treatife of drugs;
and, a treatife on antimony.
LEM1NG, in Zoology. See Mus, Mammalia
Index.
LEMMA, (of Xctfdlxvu, “ I affume,”) in Mathema¬
tics, denotes a previous proportion, laid down in order
to clear the way for fome following demonllration ;
and prefixed either to theorems, in order to render
their demonftration lefs perplexed and intricate ; or to
problems, to make their refolution more eafy and (hurt.
Thus, to prove a pyramid one-third of a prifm, or pa-
rallelopiped, of the fame bafe and height with it, the
demonftration whereof in the ordinary way is difficult
and troublefome ; this lemma may be premifed, which
is proved in the rules of progreflion, that the fum of
the feries of the (quares, in numbers in arithmetical
progreflion, beginning from o, and going on 1,4, 9,
16, 25, 36, &c. is always fubtriple of the fum of as
many terms, each equal to the greateft ; or is always
one-third of the greateft terra multiplied by the num¬
ber of terms. Thus, to find the inflexion of a curve
line, this Jemma is firft premifed, that a tangent may
be drawn to the given curve in a given point.
So in phyfies, to the demonftration of moft propo-
fitions, fuch lemmata as thefe are neceffary firft to be
allowed : that there is no penetration of dimenfions;
that all matter is divifible ; and the like. As alfo in
the theory of medicine, that where the blood circu¬
lates, there is life, &c.
LEMNA, Duckmeat, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the monoecia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 54th order, Mifceilanece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LEMNIAN EARTH, Terra Lemnia, a medicinal,
aftiingent fort of earth, of a fatty confidence and red-
dilh colour ; ufed in the fame cafes as BOLE. It has
its name from the ifland of Lemnos, whence it is chief¬
ly brought. Many form it into round cakes, and im-
prefs a feal upon it; whence it is alfo called terra Ji-
gillata. A fort is faid to be imported from Sene¬
gal, which is not properly an earth, though :o called,
but compofed of the dried pulp of the fruit of the
Baobab.
LEMNIUS, LjEVINUS, a famous phyfician, born at
Ziric Zee in Zealand, in 1 505. He pra&ifed phyfic
with applaufe ; and after his wife’s death being made
prieft, became canon of Ziric Zee, where he died in
1560. He left feveral works, the principal of which
is entitled Deoccultis naturae miraculis.
LEMNOS, in Ancient Geography, a noble ifland in
the Aigean fea, near Thrace, called alfo Dipolis, from
its confiding of two towns. The firft inhabitants were
the Pelafgi, or rather the Thracians,, who were mur¬
dered by their wives. After them came the children Lemnos
of the Lemnian widow's by the Argonauts, whole de- Le
fcendants were at laft expelled by the Pelafgi, about
1100 years before the Chriftrian era. Lemnos is about
112 miles in circumference according to Pliny ; who
fays, that it is often (hadowed by Mount Athos, though
at the diftance of 87 miles. It has been called thp/i-
pyle from Queen Hipfipyle. It is famous for a certain
kind of earth or chalk called terra Lemnia, or terra
Jigillata, from the feal or impreflion which it can bear,
and which is ufed for confolidating wounds. As the
inhabitants were blackfmiths, the poets have taken oc-
cafion to fix the forges of Vulcan in that illand, and to
confecrate the whole country to his divinity. Lemnos
is alfo celebrated for a labyrinth, which, according to
fome traditions, furpaffed thofe of Crete and Egypt.
Some remains of it were (till vifible in the age of Pliny.
The ifland of Lemnos w as reduced under the power of
Athens by Miltiades.
LEMON. See Citrus, Botany Index.
LEMON IJland, one of the Skelig iflands fo called ;
fituated oft" the coaft of the county of Kerry, in the
province of Munfter in Ireland. It is rather a round
rock, always above water, and therefore no way dan¬
gerous to (hips. An incredible number of gannets and
other birds breed here ; and it is remarkable that the
gannet nettles nowhere on the fouthern coatts of Ire¬
land but on this rock, though many of them are feen
on all parts of our coaft on the wing. There is ano¬
ther rock on the northern coaft of Ireland remarkable
for the fame circumftance.
LEMONADE, a liquor prepared of water, fugar,
and lemon or citron juice, which is very cooling and
grateful.
LEMOVICES, a people of Aquitania, fituated be¬
tween the Bituriges Cubi to the north, the Arvernr to
the eaft, the Cadurci to the fouth, and the Pidtones to
the weft. Now the Limojin and La Marche.
LEMUR, the Maucauco, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of primates. See Mammalia
Index.
LEMURES, in antiquity, fpirits or hobgoblins;
reftlefs ghofts of departed perfons, who return to ter¬
rify and torment the living.
Thefe are the fame with larvae, which the ancients
imagined to wander round the world, to frighten good
people, and plague the bad. For which reafon at
Rome they had lemuria or feafts inftituted to appeafe
the manes of the defundt. See Lares.
Apuleius explains the ancient notion of manes thus:;
the (ouls of men releafed from the bands of the body,
and freed from performing their bodily fundtions, be¬
come a kind of demons or genii, formerly called lemu~
res. Of thefe lemures, thofe that were kind to their
families were called lares familiares; but thofe who
for their crimes, were condemned to wander continu¬
ally, without meeting with any place of reft, and ter¬
rified good men, and hurt the bad, are vulgarly called
larvae.
An ancient commentator on Horace mentions, that
the Romans wrote lemures for remures; which laft
word was formed from Remus, who was killed by his,
brother Romulus, and who returned to the earth to tor¬
ment him.
L E N [ 7i
Lemares But Apuleius obferves, that in tbe ancient Latin
tongue lemures fignifies the foul of a man leparated from
Hmii'ef" ^ie body by death.
 tl..‘ LEMURIA, orLEMURALiA, a feaft folemnized at
Rome on the 9th of May, to pacify the manes of the
dead, or in honour of the lemures.—It was inftitut-
ed by Romulus, to appeafe the ghoft of his murder¬
ed brother Remus, which he thought was continually
purfuing him to revenge the horrid crime.—The name
lemuria is therefore fuppofed to be a corruption of Re-
muria, i. e. the feaft of Remus. Sacrifices continued
for three nights, the temples were (hut up, and mar¬
riages were prohibited during the folemnity. A va¬
riety of whimfical ceremonies were performed, magical
words made ufe of, and the ghofts defired to withdraw,
without endeavouring to hurt or affright their friends
above ground. The chief formalities were ablution,
putting black beans into their mouths, and beating
kettles and pans, to make the goblins keep their di-
ftance.
LENA, a great river of Siberia in Afia, which
takes its rife in N. Lat. 50. 30. and E. Long. 124. 30.
from Ferro. After traverfing a large traft of country, it
divides itfelf into five branches about Lat. 730. Three
of thefe run weftward, and two eaftward, by which it
difcharges itfelf into the Icy fea. Its three weftern
mouths lie in 1430 E. Long, from Ferro, but the
eaftern ones extend to 153. The current is everywhere
flow, and its bed entirely free from rocks. The bot¬
tom is fandy, and the banks are in fome places rocky
and mountainous. Sixteen large rivers fall into the
Lena during its courfe to the northern ocean.
LENAL A, a feftival kept by the Greeks in honour of
Bacchus, at which there was much feafting and Baccha¬
nalian jollity, accompanied with poetical contentions,
and the exhibition of tragedies. The poor goat was
generally facrificed on the occafion, and treated with
various marks of cruelty and contempt, as being natu¬
rally fond of browfing on the vine (hoots.
LENCICIA, a ftrong town of Poland, and capital
of a palatinate of the fame name, with a fort feated on
a rock. The nobility of the province hold their diet
here. It (lands in a morafs on the banks of the river
Bfura, in E. Long. 19. 17. N. Lat. 51. 52.
LENDING-Houses. That it (liould have once been
conceived unlawful to exatt intereft for the loan of mo¬
ney will not appear furprifing, when it is confidered,
that at an early period the occupations by which a man
could fupport his family were neither fo numerous nor
productive as in modern times. As money, therefore,
was at that time fought to remove immediate neceflity,
thofe who advanced it were influenced by benevolence
and friendftiip. But on the extenfion of trade, arts,
and manufactures, money lent produced much more
than what was adequate to the borrower’s daily fupport,
and therefore the lender might reafonably expeft from
him fome remuneration. To the lending of money up¬
on intereft, according to the earlieft accounts we have,
fucceeded the praCtice of eftablilhing funds for the re¬
lief of the needy, on condition that they could de-
pofit any thing equal in value to double the fum bor¬
rowed, for which they were to pay no intertft.
But as, on the one hand, the idea of exaCting inte¬
reft for the loan of money was odious to the members
\«f the Popilh church in general, and as, on the other,
8 ] L E N
it appeared highly proper and even neceffary, to pay in- Lending-
tereft for money to be employed in commerce, the pon-. ttouie?,
tiffs themfelves at length allowed the lending-houfe to , eii^ailt_
take a moderate intereft j and in order not to alarm the
prejudices of thofe to whom the meafure was obnoxious,
it was concealed under the name of being paid pro in-
demnitate,—t\\e expreflion made ufe of in the papal
bull.
It appears that lending-houfes, which gave money on
the receipt of pledges, at a certain intereft, are by no
means of recent date •, for many of the houfes ftf this
nature, in Italy at lead, were eftabliftted in the 15th
century, by Marcus Bononienfis, Michael a Carcano,
Cherubinus Spoletanus, Antonius Vercellenfis, Bernar-
dinus Tomitano, and others.
The lending-houfe at Perugia, eftabliftied by Barna¬
bas Interamnenfis, was infpeCled by Bernardinus in
1485, who augmented its capital, and in the fame year
eftabliftied one at Afliii, which was confirmed by Pope
Innocent, and vifited and improved by its founder in the
year 1487. He likewife eftabliftied one at Mantua af¬
ter formidable oppofition being made to the meafure,
procuring for it the fanction ot the pope, as Wadding
informs us. The fame perfon alfo founded lending-
houfes at Florence, Parma, Chieti, and Piacenza, in do¬
ing which he was fometimes well received, while at o-
thers he frequently met with the moft formidable oppo¬
fition. A houfe of this kind was eftabliftied at Padua
in the year 1491, and another at Ravenna, which were
approved of and confirmed by Pope Alexander VI.
Long after the above period, lending-houfes were
eftablilhed at Rome and Naples, that of the former city
having taken place in 1539, and that of the latter pro¬
bably in the following year. A lending-houfe was efta¬
bliftied at Nuremberg in Germany-about 1618, the in¬
habitants having obtained from Italy the regulations of
different houfes, in order to feleft the beft. In I ranee,
England, and the Netherlands, lending-houfes were
firft known under the denomination of Lombards. Si¬
milar inftitutions were formed at Bruffels in 1619} at
Antwerp in 1620, and at Ghent in 1622.
Although fuch houfes muft be allowed to be of con-
fiderable utility under certain circumftances, efpecially
when the intereft is not allowed to be exorbitant, yet
they were always odious in France j but one was efta-
bliffed at Paris in 1626, in the reign of Louis XIII.
which the managers next year w?ere obliged to abandon.
The mont depiete at that city, which has fometimes had
in poffeflion 40 calks full of gold watches that were
pledged, was eftabliftied by royal authority in the year
1777, as we learn from the Tableau de Paris, publifti-
ed at Hamburg in 1781.—Beckman's Hift. of Inven¬
tions.
LENFANT, James, a learned French writer, was
born in 1661. After ttudyidg at Saumur, he went to
Heidelberg, Were he received impofition of bands for
the miniftry in 1684. He difeharged the funftions of
this character with great reputation there, as chap¬
lain of the eledtrefs dowager Palatine, and paftor in
ordinary to the French church. Hie defeent of the
French into the Palatinate obliged our author to de¬
part from Heidelberg in 1687. He went to Berlin,
where the eledtor Fredeiic, afterwards king of Pruftia,
appointed him one of the minifters. rIhere he conti¬
nued 39 years, diftinguiftiing himfelf by his writings.
L E N
[ 759 3
L E N
Lengthen-,
Lenfant He was preaclier to the queen of PrufTiHj Charlotta
Sophia j and after her death, to the late king of
Pruflia. In 1707 he took a journey to England and
Holland, where he had the honour to preach before
Queen Anne; and might have fettled in London,
with the title of chaplain to her tnajejhj. In 1712 he
went to Helmftadt, in 1715 to Leipfic, and in J725
to Breflau, to fearch for rare books and MSS. It is
not certain whether it was he that firft formed the de-
lign of the Bihliotheque Germanique, which began in
1720 ; or whether it was fuggefted to him by one of
the fociety of learned men, wEich took the name of
Anonymous, and who ordinarily met at his houfe. He
died in 1728. His principal works are, 1. The Hi-
ftory of the Council of Conftance, 2 vols 410. 2. A
Hiftory of the Council of Pifa, 2 vols 4U). 3. The
New Teftament, tranflated from the Greek into the
French, with Notes by Beaufobre and Lenfant, 2 vols
4to. 4. The Hiftory of Pope Joan, from Spanheim’s
Latin Differtation. 5. Several pieces in the Bibiio-
theque Choijie, La Republic des Lettres, La Bibliotheque
Germamque, &c.
LENGLET, Nicholas du Fresnoy, l’abbe',
born at Beauvais in France, 1674, was a moft fertile
and ufeful French author on a variety of fubje&s, hif-
torical, geographical, political, and philofophical. The
following deferve particular notice : 1. A Method of
Studying Hiftory, with a Catalogue of the Principal
Hiftorians of every Age and Country, publiftied in
17135 a work which eftabliftred his reputation as an
hiftorical writer : it was tranflated into moft of the
modern languages, particularly our own, with confide-
rable improvements, by Richard Rawlinfon, LL. 1).
and F. R. S. and publiftied at London in 1730, in
2 vols 8vo. 2, A Copious Abridgement of Univerfal
Hiftory and Biography, in chronological order, under
the title of Tablettes Chronologiques ; wdiich made its
firft appearance at Paris in 1744? in 2 vols fmall 8vo,
and was univerfally admired by the literati in all parts
of Europe. The author attended with great candour,
as every writer ought, to well-founded judicious criti-
cifms. In future editions he made feveral alterations
and improvements, and from one of thefe, we believe,
that of 1759, an Englifti tranflation was made, and
publiftied at London in 1762, in 2 vols large 8vo.
Du Frefnoy died in 1755 : the Paris edition of 1759
was printed from the author’s corrected copy 5 and
the impreffion being fold off, another edition appeared
in 1763, with confiderable improvements by an un¬
known editor : to the biographical part a great num¬
ber of names of refpedtable perfons are added, not to
be found in the former edition 5 and it has this fupe-
rior advantage in the hiftorical parts, that the general
hiftory is brought down to the year 1762. Du Fref¬
noy, however, has loaded his work with catalogues of
faints, martyrs, councils, fynods, herefies, fchifms, and
other ecclefiaftical matters, fit only for the libraries of
Popifh convents and feminaries.
LENGTH, the extent of any thing material from
end to end. In duration, it is applied to any fpace of
time, whether long or ftiort.
LENGTHENING, in fhip carpentry, the opera¬
tion of cutting a (hip dowm acrofs the middle, and add¬
ing a certain portion to her length. It is performed
by a«ing her planks afunder in different places of her
length, on each fide of the midftiip frame, to prevent Ltngtfen-
her from being too much weakened in one place. The
two ends are then drawn apart to a limited diftance 5
which muft be equal to the propofed addition of
length. An intermediate piece of timber is next
added to the keel, upon which a fufficient number of
timbers are eredled, to fill up the vacancy produced
by the feparation. The two parts of the kelfon are
afterwards united by an additional piece which is fco-
red down upon the floor timbers, and as many beams
as may be neceffary are fixed acrofs the (hip in the new
interval. Finally, The planks of the fide are prolonged
fo as to unite with each other 5 and thofe of the ceiling
refitted in the fame manner j by which the whole pro-
cefs is completed.
LENOX or Dunbartonshire, a county of Scot¬
land. See Dunbartonshire. Among the rivers of this
county is the Blane, which, though itfelf an inconfide-
rable ftream, has been rendered famous by the birth of
George Buchanan, the celebrated Latin poet and hifto-
rian. The fame part ef the country gave birth to the
great mathematician and naturalift, Baron Napier of
Merchifton, inventor of the logarithms. The title of
Lenox, with the property of great part of the Ihire, was
heretofore veiled in a branch of the royal family of
Stuart, w ith which it w as reunited in the perfon of King
James VI. whofe father, Henry Lord Darnley, was fon
of the duke of Lenox. This prince conferred the title
upon hiskinfman Efme Stuart, fon of John Lord d’Au-
bigny in France ; but his race failing at the death of
Charles duke of Lenox and Richmond, and the eftate
devolving to the crown, King Charles II. conferred
both titles on his own natural fon by the duchefs of
Portfmouth 5 and they are Hill enjoyed by his pofterity.
The people of Lenoxlhire are chiefly Low landers, though
in fome parts of it divine fervice is performed in the
Erfe language The moft numerous clans in this di-
firidt are the Macfarlanes, the Colquhouns, and the
Buchanans.
LENS, a piece of glafs, or any other tranfparent
fubftance, the furfaces of which are fo formed, that
the rays of light, by palling through it, are made to
change their diredlion, either tending to meet in a
point beyond the lens, or made to become parallel af¬
ter converging or diverging 5 or laftly, proceeding as
if they had iffued from a point before they fell upon
the lens. Some lenfes are convex, or thicker in the
middle ; fome concave, or thinner in the middle 5 fome
plano-convex, or plano-concave 5 that is with one fide
flat, and the other convex or concave 5 and fome are
called menifcufes, or convex on one fide and concave on
the other. See Dioptrics.
Lenfes are of two kinds, either blown or ground.
Blown LENSES, are only made ufe of in the fingle
microfcope, and the common method of making them
has been to draw out a fine thread of the foft white
glafs called cryjlal, and to convert the end of it into a
fpherule by melting it at the flame of a candle. Mr
Nicholfon obferves that window glafs affords excellent
fpherules. A thin piece from the edge of a pane of
glafs one-tenth of an inch broad was held perpendicu¬
larly, and the flame of a candle was directed againft
it by means of the blov'-pipe, when it became foft, and
the lower end defeended by its own weight to the di¬
ftance of about two feet, where it remained fufpended
b*
L E N r 760 ] LEO
Len?, by a thin thread of glafs about of an inch in dia-
meter. A part of this thread was applied endwife to
"^v_ri" the lower blue part of the flame of the candle without
the blow-pipe, when the end became inftantly white-
hot, and formed a globule, which was gradually thrufl:
towards the flame till it became fufficiently large. A
number of thefe were made and examined, by viewing
their focal images with a deep magnifier, when th#y
appeared bright, perfeft, and round.
Ground LENSES are fuch as are rubbed into the lhape
required, and polilhed. Several ftiapes have been pro-
pofed, but the fpherical has been found to be the moft
pradlically ufeful. Yet by various modes of grinding,
the artificer can produce no more than an approxima¬
tion to a figure exaftly fpherical, and men of letters or
others muft depend entirely on the care and integrity
of workmen for the fphericity of the lenfes of their te-
lefcopes. Mr Jenkins has defcribed a machine, which
being fo contrived as to turn a fphere at one and the
fame time on two axes, cutting each other at right
angles, will produce the fegment of a true fphere,
merely by turning round the wheels, and that with¬
out any care or {kill in the workmen. See Me¬
chanics.
LENT, a folemn time 'of fading in the Chriflian
church, obferved as a time of humiliation before Ealler,
the great feflival of our Saviour’s relurredtion.
Thofe of the Romifh church, and fome of the Pro-
teftant communion, maintain, that it was always a
faft of 40 days, and, as fuch, of apoftolical inftitu-
tion. Others think it was only of ecclefiaftical. in-
ftitution, and that it was varioufly obferved in dif¬
ferent churches, and grew’ by degrees from a faft of
40 hours to a fall of 40 days. ’Ihis is the fentiment
of Morton, Biftiop Taylor, Du Moulin, Daille, and
others.
Anciently the manner of obferving lent among thofe
who were pioufly difpofed, was to abftain from food
till evening : their only refrefliment was a fupper ; and
then it was indifferent whether it was flefti or any other
food, provided it was ufed with fobriety and modera¬
tion.
Lent w’as thought the proper time for exercifing,
more abundantly, every fpecies of charity. Thus w’hat
they fpared from their own bodies by abridging them
of a meal, was ufually given to the poor ; they em¬
ployed their vacant hours in vifiting the fick and thofe
that were in prifon, in entertaining ftrangers, and re¬
conciling differences. The imperial law’s forbade all
profecution of men in criminal aftions, that might
bring them to corporeal punifhment and torture, during
the whole feafon. This was a time of more than or¬
dinary ftridlnefs and devotion, and therefore in many
of the great churches they had religious affemblies for
prayer and preaching every day., All public games
and ftage plays wrere prohibited at this feafon ; as alfo
the celebration of all feftivals, birth days, and mar¬
riages, as unfuitable to the prefent occafion.
The Chriflians of the Greek church obferve four
lents : the firft commences on the 15th of November $
the fecond is the fame with our lent \ the third begins
the week after Whitfuntide, and continues till the fef-
tival of St Peter and St Paul j and the fourth com¬
mences on the firft of Auguft, and lafts no longer than
till the 15th. Thefe lents are obferved with great
ftri&nefs and aufterity j but on Saturdays and Sundays
they indulge themfelves in drinking wine and ufing v
oil, which are prohibited on other days.
LENTIL. See Ervum, Botany Index,.
LENTINI. See Leontini.
LENTISCUS. See Pistacia, Botany Index.
LEO. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
Leo, in Ajlronomy, the fifth of the 1 2 figns of the
zodiac. The ftars in the conftellation Leo^ in Ptolemy’s
catalogue are 27, befides the unformed, which are 8 \
in Tycho’s 30 ; in the Britannic catalogue 95.
Leo X. Pope, fecond fon of Lorenzo de Medici,
was born at Florence in December 1475, and received
the baptifmal name of Giovanni, or John. He re¬
ceived the tonfure at feven years of age, his father
having deftined him for the church. Being even at
that early period declared capable of clerical prefer¬
ment, he obtained two rich abbacies through the in-
tereft of his father with Louis XI. of France, and Pope
Sixtus IV. At a very early period he held no fewer
than 29 church preferments, a ftrong proof of the moft
feandalous corruption, as well as of the intereft which
his family enjoyed. In the time of Innocent VIII. he
was promoted to the high rank of cardinal, when no
more than 13 years of age, which took place in the
year 1488. If the great influence of his father was
unqueftionably cenfurable in promoting the rapid and
illegal advancement of his fon, it is but juftice to ad¬
mit that he employed all his efforts to qualify him for
fuch premature dignity. The learned Angelo Poli-
ziano had the care of his early education, which was
greatly accelerated by the uncommon gravity and fo-
lidity of his difpofition. He was invefted with the pur¬
ple in 1492, going afterwards to refide at Rome as one
of the facred college. Having oppofed the eleftion »f
Alexander VI. to the pontificate, he found it prudent
to withdraw to Florence, in which place he acquired
much perfonal efteem *, but on the invafion of Italy by
Charles VIII. of France, he was involved in the ex-
pulfion of his brother Piero, and took refuge at Bolog¬
na. In 1499 he made a tour through the flates of
Venice, Germany, and France, going afterwards to
Rome, where he lived fafe and refpedled during the
pontificate of Alexander, in confequence of his prudent
behaviour.
In 1505, when 30 years of age, he began to take an
aflive part in public affairs, ani Julius II. appointed
him governor of Perugia. As he adhered with un-
Ihaken refolution to the intereft of the pope, he acquir¬
ed the confidence of his holinefs, in fo eminent a man¬
ner, that he was entrufted with the dire&ion of the pa¬
pal army againft France ; and if he was not competent
to conduft the military operations,, he was of Angular
fervice in maintaining good order in the camp. He
was taken prifoner at the bloody battle of Ravenna in
1512, and conveyed to Milan, w’here the dignity of
his facred office procured him refpedl. From this place
he found means to efcape, and returned to Bologna,
affuming the government of the diftridl in the capacity
of the pope’s legate.
At the eledlion of a new pope in the room of Julius II.
he was chofen to the pontificate, being then only 38
years of age. Whatever might be the leading motives
of
LEO [7
ct t’rfc conclave for electing fo young a pope, it is
1 agreed on all hands, that it was not effe&ed by thofe
corrupt pra&ices too common on fuch ocealions ; and
he afcended the throne under the name ef Leo X. with
greater proofs of affection on the part of both Italians
and foreigners than the greater part of his predeceffors.
He difplayed his love of literature by the nomination
of Bembo and Sadoleti to the office of papal fecre-
taries..
One of his firft attempts was to free Italy from the
dominion of foreign powers ; and having taken into
pay a large body of Swifs, he gained a victory over
the French in the reign of Louis XII. at the bloody
battle of Novara, by which means they were driven
from Italy 5 and the king of France having incurred
eccleliaftical cenfure, fubmitted in form, and receiv¬
ed abfolution. Having thus fecured internal tranquilli¬
ty, he turned his attention to the encouragement of li¬
terature and men of genius. He effefled the rellora-
tion of the Roman univerfity to its former fplendour
by means of new grants and privileges, and by filling
the profelforlhips with diltinguilhed charafters from
every quarter. A Greek prefs was eftabliffied in the
city, and all Europe was informed that perfons bring¬
ing ancient manuferipts to the pope would be liberally
rewarded, befides having them printed at the expence
of the holy fee. He alfo promoted the ftudy of ori¬
ental literature, and he had the honour of founding the
firft profeflorfhip of the Syriac and Chaldaic languages
at Bologna.
On the death of Louis XII. of France, and the ac-
ceffion of Francis I. to the throne, it foon became ap¬
parent that a new war was inevitable in the north of
Italy. Leo endeavoured to remain neuter, but with¬
out fuccefs, in confequence of which he joined in a
league with the emperor, the king of Arragon, the
ftates of Milan and Florence, and the Swifs cantons,
againft the French king and theftate of Venice. But
he foon found it expedient to defert his allies, and
form a union with Francis, which took place in 1515,
at an interview between the two fovereigns.
In 1517, the duke of Urbino, whom he had expell¬
ed, in order to make way for his nephew Lorenzo, col-
letted an army, and by rapid movements regained his
capital and dominions, which chagrined Leo to fuch a
degree, that he endeavoured to raife all the Chriftian
princes againft him. He raifed an army under the
command of his nephew, and the duke was finally com¬
pelled to relinquiffi his dominions upon honourable
terms. In this year the life of Leo was in danger,
and all his moments embittered by a confpiracy againft
him in his own court. Petrucci, the chief author
of it, had formed a plan of deftroying the pope by
poifon •, but having failed in this attempt, he withdrew
from Rome, ftill, however, carrying on a correfpond-
ence with his fecretary. Some of his letters being in¬
tercepted, he was arrefted on his way to Rome, and
committed to prifon. He was ftrangled, and his ac¬
complices were put to death with the fevereft tortures.
To fhelter himfelf from danger, whether real or ima¬
ginary, Leo created 31 new cardinals in one day,
chiefly from among his own relations, and fome of
them deferving of fuch dignity by their virtues and
talents.
Vol. XL Part II.
61 ] LEO
In the reign of this pontiff began the reformation of
religion under the celebrated Martin Luther, vho in-
fii£ted fuch a wound on the Romiih church as will
never be healed. Leo’s tafte for luxurious magnificence
and every objeft of expence having exhaufted his
coffers, he took from the church the profits arifing from
the lale of indulgences for his own private emolument.
Thefe wares were extolled in language which {hocked
the pious and thinking part of mankind, and facilita¬
ted the progrefs of the reformation in the hands of fuch
a man as Luther, whom fiothing could intimidate.
This great man during his oppofition to the extrava¬
gance of Lco^in the fale of indulgences, was ftill will¬
ing to be reconciled j but as he infilled on making an
unqualified appeal to the language of Scripture, and
Leo would admit of nothing but an unqualified appeal
to the decrees of the church, it is obvious that a re¬
conciliation wras impoffible. The works of Luther
were burnt in different places by Leo’s command, and
Luther in his turn made a folemn and public confla¬
gration of the papal decrees and conftitutions, and even
of the bull itfelf. It was this pontiff who conferred on.
Henry VIII. of England the title of defender of the
faith, to which he appears to have had very little
claim.
The private hours of Leo, it is faid, wfere devoted to
indolence, or to amuferaents $ and that fome of them
were unworthy of his clerical dignity. Many enor¬
mities are aferibed to him which we (hall pafs over in.
filence, as they do not appear to have fuch incontefta-
ble evidence as to warrant the belief of them. He
never loft fight of his favourite idea of expelling the
French from Italy. The Swifs who had been in the
fervice of France were induced to defert, the allies
croffed the Adda, and entered Milan without oppofi¬
tion. They next entered the territories of the duke of
Ferrara who had efpoufed the caufe of France. Many
of his ftrong places were taken, and fiege w as about te
be laid to his capital, when it was prevented by the in-
difpofition of the pope, which in the (pace of eight
days terminated in his death, on December 1. 1521,
in the 46th year of his age, and the 9th of his ponti¬
ficate. It w'as fuppofed by fome that he died by poifoq,
but we have feen no fufficient proof for fuch a conclu-
fion. Without attempting to draw the moral and po¬
litical chara6ler of this celebrated pontiff, about which
mankind have been fo much divided, it may be fairly
afferted that he claims the gratitude of pofterity for the
ample encouragement which he afforded to men of
fcience and .literature, and the eagernefs with which he
promoted the ftudy of the fine arts, qualities fufticient
to veil all the failings or faults which can juftly be
charged to his account. This character of Leo has
been finely celebrated by Pope in the following verfes.
But fee ! each mufe, in Leo’s golden days,
Starts from her trance j and trims her wither’d bays j
Rome’s ancient Genius, o’er its ruins fpread,
Shakes off the duft, and rears his rev’rend head.
Then Sculpture and her fifter Arts revive :
Stones leap to form, and rocks begin to live j
With fweeter notes each rifing temple rung j
A Raphael painted, and a Vida fung.
Leo, St, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy, in the
5 D territory
LEO [ 762 ] LEO
territory oF the church, and duchy ai Urbino, with a
bilhop’s; fee. It is feated on a mountain, near the ri¬
ver Marrechia, in E. Long. 12. 25. N. Lat. 43. 57.
LEOMINSTER, a town of Herefordfhire, in
England, feated on the river Lug, which waters the
north and eaft fides of the town, and over which there
are feveral bridges. It is a large, handfome, populous
borough ; and is a great thoroughfare betwixt South
Wales and London, from which laft it is diftant 113
meafured miles. In King John’s reign it was burnt,
but foon rebuilt. It was incorporated by Queen Mary,
and is governed by a high Reward, bailiff, recorder,
&c. The heft flax is faid to grow here, and it has
been equally noted for the heft wheat, barley, and th®
flneft bread. The inhabitants have a confiderable
trade not only in wool, but in gloves, leather, hat¬
making, &c. and there are fsveral rivers in and about
the town on w'hich they have mills and ether machines.
Near its church are fome remains of its priory ; and on
a neighbouring hill are the ruins of a palace, called to
this day Comfort Caftle. It fends two members to par¬
liament. W. Long. 2. 36. N. Lat. 52. 20.
LEON, an ancient town of France, in Lower Bre¬
tagne, and capital of the Leonnois, with a bifliop’s
fee. It is feated near the lea, in .W» Long. 3. 5 j.
N. Lat. 48. 41.
Leon, a province of Spain, with the title of a king¬
dom •, bounded on the north by Afturias ; on the weft
by Galicia and Portugal ^ and on the fouth by Eftre-
madura and Caftile, which alfo bounds it on the eaft.
It is about 1-25 miles in length, and 100 in breadth y
and is divided into two almoft equal parts by the river
Duero, or Douro. It produces all the neceffaries of
life, and Leon is the capital town.
Leon, an ancient and large cpifcopal town of Spain,
and capital of the kingdom of that name, built by the
Romans in the time of Galba. It has the fineft cathe¬
dral church in all Spain. It w'as formerly more rich
and populous than at prefent, and had the honour of
being the capital of the lirft Chriftian kingdom in Spain.
It is feated between two fources of the river Ella, in
W. Long. 5. 37: N. Lat. 42. 36.
Leon, Peter Cicca de, author of the hiftory of Peru.
He left Spain, his native country, at 13 years of age
in order to go into America, where he relided 17
years ; and obferved fo many remarkable things, that
he refolved to commit them to writing. The firft part
®f his .hiftory was printed at Seville in 1553. He be¬
gan it in 1541, and ended it in 1550. He was at Li¬
ma, the capital of the kingdom of Peru, when he gave
the finilhing ftroke to it, and was then 32 years of age.
LEON de Nicaragua, a town of North America, in
New Spain, and in the province of Nicaragua •, the re-
ftdence of the governor, and a bifhop’s fee. It con-
ftfts of about 1000 houfes, and has feveral monafteries
and nunneries belonging to it. At one end of the
town is a lake which ebbs and flows like the fea. The
town is feated at the foot of a volcano, which ren¬
ders it fuhjeft to earthquakes. R was taken by the
bucaniers in 1685, in fight of a Spanifti army who were
fix to one. W. Long. 86. 56. N. Lat. 12. 25.
LEONARD de noblet, St, an ancient town of
France in the province of Guienne and territory of
Limoiin, with, a confiderable manufaflory of cloth and
paper. It is feated on the river Vienne, in E. Long. Leonard
1. 35. N. Lat. 45. 50. ~ . II .
LEONARDO da vinci. See Vinci. ,Leontim-
LEON CL A VI US, John, -one of the moft learn¬
ed men of the l'6th century, w as a native of Weftpha-
lia. He travelled into Turkey, and collefted excel¬
lent materials for compofing The Ottoman Hiftory j
and it is to him the public is indebted for the heft ac¬
count we have of that empire. To his knowledge in
the learned languages he had added that of the civil
law ; whereby he was very well qualified to tranflate
the Bcjilica. His other verfions were efteemed, though
critics pretend to have found many faults in them. He
died in 1593, aged 60.
LEONIDAS I. king of Sparta, a renowned war¬
rior, flain in defending the ftraits of Thermopylae
againft Xerxes, 480 B. C. See Sparta.
LEONINE, in poetry, is applied to a kind of verfes
which rhime at every hemiftic, the middle always
chiming to the end. Of which kind we find feveral an¬
cient hymns, epigrams, prophecies, &c.—For inftance,
Muretus fpeaking of the poetry of Lorenzo Gambara
of Breffe, fays,
Bnxia, ft gratis merdofa volumina ftatis,
Non funt «o/7rates tergere digna watis.
The following one is from the fchool of Salernum :
Ut vites pcenam de potibus incipe coenam.
The origin of the word is fomewhat obfeure : Paf-
quiet derives it from one Leoninus or Leonius, who
excelled in this way y and dedicated feyeral pieces to
Pope Alexander III.; others derive it from Pope Leo;
and others from the beaft called by reafon it is the
loftieft of all verfes.
LEONTICA, feafts or facrifices celebrated among
the ancients in honour of the fun.—They were called
Leontica, and the priefts who officiated at them Leones^
becaufe they reprefen ted the fun under the figure of a
lion radiant, bearing a tiara, and griping in his two
fore paws the horns of a bull, who ftruggled with him
in vain to difengage himfelf.
The critics are extremely divided about this feaft.
Some will have it anniverfary, and to have made its re¬
turn not in a folar but in a lunar year; but others hold
its return more frequent, and give inftances where the
period was not above two hundred and twenty days.
The ceremony was fomfetimes alfo called Mithriaca,
Mithras being the name of the fun among the ancient
Perfians. There was always a man facriiked at thefe
feafts, till the time of Hadrian, who prohibited it by
a law. Commodus introduced the cuftom afrefli, after
whofe time it was again exploded.
LEONTICE, Lion’s Leaf, a genus of plants be-
longing to the hexandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 24th order, Corydules. See
Botany Index.
LEON TIN I, or LeonTIUM, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Sicily on the fouth fide of the river Terias,
20 miles north-weft of Syracufe. The territory, called
Carnpi Leontini, was extremely fertile (Cicero) : thefe
were the Catnpi Lcejlngdnii anciently fo called; the
feat of the Lseftrigens, according to the commentators
on the poets. The name Leontini is from Leo, the im-
prtflloii
L E P
Leon tin! pre£Ti@tt on their coin being a lion. Now call Lentini,
I! a town fituated in the Val di Noto, in the fouth-eaft of
c^0^‘ Sicily.
LEONTIUM, one of the twelve towns of Achaia,
whether on, or more diftant from, the bay of Corinth,
is uncertain. Leontium of Sicily. See LeontiNI.
LEONTODON, Dandelion, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 49th order, Compofitce. See
Botany Index.
LEONURUS, Lion’s-tail, a^genus of plants be-
longing to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 43d order, Verticillatce. See
Lot ANY Index.
LEOPARD. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
Leopard's Bane. See Doronicum, Botany Index.
LEPANTO, a flrong and very confiderable town
of Turkey in Europe, and in Livadia, with an archbi-
fhop’s fee and a ftrong fort. It is built on the top of
a mountain, in form of a fugar-loaf; and is divided in¬
to four towns, each furrounded by walls, and com¬
manded by a caftle on the top of the mountain. The
harbour is very fmall, and may be (hut up by a chain,
the entrance being but 50 feet wide. It Was ta¬
ken from the Turks by the Venetians in 1678 ; but
was afterwards evacuated, and the caftle demoliftied in
1699, in confequence of the treaty of Carlowitz. It
was near this town that Don John of Auftria obtain¬
ed the famous vidtory over the Turkifti fleet in 1571.
The produce of the adjacent country is wine, oil, corn,
and rice. Turkey leather is alfo manufadtured here.
The wine would be exceeding good if they did not
pitch their veflels on the infide, but this renders the
tafte very difagreeable to thofe who are not aceuf-
tomed to it. The Turks have fix or feven mofques
here, and the Greeks two churches. It is feated on
a gulf of the fame name, in E. Long. 22. 11. N. Lat.
38- 34*
LEPAS, the Acorn, a genus of Ihell-filh belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacea. See Conchology
Index.
LEPIDIUM, Dittander, or Pepperwort, a genus
flf plants belonging to the tetradynamia clafs, and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, Si/t-
quofce. See Botany Index.
LEPIDOPTERA, in Zoology, an order of infedls,
with four wings, which are covered with imbricated
fcales. See Entomology.
LEPISMA, a genus of infedls belonging to the or¬
der of Aptera. See Entomology Index.
LEPROSY, a foul cutaneous difeafe, appearing in
dry, white, thin, fcurfy fcabs, either on the whole body,
or only fome parts of it, and ufually attended with a vio¬
lent itching and other pains. See Medicine Index.
The leprofy is of various kinds, but the Jews were
particularly fubjeft to that called Elephantiafis. Hence
the Jewifti law excluded lepers from communion with
mankind, banifhing them into the country or uninha¬
bited places, without excepting even kings. When a
leper was cleanfed, he came to the city gate, and v-as
there examined by the priefts ; after this he took two
live birds to the temple, and faftened one of them to
a wifp of cedar and hyflop tied together with a fcarlet
ribbon ; the fecond bird was killed by the leper, and
the blood of it received into a veffel of water j with
L E R
this water the prieft fprinkled the leper, dipping the
wifp and the five bird into it : this done, the live bird
was let go j and the leper, having undergone this ce¬
remony, was again admitted into foeiety and to the ufe
of things facred. See Levit. xiii. 46, 47. and Levit.
xiv. 1, 2, &c.
LEPi'OCEPHALUS, a genus of fifties, belong¬
ing to the order of Apodes. See Ichthyology /«-
dex.
LEPTOPOLYGINGLIMI, in Natural HiJlonj,
a genus of foftil ftiells, diftinguiftied by a number of
minute teeth at the hinge. Specimens of thefe are
found at Harwich cliff, and in the marl pits of Suf-
fex.
LEPTUM, in antiquity, a fmall piece of money,
which according to Tome, was only the eighth part of
an obolus ; but others will have it to be a filver or
brafs drachm.
LEP I UR A, a genus of infefls belonging to the or¬
der of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
LEPUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the
order of glires. See Mammalia Index.
Lepus, the hare, in Afironomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere ; whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 12 j in that of Tycho’s 13 5 and in the
Britannic 19.
LERCHEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
LERIA, or Leiria, a ftrong town of Portugal, in
Eftremadura, with a caftle and biftiop’s fee. It con¬
tains about 3500 inhabitants, and was formerly the re-
fidence ef the kings of Portugal. W. Long. 8. 34.
N. Lat. 39. 40.
LERIDA, an ancient, ftrong, and large town of
Spain, in Catalonia, with a biftiop’s fee, an univerfity,
and a ftrong caftle. This place declared for King
Charles after the reduction of Barcelona in 1705 ; but
it was retaken by the duke of Orleans in 1707, after
the battle of Almanza. It is feated on a hill near
the river Segra, and in a fertile foil, in E. Long. 0. 25.
N. Lat. 41. 31.
LERINA, or Planasia, in Ancient Geography, one
of the two fmall iflands over againft Antipolis, called
alfo Lerinas and Lirinus. Now St Honorat, on the
coaft of Provence, fcarce two leagues to the fouth of
Antibes.
LERINS, the name of two iflands in the Mediter¬
ranean fea, lying on the coaft of Provence in France,
five miles from Antibes ; that near the coaft, called St
Margaret, is guarded by invalids, ftate prifoners being
fent here. It was taken by the Englifti in 1746, but
Marftial Belleifle retook it in 1747. The other is call¬
ed St Honorat; and it is lefs than the former, but has
a Benedictine abbey.
LERMA, a town of Spain in Old Caftile, feated on
the river Arlanza, with the title of a duchy. W. Lono-.
3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 2.
LERNA, in Ancient Geography, not far from Ar¬
gos, on the confines of J^aconia j fuppofed to be a town
of Laconia, but on the borders of Argolis j the pofition
Paufanias allots to it, near Temenium, on the fea;
without adding whether it is a town, river, or lake.
According to Strabo, it is a lake, fituated between the
territories of Argos and Mycene, in contradiflion
to Paufanias. If there was a town of this name, it
5 D 2 • feems
[ 7S3 3
L E S [ 764, J EES
Lern^ Teems lo have (lood towards the Tea, but the lake to have
, '| ^ been more inland. Mela calls it a well known town on
1'e715' - the Sinus Argolicus and Statius by Lerna Teems to
mean fomething more than a lake. This, however, is
the lake in which, as Strabo fays, was the fabled Hydra
of Hercules : therefore called Lerna 4/igu{fera (Statius).
The lake runs in a river or ftream to the Tea, and per¬
haps arifes from a river (Virgil). From the lake the
proverb, Lerna Malorum, took its rife j becaufe, accord¬
ing to Strabo, religious purgations were performed in
it; or, according to Hefychius, becaufe the Argives
threw all their filth into it.
LERNEA, a genus of animals of the clafs of ver¬
mes. See Helminthology Index.
LERNICA, formerly a large city in the ifland of
Cyprus, as appears from its ruins: but is now no more
than a large village, feateu on the fouthern coalt of
that ifland, where there is a good road, and a fmall fort
for its defence.
LERO, in Ancient Geography, one of the two fmall
iflands in the Mediterranean, oppofite to Antipolis,
and half a mile diftant from it to the louth. Now
St Margarita, over againft Antibes, on the coaft of
Provence.
Lero, or Leros, an ifland of the Archipelago, and
one of the Sporades } remarkable, according to iome
authors, for the birth of Patroclus. E. Long. 26. 15.
N. Lat, 37. o.
LE Roy le veut, the king’s aflhnt to public
bills. See the articles Bill, Statute, and Parlia¬
ment.
LERWICK, a town on the Mainland of Shetland,
and the feat of the courts of that ftewartry. It is fituat-
ed on the fpacious harbour called Lerwick or BreJJ'ay
found, and derives its only importance from the courts
of law, and the veffels employed in the whale-filhery,
which make a rendezvous of the bay. It was com¬
puted to contain in 1801 about 1700 inhabitants. The
parifli extends about fix miles along the fea coaft, and
is in no place more than a mile in breadth. On the
north and eaft it is bounded by the fea, which feparates
it from Breffay ifland. The furface of the parifli is
rocky and mountainous, but there are a number of fine
arable fields on the fea coaft, the foil of which is light
and fandy, but fertile and productive. Near the north
end of the tow n there is a fmall fortification called Tort
Charlotte, which commands the north entry to Breflay
found, and is garrifoned by a detachment of invalids.
It was completely repaired by order of government in
the year 1781. There are feveral large cannon for
commanding the harbour and protecting the town.
There is a ftraw-plaiting manufactory at Lerwick, fur-
niftiing upwards of 50 girls with employment, who
have one penny per yard for their work : 2a yards of
which can be made by {bme of them in the courfe of a
day. It is carried on by a company in London. There
are two chalybeate fprings in the vicinity of the town,
but neither of them is highly impregnated, although
the one is ftronger than the other. W. Long. 1. 3°-
N. Lat. 60. 20.
LESBOS, a large ifland in the ^Ttgean fea, on the
coaft of iEtolia, about 168 miles in circumference. It
has been feverally called Pelafgia, from the Pelafgi, by
Whom it was firft peopled ; Macaria, from Macareus
v ho fettled in it} and Lejbos, from the fon-in-law and.
4
fucceffor of Macareus wrho bore the fame name. The Lkaj
chief towns of Lelbos were Methymna and Mitylene. .
It was originally governed by kings, but they were af- . I ‘^U1S‘
terwards lubjeCled to the neighbouring powers. The
wine which it produced was greatly efteemed by the an¬
cients, and ft ill is in the lame repute among the mo.
derns. The Lelbians were fo debauched and diflipated,
that the epithet of Lejbian was often ufed to fignify de¬
bauchery and extravagance. Lelbos has given birth to
many illuftrious perfons, fuch as Arion, Terpander, Sap¬
pho, &c. See Mitylene.
LESCAILLE, James, a celebrated Dutch poet
and printer, was born at Geneva. He and his daugh¬
ter Catherine Lelcaille have excelled all the Dutch
poets. That lady, who was furnamed the Sappho of
Holland, and the tenth Muje, died in 1711. A col¬
lection of her poems has been printed, in which are
the Tragedies of Genferic, Wenceflaus, Herod and Ma-
riarane, Hercules and Dejaneira, Nicomedes, Ariadne,
Caflandra, &c. James Lefcaille her father deferved
the poet’s crown, with which the emperor Leopold ho¬
noured him in the year 1603 : he died about the year
1677, aged 67.
L ESC AR, a town of Gafcony, in France, and in the
territory of Bearn, with a bilhop’s fee } feated on a hill,
in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 43. 23.
LESGUIS, a people of Alia, whofe country is
indifferently called by the Georgian? Lefguifan and
Daghefan. It is bounded to the fouth and eaft by
Perfia and the Cafpian} to the fouth-weft and weft by
Georgia, the Ofli, and Kifti } and to the north by the
Kifti and Tartar tribes. It is divided into a variety
of diftrifts, generally independent, and governed by.
chiefs eleCied by the people. Guldenftaedt has re¬
marked, in the Lefguis language, eight different dia-
lefts, and has claffed their tribes in conformity to this
obfervation.
The firft dialed comprehends 15 tribes, which are
as follow : 1. Avar, in Georgia Chunfagh. The
chief of this diftrid, commonly called Avar Khan, is
the molt powerful prince of Lefguiftan, and refides at
Kabuda, on the river Kaferuk. The village of Avar
is, in the dialed of Andi, called Harbul. 2. Kafe-
ruk, in the high mountains, extending along a branch
of the Koifu, called Karak. This diftrid is depend¬
ant on the khan of the Kaft Kumychs. 3. Idatle,
on the Koifu, joining on the Andi} fubjed to the A-
var Khan. 4. Mukratle, fituated on the Karak, and
fubjed to the Avar Khan. 5. Onfekul, fubjed to
the fame, and fituated on the Koifu. 6. Karakhle,
upon the Karak, below Kaferuk, fubjed to the fame. .
7. Ghumbet, on the river Ghumbet, that joins the
Koifu, fubjed to the chief of the Coumyks. 8. A-
rakan ; and, 9. Burtuma, on the Koifu. 10. Ant-
fugh, on the Samura, fubjed to Georgia. ll.Te-
bel, on the fame river, independent. 12. Tamurgi,
or Tumural, on the fame river. 13. Akhti } and,
14. Rutal, on the fimie. I5* Dftiar, in a valley that
runs from the Alazan to the Samura. It was former¬
ly fubjed to Georgia, but is now independent. In
this diftrid are feen remains of the old wall that
begins at Derbent, and probably terminates at the A-
lazan.—The inhabitants of Derbent believe that their
town was built by Alexander, and that this wall for¬
merly extended as far as the Black fea. It is, how-
ever*.
L E S [ 7'
Lftfguis. ever, probable, from many infcriptions in old Turkifli,
" Per ban, Arabic, and Rufiih cbaraflers, that the wall,
and the aquedudls with their various fubterraneous paf-
fages, many of which are now filled up, are of high
antiquity. This town fuffered greatly during its fiege
by Sultan Amurath, who entirely deftroyed the lower
quarter, then inhabited by Greeks. It was again taken
by Schah Abbas. (Gaerber). This town is the old
Pylae Cafpiae.
The fecond dialed! is fpoken in the two following
diftridls : I. Dido, or Didonli, about the fource of the
Samura. This diftricl is rich in mines $ a ridge of
uninhabited mountains divides it from Caket. 2. Un-
fo, on the fmall rivulets that join the Samura. Thefe
two diilridls, containing together about iooo families,
were formerly fubjedl to Georgia, but are now inde¬
pendent.
The third dialed! is that of Kabutlh, which lies on
the Samura rivulets, eal! of Dido, and north of Ca¬
ket.
The fourth dialed! is that of Andi, fituated on a
rivulet that runs into the Koifu. Some of its villages
are fubjed! to the Avar Khan, but the greater part to
the khan of Axai. The whole confifts of about 8co
families.
The fifth dialed! is common to four dil!rid!s, name¬
ly, i. Akulha, on the Koifu, fubjed! to the Ufmei,
or khan of the Caitaks, and Kara Caitaks, containing
about iooo families. The following cuftom is attri¬
buted by Colonel Gaerber to the fubjedls of this
prince : “ Whenever the Ufmei hs»s a fon, he is carried
round from village to village, and alternately fuckled
by every woman who has a child at her breaft until he
is weaned. This cuftom, by ertabliftiing a kind of
brotherhood between the prince and his fubjedls, fingu-
larly endears them to each other.” 2. Balkar. 3. Zu-
dakara, or Zudakh, down the Koifu, fubjed! to the
Ufmei. 4. Kubefha, near the Koifu. Colonel Gaer¬
ber, who wrote an account of thefe countries in
1728, gives the following defcription of this very cu¬
rious place : “ Kubefha is a large ftrong town, fituated
on a hill between high mountains. Its inhabitants call
themfelves Franki (Franks, a name common in the eaft
to all Europeans), and relate, that their-anceftors were
brought hither by forne accident, the particulars of
which are now forgotten. The common conjedlure is,
that they were mariners caft away upon the coaft ; but
thofe who pretend to be better verfed in their hiftory,
tell the ftwry this way :—The Greeks and Genoefe,
fay they, carried on, during feveral centuries, a confi-
derable trade, not only on the Black fea, but likewife
on the Cafpian, and were certainly acquainted with the
mines contained in thefe mountains, from which they
drew by their trade with the inhabitants great quantities
of filver, copper, and other metals. In order to work
thefe upon the fpot, they fent hither a number of work¬
men to eftablilh manufadlures, and inftrudl the inhabi¬
tants. The fubfequent invafions of the Arabs, Turks,
and Monguls, during which the mines were filled up,
and the manufadlures abandoned, prevented the ftran-
gers from effedling their return, fo that they continued
here, and eredled themfelves into a republic. What
renders this account the more probable is, that they are
ftill excellent artifts, and make very good fire arms, as
■well rifled as plain 3 fabres3 coats of mail; and feveral
5 ] L E S
articles in gold and filver, for exportation. They have Lefgim,
likewife, for their own defence, fmall copper cannons, Lefkard‘
of three pounds calibre, caft by themfelves. They coin
Turkilh and Perfian filver money, and even rubles,
which readily pafs current, becaufe they are of the full
weight and value. In their valleys they have pafture
and arable lands, as well as gardens 3 but they purchafe
the greater part of their corn, trufting chiefly for fup-
port to the fale of their manufadlures, which are much
admired in Perfia, Turkey, and the Crimea. They
are generally in good circumftances, are a quiet inof-
fenfive people, but high Ipirited, and independent.
Their town is confidered as a neutral fpot, where the
neighbouring princes can depofite their treafures with
fafety. They eledl yearly twelve magiftrates, to whom
they pay the moft unlimited obedience 3 and as all the
inhabitants are on a footing of perfed! equality, each in¬
dividual is fure to have in his turn a lhare in the go¬
vernment. In the year 1725, their magiftrates, as well
as the Ufmei, acknow ledged the fovereignty of Ruffia,
but without paying any tribute.” 5. Zudakara, or
Zadakh, down the Koifu, fubjed! to the Ufraei. It
contains about 2000 families.
The fixth dialed! belongs to the diftridls on the
eaftern Hope of Caucafus, between Tarku and Der-
bent, which are, 1. Caitak 3 and, 2. Tabafferan, or
Kara Caitak, both fubjed! to the Ufmei.
The feventh dialed! is that of Kafi-Coumyk, on a
branch of the Konifu, near Zudakara. This tribe has
a khan, whofe authority is recognized by fume neigh¬
bouring diftridls.
The eighth dialed! is that of Kuraele, belonging to
the khan of Cuban.
Befides thefe, there are fome other Lefguis tribes,
whofe dialedls Mr Guldenftaedt was unable to procure.
From a comparifon of thofe which he has obtained, it
appears that the language of the Lefguis has no kind
of affinity with any other known language, excepting
only the Samoyede, to w'hich it has a remote refem-
blance.
This people is probably defeended from the tribes of
mountaineers, known to ancient geographers under the
name of Lefgce, or Ligijes. The ftrength of their coun¬
try, which is a region of mountains whofe pafles are
known only to themfelves, has probably at all times
fecured them from foreign invafion 3 but as the fame
caufe muff have divided them into a number of tribes,
independent of each other, and perhaps always di-
ftinguilhed by different dialedls, it is-not eafy to ima¬
gine any common caufe of union which can ever have
affembled the whole nation, and have led them to un¬
dertake very remote conqueffs. Their hiitory, there¬
fore, were it known, would probably be very uninte-
refting to us. They fubfift by raifing cattle, and by
predatory expeditions into the countries of their more
wealthy neighbours. During the troubles in Perfia,
towards the beginning of this century, they repeatedly
facked the towns of Shamachie and Ardebil, and ra¬
vaged the neighbouring diftridls 3 and the prefent
wretched ftate ot Georgia and of part of Armenia, is
owing to the frequency of their incurfions. In their
perfons and drefs, and in their general habits of life, as
far as thefe. are known to us, they greatly referable the
Circaffians.
LESKARD, a town in Cornwall, feated in a plain-,.
is.
L E S [ 7SS '] L E S
.."ibsiu, js a corporation, and fends two members to parliament.
Lcrr0' It liad formerly a caftle now in ruins. It is one of the
largeft and belt built towns in Cornwall, with the great-
eft market. It was firft incorporated by Edward earl
of Cornwall, afterwards by King John’s fon, Richard
king of the Romans, and had privileges from Edward
the Black Prince. Queen Elizabeth granted it a char-
tea- ; by which it was to have a mayor and burgefles,
who ihould have a perpetual fucceflion, purchafe lands,
&c. Here is a handfome town hall built on ftone pil¬
lars, with a turret on it, and a noble clock with four
dials, a large church, a meeting houfe, an eminent free
fchool, and a curious conduit; and on the adjacent
commons, which feed multitudes of Iheep, there have
been frequent horfe races. Here is a great trade in all
manufadtures of leather ; and fome fpinning, w'hich is
encouraged by the clothiers of Devonflrire. On the
hills of North Lelkard, and in the way from hence to
Launcefton, are many mines of tin, which is call at the
blowing houfes into blocks, that are fent hither to be
coined.
LESLIE, John, bilhop of Rofs in Scotland, the
fon of Gavin Leflie an eminent lawyer, was born in
the year ij2^, and educated at the univerfity of A-
berdeen ; of which diocefe he was made official, when
but a youth. He was foon after created dodtor of
civil and canon law j but being peculiarly addidted to
the ftudy of divinity, he took orders, and became par-
fon of Une. When the Reformation began to fpread
in Scotland, and difputes about religion ran high, Dr
Leflie, in 1560, diftinguiftied himfelf at Edinburgh as
a principal advocate for the Romifti church, and was
afterwards deputed by the chief nobility of that reli-
„ gion to condole with Queen Mary on the death of her
hufband the king of France, and to invite her to re¬
turn to her native dominions. Accordingly, after a
ftiort refidence with her majefty, they embarked toge¬
ther at Calais in 1561, and landed at Leith. She
immediately made him one of her privy council, and a
fenator of the college of juftice. In 1564, he was made
abbot of Lindores ; and on the death of Sinclair was
promoted to the biftiopric of Rofs. Thefe accumulated
honours he wiflied not to enjoy in luxurious indolence.
The influence derived from them, he exerted to the
profperity of his country. It is to him that Scotland is
indebted for the publication of its laws, commonly cal¬
led “ The black a£fs of paliament,” from the Saxon
character in which they were printed. At his moft
earneft defire, the revifion and collection of them were
committed to the great officers of the crown. In 1568,
Queen Mary having fled to England for refuge, and
being there detained a prifoner, Queen Elizabeth ap¬
pointed certain commiflioners at York to examine into
the caufe of the difpute between Mary and her fubjeCts.
Ihefe commiflioners were met by others from the queen
of Scots, i he biftrcp of Rofs was of the number, and
pleaded the caufe of his royal miftrefs with great energy,
though without fuccefs ; Elizabeth had no intention to
». rHeafe her. Mary, difappomted in her expectations
from the conference at York, fent the biftiop of Rofs
ambaflador to Elizabeth, who paid little attention to
his complaints. He then began to negociate a mar¬
riage between his royal miftrels and the duke of Nor¬
folk; which negociation, it is well known, proved fa¬
tal to the duke, and was the cauie of Leflie’s being fent
2
to the Tower. In 1573 he was baniflied the kingdom, Ltilic.
and retired to Holland. The two following years he
fpent in fruitlcls endeavours to engage the powers of
Europe to efpoufe the caufe of his queen. His Lff ap¬
plication was to the pope ; but the power of the heretic
Elizabeth had no lefts weight with his holinefs than
with the other Reman Catholic princes of Europe.
Finding all his per fan al applications ineffectual, he had
recoune to his pen in Queen Mary’s vindication ; but
Elizabeth’s ultima ratio return was too potent for all
his arguments. JBiffiop Ltflie, during his exile, was
made coadjutor to the archbiffiop of Rouen. He was
at Bruffels when he received the account of Queen
Mary’s execution; and immediately retired to the con¬
vent of Guirternberg near that city, where he died in
the year 1596. It was during the long and unfortu¬
nate captivity of Mary, that he amufed himfelf in writ¬
ing the Hiffory of Scotland, and his other works’.
The elegance and charms of literary occupations ferv-
ed to afiuage the violence of his woes. His know¬
ledge and judgment as an hiftorian are equally to be
commended. Where he aCts as the tranfcriber of
Boece, there may be diftinguilhed, indeed, fome of the
inaccuracies of that writer. But, when he fpeaks in
his own perfon, he has a manlinefs, a candour, and a
moderation, which appear not always even in authors
of the Proteftant perfuafion. His works are, 1. Slf-
JliBi animi confolationes, &c. compofed for the confola-
tion of the captive queen. 2. De origine, morlbus, e£
gejlis Scotorum.. 3. De titulo et jureJereniJJimce Marice
Scotorum regime, quo regni Anglia: fuccejjionem JibijuJle
vindicat. 4. Parcenejis ad Anglos et Scotos. 5. De il-
lufl.feeminarum in republ. adminiftranda, &c. 6. 0ra¬
tio ad reginam Klmabetham pro libertate impetranda.
7. Parcenejis ad nobilitatem populumque Scoticum. 8.
An account of his proceedings during his embaffy in
England from 1568 to 1572; manufcript, Oxen. 9.
Apology for the bilhop of Rofs, concerning the duke
of Norfolk; manufcript, Oxen. 10. Several letters,
manufcript.
Leslie, Charles, a learned divine of Ireland, the
time and place of whofe birth is uncertain. He was
educated at Innilkilling; and in 1664, was created fel¬
low of Trinity-college, Dublin, where he continued
till he became A. M. At the deceafe of his father
he came over to England, and entered himfelf in the
Temple at London. The ftudy of the law very foon.
difgufted him, and he turned all his attention to theo¬
logy, being admitted into holy orders in 1680. In
1687, he was chofen chancellor of the church and dio¬
cefe of Connor, at which time he made himfelf ex¬
tremely unpopular by his determined oppofition to the
tenets of the church of Rome. He imbibed the ab-
furd and pernicious doftrines of paflive obedience and
non-refiftance, by which his judgment was fo much
biaffed, that he refufed to take the oath of allegiance
to King William and Queen Mary, at the revolution.
He was a ftrenuous champion for the caufe of the
nonjurors, in defence of which he publilhed a work in
1692, being an anfwer to The State cf Proteftants in
Ireland under the late King James’s Government, writ¬
ten by Archbifhop King. He alio wrote a paper cal-
ed the Rehearfal, originally publiflied once a-week, and
afterwards twice, in a folio half-lheet, confiding of a
dialogue on the affairs of the times. It lafted during
fix
L £ S [ 7
Ltil'a fix or feven years. They -were afterwards colle&ed
Lrfiri’s 2n^ an eminent writer, who obferves that
ilK~' . he purfues a thread of argument in them all, againft
the lawfulnefs of reliftance in any cafe whatever, de¬
riving the fource of government wholly from God. He
wrote againif the Delfts, Jew's, Papifts, and Socinians,
all of which he colle&ed together, and publilhed in
tv'o volumes folio, with the exception of a very illi¬
beral piece againft the learned and pious Dr Tillotfon.
The frequent viftts which he paid to the courts of St
Germains and Bar-le-Duc, made him obnoxious to the
Britilh government, which was increafed by his “ He¬
reditary Right of the Crown of England Afferted,” of
which he was the reputed author. He was fent to
Bar-le-Duc by fome gentlemen of eminence, to at¬
tempt to convert the fon of James II. to the Prote-
ftant religion, who wifhed to fee him fettled on the
throne. At Bar-le-Duc he wras permitted to difcharge
the duties of the facerdotal office, according to the forms
of the church of England, where he endeavoured, but
in vain, to convert the Pretender. It is the opinion of
Lord Bolingbroke, that he Was ill ufcd by the Pre¬
tender, who not only refufed to hear him himfelf, but
flickered the ignorance of his priefts behind his autho¬
rity, and prohibited all difcourfe concerning religion.
At the clofe of the reign of Queen Anne, when the
partizans of the Pretender were anxious to promote his
inteieft in England, Mr Leflie wrote a letter from Bar-
le-Duc, in which he dwelt at large on the graceful
mien of the Pretender, his magnanimity of fpirit, devo¬
tion free from bigotry, application to bufinefs, ready
apprehenfion, found judgment, and affability, fo that
none converfed with him, who were not charmed with
his good fenfe and temper. In 1715, a raffi and ill
/ digefted enterprife took place in Scotland and in the
northern parts of England, in favour of the Pretender,
which ultimately terminated in the difperlion of the re¬
bels $ this obliged him to quit France, and retire to Italy,
whither Mr Leftie followed him, and remained in that
country till the year 1721. He met with fo many dif¬
ficulties and difappointments at this time, that he deter¬
mined to return and die in his native country. Some
of his friends acquainted Lord Sunderland with his re-
iolution, who generoudy promifed to proteft him from
the interference of government. On the arrival of Mr
Leflie in England, a member of the houfe of commons
waited upon his lordihip with the news ; but we are
happy to inform our readers that he had no great reafon
to boaft of his reception. On Mr Leflie’s return to
Ireland, he died in 1722, in the month of April, at his
own houfe, in the county of Monaghan.
He was undoubtedly a man of great merit and ex¬
tend, ve erudition, diftinguifhed by his piety, humility,
and integrity, among whofe works are fome mafterly
defences of the Chriftian religion, againft Deifts and
Jews, and of Proteftant faith againft that of the
church of Rome. His opinions were rather lingular
refpefting church government, but it mull be allowed
that he defended them with great ability and acute-
nefs.
LESSER ton!:, in Mujlc. See Tone.
LESSINES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Hainault, feated on the river Dender, and famous
for its linen manufa&ure, W. Long. 3. 53. N. Lat.
33. 41-
>7 ] L E S
LESSONS, among ecclefiaftlcal writers, portions of Lenbus
the Holy Scripture, read in Chriftian churches, at the _ II
time of divine fervice. L’r.H:range|
In the ancient church, reading the Scriptures was
one part of the fervice of the catechurqens ; at which
all perfons were allowed to be prefent, in order to ob¬
tain inftruflion.
The'church of England, in 'the choice of leffons, .
proceeds as follows : for the firft leflon on ordinary
days, ffie direfts, to begin at the beginning of the
year with Genefis, and lo continue on, till the books
of the Old Teftament are read over ; only omitting
the Chronicles, which are for the moft part the fame
with the books of Samuel and Kings, and other parti¬
cular chapters in other books, either becaufe they con¬
tain names of perfons, places, or other matters lels pro¬
fitable to ordinary readers.
I he courfe of the firft leffons for Sundays is regu¬
lated after a different manner. From Advent to Sep-
tuagefima Sunday, fome particular chapters of Ifaiah
are appointed to be read, bccaufe that book contains
the cleareft prophecies concerning Chrift. Upon Sep-
tuagefima Sunday Genefis is begun, becaufe that book
which treats of the fall ef man, and the fevere judge¬
ment of God inftifted on the world for fin, belt luits
witl-i a time of repentance and mortification. After
Genefis, follow chapters out of the books of the Old
Teftament, as they lie in order \ only on feftival Sun¬
days, fuch as Eafter, Whitfunday, &c. the particular
hiftory relating to that day is appointed to be read 5
and on the faints days, the church appoints leffons out
of the moral books, fuch as Proverbs, Ecclefiaites, Ec-
clefiaftieus, &c. as containing excellent inftruftions for
the conduft of life.
As to the fecond leffons, the church obferves the
fame courfe both on Sundays and week days : reading
the Gofpels and Afts of the Apollles in the morning,
and the Epiftles in the evening, in the order they Hand
in the New Teftament : excepting on faints days and
holidays, when fuch lefions are appointed as either ex¬
plain tpe myftery, relate the hiftory, or apply the ex¬
ample to us.
LESTOFF, or Leostoff, a town of Suffolk in
England, feated on the fea Ihore, 117 miles north-eaft
of London. It is concerned in the fiftieries of the
North fea, cod, herrings, mackerels, and fprats 5 has a
church and a diffenting tneeting-houfe 5 and for its fe-
curity, fix 18 pounders, which they can move as occa-
fion requires ; but it has no battery. The town confifts
of 500 houfes, with a population exceeding 2000 ; but
the ftreets, though tolerably paved, are narrow. The
coaft is there very dangerous for ftrangers.
L’ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a celebrated writer in
the 17th century, was defeended from an ancient fa¬
mily, feated at Hunftanton-hall in the county of Nor¬
folk, where he was born in 1616, being the youngeft
fon of Sir Hammond L’Eftrange, Bart, a Zealous royal-
ift. Having in 1644 obtained a commiffion from
King Charles I. for reducing Lynn in Norfolk, then in
poffeffion of the parliament, his defign was difeovered,
and his perfon feized. He was tried by a court-mar¬
tial at Guildhall in London, and condemned to die as
a fpy ; but was reprieved, and continued in Newgate
for fome time. He afterwards went beyond fea ; and
in Auguft 1653 returned to England, where he-ap-
plit d i
LET [ 768 ] L E . T
L'fcftrange plied himfelf to the proteflor Oliver Cromwell, and
having once played before him on the bafs viol, he was
'k.eiXy‘ ac e' by fome nicknamed Oliver's JiJdler. Being a man of
parts, mafter of an eafy humorous ftyle, but withal in
narrow circumdances, he fet up a newfpaper, under
the title of The Public Intelligencer, in 1663 5 but
which he laid down, upon the publication of the firft
London gazette in 1665, having been allowed, how¬
ever, a coniideration by government. Some time af¬
ter the Popilh plot, when the Tories began to gain the
afeendant over the Whigs, he, in a paper called the
Obfervator, became a zealous champion for the former.
He was afterwards knighted, and ferved in the parlia¬
ment called by King James II. in 16S5. But things
taking a different turn in that prince’s reigrt, in point
of liberty of confcience, from what molt people expect¬
ed, our author’s Obfervators were difufed as not at all
fuiting the times. However, he continued licenfer of
the prefs till King William’s acceflion, in whofe reign
he met with fom etrouble as a diiaffeCted perfon.
However, he went to his grave in peace, after he had
in a manner furvived his intellects. He publilhed
a great many political traCts, and tranHated feveral
works from the Greek, Latin, and Spanilh ; viz. Jofe-
phus’s works, Cicero’s Offices, Seneca’s Morals, Eraf-
mus’s Colloquies, iEfop’s Fables, and Bonas’s Guide
to Eternity. The character of his ftyle has been va-
rioufly reprefented ; his language being obferved by
fome to be eafy and humorous, while Mr Gordon fays,
“ that his productions are not fit to be read by any
who have tafte or good-breeding. They are- full of
phrafes picked up in the ftreets, and nothing can be
more low or naufeous.”
LESTWEITHEL, a town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, about 229 miles diftant from London. It is a
well-built town, where are kept the common gaol, the
weights and meafures for the whole ftannary, and the
county courts. It Hands on the river Foy, which
brought tip veffels from Fowey, before it was choked
up with (and coming from the tin mines, and therefore
its once flouriffiing trade is decayed ; but it holds the
bufhelage of coals, fait, malt, and corn, in tHe towui
of Fowey, as it does the anchorage in its harbour. It
was made a corporation by Richard earl of Cornwall
when he was king of the Romans, and has had other
charters fince. It confifts of feven capital burgefles
(whereof one is a mayor), and 17 affiftants or common
council. It is part of the duchy of Cornwall, to which
it pays ill. 19s. lod. a year for its liberties. Its chief
trade is the woollen manufa&ory. It firft returned
members to parliament in the 33d of Edward I. They
are chofen by the burgeffes and affiftants. It was an¬
ciently the ffiire town. The number of inhabitants in
1801 was 1743-
LETCH L ADE, a town of Gloucefterfhire, 90
miles from Lo tdon, on the borders of Oxfordffiire and
Berks, and the great road to Gloucefter \ had ancient¬
ly a nunnery, and a priory of black canons. In this
parifti is Clay-hill, The market is on Tuefday : and it
has two fairs. It is fuppofed to have been a Roman
town ^ for a plain Roman road runs from hence to Ci-
rencefter j and by a digging in a meadow near it fome
years ago, an old building was difeovered, fuppofed to
be a Roman bath, which was 50 feet long, 40 broad,
and 4 high, fupported with ioo brick pillars, curioufly
inlaid with {tones of divers colours of tefferaic work. Letch lade
The Leech, the Coin, the Churn, and Ifis, which all
rife in the Cotfwould hills, join here in one full ftream, "
and become one river, called the Thames, which begins
here to be navigable *, and barges take in butter, cheefe,
and other goods, at its quay, for London.
LETHARGY, in Medicine (from As^, oblivion,
and oteyiot, numhnefs, los&inefs'), a difeafe confifting of a
profound drowfinefs or fleepinefs, from which the pa¬
tient can fcarce be awaked j or, if aw'aked, he remains
ftupid, without fenfe or memory, and prefently finks
again into his former deep. See Medicine Index.
Lethargy, in Farriery. See Farriery, N° 507.
LETHE, (from “ I hide or conceal”), in
the ancient mythology, one of the rivers of hell,
fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its waters having,
according to poetic fiction, the peculiar quality of
making thofe who drank them forget every thing that
was paft.
LETI, Gregorio, an eminent Italian writer, was
defeended of a family which once made a confiderable.
figure at Bologna: Jerom, his father, was page to
Prince Charles de Medicis 5 ferved fome time in the
troops of the grand duke as captain of foot j and
fettling at Milan, married there in 1628. He was af¬
terwards governor of Almantea in Calabria, and died
at Salerno in 1639. Our author was born at Milan
in 1630, ftudied under the Jefuits at Cofenza, and
was aftenvards fent by an uncle to Rome, who umuld
have him enter into the church ; but he being averfe
to it, went to Geneva, where he ftudied the govern¬
ment and the religion there. Thence he w'ent to Lau-
fannej and contracting an acquaintance with John
Anthony Guerin, an eminent phyfician, lodged at his
houfe, made profeffion of the Calvinift religion, and
married hi. daughter. He fettled at Geneva; where
he fpent almofl twenty years, carrying on a corefpon-
dence with learned men, efpecially thofe of Italy. Some
contefts obliged him to leave that city in 1679*, uPoa
which he went to France, and then to England, where
he was received with great civility by Charles II. who,
after his firft audience, made him a prefent of a thou-
fand crowns, with a promife of the place of hiftorio-
grapher. He wrote there the Hiftory of England j
but that work not pleafing the court on account of his
too great liberty in writing, he was ordered to leave
the kingdom. He went to Amfterdam in 1682, and
was honoured with the place of hiftoriographer to that
city. He died fuddenly in 1701. He was a man of
indefatigable application, as the multiplicity of his
wmrks (how. The principal of thefe are, 1. The uni-
verfal monarchy of Louis XIV. 2. The life of Pope
Sixtus V. 3. The Life of Philip. II. King of Spain..
4. The Life of the Emperor Charles V. 5. The Life
of Elizabeth, Queen of England. 6. The Hiftory of
Oliver Cromwell. 7. The Hiftory of Great Britain,
5 vols 1 2mo. 8. The Hiftory of Geneva, &c.
LETRIM, a county of Ireland. See LEITRIM.
LETTER, a character ufed to exprefs one of the
fimple founds of the voice ; and as the different fimple
founds are exprefied by different letters, thefe, by be¬
ing differently compounded, become the vifible figns
or char afters of all the modulations and mixtures of
founds ufed to exprefs our ideas in a regular language.
See Language. Thus, as by the help of fpeech we
* render
LET [ <;
tender our Weas audible j by the affiftance of letters we
' ' render them viiiblej and by their help we can wrap up
our thoughts, and lend them to the moft didant parts
of the earth, and read the tranfafUons of different ages.
As to the Srft letters, what they were, who fird in¬
vented them, and among what people they were firff
in ufe, tnere is fttll room to doubt: Philo attributes
this great and noble invention to Abraham 5 Jofephus,
St Irenoeus, and others, to Enoch j Bibliander to A-
dam ; Eufebius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Cornelius A-
grippa, and others, to Mofes ; Pomponius Mela, He-
rodian, Rufus Feftus, Pliny, Lucan, &c. to the Phoe-
nicians; St Cyprian, to Saturn ; Tacitus, to the Egyp¬
tians j fome, to the Ethiopians j and others, to the Chi-
-nefe: but, with refpeft to thefe lad, they can never
be entitled to this honour, fince all their chara&ers are
-the figns of words, formed without the ufe of letters j
which renders it impoflible to read and write their lan¬
guage without a vad expence of time and trouble ; and
abfolutely impodible to print it by the help of types,
or any other manner but by engraving, or cutting in
wood. See Printing.
_ There have been alfo various conje&ures about the
different kinds of letters ufed in different languages:
thus, accoiding to Crinitus, Mofes invented the He¬
brew letters; Abraham, the Syriac and Chaldee j the
Phoenicians, thofe of Attica, brought into Greece by
.Cadmus, and from thence into Italy by the Pelafgians j
Nicodrata, the Roman j Ids, the Egyptian : and Vul-
filas, thofe-of the Goths.
It is probable, that the Egyptian hieroglyphics were
the fird manner of writing : but whether Cadmus and
the Phoenicians learned the ufe of letters from the E-
gyptians, or from their neighbours ef Judea or Samaria,
Is a quedion j for fince fome of the books of the Old
Tedament were then written, they are more likely to
have given them the hint, than the hieroglyphics of
Egypt. But wherefoever the Phoenicians learned this
art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmus the fon of
Agenor fird brought letters into Greece ; whence, in
following ages, they fpread over the red of Europe.
Bee Alphabet and Writing.
Letters make the fird part or elements of grammar j
an affemblage of .thefe compofe fyllables and words,
and thefe compofe fentences. The alphabet of every
language confids of a numbermf letters, which ought
each to have a different found, figure, and ufe. As
the difference of articulate founds was intended to ex-
prefs the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was
originally intended to fignify only one found, and not,
as at prefent, to exprefs fometimes one found and fome-
times another j which pra&ice has brought a great deal
of confufion into the languages, and rendered the learn¬
ing of the modern tongues much more difficult than it
would otherwife have been. This confideration, to¬
gether with the deficiency of all the known alphabets,
from their wanting fome letters to exprefs certain
founds, has occafioned feveral attempts towards an uni-
verfal alphabet, to contain an enumeration of all fuch
ffngle founds or letters as are ufed in any language.
See Alphabet.
Grammarians diffinguiffi letters into vowels, confo-
nants, mutes, liquids, diphthongs, and charafteriftics.
They are likewife divided into capital and fmall letters.
Vol. XI. Part II.
69 3 LET
They are alfo denominated from the fliape and turn of
the letters; and in writing are diftinguifiied into dif¬
ferent hands, as round text, German text, round hand,
Italian, &c. and in printing, Into Roman, Italic, and
black letter.
.The term Letter, or Type, among printers, not on¬
ly includes the CAPITALS, small capitals, and
fmall letters, but all the points, figures, and other
marks caff and ufed in printing ; and alfo the large or¬
namental letters, cut in wood or metal, which take place
of the illumined letters ufed in manufcripts. The let¬
ters ufed in printing are call at the ends of fmall pieces
of metal, about three quarters of an inch in length ; and
the letter being not indented, but raifed, eafily gives
the impreffion, when, after being blacked with a glu¬
tinous ink, paper is clofely preffed upon it. See the ar¬
ticles Printing and Type. A fount of letters in¬
cludes fmall letters, capitals, fmall capitals, points, fi¬
gures, fpaces, &c.; but befides, they have different
kinds of two-line letters, only ufed for titles, and the
beginning of books, chapters, &c. See Fount.
Letter is alfo a writing addreffed and fent to a
perfon. See Epistle.
The art of epiltolary writing, as the late tranflator
of Pliny’s Letters has obferved, was efteemed by the
Romans in the number of liberal and polite accom-
pliffiments $ and we find Cicero mentioning with great
pleafure, in fome of his letters to Atticus, the elegant
fpecimen he had received from his fon of his genius
in this way. It feems indeed to have formed part of
their education j and, in the opinion of Mr Locke,
it well deferves to have a ffiare in ours. “ The writ¬
ing of letters (as that judicious author obferves) enters
fo much into all the occafions of life, that no gentlemau
can avoid ffiowing himfelf in compofitions of this kind.
Occurrences will daily force him to make this ufe of
his pen, which lays open his breeding, and fenfe, and
his abilities, to a feverer examination than any oral dif-
courfe.” It is to be wondered we have la few writers
in our own language who deferve to be pointed out as
models upon fuch an occafion. After having named
Sir William Temple, it would perhaps be difficult to
add a fecond. The elegant writer of Cowley’s life
mentions him as excelling in this uncommon talent;
but as that author declares himfelf of opinion, “ That
letters which pafs between familiar friends, if they are
written as they Ihould be, can fcarce ever be fit to fee .
the light,” the world is deprived of what no doubt
would have been well worth its infpeftion. A late di-
ffinguilhed genius treats the very attempt as ridiculous,
and profeffes himfelf “ a mortal enemy to Avhat they
call a fine letter?' Elis averfion, however, was not fo
ftrong, but he knew to conquer it when he thought
proper ; and the letter which clofes his correfpondence
with Biffiop Atterbury is, perhaps, the moft genteel and
manly addrefs that ever was penned to a friend in dif-
grace. The truth is, a fine letter does not confift in
faying fine things, but in expreffing ordinary ones in an
uncommon manner. It is the proprie communia dicere^
the art of giving grace and elegance to familiar occur¬
rences, that conftitutes the merit of this kind of writ¬
ing. Mr Gay’s letter, concerning the two lovers wha
were ffiruck dead with the fame ftaffi of lightning, is *
mafterpiece of the fort j and the fpecimen he has there
5 E given
Letter.
LET [ 770 ] L E T
Letter, given o£ his talents for this fpecies of cornpofition makes
it much to be regretted we have not more from the
fame hand.
Ward's Of the Style of Epiflolary Compojition. Purity in the
Oratory, choice of words, and juftnefs of conftru&ion, joined
with perfpicuity, are the chief properties of this ftyle.
Accordingly Cicero fays: “ In writing letters, we make
ufe of common words and expreflions.” And Seneca
more fully, “ I would have my letters to be like my
difcourfes, when we either fit or walk together, un-
ftudied and eafy.” And what prudent man, in his
common difcourfe, aims at bright and ftrong figures,
beautiful turns of language, or laboured periods ? Nor
is it always requifite to attend to exa& order and me¬
thod. He that is mafier of what he writes, will na¬
turally enough exprefs his thoughts without perplexity
and confufion : and more than this is feldom neceifary,
efpecially in familiar letters.
Indeed, as the lubjefts of epiftles are exceedingly
various, they will neceffarily require fome variety in
the manner of expreffion. If the fubjeft be fomething
weighty and momentous, the language ftiould be
ftrong and folemn $ in things of a lower nature, more
free and eafy ; and upon lighter matters, jocofe and
pleafant. In exhortations, it ought to be lively and
vigorous j in confolations, kind and compaflionate $
and in advifing, grave and ferious. In narratives, it
Ihould be clear and diftindt $ in requefts, modeft; in
commendations, friendly; in profperity cheerful, and
mournful in adverfity. In a word, the ftyle ought to
be accommodated to the particular nature of the thing
about which it is converfant.
Befides, the different chara&er of the perfon, to
whom the letter is written, requires a like difference
in the modes of expreflxon. We do not ufe the fame
language to private perfows, and thofe in a public fta-
tion j to fuperiors, inferiors, and equals. Nor do we
exprefs ourfelves alike to old men and young, to the
grave and facetious, to courtiers and philofophers,
to our friends and ftrangers. Superiors are to be
addreffed with refpedt, inferiors with courtefy, and
equals with civility; and every one’s charadler, fta-
tion, and circumftances in life, with the relation we
Hand in to him, occafion fome variety in this refpefl.
But when friends and acquaintances correfpond by
letters, it carries them into all the freedom and good-
humour of converfation 5 and the nearer it refembles
that the better, fince it is defigned to fupply the room
of it. For when friends cannot enjoy each others
company, the next fatisfa&ion is to converfe with
each other by letters. Indeed, fometimes greater
freedom is ufed in epiftles, than the fame perfons
would have taken in difcourfing together ; becaufe,
as Cicero fays “ A letter does not blulh.” But ftill
nothing ought to be faid in a letter, which, confidered
in itfelf, would not have been fit to fay in difcourfe 5
though modefty perhaps, or fome other particular
reafon, might have prevented it. And thus it fre¬
quently happens in requefts, reproofs, and other cir¬
cumftances of life. A man can alk that by writing,
' which he could not do by words, if prefent; or blame
what he thinks amifs in his friend with greeter liberty
when abfent, than if they were together. From hence
it is eafy to judge of the fitnefs of any expreflion to
ftand in an epiftle, only by confidering, whether the
fame way of fpeaking would be proper in talking with Letter,
the fame perfon. Indeed, this difference may be al- v—
lowed, that as perfons have more time to think, when
they write, than when they fpeak j a greater accu¬
racy of language may folnetimes be expedted in one,
than the other. How ever, this makes no odds as to the
the kind of ftyle j for every one would choofe to fpeak
as corredlly as he writes, if he could. And there¬
fore all fuch words and expreflions as are unbecom¬
ing in converfation, ftiould be avoided in letters 5 and
a manly fimplicity, free of all affedlation, plain, but
decent and agreeable, fliould run through the whole.
This is the ufual ftyle of Cicero’s epiftles, in which,
the plainnefs and fimplieity of his didtion is accom¬
panied with fomething fo pleafant and engaging, that
he keeps up the attention of his reader, without fuf-
fering him to tire. On the other hand, Pliny’s ftyle
is fuccindt and witty : but generally fo full of turns
and quibbles upon the found of words, as apparently
render it more ftiff and affedted than agrees with
converfation, or than a man of fenfe wmuld choofe in
difcourfe, were it in his power. You may in fome
meafure judge of Pliny’s manner, by one Ihort letter
to his friend, which runs thus: “ How fare you ?
A.s I do in the country ? pleafantly ? that is, at leifure ?
For which reafon I do not care to write long letters,
but to read them \ the one as the effedt of nicenefs,
and the other of idlenefs. For nothing is more idle
than your nice folks, or curious than your idle ones.
Farewell.” Every fentence here conlifts of an anti-
thefts, and a jingle of wmrds, very different from the
ftyle of converfation, and plainly the effedt of ftudy.
But this was owing to the age in which he lived, at
which time the Roman eloquence was funk into puns,
and an affedtation of wit 5 for he was otherwife a man
of fine fenfe and great learning.
LETTER of Attorney, in Lnvo, is a writing by which
one perfon authorizes another to do fome lawful adl
in his ftead j as to give feifin of lands, to receive debts,
fue a third perfon, &c.
The nature of this inftrument is to transfer to the
perfon to whom it is given, the whole power of the
maker, to enable him to accomplifh the adt intended
to be performed. It is either general or fpecial j and
fometimes it is made revocable, which is when a bare
authority is only given *, and fometimes it is irrevo¬
cable, as where debts, &c. are affigned from one per¬
fon to another. It is generally held, that the power
granted to the attorney muft, be ftridtly purfued 5 and
that where it is made to three perfons, two cannot exe¬
cute it. In moft cafes, the power given by a letter of
attorney determines upon the death of the perfon who
gave it. No letter of attorney made by any feaman,
&c. in any Ihip of war, or having letters of marque, or
by their executors, &c. in order to empower any per¬
fon to receive any ftiare of prizes or bounty-money,
{hall be valid, unlefi* the fame be made revocable, and
for the ufe of fuch feanten, and be figned and executed
before, and attefted by, the captain and one other of
the figning officers of the {hip, or the mayor or chief,
magiftrate of fome corporation.
Letter of Mart or Marque. See Marque.
LETTERS Patent or Overt, are writings fealed with
the great feal of England, whereby a man is autho¬
rized to do, or enjoy any thing, which, of himfelf,
he
L E U [ 771 j L E U
Letter he couhl not do. See Patent.—They are fo called
11 by reafon of their form ; as being open, with the feal
Leucata. af£xec[ reacjy to be ftiown for the confirmation of the
authority given by them.
LETTUCE. See Lactuca, BotanT Index ; and
for the cultivation of the different kinds of lettuce, fee
Gardening Index.
LEVANT*, in Geography, fignifies any country
fituated to the eaft of us, or in the eaftern fide of any
continent or country, or that on which the fun rifes.
Levant is alfo a name given to the eaftern part of
the Mediterranean fea, bounded by Natolia or the Lef-
fer Afia on the north, by Syria and Paleftine on the
eaft, by Egypt and Barca on the fouth, and by the
ifland of Candia and the other part of the Mediterra¬
nean on the weft.
LEVATOR, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufc/es.
LEUCA, in antiquity, a geographical meafure of
length in ufe among the latter Gauls 5 which, according
to Jornandes, who calls it leuga, contained fifteen hun¬
dred paces, or one mile and a half. Hence the name
of league, now reckoned at three miles $ in the lower
age, called leuva.
LEUC ADENDRON, a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 48th order, Aggregatce. See Botany
Index.
LEUCADIA, formerly called Neritis, a peninfula
of Aearnania, (Homer) *, but afterwards, by cutting,
through the peninfula, made an ifland, as it is at this
day, called St Maura.
LEUC AS, in Ancient Geography, formerly called
Veritos and Neritum, a town of Leucadia or Leucas j
near a narrow neck of land, or ifthmus, on a hill facing
the eaft and Acarnania; the foot or lower part of the
town was a plain lying on the fea by which Leucadia
was divided from Acarnania, (Livy) j though Thucy¬
dides places Leucas more inward in the ifland, which
was joined to the continent by a-bridge. It was an
iiluftrious city, the capital of Acarnania, and the place
of general affembly.
LEUCATA, or Leucate, in Ancient Geography,
a promontory of Leucadia, according to Strabo, a white
rock projecting into the fea towards Cephalenia, on
which flood a temple of Apollo furnamed Leucadius.
At his feftival, which was annually celebrated here, the
people were accuftomed to offer an expiatory facrifice
to the god, and to avert on the head of the viftin.1 all
the calamities with which they might be threatened.
For this purpofe, they made choice of a criminal con¬
demned to die $ and leading him to the brink of the
promontory, precipitated him into the fea amidft the
loud ftrouts of the fpedlators. The criminal, how¬
ever, feldom perifhed in the water : for it was the cus¬
tom to cover him with feathers, and to faften birds to
his body, which by fpreading their wings might ferve
to break his fall. No fboner did he touch the fea, than
a number of boats ilationed for the purpofe flew to his
afliftance, and drew him out j and after being thus
faved, he -was baniftied for ever from the territory of
Leucadia. (Strabo, lib. x. p. 452).
According to ancient authors, a ftrange opinion
concerning this promontory prevailed for fome time
among the Greeks. They imagined that the leap of
Leucata was a potent remedy againft the violence of Leucata
love. Hence difappointed or defpairing lovers, it is
faid, were often known to have come to Leucadia j
and, having afcended the promontory, offered facri-
fices in the temple, and engaged by a formal vow to
perform the defperate aft, to have voluntarily precipi¬
tated themfelves into the fea. Some are reported to
have recovered from the effefts of the fall : and among
others mention is made * of a citizen of Buthroton, * Ptolern.
in Epirus, whofe paflions always taking fire at new Hephcefi.
objefts, he four times had recourfe to the fame reme’-^f’-
dy, and alw'ays with the fame fuccefs. As thofe who ^ ^>1‘
made the trial, however, feldom took any precaution
to render their fall lefs rapid, they were generally de-
ftroyed : and women often fell viftims to this aft of
defperation. At Leucata was ftiown the tomb of Ar-
temifia, that celebrated queen of Caria who gave fo
many proofs of courage at the battle of Salamis f. f
Inflamed with 2 violent paflion for a young man who^h- v‘‘i‘
inflexibly refuied her love, fhe furprifed him in hisca^‘8^’
fleep and put out his eyes. Regret and defpair foon
brought her to Leucata, where ftie periftied in the
waves notwithftanding every effort to fave her;};. Such f ptolem.
likewife was the end of the unhappy Sappho. Forfa- Hephcejt.
ken by her lover Phaon, ftie came hither to feek relief*^'
from her fufferings, and found her death. (Menpnd.
ap. Strab. lib. x. p. 452.
LEUCIPPUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher and
mathematician ; firft; author of the famous lyftem of
atoms and vacuums, and of the hypothefis of ftorms 5
fince attributed to the moderns. He flouriftied about
428 B. C.
LEUCOG^US, in Ancient Geography, a bill fi¬
tuated between Puteoli and Neapolis in Campania,
abounding in fulphur ; now TAlumera. Whence there
were alfo fprings called Leucogeei fontes; the waters
of which, according to Pliny, gave a firmnefs to the
teeth, clearnefs to the eyes, and proved
wounds.
a cure m
LEUCOJUM, Great Snow-drop, a genus of
plants belonging to the hexandria clafs j and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the ninth order, Spathacece.
See Botany Index.
LEUCOMA, in antiquity, was a public regifter
amongft the Athenians, in which were inferted the
names of all the citizens, as foon as they were of age to
enter upon their paternal inheritance.
Leucoma, in Surgery, a diftemper of the eyes, other-
wife called albugo. See Albugo and Surgery.
LEUCOPETRA, in Ancient Geography, fo called
from its white colour, (Strabo) $ a promontory of the
Bruttii, iu the territory of Rhegium, the termination
of the Apennines ; the utmoft extremity of the Brut-
tii^ or the modern Calabria Ultra ; as the Japygium
is of the ancient Calabria, or the modern Calabria Ci-
tra.
LEUCOPETRIANS, in eeclefiaftical hiftory, the
name of a fanatical feft which fprang up in the Greek
and eaftern dhurches towards the elofe of the 12th cen¬
tury : the fanatics of this denomination profeffed to
believe in a double Trinity, rejefted wedlock, abftain-
ed from ftefti, treated with the utmoft contempt the
facraments «f baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, and all
the various branches of external worftiip j placed the
effence of religion in internal prayer alone j and main-
5 E 2 tained,
L E U
licucope-
tnans
I!
Leuctra.
tamed, as it is -faid, that an evil being, or genius,
dwelt in the bread; of every mortal, and could be ex¬
pelled from thence by no other method than by per-
■ petual fuppiloation to the Supreme Being, the found¬
er of this enthuBattical feci is faid to have been a
perfon called and his chief difeiple Ty-
chicus, who corrupted, by fanatical interpretations, fe-
veral books of Scripture, and particularly Sc Matthew’s
Gofpel.
LEUCOPHLEGMATIA, in Medicine, a kind of
dropfy, otherwife called anafarca. See LEUCOPOTiON,
Medicine Index.
LEUCOTHOE, or Leucothea, in fabulous hif-
tory. the wife of Athamas, changed into a fea deity ;
fee Ino. She was called Ma tut a by the Romans. She
had a temple at Rome, where all the people, particu¬
larly women, offered vows for their brothers children.
They did not entreat the deity to preteff their own
children, becaufe Ino had been unfortunate in bers.
No female Haves were permitted to enter the temple ;
or if their curiofity tempted them to tranfgrefs this
rule, they were beaten with the greateft feverity. To
this fupplicating for other people’s children, Gvid al¬
ludes in thefe lines,.
Non tame:] hr.nc pro jlirpe fua pin mater adorat,
Ipfa parum felix vifa fuijje parens. I aft. vi.
LEUCTRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Boeo-
tia, to the weft of Thebes, or lying between Plateae and
Thefpiae, where the Lacedaemonians had a great defeat
given them by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, .the The¬
ban generals. The Theban army confffted at moft but
of 6000 men, whereas that of the enemy was at lead;
thrice that number ; but Epaminondas trufted moft in
his horfe, wherein he had much the advantage, both
in their quality and good management j the reft he en¬
deavoured to fitpply by the difpofition of his men, and
the vigour of the attack. He even refufed to fuffer
any to ferve under him in the engagement, but fuch
as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or die. He
put himfelf at the head of the left wing, oppofite to
Cleombrotus king of Sparta, and placed the main
ft refs of the battle there 5 rightly concluding, that if
he could break the bbdy of the Spartans, nbieh was
but 12 men deep, whereas his own was 50, the reft
would be foon put to flight. He clofed his own with
the facred band, which was commanded by Pelopidas;
and placed his horfe in the front. His right, from
which he had drawn fo many men, he ordered to fall
back, in a flanting line, as if they declined to fight,
that they might not be too much expofed to the ene¬
my, and might ferve him for a corps of referve in cafe
of need. This was the wife difpofition which the
two Theban generals made of tbele few but refolute
forces; and which fucceeded in every part, according
to their with. Epaminondas advanced with his left
wing, extending it obliquely, in order to draw the ene¬
my’s right from the main body 5 and Pelopidas char¬
ged them with fuch delperate ipeed and fury, at the
head of his battalion, before they could reunite, that
their horfe, not being able to ftr.nd the fliock, were
forced back upon their infantry, which threw the
whole into the greateft confufion : fo. that though the
Spartans were of all the Greeks the moft expert in re¬
covering from any furprife, yet their Ikiil on this oc-
- i
1 772 ]
L £ V
Leudtra,
Level.
caflon either failed them or proved of no effecl j for
the Thebans, obferving the dreadful impreflion they-
had made on them with their horfe, puftied furioufly Y
upon the Spartan king, and opened their way to him
with a great flaughter.
Upon the death of Cleombrotus, and feveral officers
of note, the Spartans, according to cuflom, renewed
the fight with double vigour and fury, not fo much to
revenge his death as to'recover his body, which was-
fuch an eftabliihed point of honour as they could not
give up without the greateft difgrace. But here the
Theban general wifely chofe rather to gratify them in
that point, than to hazard the fuccefs ot a fecond on*
let 5 and left them in poffeffion of their king, whilft:
he marched ftraight againft their other wing, com¬
manded by Archidamus, and confifting chiefly of luck
auxiliaries and allies as had not heartily engaged in
the Spartan intereft : thefe were fo difeouraged by the
death of the king and the defeat of that wing, that
they betook themfelves to flight, and were prefently
followed by the reft of the army. The Thebans,
however, purfued them fo clofely, that they made a
fecond dreadful flaiighter among them ■, which com^
pletcd Epaminondas’s victory, who remained mafter efi
the field, and erefted-a trophy in memory of it. This
was the conclufion of the famed battle of Leuftra, in
which the Lacedaemonians-loft 4000 men, and the The¬
bans but 300.
LEVEL is an inftrument which enables us to find
a line parallel to the horizon, or concentric with ther
circumference of the earth, and to continue it to any
diftanee :—to form a furface exactly level, having all
its parts at equal diftances from the earth’^centre, or
to find the difference of afeent between feveral places
for the purpofe of making roads-, conducing water,
draining low grounds, rendering rivers navigable;
forming canals, &e. &c.
Among the great variety of inftruments which have
been invented for thefe purpofes, the following are the
molt important and ufeful. s
Air-LEVEL, that which {hows the line of level by Air-level,
means of a bubble of air inclofed with fome liquor in
a glais tube of an indeterminate length and thicknefs,
whofe two ends are hermetically lealed. When the
bubble fixes itfelf at a certain mark, made exaflly in
the middle of the tube, the plane or ruler wherein it
is fixed is level. When it is not level, the bubble will
rife to o»ie end. This glafs tube may be fet in another
of brafs, having an aperture in the middle, through
which the bubble of air may be obferved. The liquor
with Which the tube is filled is oil of tartar, or aqua
feCunda ; thefe not being liable to freeze as common
water, nor to rarefaction and condenfation, as fpirit of
wine is. This application ox a bubble of air was the
invention of Dr Hooke.
There is one of thefe infiruraents made with fights,
which is an improvement upon that laft described, and
which, by a little additional apparatus, becomes more
commodious and exa£t. It confifts of an air level (fig.
1.), about eight inches long, and feven or eight lines
in diameter, fet in a brafs tube 2, with an aperture in
the middle, C. The tubes are fupported by a ftraight
ruler a foot long ; at whofe ends are fixed two fights,
3, 3, exactly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an e-
qual height, having a fquarehole,formed by two fillets
of
Plate
CCXCIL
fig-
Level.
LEV [ 773 ]
of brafs croffing each oLber at right angles, in the mid- experiment
Fi?- 2.
2
Dtfagu-
liers’s level,
linj inftru-
ment.
Fig- 3-
die of which is drilled a very fmall hole, through which
a point on a level with the inftrument is obferved. The
brafs tube is faftened on the ruler by means of two
ferews ; one of which, marked 4, ferves to raife or de-
prefs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it towards a
level. The top of the ball and focket is rivetted to a
little, ruler that fprings, one end whereof is faftened
with a ferew to the great ruler, and at the other end
has a ferew, 5, ferving to raife and deprefs the inftru-
Ibent when nearly level.
The inftrument juft deferibed, however, is ftill lefs
commodious than the following one •, for though the
holes be ever fo fmall, they will take in too great a
fpace to determine the point of level precifely.
The inftrument alluded to confifts of an air-level,
with telefcopic fights. This level (fig. 2.) is like the'
laft •, with this difference, that, inftead of plain fights,
it carries a telefcope to determine exaftly a point of
level at a great diftance. The telefcope is a little brafs
tube, about 15 inches long, faftened on the fame ruler,
as the level. At the end of the tube of the telefcope,
marked 1, enters the little tube 1, carrying the eye-
glafs and a hair placed horizontally in the focus of
the objeft-glafs, 2 •, which little tube may be drawn
out, or pufhed into the great one, for adjuliing the
telefcope to different fights : at the other end of the
telefcope is placed the objetft-glafs. The ferew 3, is for
raifing or lowering the little, fork, for carrying.the hair,
and making it agree with the bubble of air when the
inftrument is level ; and the ferew 4, is for making the
bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telefcope : the
whole is fitted to a ball and focket. M. Huygens is
faid to be the firft inventor of this level ; which has
this advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the
ruler and telefcope half ro'und ; and if then the hair
cit the fame point that it did before, the operation is
juft.
It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to
any kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to,
the bafe or ruler, when there is occafion to take the le¬
vel of remote objeft's.
Dr Defaguliers contrived an inftrument, by which
• the difference of level of two places, which could not
be taken in lefs than four or five days with the bell
telefcopic levels, may be taken in as few hours. The
inftrument is as follows. To the ball C (fig. 3.) is
joined a recurve tube BA, with a very fine bore, and
a fmall bubble at top A, whofe under part is open:,
It is evident from the make of this inftrument, that
if it be inclined in carrying, no injury will be done
to the liquor, which will always be right both in the
ball and tube when the inftrument is fet upright. If
the air at C be fo expanded with heat, as to drive the
liquor to the top of the tube, the cavity A will receive
the liquor, which will come down again and fettle at
D, or near k, according to the level of the place
where the inftrument is, as foon as the air at C returns
to the fame temperament as to heat and cold. To
preferve the fame degree of heat, when the different
t>bfervations are made, the machine is fixed in a tin vef-
ftl EF, filled with water up to g h, above the ball,
and a very fenfible thermometer has alfo its ball under
water, that one may obferve the liquor at D, in each
LEV*
when the thermometer Hands at the fame Level:
height as before. The water is poured out when the —--v*""-**
inftrument is carried •, which one may do conveniently
by means of the wooden frame, which is fet upright by
the three ferews, S, S, S, (fig. 4.), and a line and Fig. 4. and
plummet PP, (fig. 5.). At the back part of the wooden 5.
frame, from the piece at top K, hangs the plummet P,
over a brafs point at N ; M m are brackets to make
the upright board KN continue at right angles with
the horizontal one at N. Fig. 6. reprefents a front Fig. 6.
view of the machine, fuppofing the fore part of the tin
veliel tranfparent j and here the brafs focket of the re¬
curve-tube, into which the ball is ferewed, has two
wings at II, fixed to the bottom, that the ball may not
break the tube by its endeavour to emerge when, the
water is poured in as high as g h.
After the doftor had contrived this machine, he
confidered, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if
the liquor ftiould rife into the ball at A (fig. 3.) in car¬
rying the inftrument from one place to another, foms
of it would adhere to the fides or the ball A, and up¬
on its defeent in making the experiment, fo much '
might be left behind, that the liquor would not be
high enough at D to (how the difference of the level ;
therefore, to prevent that inconveniency, he contrived
a blank ferew, to Ihut up the hole at A, as foon as one
experiment is made, that, in carrying the machine, the
air in A may balance that in C, fo that the liquor
fhall not run up and down the tube, whatever degree
of heat and cold may aft upon the inftrument, in go¬
ing from one place to another. Now, becaufe one ex¬
periment may be made in the morning, the water may
be fo cold, that when a fecond experiment is made at
noon the water cannot be brought to the fame degree
of cold it had in the morning j therefore, in making
the firft experiment, warm water muft be mixed with
the cold, and when the water has flood fome time, be¬
fore it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at the
v/armeft part of that day, obferve and fet down the de¬
gree of the thermometer at which the fpirit Hands,
and likewife the degree of the water in the barometer
at D } then ferew on the cape at A, pour out the wa¬
ter, and carry the inftrument to the place whofe level
you'would know j then pour in your water, and when
the thermometer is come to the fame degree as before,
open the ferew at top, and obferve the liquor in the
barometer.
The doftor’s fcale for the barometer is ten inches
long, and divided into tenths ; fo that fuch an in-
flrument will ferve for any heights not exceeding
ten feet, each tenth of an inch anfwering to a foot in
height.
The doftor made no allowance for the decreafe of
denfity in the air, bccaufe- he did not propofe this ma¬
chine for meafuririg mountains (though, with a proper
allowance for the decreafing denfity of the air, it will
do very well), but for heights that want to be known
in gardens, plantations, and the conveyance of water,
where an experiment that anfwers two or three feet ii\
a diftanee of 20 miles, will render this a very ufeful
inftrument. -
Artillenj Foot-LEVEL is in form of a fquare, having Artillery
its two legs or branches of an equal length *, at a junc- fcot-kveb
ture whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread
and.
L E V
[ 774 ]
L E V
4
-Carpenters
and Pa-
viers level.
Fig. S.
S
Gunners
level.
Fig. 9.
?.Tafuns le¬
vel.
Plumb or
pendulum
level.
Fi?. 10.
and plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the
middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45 de¬
grees from the middle. Fig. 7.
This inftrument may be ufed on other oceafions, by
placing the ends of its two branches on a plane ; for
when the thread plays perpendicularly over the middle
divifion of the quadrant, the plane is affuredly level.
To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece
of artillery, which you may raife to any propofed
height, by means of the plummet, whofe thread will
give the degree above the level.
Carpenters and Paviers LEVEL, confifts of a long
ruler, in the middle of which is fitted, at right angles,
another fomewhat larger. At the top of this is fatlen-
ed a thread, which, when it hangs over a fiducial line
at right angles with the bafe, (hows that this bafe is
horizontal. Sometimes this Ibvel is compofed of one
board. See fig. 8.
Gunners LEVEL, for levelling cannons and mortars,
confifts of a triangular brafs plate, about four inches
high, (fig. 9.) at the bottom of which is a portion
of a circle, divided only into 45 degrees ; as this num¬
ber is fufficient for the higheft elevation of cannons and
mortars, and for giving (hot the greateft range. .On
the centre of this fegment of a circle is fcrewed a piece
of brafs, by means of which it may be fixed or fcrewed
at pleafure. The end of this piece of brafs is made lo
as to ferve for a plummet and index, in order to (how
the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery.
This inftrument has alfo a brafs foot, to fet upon .can*
nons or mortars, fo that when thofe pieces are horizon¬
tal, the inftrument will be perpendicular. The foot of
this level is to be placed on the piece to be elevated,
in fuch a manner, as that the point of the plummet
may fall on the proper degree j this is what they call
levelling the piece.
Mafons Level, is compofed of three rules, fo join¬
ed as to form an jfofceles triangle fomewhat like a Ro¬
man A. At the vertex of this triangle is faft.ened a
thread, from which hangs a plummet, that pafles over
a fiducial line, marked in the middle of the bafe, when
the thing to which the level is applied is horizontal j
but declines from the mark, when the thing is lower
on the one fide than on the other.
Plumb ox Pendulum LEVEL, that which Ihows the
horizontal lines by means of another line perpendicular
to that defcribed by a plummet or pendulum. Ibis
inftrument, (fig. 10.) confifts of tw’o legs or branches,
ioined together at right angles.- . The branch which
"carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a
half long; and the thread is hung towards the top of
the branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch
where the thread pafles is hollow, fo that it may hang
free everywhere : but towards the bottom, where there
is a little blade of filver, on which is drawn a line per¬
pendicular to the telefeope, the faid cavity is covered
by two pieces of brafs, making as it were a kind of
cafe, left the wind ftiould agitate the thread. For this
reafon the filver blade is covered with a glafs G, in or¬
der that it may be feen when the thread and plummet
play upon the perpendicular. The telefcope is.fattened
to the other branch of the inftrument, and is about
two feet long •, having a hair placed horizontally
acrofs the focus of the objedt-glafs, which determines
the point of the level. The telefcope muft be .fitted
1
Lave!.
at right angles to the perpendicular. It has a ball and
focket, by which it is fixed to the foot, and was in- v——-
vented by M. Picard. g
Rejecting LEVEL, that made by means of a prettyMariotte’s
long furface of water reprefenting the fame object in-reflecting
verted which we fee erefted by the eye ; fo that theleve1,
point where thefe two objects appear to meet is a level
with the place where the furface of the water is found.
This is the invention of M. Mariotte. 9
There is another reflefting level confifting of a mir- Caffim’s.
ror of fteel, or the like, well poliftied, and placed a
little before the objeft-glafs of a telefcope, fufpended
perpendicularly. This mirror muft make an angle of
45 with the telefcope ; in which cafe the perpendicu¬
lar line of the telefcope is converted into a horizontal
line, which is the fame with the line of level. This is
the invention of M. Caffini. 10
Water LEVEL, that which ftiows the horizontal line Water le-
by means of a furface of water or other liquor j ^oun^'
ed on this principle that water always places itfelf™^*0
level. cients.
The moft fimple water level is made of a long
wooden trough or canal, whofe fides are parallel to the
bafe ; fo that being equally filled with water, its fur¬
face ftiows the line of level. This is the chorebates of
the ancients. See Chorobata.
It is alfo made with two cups fitted to the two ends
of a pipe, three or four feet long, about an inch in
diameter, by means of which the water communicates
from the one to the other cup } and this pipe being
moveable on its ftand by means of a ball and focket,
when the two cups become equally full of water, their
two furfaces mark the line of level.
This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be made
with two ihort cylinders of glafs three or four inches
long, fattened to each extreme of the pipe with wax
or maftic. Into the pipe is poured fome common or
coloured water, which ihows itfelf through the cylin¬
ders, by means of which the line of level is determined ;
the height of the water, with refpeft to the centre of
the earth, being always the fame in both cylinders.
This level, though very fimple, is yet very commodious
for levelling at imall diftances. . 1I;
De la Hire’s level confifts of two veflfels filled with De la
water, and communicating with each other by means of Hire’s level,
one or more tubes. A imall cylindrical box made of
thin copper or planiihed tin, and terminating below in
an obtufe cone, floats in each of thefe bo^es, which are
kept in a vertical pofition by introducing into the cones
a ball of lead or a quantity of mercury. One of the
boxes carries the objeft-glafs ; and. the eye-glafs
along with the crofs wires are fattened into the other,
but in fuch a manner as to be elevated ordepreffed by
Hiding in two grooves, in order that the axes of the
lenfes may be exa£tly level, which is effefled by mea-
furing a bafe. See Trade du Nivel lenient par M. Pi- 12
card. The inconveniences attending this inftrument Defetfs in
arife from the difficulty of. bringing the floating eye-^
glafs into the fame line with the axis of the objeft-
glafs,.and of making the boxes fettle in fucb a pofition
that diflin£l vifion may be procured through the tele¬
fcope ; for if the wires in the focus of the eye-glafs be
out of the axis, or at the imalleft diftance from the fo¬
cus of the objeft-glafs, the image will be both indil-
tinft and deformed. In order that De la Hue’s level
may
13
Couplet’s
level.
LEV [ 7
Level, may be perfeft, it is neceflary that the boxes fhould be
of the fame weight and magnitude, that the boxes which
contain the water (hould be put nearly on a level by
means of a plummet, that the fame quantity of water
fliould be introduced, and that the ubjeft-glafs fhould
be kept at the fame height with the eye-gkfs. Thefe
conditions, which are requifxte to the perfe&ion of the
level, are too numerous and too difficult to be attained,
to render this xnftrument of any ufe where accurate re-
iults are required.
Thefe defers in De la Hire’s level were partly re¬
medied by M. Couplet, by ffiferting the obje£t-glafs
|^0^;‘Deand eye-glafs into the fame lube, and by placing this
la Hire’s telefcope loofely on two boxes which formerly floated
at random on the fluid. He equalized the weight of
thefe boxes by means of a quantity of fmall fhot, and
verified the inftrument by putting one of the boxes be¬
neath the objeft-glafs, and the other beneath the eye-
glafs of the telefcope. It is evident, however, that the
accuracy of Couplet’s level depends upon the equal
diftribution of the fmall fhot contained in the boxes j
for if it is diflributed unequally, the box will be mere
deprefled on one fide than another, and confequently
the interfe&ion of the crofs wires in the focus of the
eye-glafs, will either recede from, or approach to the
furface of the water, according as the fmall fhot is un¬
equally diflributed in the box which fupports the eye-
glafs, or in that which carries the objecl-glafs. Befides
this fource of error, confiderable inconvenience muft
arife in praftice from the wrant of connexion between
the telefcope and the two boxes upon which it floats.
The level of Deparcieux is properly an improve¬
ment upon that of Couplet. It confifts of two parts, a
box ABCD of light wood, in which are placed two
vefiels of tin EFG, EFG filled with water. Thefe
veflfels are each 10 inches long, 7 inches wide, and 44-
deep, and communicate by one or more tubes GE.
The other part is compofed of three tubes M, M, M,
and of two boxes L, L, enclofed on all fides, having
8 J inches of length, 6 of breadth, and 4 of depth, and
above thefe are foldered the three tubes. (Fig. 1. is a
vertical fedlion, and fig. 2. a horizontal fedlion of the
inftrument). The two outermoft tubes are telefcopes
from 18 to 36 inches long, pointed in oppofite diree-.
tions to prevent the neceffity of turning the level, and
are necefiary for its adjuftment and verification.—A
piece of lead weighing about two pounds is foldered to
the bottom of each box L, L, and a weight P of half
a pound is made to move towards or R by the fcrevv
in order to adjuft the level by making one of the
floating boxes fink deeper in the water than the other.
This weight fhould be fixed to a fmall tin tube which
can move eafily within the greater one, and the fcrew
is turned by means of a handle fimilar to that which is
ufed for winding up a clock. The whole inftrument is
thus covered with a cafe a b to prevent the wind from
agitating the water.
Method of In order to adjuft the level, place the box ABCD
adjufting it. upon a table, and elevate one end or another by means
of wedges till the interfe&ion of the two crofs wires in
the focus of the eye-glafs of one of the telefcopes feems
to fall upon a very remote objeft, each of thefe wires
being moveable by ferews fo that their point of interfec-
tion can be varied. Then take the levil out of the box
ABCD, and invert its pofition, fo that one of the tin
J4
Depar-
cieux’s le¬
vel.
Plate
CCXC1II.
fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
75 1 L E V '
boxes EF may occupy the pofition which the other had Level
before, and look through the other telefcope. If the 'r~m
interfeftion of the wires falls upon the fame objeft,
their pofition is correct, and the axes of the telefcopes
are parallel j but if it falls at a diftance from the ob-
jeiR, the point of interfeclion muft. be fhifted one-half
of that diftance towards the objetf, and the fame ope¬
ration repeated till the interfeeftion of the hairs of one
of the telefcepes covers the fame point of the object
that is hid by the kiterfe£tion of the hairs of the other
telefcope. When this happens, the axes of the tele¬
fcopes will be exactly parallel.
The level is then placed upon its Hand, which is fix¬
ed to the box at K, and a very remote objeCt is exa¬
mined with one of the telefcopes, fo as to find the point
of it which is hid by the interfeftion of the wires. The
level is then inverted, and the objeCt examined with
the other telefcope. If the interfeCtion of the wires co¬
vers the fame point of the objeCl as before, the level is
adjufted, and the objeCl is in the line of apparent level
pafling through the interfeClion of the wires. But if
this is not the cafe, the weight P towards (£ or towards
R, according as the point of the objeCl firil examined
is above or below the interfeClion of the wires, in order
to make the image of the objeCl rife or fall one-half of
the diftance between the points that are covered by the
interfeClion of the wires in each obiervation. The ope¬
ration is then repeated, till the interfeCtion of the wires
in both telefcopes falls upon the lame point of the ob¬
jeCl, in which cafe the axes of the telefcopes will be
exaCtly level, and the inftrument properly adjufted. It
is obvious that by moving the weight P from the pofi¬
tion which it has when the level is adjufted, the axes
of the telefcopes will be inclined to the line of the level
either above or below it according as the weight is
moved to one fide or another. Hence, by meaiuring
a bafe with a vertical objeCl at its remote extremity, it
may be ealily found how many minutes or feconds cor-
refpond with a given variation in the pofition of the
weight, merely by meafuring the tangents on the verti¬
cal objeCl j fo that a fcale may be engraven on the tube
TT which will exhibit the angles of inclination to the
line of apparent level, formed by the axes of the tele¬
fcopes when the weight P has different politbns.
The mercurial level lately invented by the ingenious Keith’s
Alexander Keith, Efq. of Ravelfton, is founded on the mercurial
fame principle as the levels of De la Hire, Couplet, iev£j]jafe
and Deparcieux, with this difference, that mercury is cQxciIf.
employed inftead of water. A feClion of the mercurial
level is reprefented in fig. 3. where A, A are two ob- E'g- 3*
long fquare cavities communicating by means- of the
channel MN. BR are two grooves hollowed out of
the wood which contain the fights D, D', fig. 4. when Fig. 4.
the inftrument is not in ufe. The fight D has a fmall
hole in it, and the other is furniflied with a crofs hair.
They are fixed into two pieces of ivory or hard wood,
which are nearly of the fame form as the cavities A, A,
but a little fmaller, fo that they may go into thefe cavi¬
ties without touching the fides. A quantity of mercu¬
ry is then introduced into the communicating veffels
A, A till they be about half full. The two fights are
then placed in the cavities, and float on the horizontal
furface of the mercury j confequently (Hydrodyna¬
mics, art. 34, 37) if the fights be of the lame dimenlion
and iveieht, a line joining the crofs hair in D' and the
frtsall
id
L E V
Level.
C 77^ ]
L E V
Flg- 5-
principle.
Plate
CCXCIV.
Fig.
fraall hole in D will be level or parallel with the hori¬
zontal furface of the mercury. The inftrument com¬
pletely fitted up is reprefented in fig. 5. where D, Df
are the fights, D being the fight to which the eye is
applied. When there is a ftrong wind the level is co¬
vered with a cafe, in which two holes are left oppofite
to the fights.—The preceding level might be improved
by making the crofs hair move up and down with u
fcrew, and by engraving a fcale on the fide of the
fquare aperture at D', whofe divifions being fubdivided
by a fcale on the circumference of the nut that moves
the fcrew, would indicate to great accuracy the angle of
^ inclination.
Defcription The following mode of conftnnSiing a level upon a
of a level new principle has occurred to the writer of this article,
upon a new Let AB be a reflecting furface either of glafsor water,
and let MN be a ftraight ruler held above th,is furface j
thus it follows from optical principles that the line MN
will be perpendicular to the plane AB when the objedl
MN and its image NM' appear in the fame ftraight
line to an eye placed at M. Hence, by the bye, we may
afcertain the error of a fquare, by placing one of its fides
upon the furface of a looking glafs, and applying the eye
to its extremity M j for if it is inaccurate, the image
of the fide MN will form an angle with MN, thus if
m N be the fide of the fquare, its image will be N w'.
—Now let VV be a veffel containing either v/ater or
mercury, and let VV be the furface of the fluid. This
veffel muft be firmly connected with the bafe CD and
alfo with the vertical plane EF (perpendicular to CD)
by means of the .crofs bars a b, c d. The telefcope AB
is faftened to MN, another plane which rifes perpen¬
dicular to the plane EF, and the plane MN is fo con-
nefted with EF by means of fcrews, that its fide MN
may be made to vary its angle with the horizon, in any
direction. The veffel VV, therefore, and the planes
EF, CD remain fixed, while the telefcope AB and the
plane MN can vary their pofition relative to the other
parts of the level. The telefcope AB ftiould befocon-
ftrufted as to anfwer the purpofe of two telefcopes. It
has an objeft-glafs both at A and B, and alfo an eye-
glafs with crofs w ires at A and B j and thefe are fo fitted
into the tube that when the eye is applied to the end
B, the objeft-glafs at B, and the eye-glafs at A with its
crofs hairs, may be turned to one fide fo as to have di-
ftinft vifion with the remaining eye-glafs at B and the
cbjed-glafs at A. When the eye is applied to A, the
eye-glafs at B and the obje<ft-glafs at A are moved out
of the axis of the telefcope for the fame reafon. This
contrivance is for the purpofe of avoiding the neceflity
of having two telefcopes. The crofs hair in the focus
of each eye-glafs muft be made capable of varying their
pofition, fo that the point of interfe&ion may be fhifted
for the purpofes of adjuftment.
In order to adjuft the inftrument, place its bafe CD,
•upon a table, and move the telefcope of the index MN
till the image N'M' is in the fame ftraight line with
MN. Then look through the extremity B at a diftant
objetl, and mark the pointof it \ihich is covered by the
interfeftion of the wires. Infert the whole inftrument
fo that the end A may be at B, adjuft the index MN
as before, and look through the tele feope at the fame
objeft. If the interfeftion of the wires falls upon the
fame point of the objeft as formerly, the inftrument is
properly adjufted. But if not, the interfe&ion of the
18
Method of
adj lifting .
it.
PJate
CCXCIL
fig. xt.
crofs wires in one of the eye-pieces muft be varied, as Level,
in the adjuftment of Deparcieux’s level, till it covers
the fame point of the objeft that was covered at thefirft
obfervation. When this happens, the inftrument is
duly adjufted, and may be uftd by placing the bafe CD
up./ti a ftand, and adjufting the index MN j for when
this is done, the axis of the tclefcope will be in a line
accurately horizontal.
Le vel of Air Huygens's invention, confifts of a tele- hu:i gfr!S’«
fcope a, (fig. 11.) in form of a cylinder, going through level,
a ferril, in which it is faftened by the middle. This
ferrilhas two flat branches bb, one above, and the other
below : at the ends whereof are faftened little moving
pieces, which carry two rings, by one of which the
telefcope is fufpended to a hook at the end of the
fcrew 3, and by the other a pretty heavy weight is
fufpended, in order to keep the telefcope in a-quilibrio.
This weight hangs in the box 5, which is almoft filled
with linfeed oil, oil of walnuts, or other matter that
will not eafily coagulate, for more aptly fettling the
balance of the weight and telefcope. The inftrument
carries two telefcopes clofe and parallel to each
other ; the eye-glafs qf the one being againft the ob-
jebl-glafs of the other, that one may lee each way
without turning the level. In the focus of the objedt-
glafs of each telefcope muft; a little hair be ftrained hc-
rizonally, to be raifed and lowered as occafion requires
by a little fcrew. If the tube of the telefcope be not
found level when fufpended, a ferril or ring, 4, is put
-on it, and is to be Aid along till it fixes to a level.
The hook on which the inftrument is hung is fixed to
•a flat wooden crofs j at the ends of each arm whereof
there is a hook ferving to keep the telefcope from
too much agitation in ufing or carriage. To the faid
flat crofe is applied another hollow one, that ferves as
a cafe for the inftrument j but the two ends are left
open, that the telefcope may be fecured from the wea¬
ther and always in a condition to be ufed. The foot
of this inftrument is a round brafs plate, to which are
faftened three brafs ferrils, moveable by means of joints
whereon are put ftaves, and on this foot is placed the
box.
Fig. 12. marked I, is a balance-level} which, being fig. 12,
fufpended by the ring, the two fights, when in ceqiii-
librioy will be horizontal, or in a level.
Spirit-LeVEL. The moft accurate levelling inftru-scon’s fpj.
•ment, and that pofleffed of the greateft effential ad-rit-ievel.
vantages in ufe, is the fpirit-level j which was firft
conftrufted by Mr Siflon, and to which fome fmall
additions and improvements have been fince made.
The following is a defcription of one of the beft of
thefe levels, as made by the principal mathematical
inftrument makers.
Fig. 13. is a reprefentation of the inftrument mounl- Adams's
ed on its complete ftaves. The telefcope, ABC, is made &,aphual
from 15 inches to two feet in length, as may be required,
It is achromatic, of the bed: kind, and (hows the objects
ereift. In the focus of the eye-glaffes are exceedingly
fine crofs wires, the interfeftion of which is evidently
fhown to be perfeftly in the axis of the tube •, fer by
turning it round on its two fapporters DE, and looking
through the telefcope, the interfeftion of the wires will
conftantly cut the fame part of the objedl: viewed. By
turning the fcrew a at the fide of the telefcope, the ob¬
jedl glafs at g is moved j and thus the telefcope is exadt-
LEV [ 777 3 LEV
Level, ly adapted to the eye. If thefe crofs wires are at any
u—time put of their adjuftment, which is difcovered by
their interfe&ion not cutting the fame part of the ob-
jedl during the revolution of the telefcope on its axis,
they are eafiiy adjufted by means of the four fcrews
b bb, placed on the telefcope about an inch from the end
for the eye. Thefe fcrews aft in perpendicular direc¬
tions to one another, by unfcrewing one and tightening
the other oppolite to the wire, fo that if connefted with
it, it may be moved either way at pleafure; and in this
manner the other wire perpendicular to it may be moved,
and thus the interfeftion of the wires brought exaftly in
the axis of the tube.
To the telefcope is fixed, by two fmall fcrews cc, the
level tube containing the fpirits, with a fmall bubble
of air : This bubble of air, when the inftrument is
■well adjufted, Will fettle exaftly in the fame place, in
or near the middle of its tube, whether the telefcope
be reverfed or not on the. fupporters, which in this cafe
are kept unmoved.
It is evident, that the axis of the telefcope, or the
interfeftion of the wires, as before Ihown, mult in this
cafe be truly level. In this eafy mode of adjuftment
confifts the improvement of the inftrument; and it is
hereby capable of being adjufted by only one ftation
and one objeft, which will at the fame time determine
it to be in a true level. If by change of weather, ac¬
cident, or any other caufe, the inftrument thould have
loft its level or adjuftment, it may thus be readily refto-
red and readjufted at the firft ftation ; which is an ad¬
vantage pofleffed by none of the inftruments formerly
made. The two fupporters DE, on which the level refts
and turns, are (haped like the letter Y. The telefcope
refts within the upper part of them j and the inner fides
of each of thefe Y’s are tangents to the cylindric tube
of the telefcope, which is turned to a true cylinder, and
each touches it only at one place.
The lower ends of thefe fupporters are inferted into
a ftrong brafs plate FE, fo as to ftand perpendicularly
on it. One of thefe is kept faft by a tightening fcrew
G, and to the other is applied a fine threaded fcrew
H, to adjuft the tube, when on its fupporters, to a true
level. To the fupporter D is fometimes applied a
line of tangents as far as 12 degrees, in order to take
an angle of depreflion or elevation to that extent. Be¬
tween the fupporters is alfo fometimes fixed a compafs-
box I, divided into 360 degrees, and again into four
90° ; having a centre pin and needle, and trigger, at </,
to throw off the needle from the centre when not ufed j
fo as to conftitute a perfeft circumferentor, connefted
with all the foregoing improvements. This plate is fix¬
ed on a conical brafs ferrule K, which is adapted to the
bell-metal fruftum of a cone at top of the brafs head of
the ftaves, having a ball and focket, with three bell-
metal joints, two ftrong brafs parallel plates LL, four
fcrews e e e e for adjufting the horizontal motion, a regu¬
lating fcrew M to this motion, and a faftening fcrew N
to tighten it on the cone when neceffary. The faften¬
ing fcrew N, and the regulating fcrew M, by which the
whole inftrument is moved with accuracy through a
fmall fpace in a horizontal direftion, was an addition
of Mr Ramfden’s.
The manner of adjuJUng the fpirit-level at the frjl Jla-
tion.—The whole level being now placed fteadily on its
ftaves, it muft be rendered parallel to the axis of the
Vol. XI. Part II.
'•
telefcope before you adjuft the horizontal motion. For
this purpofe the telefcope muft be placed in a line with
two of the fcrews eef and then levelled by thefe till the
bubble of air in the fpirit-tube keeps its pofition in the
middle, while turned about to three points, making near¬
ly right angles at the centre to one another.
The horizontal motion being thus adjufted, the rims
ff of the Ys are to be opened, the telefcope taken off
and laid the contrary way upon the fupporters. If the
bubble of air then refts exaftly the fame, the level and
telefcope are adjufted rightly to one another j but if
the bubble does not remain the fame, the end to which
the air bubble goes muft be noticed, and the diftance
of it from the telefcope altered *, correfting one half
the error by the fcrews c r, and the other half by the
fcrews e e.
Now the interfeftion of the wires being direfted
to any diftant objeft, it may be one of the vanes of
the ftaves hereafter defcribed : if they continue to be
againft it precifely while the telefcope is turned round
on its Ys, it proves, as before mentioned, that the axis
of the telefcope coincides with the interfeftion of the
wires, and that the inftrument will give the true level
direftion.
Level.
The operation of levelling being of a very accurate
and important nature, and the beft inftrument when
out of its adjuftment being of little ufe, it is quite ne¬
ceffary that every perfon ufmg fuch an inftrument
ftiould have it readily in his power to correft it *, and
the one above defcribed appears to be the beft adapted
for that purpofe of any hitherto defcribed.
Theory of the Spirit Level.
Let ABC, fig. 3. be a veffel of glafs hermetically feal- Plate
ed, its upper furface ABC being the arch of a circle CCXCIV.
whofe centre is O. This veffel contains a quantity of fpirit 3*
of wine or alcohol, whofe level or furface is NEN.
The line VOT interfefting the arch Nn in B, and ex¬
tending to T, which is fuppofed to be the centre of the
earth. Therefore, (Hydrodynamics, art. 36,) the
furface NE n is the arch of a circle whofe centre is T.
XYZ is a right line fixed with refpeft to theladius B,
and confequently with regard to the veffel ABCD.
Now let the radius O n—rT and the arch B b
~m.
In the prefent fituation of the veffel the vertical lin«
VT coincides with the radius BO j but if the pofition
of the veffel is altered till BO takes the fituation bo, it
will then make with VT an angle O ^ T, which w e
fliall fuppofe 1", and which may be fuppofed equal to
the angle O b T, as BT may be confidered as parallel
to b T. The angle XVT will now become X'V'T,
and will vary by a quantity equal to O £ T. Then by
taking NN', and n n' equal to B />, the points N' and
ji' will be determined, which in the new pofition of the
veffel become the points in which the fuperior furface of
the fluid meet the arch ABC.
Now, calling the angle BT b—<p, we have (Euclid,
book i. prop. [32.) BO and
R (p
bT b 0=:R : r, and confequently andfub-
ftituting inftead of 1" and <p arcs of the fame value,
having unity for radius, the produft R <p will be equal
to the arc E c, for which we may take B £ or jvz ; and
5 F fines
LEV
Level.
LEV . [ 778
{nice (fee Tables de Berlin, tom. iii. p. 270.) 1"=:
0.000004848137, we {hall have
  rtl   BO
~o.000004848137+^ — 0.000004848137’
will be very imall compared with ET, and therefore
the angle E'L' e may be neglefted in relation to the
angle O e T.
Let us fuppofe for the fake of example that B £ or
its equals N N', n n', is one-tenth of an inch or
0.0083333 of a foot, thus we {hall have the length of
the radius BO, or r:
0-oo8333333
— 1736 feet
Plate
CCXCIV.
On the ConJlrucUon of Levels,,
Level.
O.OOOOO4848137
nearly ; thus a derangement of the veflel ABC which
makes the radius BO, or the line XZ, vary a minute of
a degree, will make eacli of the points N, n defcribe a
fpace of 60 tenths or 6 inches, along the arc ABC,
that is, the fame fpace which the extremity of a plumb
line 1736 feet long, would defcribe when it moved
through one minute of a degree. Hence we are able
to render extremely fenfible the fmalleft changes of po¬
rtion in the line XZ. The veffel ABC is nothing
more than a fpirit level, the line XZ reprefenting the
axis of the telefcope which is attached to that inftru-
P'ate ment, as {hewn in fig. 13. where cc is the level, and
CCXCII. CA the telefcope. The glafs veffel, which is ground
in the infide fo as to be a portion of a circle of confi-
derable radius, is almoft entirely hid by the cylinder of
brafs which contains it, excepting a (mail part which
appears in the centre of the cylinder j and the inftru-
mcnt muff be fo adjufted that when the bubble of air is
in the middle of the glafs tube, the axis of the telefcope,
the line XZ, is truly horizontal.
From thefe remarks, it would feemthat a fpirit level
will meafure fmall angles with the fame accuracy as a
feftor whofe radius is equal to BO, fig. 3. the radius of
the curvature of the glafs tube or of a plumb line of the
fame length } but there are fome caufes which diminilh
its accuracy. When the bubble of air has been
brought to the centre of the glafs tube, and when the
tube, after being deranged, is brought to the very fame
pofition, we cannot be fure that the bubble of air will
return to the very centre of the tube. This irregula¬
rity is produced by the fridtion of the included fluid
againft the fides of the tube, and depends on the magni¬
tude of the bubble and the quantity of fluid. In a good
level, where the bubble moves about five lines for a mi¬
nute of inclination, this uncertainty does not exceed half
a line, which maybe afcertained by pointing the telefcope
to any objeft. The coincidence of a plumb line with a
particular mark will, on account of the infenfible ofcil-
lation of the thread, leave an uncertainty of about
of a line, that is, about double the uncertainty which
is left by the index of a feftor, which may be eftimat-
ed at about loodth of a line. But the radius of a tube,
whofe bubble moves five lines for a minute of inclina¬
tion, will be found by a preceding formula to be about
358 feet ; and therefore to know the length of a plumb
jine which will give the fame precifion, we have -I: TSo
= 338 : 14.32 feet, the length required.
Levels are commonly made of glafs tubes in the date
they are obtained at the glafs-houfe. Gf thefe the
flraighteft and mofl: regular are felefted and examined,
by filling them nearly with fpirit of wine, and afcer-
taining by trial that fide at which the bubble moves
mofl: regularly, by equal inclinations of the inftrument
upon a rtage, called the bubble trier, which is provided
with a micrometer fcrew, for that purpofe. The moft
regular fide is chofen for the upper part of the inftru¬
ment, the others being of little confequence to its per-
fe&ion. Spirit of wine is ufed, becaufe it does not
freeze, and is more fluid than water. Ether is better,
becaufe ftill more fluid (a). The tube and the bubble
muft be of confiderable length. The longer the bubble,
the more fenfible it is to the fmalleft inclination. A
very fmall bubble is fcarcely fenfible, appears as if at¬
tached to the glafs, and moves but {lowly.
In the ufe of a level of this kind, conftrudted by
Sieur Langlois, it was remarked, that when it was pro¬
perly fet, in the cool of the morning, it was no longer
fo in the middle of the day, when the weather became
hot j and that when it was again reftified for the mid¬
dle of the day it became falfe in the evening, after the
heat had diminilhed. The bubble was much longer in
cold than in hot weather, and when longer it was too
much fo, and could not be kept in the middle of the
tube, but flood a little on the one or the other fide,
though the inclination was precifely the fame. Thefe
defeats v'ere fmall, and fuch as claim the notice of
careful obferyers only j but they appeared of too much
confequence not to produce a wilh to remedy them.
It was obferved, that they arofe from irregularities in
the interior furface of the tube j and by examining a
great number of tubes, fele&ed for levels of the fame
kind, there was reafon to conclude that all thefe levels
would have more or lefs of the fame defefts, becaufe
there was not one tube of a regular figure within. They
were at beft no otherwife cylindrical than plates of glais
from the glafs-houfe can be Laid to be plane before they
are ground. The irregularities were eafily difcerniblei
It was therefore concluded, that it would be advife-
able to grind the inner furfaces of the tubes, and give
them a regular cylindrical or rather fpindle form, of
which the two oppofite fides fhould correfpond with
portions of circles of very long radius. To acoomplilh
this, a rod of iron was taken, of twice the length of
the glafs tube, and on the middle of this rod was fixed
a ft out tube of copper (cuivre) of the fame length as-
the tube' of glafs, and nearly equal in diameter to the
bore. The rod was fixed between the centres of a
lathe, and the glafs gently rubbed on the copper cylin¬
der, with fine emery and water, caufing it to move
through its whole length. The glafs was held by the
middle, in order that it might be equally ground, and
was from time to time fhifted on its axis, as was alfo the
copper cylinder, in order that the wear might be every¬
where alike. The operation had fcarcely commenced,
before
(a) If the ether be not well rectified, it is fubjeft to two great inconveniences in this ufe. If the tube be very,
{lightly agitated, the ether divides itfelf intofeveral bubbles, which employ a confiderable time before they unit^.
In the fecond place, as this ether is decompofed in the courfe of time, it depofits very fmall drops of oil, which
adhere to the tube, flop the motion of the bubble, and render the level very faulty, The ether is befides. mo*£
fluid when rectified and freed from a faponaceous matter which caufes its bad effects,.
LEV
[ 779 1
LEV
Level, before the tube broke ; and feveral others experienced
the fame misfortune, though they had been well an-
nealed. It was fuppofed that the emery which became
fixed in the copper might contribute to fplit the glafs,
each grain continuing its impreffism with the fame point,
in the fame right line, which in feme instances might
be as well difpofed to cut the glafs as diamond. A cy¬
linder of glafs was fubftxtutecl initead of the copper,
and the emery rolling itfelf on the furface of the laft,
Boftead of fixing itfelf, had better fuccefsj fo that every
part of the circumference of the tube and the cylinder
touched each other through their whole length. The
fame operation was continued, ufing finer and finer
emery to fmooth the tube, and prepare it for polishing j
after which the tube and cylinder having been well
waShed, thin paper was pafted round the cylinder, and
the paper was very equally covered with a fmall quan¬
tity of Venice tripoli. The tube was then replaced
and rubbed as before, till it had acquired a polish.
A level thus ground, may be either of the proper
fenfibility, or be too much or too little fenfible. It
will be too Sluggish, if before grinding, exclufive of the
irregularities of the tube, its diame ter Should much ex¬
ceed in the middle of the length the diameter of the
extremities \ or it will be too fenfible if this diameter
fhould not fufhciently exceed the other j or, laftly, if
the middle diameter be fmaller than that of the ex¬
tremes, the bubble will be incapable of continuing in
the middle, but will, in every cafe, either run to_one
or the other end, or be divided into two parts.
To corre6t thefe defers, and to give the inftrument
the required degree of perfedlion, it is proper to examine
its figure before the grinding is entirely finished. For
this purpofe, after cleaning it well, a fufheient quantity
of fpirit of wine mull be put into it j and fecu-
red by a cork at each end. The tube muft then be
placed on the forks or Y’s of a bubble trier, and its
fenfibility, or the magnitude and regularity of the fpace
run over by the bubble by equal changes of the micro¬
meter ferew, muft be afeertained. If the, run or fpaces
pafted over be too great, they may be rendered Smaller
by grinding the tube on a Shorter cylinder j but if they
be too Short, they may, on the contrary, be enlarged,
by grinding on a longer cylinder. It is neceilary,
therefore, to be provided with a number of thefe cylin-
dersof the fame diameter, but of diiTerent lengths, which
it is advifeable to bring to a firft figure, by grinding
them in a hollow half cylipder of brafs. By means of
thefe it will be eafy to regulate the tube of the level
to any^required degree of fenfibility, after which the
tube may be very quickly fmoothed and polished.
The level which was thus ground is one foot in
length •, and the cylinder on which it was firft worked
is of the fame length. When it was finished it wras
found to be too fenfible. It was therefore worked on
another cylinder of between nine and ten inches long,
which diminished its fenfibility fo far, that the bubble,
which is nine inches and four lines long, at the tempe¬
rature of 16° of Reaumur above freezing, is carried
from the middle of the tube exactly one line for every
fecond of a degree of inclination. This degree of fen-
iibility was thought fufficient ; but any greater degree
which may be required may be obtained by the procefs
here deferibed.
It may be remarked that a glafs tube is very fubjefl
jje fplit by grinding itsdnner furface j the fame tube
will not be endangered by grinding its external furface Level,
even with coarfe emery; and when once the polifh.of
the infide is ground off, the danger is over, and coarfer ”
emery may be ufed without fear. Thick glafs is more
fubjecl to this misfortune than thinner. The coarfeft
emery made ufe of in grinding the tube here fpoken of
W'as fufficiently fine to employ one minute in defeend-
ing through the height of three inches in water-
LEVELLING may be defined, the art which in-
ftrudls us in finding how much higher or lower any gi¬
ven point on the furfaee of the earth is than another ;
or, in other words, the difference in their diftancefrom
the centre of the earth.
The prattice of levelling therefore confifts, i. In
finding and marking two or more points that (hall be
in the circumference of a circle whofe centre is that of
the earth. 2. In comparing the points thus found
with other points, to afeertain the difference in their
diftances from the earth’s centre.
With regard to the theory of levelling, we muft ob-
ferve that a plumb line, hanging freely in the air,
points directly towards the centre of the earth ; and a
line drawn at right angles, crofling the direftion of
the plumb line, and touching the earth’s furface, is a
true level only in that particular fpot ; but if this line
which croffes the plumb be continued for any eonfi-
derable length, it will rife above the earth’s furface,
and the apparent level wdll be above the true one, be-
caufe the earth is globular ; and this rifing will be as
the fquare of the diltance to which the faid right line
is produced ; that is to fay, however much it is raifed
above the earth’s furface at one mile’s diftance, it will
rife four times as much at the diftance of two miles,
nine times at the diftance of three, &c. This is owing
to the globular figure of the earth ; and this rifing is
the difference betwixt the true and apparent levels;
the real curve of the earth being the true level, and
the tangent to it the apparent level. Hence it ap¬
pears, that the lefs diftance we take betwixt any twro
ftations, the truer will be our operations in levelling;
and fo foon does the difference betwixt the true and
apparent levels become perceptible, that it is neceffary
to make an allowance for it if the diftance betwixt
the two ftations exceeds two chains in length.
Let BD, fig. 4. be a fmall portion of the earth whofe Difference
centre is A, then (Hydrodynamics, art. 36.) all thcbelween
points of this arch will be on a level. But a horizontal
line EC meeting the vertical line AD in C, will be the tIlle
apparent-level at the point B; and therefore DC is the Plate
difference between the apparent and true level at the CCXtiV.
point B. The diftance CD, therefore, nmft always be
deducted from the obferved height^, before w e can have
the true differences of level, or the difference between
the diftances of two points from the furface of the
earth, or from the centre of curvature A.
In order to find art expreflion of DC, we have (Eu¬
clid, book i. prop. 47.) AC2zr AiV-j-CB1, and call¬
ing AB—R, RC—*«, and CD~ v, and confidering
that AC^rR+^j we have the equation R*-j-2Rir-j-x*
rr;«*-f-R*- But as the value of the arc DB is always
fufficiently fmall, that CD may be regarded as fuffi¬
ciently fmall whe/i compared with AD or AB, we
may fafely confider x1 as nothing in the preceding
ffp ^
which in that cafe becomes x——. The
2R
5 F 2
equation,
mean
LEV. [7
mean value of R may be confidered as 19630764 feet,
and therefore the value of x may be deduced from the
. tn* m*
equation xrr 7 7- = 7 b> m being ex-
1 2X19630764^ 39261528
preffed in feet. Hence it is obvious, that the deprefs
cf the true level is as the fquare of the diftance •, and
if this diftance be 6000 feet, we lhall have ^=0.91698
of a foot =11 inches.
8o ] LEV
The preceding formula fuppofes the vifual ray CE to Lcvcll
be a ftraight line; whereas, on account of the unequal -V
denfities of the air at different diftances from the earth,
the rays of light are incurvated by refra&ion. This ef-
feft has been confidered in the fallowing table, which
contains the difference between the apparent and true
level, both when the refradtion of the atmoiphere is
omitted, and taken into account.
Table Jheiving the Difference between the True and Apparent Levels, whether taking the Terrejlnal Refraction
into account or not, and marking the Errors that arife when this Refraction is omitted.
Diftance
in feet
300
36°
420
480
540
600
720
840
900
960
1080
1200
1320
1440
1500
1560
1680
1800
1920
2040
2100
2160
2280
2400
2520
2640
2700
2760
2880
3000
3120
324°
33co
2360
348°
3600
3900
4200
4I>00
4800
5IO°
5400
5700
6000
Elevation of the apparent
level above the true level ex-
preffed in feet.
No allowance
made for ter-
reftrial refac¬
tion.
Allowance
made for ter-
reftrial refrac¬
tion.
Difference be¬
tween the
two elevations.
O.OO23
O.OO35
O.OO46
O.OO58
O.OO75
O.OO92
O.OI33
O.OI79
0.0208
O.0237
0.0295
O.O370
O.O44 >
O.O527
O.O579
O.0625
O.0723
O.0827
O.O937
O.IO59
0.1128
0.1180
o*I325
0.1470
0.1620
0.1777
0.1875
0.1944
0.2112
0.2292
0.2483
0.2674
0.2772
0.2876
0.3084
0.3299
0.3871
0.4490
0.5156
0.5868
0.6620
0.7425
0.7947
0.9167
0.0020
0.0030
0.0040
0.0050
0.0064
0.0081
O.OI 14
0.0154
0.0178
0.0205
0.0253
0.0317
0.0482
0.0451
0.0496
0.0536
0.0620
0.0709
0.0803
0.0908
0.0967
0.I0I2
O.II36
O.I260
O.I4O3
0.1523
O.1607
O.1667
O.lSlO
O.I964
0.2128
O.2306
O.2376
O.2465
O.2644
O.2827
O.3318
O.3849
O.4420
O.503O
0.5675
O.6364
O.6726
O.7857
O.OOO3
O.OOO5
0.0006
O.OOOB
O.OOI I
0.0011
0.0019
0.0025
0.0030
0.0032
0.0042
0.0053
0.0063
0.0076
0.0083
0.0089
0.0103
0.0118
0.0134
0.0151
0.0161
o.oi63
0.0189
0.0210
0.0217
0.0254
0.0268
0.0277
0.0302
0.0328
0.0355
0.0367
0.0396
0.0411
0.0440
0.0472
0.0553
0.0641
0.0736
0.0838
0.0945
0.1061
0.1121
0.1310
Diftance
in feet.
6300
6600
6900
7200
7500
7800
8400
9000
9600
10200
I0800
II4OO
12000
12600
I32OO
13800
I44OO
I5OOO
15600
16200
l6800
I74OO
l80C0
l8600
I92OO
19800
204OO
21000
21600
22200
22800
234OO
24OOO
2460O
25200
25-800
264OO
27000
27600
28200
28800
294CO
3OOOO
360OO
Elevation of the apparent
level above the true level ex-
preffed in feet.
No altowanc".
made for ter-
reftrial refrac¬
tion.
I.OOOO
1.1088
I.214I
I.32OO
M323
1-5492
1-7963
2.0625
2.3466
2.6487
2.9699
3.3090
3.6667
4.0422
4- 4363
4.8489
5.2800
5- 7 292
6.1967
6.6823
7.1865
7.7089
8.2500
8.8090
9.3866
9.9826
10.6105
11.2292
11.8796
12.5491
13.2367
I3-9421
14.6667
15.4091
16.1701
16.9490
17.7465
18.5625
19.3964
20.2494
21.1198
22.0092
22.9167
33-O00°
-xlhiwance
nude for ter-
reftrial refrac¬
tion.
Difference be¬
tween the
twoelevations
O.8571
O.9504
I.O407
1.1314
1.2277
1.3279
1- 5397
1.7678
2.0257
2.2989
2- 5456
29363
3- i43i
3.4648
3.8029
4.1562
4.5258
4.9107
5- 31 *5
5.7277
6- 1597
6.6076
7- °714
7- 5506
8.0456
8- 5565
9.0947
9.6250
10.1825
10.7 564
n-3457
11.9504
12.5714
13.2078
13.8601
14.5278
15-2113
16.9107
16.6255
17.4566
18.1027
18.8651
19.6431
28.2857
0.1429
0.1584
o-i734
0.1886
0.2046
0.2213
0.2566
c.2947
o‘.3209
0.3498
0.4243
0.4727
c. 5236
0-5774
0.6334
0.6927
0.7542
0.8185
0.8852
0.9546
1.0266
1.1013
1.1786
1.2C84
1- 341°
1.4261
1.5158
1.6042
1.6971
1.7927
1.8910
1.9917
2.0953
2.2013
2.3100
2.4212
2- 5352
2.6518
2.7709
2.8928
3.0171
3,I44I
3 2736
4-7-43
LAV [78
'Levelling. The following is a Ample rule for determining the
depreffion of the true level in the pra&ice of level-
- ling-
“ Multiply the number of Gunter’s decimal ftatute
chains that are contained in length between any two
ifations where the levels are to be taken by itfelf, and
the product ariling therefrom again by 124, which is a
common multiplier for all manner of diftlmces for this
pur.pofe on account of the earth’s curvature : then di¬
vide the fecond produft arifing therefrom by 100,000 j
or, which is alfo the fame, with the dalh of the pen cut
off five figures on the right hand fide of the produdf,
and what remains on the left fide is inches, and the
five figures cut off decimal parts of an inch.”
The following is A Table of Curvature of the Earth,
and (how's the quantity below the apparent level at
the end of every number of chains to 100.
0.00 x 25
0.005
0.01125
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08
O.IO
0.12
O.15
0.l8
0.21
J4
15
16
17
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
0.24
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.67
0.72
0.78
0.84
o
=r
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
0.91
0.98
1.05
1.12
1.19
I.27
X.44
I*53
1.62
I-7I
1.80
1.91
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
2.09
2.28
3.12
3- 78
4- 50
5-31
6.12
7-03
8.00
9*°3
10.12
11.28
12.50
Levelling is either Ample or compound. The for¬
mer is when the level points are determined from one
ftation, whether the level be fixed at one of the points
or between them. Compound levelling is nothing more
than a repetition of many Ample operations.
An example of Ample levelling is given Plate
CCXCV. fig. 1. where AB are the ftation points of
the level j CD the two points afcertained. Let the
height
Feet. Inches,
From A to C be - 6 00
From B to D be - 9 00
The difference - 300
fiiows that B is three feet lower than A.
If the ftation-points of the level are above the line
of fight, as in fig. 2. and the diftance from A to C be
fix feet, and from B to D nine feet the difference will
ftill be three feet which B is higher than A.
As an example of compound levelling, fuppofe it
were required to know the difference of height be¬
tween the point A on the river Zome, and N on the
river Belann, fig. 3. (As our author could find no fatis-
faftory examples in any Englifti author, he copied this
and the following ones from M. le Febure). In this
4
1 ] LEV
operation ftakes fhould be driven down at A and N, Levelling,
exactly level with the furface of the water ^ and thefe v-“-’v—
ftakes (hould be fo fixed, that they may not be chan¬
ged until the whole operation be finifned : a plan of the
ground between the two rivers fliould then be made,
by which it will be difcovered, that the fliorteft way
between the rivers is by the dotted line AC, CH,
HN; from whence alfo the number of ftations necef-
fary to be taken will be determined. The operator
will alfo be able to diftribute them properly according
to the nature and fituation of the ground. In the fi¬
gure, 12 ftations are marked. Stakes ought to be
driven in at the limits of each ftation, as A, B, C, D,
&c. They ought to be about two or three inches a-
bove the ground, and driven 18 inches into it. Stakes
{hould alfo be driven in at each ftation of the inftru-
ment, as 1,2, 3, 4, &c.
The operation may be begun in the follow'ing man¬
ner. Let the firft ftation be at I, equally diftant from
the two points A and B, which themfelves are diftant
166 yards. Write down then in one column the firft:
limit A} in another, the number of feet, inches, and
tenths j with the points of fight indicated on the fta-
tion-ftaff at A, viz. 7. 6. o. In the third column, the
fecond limit B} in the fourth, the height indicated at
the ftation-ftaff B, viz. 6. 0. O. Laftly, in the fifth
column, the diftance from one'ftation-ftaff to the other;
which in this cafe is 166 yards. Remove now the le¬
vel to the point marked 2, which is in the middle be¬
tween B and C, the two places where the ftation-
ftaves are to be held ; obfervirig that B which was the
fecond limit in the former operation, is the firft in this.
Then write down the obferVed heights as before ; in
the firft column B ; in the fecond 4. 6. o.; in the third,
C ; in the fourth 5. 6. 2.; in the fifth 560, the diftance
between B and C.
It being impoflible, on account of the inequality of
the ground at the third ftation, to place the inftrument
in the middle between the two ftatien-ftaves, find the
moft convenient point as at 3 ; then meafure exactly
how far this is from each ftation-ftaft; and you will find
that from 3 to C is 160 yards ; from 3 to D 80 yards;
and the remainder of the operation will be as jn the
preceding ftation.
In the fourth operation, we muft endeavour to com-
penfate for any error which might have happened in
the laft. Mark out, therefore, 80 yards from the fta¬
tion-ftaff D to the point 4; and 160 yards from 4 to
E ; and this muft be carefully attended In, as by fuch
compenfations the work may be much facilitated. Pro¬
ceed in the fame manner with the eight remaining fta¬
tions, obferving to enter every thing in its proper co¬
lumn : and when the whole is finiihed, add tbefumsof
each column together, and then fubtra&the leffer from
the greater ; the difference, which in the prefent cafe
is 5.4. 8. (hows the ground at N to be thus much
lower than the ground at A.
To obtain a fe£Uon of this level, draw the dotted
line 00, fig. 4. either above or below the plan ; which
may be taken for the level‘or horizontal line. Let fall
then perpendiculars upon this line from all the ftation-
points and places where the ftation-ftaves were fixed.
Beginning now at A, fet off 7 feet 6 inches upon the
line from A to a : for the height of the level-point de¬
termined on the ftaff at this place, draw a line through
LEV f 7
• a parallel to the dotted line 00, which will cut the third
perpendicular at b, the fecond ftation-ftaff. Set off froru
this point downwards fix feet to B, which (hows the fe¬
cond limit of the firft operation; and that the ground
at B is one foot fix inches higher than at A : place
your inftrument between thele two lines at the height
of the level line, and trace the ground according to its
different heights. Now fet off, on the fecond ffation-
-Itaff B, four feet fix inches to C, the height deter¬
mined by the level at the fecond ftation : and from C
draw a line parallel to 0 0, which will cut the fifth per¬
pendicular at </, the third flation-fiaff From this point
fet off 5 feet 6 inches downwards to C, which will
be our fecond limit with refpeft to the preceding one,
and the third with refpedt to the firft. Then draw
your inftrument in the middle between B and C,
and delineate the ground with its inequalities. Pro¬
ceed in the fame manner from ftation to ftation, till
you arrive at the laft N, an$ you will have the profile
of the ground over w'hich the level was taken.
This method anfwers very well where only a gene¬
ral profile of the different ftations is required ; but
where it is neceffary to have an exadl detail of the
ground between the limits, we muft then go to work
more particularly. Suppofe, therefore, the level to
have been taken from A to N by another route, but
on more uniform ground, in order to form a canal
marked O, P, £), R, S, T, U,'X, Y. Draw at plea-
fure a line Z, Y, fig. 5. to reprefent the level, and re¬
gulate the reft ; then let fall on this line perpendicu¬
lars to reprefent the ftaves at the limits of each ftation,
taking care that they be fixed accurately at their re-
fpedfive diftances from each other. The difference be¬
tween the extreme limits, in this cafe, ought to be the
fame as in the former, viz. 5 feet 4 inches T^-. Set off
this meafure upon the perpendicular 0 the firft limit; and
from 0, prolonging the perpendicular, mark off at a the
height determined at the firft ftation-ftaff; then do the
fame with the fecond and third, and fo on with the
following, till this part of the w'ork is finifhed ; there
remains then only to delineate in detail the ground
between the ftation-ftaves, the diftances in this example
being affumed larger on account of the detail.
To obtain the fe&ion of the ground between O and
P, place your inftrument at one of the limits, as'P,
fixing it fo that the crofs hairs may anfwer to the point
C ; then look towards the firft limit 0, raifing or de-
nreffing the vane till it coincides with the interfeftion
of the erpfs hairs; and the line of fight from one point
fo the other will mark the level or horizontal line.
To fet off the height of the brink of the river above
the firft limit, drive a ftake down clofe to the ground
at a ; and place your ftation-ftaff upon it, obferving
where the hairs interfecl the vane, which will be at 4
feet 10 inches ; then laying off upon the line 0 % the
riiftance from the firft to the laft ftake, let fall from
thence a perpendicular, and fet off thereon 4. 10. o. to
a, which gives the height at the firft ftake ; or, which
is the fame, the height from the edge of the river
above the furface of the water, as is evident from the
fedlion. Drive a fecond ftake at 6, in a line between
the limits ; place the ftation-ftaff upon this ftake, and
obferve the height 4. 6. interfered by the crofs hairs,
the inftrument ftill remaining in the fame fituation. Set
pff on the level line the diftance from the firft ftake a
82 ] LEV
to the fecond b: and then let fall a perpendicular, and'I.e
mark upon it 4. 6 to bf which,gives the height of the
ground at this place.
I he fmall hollow c is marked out by driving dow n
a third ftake even with the ground, in the middle of it
at c; but the exadl diftance of the fecond ftake b from
the third c, muft be marked upon the level line : then
let fall a perpendicular from c, and fet off upon it
6. 8. o, pointed out by the crofs hairs on the ftafi^
which determines the depth of the hollow, as appears
from the figure. As the diftances between the itakes
are now very ftrort, they can eafily be marked by the
operator, who can fettle any little inequalities by a
comparifon with thofe already afeertained. Proceed
thus with the other ftations till you arrive at the laft,
and you will always obtain an accurate fetftion of your
w'ork ; by which it is eafy to form a juft eftimation of
the land to be dug away, in order to form the canal,
by adding the depth to be given to it.
big. 6. gives an example of compound levelling,
where the fituation is fo fteep and mountainous, that
the ftaves cannot be placed at equal diftances from the
inftrument, or where it is even impoflible to make a
reciprocal levelling from one ftation to the other.—
Thus fuppofe the point K to be the bottom of a ba-
fon where it is required to make a fountain, the refer-
voir being at A ; fo that, in order to know the height
to which the jet d’eau will rife, it is neceflary to know
how high the point A is above K.
In great heights fueh as this, it will be neceffary to
proceed by Imall defeents, as from AtoD. The inftru¬
ment muft be adjufted with all poflible care ; and it •
will even be proper, in fome part of the work, to ufe
a fmaller inftrument. The following is a table of the
different operations ufed in making this level, it having
been taken from M. le Febure’s praftice.
Feet. In.
A 21 6
C 4
3
5
10
5
5
D
E
F
G
H
55
Feet. I
C o
D o
E 16
F 17
G 5
H 19
K 47
106
Yards.
90
40
350
2 CO
375
300
ICOO
2405
In this cafe only two levellings are made between
A and D, though more would have been nectffary ;
but they are omitted to avoid confufion. In the
fourth ftation the height found was 16 feet 8 inches;
but on account of the great length, it was requifite to
reduce the apparent level to the true one, which is al¬
ways neceffary where the length is confiderable. At
the laft limit we get the height, from N to 0; then
from 0 to I ; from I to K, fig. 7. &c. ; all which add¬
ed together, and then correfted for the curvature,
gives 47 feet 3 inches. Now, by adding each co¬
lumn together, and fubtrafting one from the other,
we have 51 feet 9 inches for the height which the
point A is above the bottom of the bafon, and which
will caufe the jet d’eau to rife about 45 feet. The ge¬
neral feftion of this operation is Ihown at fig. 7. 8.
but
LEVELS
£ng * fy Hf&DJL izars Edin V
LEVELLING
plate ccxcin.
Fy 1
Fitj.3.
Fi# 4.
Erit/.4 bv I'l’Ji-D.Li-s.arrEitin r
LEVELLING
PLATE CCXCJV.
LEVELLING
PL/JTF, CCJCCV.
fig. 4.
■xm,
PR OFILE
Ingra i ed. by WP D-Zizarj- £duibiiry7i
L E V [ 783 j LEV
Levelling, but an e.xaEt profile of the mountain is more difficult,
v" ¥ """ ' as requiring many operations j though fome of thefe
might be obtained by meafuring from the level line
without moving the inftrument.
The laft example given by our author is likewife
from M. le Febure, and includes a length of near five
German miles (25 of ours) in a flraight line, and 9 or
10 (45 or 50 Engliffi) including the turnings and
windings. In this the declivity of the river Haynox
was meafured from Lignebruk to Vrllebourg. The
firft operation was to drive flakes at feveral parts of
the river even with the water’s edge j the firft of which
a little above the mills of Lignebruk ffiowed the upper
water-mark, and another ffiowed the lower water-mark
at the fame mills. Two flakes above and below the
mills of Maxurance, fomewhat more than half way be¬
tween Lignebruk and Villebourg, pointed out the dif¬
ference between high and low water there, and formed
likewife the third and fourth limits of the operation j
while the flakes above and below the mills of Ville¬
bourg pointed out the difference between high and low
water, and likewife formed the laft limits of the opera¬
tion.
Thefe marks were all made at the edge of the wa¬
ter, exaftly even with its furface, and all made at the
different parts of the river nearly at the fame inftant
of time. “ The principal limits of the levelling (fays
Mr Adams) being now determined and fixed, it only
remains to find the level between the limits, according
to the methods already pointed out, ufing every ad¬
vantage that may contribute to the fuccefs of the work,
and at the fame time avoiding all obflacles and diffi¬
culties that may retard ©r injure the operations. The
firft: rule is always to take the* fliortefl poffible way
from one limit to another, though this rule ought not to
be followed if there are confiderable obftacles in the
way, as hills, woods, marfhy ground, or if, by going
afide, any advantage can be obtained.” In the pre-
fent cafe it was found neceffary to deviate very confi-
derably from the general rule, in order to take in fe¬
veral ponds, the furfaces of which might all be taken
for a perfofl level ; and thus levels were frequently
taken acrofs the country for a confiderable way. The
difference of height between the mills of Lignebruk
and Villebourg was at laft found to be about 19 feet,
indicating a defcent of not quite a foot in a mile.
LEVELLING-Staves, inftruments ufed in levelling,
ferving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the
fame time to meafure the heights of thofe marks from
the ground. They ufually confift of two mahogany
Haves ten feet long, in two parts, that Hide upon one
another to about 5TV feet, for the more portable car¬
riage. They are divided into iooq equal parts, and
numbered at every tenth divifion by 10, 20, 30, &c.
to 1000 j and on one fide the feet and inches are alfo
fometimes marked.
• A vane A Aides up and down upon each fet of thefe
Haves, which by brafs fprings will Hand at any part.
Thefe vanes are about 10 inches long and 4 inches
broad ; the breadth is firft divided into three equal
parts, the two extremes painted white, the middle
, fpace divided again into three equal parts, which are
lefs the middle one of them is alfo painted white, and
the two other parts black j and thus they are fuited
tiO all the common diftances. Thefe vanes have each
3
a brafs wire acrofs a fmall fquare hole in the centre, Levelling
which ferves to point out the height correflly, by co- Le|;te
inciding with the horizontal wire of the telefcope of .
the level.
LEVEN, a river of Lenox or Dunbartonffiire in
Scotland. See Lenox.
LEVER, in Mechanics, is a bar of iron or wood,
one part of which being fupported by a prop, all other
parts turn upon that prop as their centre of motion.
This inftrument is of two kinds. Firft, the common
fort, where the weight we defire to raife refts at one
end of it, our ftrength is applied at the other end, and
the prop is between both. When we ftir up the fire
with a poker, we make ufe of this lever ; the poker is
the lever, it refts upon one of the bars of the grate as
a prop, the incumbent fire is the weight to be over¬
come, and the other end held in the hand is the ftrength
or power. In this, as in all the reft, we have only to
increafe the diftance between the ftrength and prop
to give the man that works the inftrument greater
power.
The lever of the fecond kind has the prop at one
end, the ftrength is applied to the other, and the weight
to be raifed refts between them. Thus in raifing the
water-plug in the ftreets, the workman puts his iron
lever through the hole of the plug till he reaches the
ground on the other fide, and, making that his prop,
lifts the plug with his ftrength at the other end of the
lever. In this lever alfo, the greater the diftance of
the prop from the ftrength, the greater is the. work¬
man’s power.
Thefe inftruments, as we fee, affift the ftrength \ but
fometimes a workman is obliged to acl at a difadvan-
tage, in raifing either a piece of timber or a laddear
upon one end. We cannot, with grammatical proprie¬
ty, call this a lever, fince fuch a piece of timber in faiT'
in no way contributes to raife the weight. In this cafe,
the man who is the ftrength or power, is in the middle,
the part of the beam already raifed is the weight, the-
part yet at the ground is the prop on which the beam
turns or refts. Here the man’s ftrength will be dimi-
niffied in proportion to the weight it fuftains. The
weight will be greater the farther it is from the prop,
therefore the man will bear the greater weight the
nearer he is to the prop! See Mechanics.
LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare in
the nrft year of her age.
LEVIGA [TON, in Pharmacy and Chemijlry, the
reducing hard and ponderous bodies to an- impalpa¬
ble powder, by grinding them on a porphyry, or in a
mill.:
LEVITE, in a general fenfe, means all the defeend-
ants of Levi, among whom were the Jewlffi priefts
themfelves, who, being defeended from Aaron, were
likewife of the race of Levi. In a more particular
fenfe, Levite is ufed for an order of officers in that
church, who were employed in performing the manual
fervice of the temple. They were obedient to the
priefts in their miniftration, and brought them wood,
water, and other neceffaries for the facrince.—They
fung and played upon inftruments in the temple and
in other places. They applied themfelves to the ftudy
of the law, and were the ordinary judges of the coun¬
try, but always fubordinate to the priefts.. Their fub-
Alienee was the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle,
throughout.
L E U [ 784 ] LEW
Levite throughout Ifrael: but the priefts were entitled to a
leu lien tent^ tithes, by way of firft fruits to the Lord,
huek Light and forty cities were afligned for the refidence
^ * of the Levites, of which the priefts claimed thirteen,
fix whereof were chofen for cities of refuge. They
were confecrated, before they entered upon their mi-
niftry, by (having their flefti, waftiing their clothes, and
fprinkling with the water of expiation. Impofition of
hands was ufed in confecration, and two bullocks were
offered at the door of the tabernacle. They waited
weekly, and by turns, in the temple, beginning their
attendance on one fabbath and ending the next : Dur¬
ing this time they were maintained out of the offer¬
ings, &c. In the time of Solomon, the number of
Levites, from the age of 20, and capable of ferving,
was 30,000.
LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, fo called from its containing the laws and regu¬
lations relating to the priefts, Levites, and facrifices.
LEVITY, in Fhyfiolcgy, the privation or want of
weight in any body when compared with another that
is heavier than it; in which (enfe it (lands oppofed to
gravity.
LEUK, a town of Switzerland, almoft in the middle
of the Valais 5 remarkable for its natural ftrength, for
the affembly of the dates that often meet there, and
for its baths, whofe water is fo hot that it will boil
egg*-
LEUSDEN, John, a celebrated philologer, born
in 1624. He ftudied the learned languages and ma¬
thematics at Utrecht 5 and then went to Amfterdam,
to converfe with the rabbis, and perfeft himfelf in the
Hebrew tongue. After which he was proftffor of
Hebrew at Utrecht, where he acquired a great repu¬
tation, and died in 1699. Lie wrote many valuable
works ; the principal of which are, 1. Onomajlicum Sa¬
crum, 8vo. 2. Clavis Hebraica et Phi/o/ogica Veteris
Tejlamenti, qto. 3. Novi Tejlamenti Clavis Greeca, cum
Annotcitionibus Philo/ogicis, 8vo.' 4. Compendium Bibli-
cum Veteris Tejlamenti, 8vo. 5. Compendium Grcecum
Novi Tejfamenti; the beft edition of which is that of
London, in 1668, i2mo. 6. Philo/ogus Hebrceus, 410.
7. Phdologus Hebrceo mixius, 410. 8. Philologus He-
brceo-Gracus, 410. 9. Notes on Jonas, Joel, Hofea,
&c. He alfo gave correft editions of feveral learned
works.
LEUTK1RK, a free and imperial towm of Ger¬
many in Suabia, and in Algow, feated on a rivulet
that‘falls into the Illar, in E. Long. 10. 10. N. Lat.
47- 53*
LEU1MERITZ, a town of Bohemia, capital of a
circle of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee, feated on
the river Elbe, in E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 50. 34.
LE.UWENHOEK, Antony, a celebrated Dutch
philofopher, was born at Delft in 1632, and acquired
an extenfive reputation all over Europe, by means of
his diicoveries and experiments in natural hiftory, which
were made by him with the microfcope. He particu¬
larly excelled in making glaffes for microfcopes and
Ipe&acles and he was a member of nioft of the liter¬
ary iocieties of Europe, to which he fent a number of
valuable memoirs. Thofe in the Philofophical Tranf-
aclionsand in the Paris Memoirs, extend through many
volumes j the former were extrafted and publilhed at
1723>
at gi years of Lcuw^*«
hock
Lewes.
Leyden, in 1722. He died in
age.
LEVY, in Lave, fignifies to gather or colledl j as to
levy money, and to levy a fine of lands in the paffing
a fine.
LEWARDEN, a handfome, rich, and ftrong town
of the United Provinces, capital of Oftergow, Wefter-
gow, Sevenw'olden, and Weft Friefland. It was the
ufual place of refidence of the Stadtholder and in
buildings, as well public as private, is very magnifi¬
cent. It has feveral canals running through the ftreets,
which are of great fervice to their trade, efpecially as
they are continued to the fea and to the moft confider-
able towns of the province. E. Long. 5. 42. N. Lat.
53- 12-
LEWDNESS. See Fornication.—Lewdnefs is
punifliable by our law by fine, imprifonment, &c. And
Mich. 15 Car. II. a perfon was indifted for open lewd¬
nefs, in (bowing his naked body in a balcony, and
other mifdemeanors $ and was fined 2000 merks, im-
prifoned for a week, and bound to his good behaviour
for three years. I Sid. 168. In times paft, when any
man granted a leafe of his houfe, it was ufual to infert
an exprefs covenant, that the tenant (hould not enter¬
tain any lewd women, &.c.
LEWENTZ, a town of Upper Hungary, in the
county of Gran, and on the river of the fame name*
where the Turks were defeated in 1644. E. Long. 18,
19. N. Lat. 48. 15.
LEWES, a large well built town of Suffex, in Eng¬
land, feated on an eminence on the banks of the Oufe,
50 miles from London. It is famous for a bloody
battle fought near it, wherein King Henry III. was
defeated and taken prifoner by the barons; and is fo
ancient, that we read the Saxon king Athelftan ap¬
pointed two mint-houfes here, and that in the reign of
Edward the Confeffor it had 127 burgeffes. It is a
borough by prefcription, by the ftyle of conftables
and inhabitants. The conftables are chofen yearly.
It has handfome ftreets and two fuburbs, with fix pa-
ri(h churches. It carries on a great trade j and the
river Oufe runs through it, which brings goods in
boats and barges from a port eight miles off. On this
river are feveral iron-works, where cannon are call for
merchant (hips, befides other ufeful works. A charity-
fchool was opened here in 1711, where 20 boys are
taught, clothed, and maintained, at the expence of a
private gentleman, by whom they were alfo furnilhed
with books and 8 boys more are taught here at the
expence of other gentlemen. Here are horfe-races
almoft every fummer for the king’s plate of 100I.
The roads here are deep and dirty j but then it is the
richeft foil in this part of England. The market here
is on Saturday ; and the fairs May 6. Whitfun-Tuef-
day, and October 2. The timber of this part of the
county is prodigioufly large. The trees are fome-
times drawn to Maidftone and other places on the
Medway, on a fort of carriage called a tug, drawn by
22 oxen a little way, and then left there for other
tugs to carry it on j fo that a tree is fometimes two
or three years drawing to Chatham j becaufe, after
the rain is once fet in, it ftirs no more that year, and
fometimes a whole fummer is not dry enough to make
the roads paffable. It is cheap living here $ and the
town.
L E W [ 78
Lewes, town not being under tbe direttion of a corporation,
Lewis, governed by gentlemen, it is reckoned an excellent
^ retreat for half-pay officers, who cannot fo well confine
themfelves to the rules of a corporation. It fends two
members to parliament.
LEWIS, one of the largeft of the Hebrides, or Weft-
ern ifiands of Scotland, extending about 60 miles in
length from north to foilth, and from 13 to 14 in
breadth, confiding of a great number of ifles and rocks,
and parted by the fea into two divifions, called Lewis
and Harries, the former lying to the weftward of the
other. Lewis belongs to the ffiire of Rofs j is divided
by feveral channels, ditlinguilhed by feveral names,
and portioned out among different proprietors j but
the Lewis, ftriftly fo called, ftretches about 36 miles
in length, from the north point of Bowling-head to
the fouthern extremity of Huffinefs in Harriet, The
air is temperately cold, moift, and healthy 5 great part
of the low ground is flooded with lakes j the reft is
arable in many places, and has been counted fruitful in
oats, barley, rye, flax, and hemp. The foil in thefe
parts is a light fand, which the inhabitants manure
with foot and fea-ware: but great part of the ifland
is covered with heath. The labouring people dig the
land with fpades, and break the clods with fmall har¬
rows, the foremoft teeth of which are made of wood,
and the remainder of rough heath, which fmooths what
the others have broken and this harrow is drawn by
one man, having a ftrong trace of horfe-hair acrofs his
breaft. Of their corn they not only make malt for
ale, but likewife a ftrong fpirit called trejiareg, which
is the whilky, or ufquebaugh, three times diftilled,
Lewis abounds with convenient bays and harbours,
in which are caught, in great plenty, cod, ling, and
herring : here are likewife whales of different fizes,
which the natives drive into the bays, and kill with
harpoons. Thefe bays afford great plenty of ffiell-fiffi,
fuch as clams, oyfters, cockles, muffels, limpets, welks,
and fuch a prodigious quantity of fpout-fiffi is fome-
times call up from the fand off Lochtu.a, that they in-
feed the air, and render it unhealthy to the neighbour-
« ing inhabitants, who are not able to confume them,
either by eating, or ufing them as manure for the
ground. Some of thefe lochs and bays like wife'pro¬
duce fmall coral and coralline. The frelh-water lakes
are well ftored with trout and eels, and the rivers yield
plenty of falmon. Along the coaft are found a great
number of caves, which ferve as Ihelter for the feals
and otters, which are alfo eaten as dainties by the in¬
habitants , and vaft numbers of fea-fowl build upon the
rocks and promontories.
The land animals reared in this ifiand, are cows,
horfes, {beep, goats, hogs, and deer ; all thefe are of
a diminutive fize. The beef, mutton, and pork, are
luicy and delicious j the horfes are aftive and hardy j
the deer, which are of the red kind, confine themfelves
to the chafe of Ofervaul, about 15 miles in compafs,
Which affords tolerable pafturage 5 but in the winter,
when the ground is covered with froft and fnow, thefe
animals are forced to feed on fea-ware, and endure all
the rigour of the feafon, without any (belter from
wood or copfe, for there is not a tree to be feen ; ne-
verthelefs, the roots of very large trees, which have
Ixsen cut by the axe, are found in different places.
Vol. XL Part II.
Sl LEW
There is likewife a fmall grove of birch and hazel on
the fouth-weft fide of Loch Stornaway. "
The inhabitants of Lewis are well-proportioned, tall,
fair, fanguine, ftrong, and healthy. They are in ge¬
neral fober, circumfpeft, and hofpitable j dexterous in
(hooting, fwimming, and leaping 5 bold and fkilful ma¬
riners •, and fo temperate, that they will tug at the oar
all day, without any other proviflon than bread and
water, with a fnuffi of tobacco.
Along this coaft: we fee feveral natural mounts, or
forts, called Duns ; fuch as Hun-rowly, Dun-coradel,
and Dun-eiften. There are alfo the remains of fome
old caftles, and other monuments of antiquity. At
Stornaway village we fee the ruins of a fortrefs deftroy-
ed by the Engliffi garrifon fent thither by Oliver Crcm-*
well. To the northward of Brago there is a round
tower built of large (tones, three (lories high, taper¬
ing towards the top, with a double wall, and a cir¬
cular ftaircafe between, by which one may go quite
round the building. On the heaths and fummits of
hills there are feveral cairns or heaps of (tones, which
ferved either for graves or beacons. In the pariffi of
Barvas we fee a Angle (tone called the thrujhel, (land¬
ing upright, above 20 feet high, and almoft as much
in breadth. Three (tones, about 12 feet high each,
are feen (landing on the north fide of Loch Carlvay j
and many others (landing (Ingle at great diftances,
and in remote parts of the ifland. But the mod re¬
markable monument of this kind appears by the village
of Claffernifs. Here we find 39 pyramidal ilones (land¬
ing upright, about fix or feven feet high from the fur-
face, each about two feet in breadth. They are pla¬
ced in form of an avenue, eight feet wide j the di-
ftance between every (lone amounting to fix feet, and
a (ingle piece (lands at the entrance. This avenue
leads to a circle of 12 (tones of the fame dimenfions,
with one in the centre 13 feet in length, and fiiaped
like a rudder : on the eaft, fouth, and weft Tides of
this circle, are four (tones, fuch as thofe that ‘cornpofe
this round and avenue, forming three lines, or as it
were rays from the body of the circle. This is fup-
pofed to have been a Druid temple ; and tradition re¬
ports, that the chief Druid flood by the large (lone in
the centre, and harangued the audience. At the dif-
tance of a quarter of a mile there is another circle of
the fame nature ; but without the range and avenue.
In all probability, thefe, as well as the monuments we
l^ave deferibed in our account of the Orkneys, and
Stonehenge on Salilbury plain, were places of worffiip
erefted by the Druids in time of Pagan fuperftition.
The chief town in Lewis is Stornaway.
There is a confiderable number of inferior adjacent
ifles and rocks, fome of which hardly deferve to be
mentioned : fuch as the fmall ifland Garve at the
mouth of Loch Garlvay, Berinfay, Fladda, Bernera
Minor and Bernera Major, Kialifay, Cavay, Carvay,
Grenim, Pabay, Shirem, Vexay, Wuya the Larger
and Leffer, and the Flannan ifiands, which the lea-
men denominate the northern hunters. Thefe are vi-
fited every fummer by the inhabitants of the Lewis,
who go thither in queft of fowls, eggs, down, quills,
and feathers, as well as to (hear or kill the (beep that
are kept here for paflure. As thefe iflands are very-
deep and rocky, the vifitors, after haying landed and
- 5 G climbed
1
L E W [ 986 ] LEW
climbed up the rock by a ladder, uncover their heads,
and, making « turn fun-ways, thank God for having
efcaped the danger they have undergone. In the
largeft iiland are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St
Flannan, from whom the ifles derive their name. Thi¬
ther the fowlers repairing, (trip themfelves of their up¬
per garments, which being laid upon a ftone, they ad¬
vance towards the altar, and repeat three prayers j an
exercife which is performed every morning and even¬
ing. They obferve many other fuperftitious cuftoms
during their refidence on thefe rocks j and when they
have landed their boat with their purchafe, return to
the larger iflands. Among the iflands belonging to
the Lewis, we may likeivife take notice of the fmall
iile of Pigmies, fo called, becaufe, it is faid, bones re-
fembling thofe of human creatures, but of very fmall
ditnenfions, have been dug out of the ground.
The ifland of Lewis is divided into the two parithes
of Barvas and Eye, and in each of thefe one minifter
is fettled j but there is a great number of churches
and chapels dedicated to different faints, in the differ¬
ent ifles which compofe this clufter. All thefe were
fandtuaries before the Reformation, but now they are
divefted of that privilege. The people of thefe iflands
are Prefbyterians, with a few Proteftants of the Englifh
communion, and a ftill fmaller number of Roman Ca¬
tholics. The Proteflants obferve the feftivals of Chrift-
mas, Good Friday, Eafler, and Michaelmas •, on the
laft of which the individuals of both fexes perform an
anniverfary cavalcade.
Lewis, or Louis, the name of feveral kings of France.
See France.
Lewis VII. anno 1137, was the firft who had the
courage to oppofe the encroachments of the popes on
the regal authority : Pope Innocent II. excommuni¬
cated him for appointing an archbifhop of Bourges j
but Lewis defended his prerogatives, and put the
jprieffs to death who had been the authors of the quar¬
rel. In 1147, he put himfelf at the head of an army
of 80,000 men, and marched againft the Saracens, in
the fecond crufade, but was defeated 5 and returning
into France by fea, was taken by the Greeks, but re-
fcued by Roger king of Sicily. His queen Eleonora
accompanied him in this expedition $ and being fuf-
pefted of infidelity with Saladin, a young Turk, Lewis
divorced her, and fhe was married fix weeks after to
Henry duke of Normandy, (Henry II. king of Eng¬
land). Lewis died in 1180, aged 60.
Lewis IX. anno 1226 (canonized^, was one of the
greateft monarchs of France, equally memorable for
his valour and his virtues *, but, unfortunately mifled
by the fuperftition of the times, he facrificed his own
repofe, and the welfare of his kingdom, to the folly of
erufading. In 1248, leaving France to the care of
his mother, he embarked for Egypt, attended by his
queen, his three brothers, and the flower of the French
nobility. At firft his vittories were rapid ; he took
Damietta in 1249.; but the following year he was
defeated and taken prifoner by the Turks, with all
the nobility in his train, and the greateft part of his
army. The fultan fent to him in prifon, to denjand
an exorbitant fum for his ranfom j and his anfwer
being truly noble, deferves to be recorded j “ Tell
the fultan, that a king of France is not to be ran-
fomed with money j I will give the fum required for
4
my people, and Damietta for myfelf.” Thefe terms Le
were accepted, and a peace of ten years enfued. Upon
his return to France, he diminiihed the taxes, re¬
voked thofe which the cupidity of the financiers had
introduced ^ iflued feveral falutary edi£ts ; founded fe¬
veral churches and hofpitals *, and effectually overturn¬
ed the ecclefiaftical jurifdiCtion of the court of Rome,
by his pragmatic fanCtion in 1269, which eftabliftied
the independency of the Gallican church. Thirteen
years refidence in his capital indemnified his fubjeCts
for his abfence j but his pious zeal prevented the enjoy¬
ment of this happinefs: he embarked for the fixth cru¬
fade in 1270} and died the fame year, at the fiege of
Tunis, aged 55.
Lewis XL anno 1461. His oppreflions obliged
his fubjefts to enter into a league againft him, flyled,
“ Ligue de bien publiq” in which his brother the duke
of Berri and fome of the principal nobility were con¬
cerned : they folicited fuccours from John duke of Cala¬
bria, who joined them with 500 Swifs (the firft. intro¬
duction of Swifs foldiers into the French armies). His
reign was almoft one continued fcene of civil war; and
it is computed, that 4000 of his fubjeCts were executed
in public and privately, either for being in arms againft
him, or fufpeCted by him. In his laft illnefs, he drank
the warm blood of children, in the vain hope of reftor-
ing his decayed ftrength. He died in 1483, aged 60.
The polls for letters were eftabliftied in his reign, ow¬
ing to his eagernefs for news j the firft inftitution of this
nature in Europe.
Lewis XII. anno 1492, ftyled the Juji, and the Fa*
ther of his people ; memorable for his valour in the field,
and his wifdom in the cabinet. A great general j but
unfortunate towards the end of his reign, when he did
not command his troops in perfon : his orders tranf-
mitted from home were mifunderftood, or wilfully dif¬
obeyed •, and he had the mortification, before he died,
to fee the total expulfion of the French from the pof-
feflionshe had acquired for them by his perfonal bravery..
At 53 years of age, he married the princefs Mary of
England, fifter of Henry VIII. and being of a delicate
conftitution, fell a viftim (according to the French hif-
torians) to amorous dalliance 5 for he died in about two
months after his nuptials, in 1515.
Lewis XIII. anno 1610, increafed the military re¬
putation of his country, and made confiderable addi¬
tions to its domains. The beginning of his reign was
occupied in civil wars with his mother and his Pro-
teftant fubjeCts $ in which he was excited to continue
by his famous minifter Cardinal Richelieu, who attend¬
ed him to the fiege of Rochelle, the bulwark of the
Huguenot party. This place was reduced by famine
to furrender, in 1628, after a fiege of more than a
year. Upon this and other occafions, the king gave
proofs of great perfonal bravery. His attachment to
his ally the duke de Nevers, who fucceeded to the
duchy of Mantua, but was refufed the invelliture by
Charles VI. emperor of Germany, involved him in a
war with that prince, the Spaniards, and the duke of
Savoy j in which Lewis was victorious j and obtained
a treaty of peace, by which the duke of Mantua was
guaranteed in the poffeffion of his dominions. In 1635,
a new war broke out between France and Spain, and
the emperor took part with the latter : it lafted, 13
years againft the emperor, and 25 againft Spain, with
various
LEX [ 787 ] LEY
lewis, various fuccefs j and the different armies kept on foot
k6** in the Low Countries, on the frontiers of France, and
in Italy, in the firft years of this war, paved the way
for the fignal viftories of Louis XIV. the campaigns
of thefe armies being a military fchool of difcipline
and experience for the French officers, befides giving
them a knowledge of the countries which became the
feat of war in the next reign. Lewis XIII. died 1643,
aged 41.
Lewis XIV. /<? Grand (king at five years of age),
anno 1643. He was at firit ftyled Dicu-donne, be-
caufe the French confidered him as the gift of heaven,
granted to their prayers after the queen had been bar¬
ren 22 years. This princefs (Anne of Auftria) was
declared regent by Lewis XIII. and faw herfelf un¬
der a neceffity to continue the war againft Philip IV.
king of Spain, her brother. The duke d’Enghien was
made general of the French armies; and fo fignal was
the fuccels of this renowned warrior (afterwards prince
of Conde, and known by the ftyle of the great Cor.de'),
that his vi£lories brought on the advantageous treaties
of Munfter, in 1648, between France, the emperor
Ferdinand III. and Chriftina queen of Sweden: See
Britain, United PROVINCES, Sic. Lewis XIV. died
in 1715, aged 77.
Lewis XV. (his great-grandfon) fucceededin 1715.
He was ftyled, in the courfe of his reign, the well-be¬
loved, which he loft fome years before he died j and was
detefted and defpifed by his fubje&s for his ftiameful at¬
tachment to a mijlrefi, who, through her patron the duke
d’Aiguillon, governed the kingdom,and invaded the an¬
cient rights and privileges of the people. He died in
1774, in the 64th year of his age and 59th of his reign.
Lewis XVI. the moft unfortunate of his race, and
perhaps the moft enlightened and virtuous of all the
fovereigns of France. He was guillotined 21ft January
1793. For an account of his life and character, fee
the article France.
LEX, Law. See Law.—The Roman laws were
of three Idnds : ift, Such as were made by their kings.
2d, The .laws of the twelve tables brought by the De¬
cemviri ixom Athens, &c. And, 3. Such as were pro-
pofed by the fuperior magiftrates in the times of the
republic. The law's of this laft clafs were enabled in
the following manner.
No law' could be propofed but by fome of the fol¬
lowing magiftrates, viz.. the prcetor, the confuls, the
diBator, the interrex, the decemviri, the military tri¬
bunes, triumviri, and tribunes of the people. If any
of thefe propofed a law, it was firft committed to writ¬
ing, and privately examined as to its utility aud pro¬
bable confequences, by fome perfons well qualified for
the talk ; fometimes it was referred to the whole fe-
nate for their fentiments. It was then hung up pub¬
licly for three market days, that all the people might
have time to examine it, and conlider its tendency :
This was called legis promulgatio, quqfiprovulgatio. If
the perfon who framed the bill did not fee caufe in the
mean time to drop it, the people were convened in co-
mitia, and he addreffed them in an oration, being alfo
feconded by his friends, fetting forth the expediency
and probable utility of fuch a law : This was called
rogatio legis, becaufe the addrefs was always prefaced
with this petitionary form of w'ords, Velitis jubeatifne,
^uirites ? “ Will you, O Romans, confent and order
this law to pafs ?” This being done, thofe that diffiked
the motion delivered their fentiments in oppofition to il
it. An urn was then brought to certain priefts who e-i'ae‘Tt
attended upon the occafion, into which were call the
names of the tribes, centuries, or curice, as the comitia
happened to be tributa, centuriata, or curiata. The
names w ere ffiaken together j and the firft-drawn tribe
or century wras called prcerogativa, becaufe their fuffra-
ges were firft taken. The curia that was firft draw'll
was called principium for the fame reafon. The other
tribes, centuries, &c. were called tribus jure vocatce,
centurece jure vocatjg, &c.
Matters being in this fituation, the veto or negative
voice of the tribunes of the people might put an entire
end to the proceedings, and diffolve the affembly. The
tribune’s interfex-ence was called intercejjio. The con-
ful alfo had it in his power to flop further proceedings,
by commanding any of the holidays called ferice impe¬
rative to be obferved. The comitia would of courfe
be diffolved alfo by any of the perfons prefent being
feized with the falling ficknefs, or upon the appear¬
ance of any unlucky omen. But fuppofing the bufi-
nefs to meet with no interruption of this fort, the
people were each of them prefented with two tablets,
on one of which was written in large characters A.
on the other U. R. Their difapprobation of the bill
was exprefled by throwing into an urn the tablet in-
fcribed A. fignifying “ I forbid it 5” antique, “ I pre¬
fer the old.” Their affent was fignified by throwing
in the tablet marked U. R. i. e. uti rogas, “ be it as
you defire.” According to the majority of thefe tab¬
lets the law paffed or not. If it palled, it was written
upon record, and carried into the treafury $ this was
called legem ferre. Afterwards it was engraved upon
plates of brafs, and hung up in the moft: public and
confpicuous places: this was termed legem figere, and
a future repeal of this law was legem rejigere.
If a law paffed in the comitia curiata, it w as called lex
curiata; if in the comitia centuriata, it had the name of
lex centuriata ; but if it paffed in the comitia tributa, it
was termedplebifcitum. The laws, too, generally bore
the names of the propofers, as lex IE Ha, lex Fujia, &c.
Romulus ufed to make laws by his own fingle autho¬
rity, but fuoceeding kings fought the approbation of
the people.
LEXIARCHI, at Athens, fix officers affifted by
30 inferior ones, whofe bufinefs it was to lay fines upon
fuch as came not to the public affemblies, and alfo to
make ferutiny among fuch as were prefent.
The lexiarchi kept a regifter of the age, manners,
and abilities of all the citizens, who were always en¬
rolled at the age of 20.
LEXICON, the fame with dictionary. The word
is chiefty ufed in fpeaking of Greek dictionaries : it is
derived from the. Greek word, diBion ; of Asyw,
I/peak.
LEXINGTON, a town of North America, and
formerly confidered as the capital of Kentucky. It
Hands on the head-waters of Elkhorn river. Here
the courts are held, and bufinefs regularly conducted.
In 1796 it contained about 2000 inhabitants, and fe-
veral itores, with a good affortment of dry goods. It
mult have increafed fince.
LEYDEN, in Latin Lugdunum Batavorum, one of
the largeft and fineft cities in Holland, abounds with
5 G 2 canals,
Leyden
,fl
Lhuyd.
L H U f 788 ] L H U
ennuis, alopg which are rows of lofty trees that afford
very pleafant walk?. An arm or {mail branch of the
Rhine runs through if. Over the canals are i4f5
brjdges, moff of them of jfone or brick. The univer-
fity here is the oldeft in the United Provinces : it has
large privileges f a library well furniflred, and particu¬
larly rich in matjufcripts •, a phyfic-gardert well flocked
with all forts of plants, many, of which have been
brought from the Cape of Good Hope and the Eafl
Indies; an anatomy-hall, well provided with fkeletons;
and an obfervatory. The profeflors, who are generally
very eminent, read public leflures four times a-week,
for which they take no money, but about three, guineas
are paid for a courfe of private leflures, which lads a
whole year. The {Indents have no diilindf habit, but
all wear fwords, though they generally go to the pub¬
lic and private leftures in their night-gowns and dip¬
pers. The falaries of the profeffors are from looh to
200l. a-year : they wear gowns only when they prefide
at public deputations, read public leflures, or meet in
the fenate; and their leftures are always in Latin.
rJ'he {Indents do not lodge in the univerfity, but where
they pleafe in the town. The cloth manufacture here
is much decayed, which formerly flourilhed to fuch a
degree, that icc,ooo pieces, it is faid, have fometimes
been made in a year. The city is famous for the long
and fevere fiege it maintained in 1573 againft the
Spaniards. We cannot help mentioning the reply of
that iiluftrious rnagiftrate, Adrian do Yerf, when the
citizens reprefented to him the havoc made by the
famine during the fiege, and infilled upon his furrend-
ering: “ Friends (faid he), here is my body, divide it
among you to fatisfy your hunger, but banifh all
thoughts of furrendering to the cruel and perfidious
Spaniards.” They took his advice, in regard to their
not, furrendering, and never would liften to any over¬
tures; but told the Spaniards, they would hold out as
long as they had one arm to eat and another to fight.
There are fome fine churches here, and many long,
■ broad, handfome, ftreets ; but the Papifts, as at Haer-
lem, are more numerous than the Proteftants.
LETDEN Phia\ a phial coated on the infide and out-
fide with tinfoil, or other proper conducing fubftance,
and furnifhed with a brafs wire and knob, for giving
the eleftrical {hock. See Electricity Index.
Luccif Van LETDEN. See Lucas,
LEYSERA, a genus of plants belonging to the fyn-
trenefia plafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Corvpqfiue. See Botany Index.
LEYTE, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft
Indies, fituated in E. Long. 118. o. N. Eat. 11. o.
Its greateft length is about 40 leagues, and its circum¬
ference about 90 or ICO. Its foil on the eaft fide is
very fruitful ; but there are very high mountains which
cut it aim oft through the middle, and occafion fo great
an alteration in the air, that when it is winter^ on the
north fide, it is fummer on the fouthenT part of the
illand. Thus when the inhabitants of one half of the
ifiand reap the others fow ; and they have two plen¬
tiful harvefts in a year, to which the rivers running
down from the above-mentioned mountains contribute
not a little. The ifland contains about 9000 inhabi¬
tants, who pay tribute to the Spaniards in rice, wax,
and quilts.
LHUYD, or Lhoyd, Humphrey, a learned anti¬
quarian of the 16th century, born at Denbigh, .who Lhuyd.
applied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic ; and living moft-
ly within the walls of Denbigh caftle, praflifed there
as a phyfician ; and died in 1570, with the charader
of a well-bred gentleman. He wrote and tranflated
leveral pieces relative .to hiftory and antiquities ; in
particular, The Hiftory of Cambria, now called Wa/es^
from Caradoc of Langcarvan, &c. but died before it
was finifhed : however, Sir Henry Sidney, lord prefi-
dent of Wale-6, employed Dr David Powel to finiih it,
who publiftied it in 1584. A new and improved edi¬
tion of this work was publiftied in 1774.
Lhuyd, Edward, keeper of the rnufeum at Ox¬
ford, was a native of South Wales, the Ion of Charles;
Lhuyd, Elq. of Lhanvorde. He was educated at Je-
fus College, Oxford, where he was created M. A,
July 21. 1701. He was bred under Dr Plot, whorft
he lucceeded as keeper of the Aftimolean mufeum, and
had the ufe of all Vaughan’s cqUeclion. With in-
ceffant labour and great exa&nefs he employed a conii-
derable part of his life in fearching into the Wellh an¬
tiquities ; and perufed or collected a great deal of an¬
cient and valuable matter from their MS.; tranferibe'd *
ail the old charters of the monafteries that he could meet
with ; travelled feveral times over Wales, Cornwall,
Scotland, Ireland, Armoric Bretagne, countries inhabi¬
ted by the fame people ; compared their antiquities, and
made obfervations on the whole ; but died in July 1 709,
before he had digefted them into the form of a difcourle,
as he intended, on the ancient inhabitants of this ifland.
The untimely death of this excellent antiquary prevent¬
ed the completing of many admirable defigns. For want
of proper encouragement, he did very little towards urt-
derftanding the Britffti bards, having feen but one of
thofe of the fixth century, and not being able to pro¬
cure accefs to two of the principal libraries in the coun¬
try. He communicated many obfervations to Bifliop
Gibfon, whofe edition of the Britannia lie revifed ; and
publiftied “ A’rchicoloyia Britannica, giving fome ac¬
count additional to what has been hitherto publiftied
of the languages, hiftorres, and cuftoms, of the original
inhabitants of Great Britain, from coIleUion and ob¬
fervations in travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas
Bretagne, Ireland, and Scotland, vol. i. Gloflography,
Oxford, 1707,” fob He left in MS. a Scottiili or
Irifti-Englifh Didlionary, propofed to be publiftied m
1732 by fubfeription, by Mr David Malcome, a mini-
nifter of the church of Scotland, w ith additions ; as aifo
the Elements of the faid language ; with neceffary and
ufeful informations for propagating mere effe&ually the
Englifh language, and for promoting the knowledge of
the ancient Scottifti or Irifli, and very many branches
of ufeful and curious learning. Lhuyd, at the end of
his preface to the Arehteologia, promifes an hiftorical
dictionary of Britiih perfons and places mentioned in
ancient records. It feems to.have been ready for prefs,
though he could not fet the time of publication. His
collections for a fecond volume, which was to give an
account of the antiquities, monuments, &c. in the
principality of Wales, w ere numerous and well chofen ;
but, on account of' a quarrel between him and Dr
Wynne, then fellow, afterwards principal of the college,
and biftiop of St Afaph, he refufed to buy them, and
they were purchafed by Sir Thomas Seabright, of
Beach wood in Hertfoidftiire, in whofe library the .
greatfcii
I
LIB [ 71
Lliw'rd greateft part rail remain, but fo ind’gefted, and writ-
ten with fo many abbreviations, that nobody can urv-
dertake to publith them. They confift of about 40
volumes in folio, 10 in quarto, and above 100 fmaller,
and all relate to Irifti or Wellh antiquities, and chief¬
ly in thofe languages. Carte made extrafts from them
about or before 1736 t but thefe were chiefly hiftorical.
Sir John Seabright has given Mr Pennant 23 of Lhuyd’s
MSS. Latin and Snglifh. Many of his letters to Lif-
, ter, and other learned contemporaries, were given by
Dr Fothergill to the univerfity of Oxford, and are
now in the Afhmolean mufeum. Lhuyd undertook
more for illuftrating this part of the kingdom than any
one man befides ever did, or than any one man can be
equal to.
LIBANIUS, a famous Greek rhetorician and fo-
phift in the 4th century, was born at Antioch, and
had a great (hare in the friendship of Julian the A-
poftate. That prince offered him the dignity ofprce-
JeEluspretono ; but Libanius refufed it, thinking the
name of fophijl, or profejjor of eloquence^ much more
honour a tie. There are Still extant ieveral of his let¬
ters and Greek orations, by which he acquired great
reputation : but his Style is fomewhat affedted'and ob-
fcure. He was a Pagan. Bafil and Chryfeflom were
his difciples about the year 360. His letters were
published at Amfterdam in 1738 ; his orations at Ve¬
nice, 1755.
LIBANOMANTIA, in antiquity, a Species of di¬
vination performed with frankincenfe ; which, if it pre-
fently caught fire, and Sent forth a grateful odour, was
efleemed a happy omen, and vifcverfa.
LIBANUS, the name of a chain of mountains of
Turkey in Afia, which lie between Proper Syria and
Palefline, extending, from weft to eaft, from the Me¬
diterranean fea as far as Arabia. The Summits of
thefe mountains are fd high, that they are always co¬
vered with fnow 5 but below are very pleafant and
fruitful valleys. They were formerly famous for the
great number of cedar trees growing thereon $ but
now there are very few remaining. Geographers di-
ftinguifh this chain into Libanus and Antilibanus ;
the latter of which lies on the South fide of the valley,
rifing near the ruins of Sidon, and terminates at
others in Arabia, in N. Lat. 34. They are Separated
from each other at an equal diftance throughout, and
form a bafon, or country, called by the ancients Cce/o-
Syria.
LIBATION, amongft the Greeks and Romans, was
an effential part of Solemn facrifices. It was alfo per¬
formed alone, as a drink-offering, by way of procuring
the protection and favour of the gods, in the ordinary
affairs of life. Libations, according to the different
natures of the gods in honour of whom they were
made, confifted of different liquids, but wine was the
moft ufuak The wine offered to the gods was al¬
ways unmixed with water. We meet with libations
of water, libations of honey, libations of milk, and
libations of oil; thefe are called vypxhtct kg*. The li¬
bation was made with a ferious deportment and Solemn
prayer. At facrifices, the libation, after it had been
tailed by the prieft, and handed to the byftanders, was
poured upon the vidlim. At entertainments, a little
wine was generally poured out of the cup, before the
93 LIB
liquor began to circulate, to fhow their gratitude to the Libatibn
gods for the bleftings they enjoyed. N ^
Libations w’ere alio in ufe among the Hebrews, who ■ ‘ ____* ^
poured a kind of wine onthevidlim after it was killed,
and the feveral pieces of the facrifiee were laid on the
altar, ready to be confumed in the flames.
LIBAW, a fea-port town of Courland, lying on the
Baltic fea, confifting entirely of wooden houfes. It
belongs to the duke of Courland, and is fituated in
E. Long. 21. 27. N. Lat. 56. 27.
LIBEL, (/ibellus famofusf taken in its largeft and
moft extenlive fenfe, fignifies any writing, pidture, or
the like, of an immoral or illegal tendency j but, in
a peculiar fenfe, is ufed to denote a malicious defama¬
tion of any perfon, and efpecially a magiilrate, made
public by either printing, writing, figns or pictures,
in order to provoke him to wrath, or expofe him to
public hatred, contempt, and ridicule. The diredl
tendency of thefe libels is the breach of the public
peace, by Stirring up the objedts of them to revenge,
and perhaps to bloodftied. The communication of a
libel to any one perfon is a publication in the eye of
the law : and therefore the lending an abufive private
letter to a man is as much a libel as if it were openly
printed, for it equally tends to a breach of the peace.
With regard to libels in general, there are, as in
many, other cafes, two remedies 5 one by indidhnent,
and another by adtion. The former for the/wMb of¬
fence ; for every libel has a tendency to break the
peace, or provoke others to break it : which offence
is the fame whether the matter contained be true or
falfe 3 and therefore the defendant, on an indidlment
for publifhing a libel, is not alloived to allege the truth
of it by way of juftification. But in the remedy by
adticm on the cafe, which is to repair the party in da¬
mages for the injury done him, the defendent may, as
for words fpoken, juftify the truth of the fadts, and
fhow that the plaintiff has received no injury at alh
What ivas faid with regard to words fpoken, will alfo
hold in every particular with regard to libels by writ¬
ing or printing, and the civil adtions confequent there¬
upon : but as to figns or pidtures, it ft-ems neceffary
always to fhow, by proper inuendos and averments
of the defendant’s meaning, the import and applica¬
tion of the fcandal, and that feme fpecial damage has
followed ; otherwife it cannot appear, that fueh libel
by pidture^was underftood to be levelled at the plain¬
tiff, or that it was attended with' any adlionable confe-
quences.
In a civil adtion, then, a libel rouft appear to be
falfe, as well as fcandalous 5 for, if the charge be
true, the plaintiff has received no private injury, and
has no ground to demand a compenfation for him-
felf, whatever offence it may be againft the public
peace : and therefore, upon a civil adtion, the truth
of the accufation may be pleaded in bar of the fuit.
But, in a criminal profecution, the tendency which
all libels have to create animofities, and to diiturb the
public peace, is the foie confideration of the law.
And therefore, in fuch profecutions, the only points
to be confidered are, firft, the making or publifhing
of the book or writing 3 and, fecondly, whether the
matter be criminal : and, if both thefe points are
againft the defendant, the offence againft the public is
complete, .
LIB [ 790 1 LIB
TJbel complete. The punxfliment of fuch libellers, for either
^ (j)er making, repeating, printing, or publiftxing the libel,
, is a fine, and fuch corporal punifhment as the court in
its difcretion fhall inflift j regarding the quantity of the
offence, and the quality of the offender. By the law
of the twelve tables at Rome, libels, which affe&ed the
reputation of another, were made a capital offence:
but, before the reign of Auguftus, the punifhment be¬
came corporal only. Under the emperor Valentinian
it was again made capital, not only to-write, but to
publifh, or even to omit deflroying them. Our law,
in this and many other refpedts, correfponds rather
with the middle age of Roman jurifprudence' when li¬
berty, learning, and humanity, were in their full vi¬
gour, than with the cruel edids that were eftablifhed
in the dark and tyrannical ages of the ancient decem¬
viri, or the latter emperors.
In this, and other inftances, where blafphemous,
immoral, treafonable, fchifmatical, feditious, or fcan-
daleus libels are punifhed by the Englifh law, fome
with a greater, others with a lefs degree of feverity,
the liberty of the prefs, properly underftood, is by no
means infringed or violated. See LlBERTT of the
Prefs.
LIBELLA, a piece of money amongft the Ro¬
mans, being the tenth part of the denarius, and equal
in value to the as. It was called libella, as being a
little pound, becaufe equal to a pound of brafs.—-Its
value in our money is t ob. I qu. or a halfpenny far¬
thing. See Money.
Libella, or Libellula, a genus of four-winged flies,
called in Englifh dragon-flies or adder-flies. See En¬
tomology Index.
LIBELLI, was the name given to the bills which
were put up amongft the Romans, giving notice of the
time when a fhow of gladiators would be exhibited,
with the number of combatants, and other circumftan-
ces. This was called munus pronunciare or proponere.
—Thefe bills were fometimes termed editta. Thefe
public notices were given by the perfon who defigned
to oblige the people with the fhow, and were frequently
attended with pictures reprefenting the engagement of
fome celebrated gladiators. This cuftom is alluded to
by Horace, lib. ii. fat., vii. 96, &c.
There was alfo the famofus libe/lus, a defamatory li¬
bel. Seneca calls them contumelioji libelliy infamous
rhymes, which by a Roman ordnance were punilhable
with death. Libe/lus alfo in the civil law fignifies the
declaration, or ftate of the profecutor’s charge againfl
the defendant; and it has the like fignification in our
fpiritual courts.
LIBER, in vegetables, the bark or rind, principal¬
ly of trees. This is to be conceived as confiding of a
number of cylindric and concentric furfaces whofe tex¬
ture is reticular, and in fome trees plainly extrufible
every way, by reafon that the fibres are foft and flexi¬
ble. While in this condition, they are either hollow
regular canals, or, if not fo, they have interflitial fpaces
which ferve the office of canals. The nutritious juice
which they are continually receiving,remains in part in
them, makes them grow in length and thicknefs, and
ftrengthens and brings them clofer together 5 and by
this means the texture which was before reticular be¬
comes an afiemblage of ftraight fibres ranged vertically
Sind parallel to .each other j that is, as they are thus al¬
tered behind one another, they by degrees become a Liber
new fubftance, more woody, called blea. . II. ’
LIBERA, in Mythology^ the name of a goddefs, bib^rtmes,
which Cicero, in his book Of the Gods, reprefents as * ™
the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. Ovid in his Fafti
fays that the name was given by Bacchus to Ariadne.
Libera is exhibited on medals as a kind of female
Bacchus, crowned with vine leaves.
LIBERAL arts, are fuch as depend more on the
labour of the mind than on that of the hands j or, that
confift more in fpeculation than operation j and have
a greater regard to amufement and euriofity than to ne-
ceffity.
The word comes from the Latin liberalis, which a-
mong the Romans fignified a perfon who was not a
Dave j and whofe will, of confequence, was not check¬
ed by the command of any mafter.
Such are grammar, rhetoric, painting, fculpture,
architefture, mufic, &c. The liberal arts ufed former¬
ly to be fummed up in the following Latin verfe :
Lingua^ Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, /Ijlra.
And the mechanical arts, which, however, are innu¬
merable, under this:
Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates.
See Arts.
LIBERALIA, feafts celebrated by the ancient Ro¬
mans, in honour of Liber or Bacchus, the fame withthofe
which the Greeks called Dionysia, and Dionysiaca.
They took their name from liber, i. e.free, a title
conferred on Bacchus in memory of the liberty or free¬
dom which he granted to the people of Boeotia $ or,
perhaps, becaufe wine, whereof he was the reputed
deity, delivers men from care, and fets their mind at
eafe and freedom. Varro derives the name of this feait
from liber, confidered as a noun'adjeftive, and fignifying
free i becaufe the priefts were free from their function,
and eafed of all carp, during the time of the liberalia :
as the old women officiated in the ceremonies and facri-
fices of thefe feafts.
LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival obferved
on the 16th of the kalends of April, at which time the
youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga virilis,
or habit peculiar to grown men. See the article Toga.
LIBERTINES, Libfrtixi, in ecelefiaftical hifto-
ry, a religious fedl, which arofe in the year 1525,
whofe principal tenets were, that the Deity was the foie
operating cafe in the mind of man, and the immedi¬
ate author of all human a&ionsj that, confcquently, the
diftinftions of good and evil, which had been eftablifhed
with regard to thofe a&ions, were falfe and groundlefs,
and that men could not, properly fpeaking, commit
fin ; that religion confifted in the union of the fpirit or
rational foul with the Supreme Being j that all thofe
who had attained this happy union, by fublime con¬
templation and elevation of mind, were then allowed
to indulge, without exception or reftraint, their appe¬
tites or paffions ; that all their actions and purfuits
■were then perfe&ly innocent 5 and that, after the death
of the body, they were to be united to the Deity.
They likewife faid that Jefus Chrift was nothing but
a mere je ne fpai quoi, compofed of the fpirit of God,
and of the opinion of men.
Thefe maxims occafioned their being called Liber*
tines i
LIB
libertines tines ;
I! fince.
Lmerty.
and the word has been ufed in an ill fenfe ever
[ 791 ]
L I B
^ The Libertini fpread principally in Holland and Bra¬
bant. Their leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, Poc-
keftus, Ruffus, and another called Chopin, who joined
with Quintin, and became his difciple.
This fe£l: obtained a certain footing in France
through the favour and prote&ion of Margaret, queen
of Navarre, and lifter to Francis I. and found patrons
in feveral of the reformed churches. This fedl was
probably a remnant of the more ancient Beguards or
Brethren of the Free Spirit.
LIBERTINES of Geneva, were a cabal of rakes rather
than of fanatics j for they made no pretences to any
religious fyftem, but pleaded only for the liberty of
leading voluptuous and immoral lives. This cabal was
compofed of a certain number of licentious citizens,
who could not bear the fevere difcipline of Calvin, who
puniftied with rigour not only diiTolute manners, but
alfo whatever bore the afpeft of irreligion and impiety.
In this turbulent cabal there were feveral perfons who
were not only notorious for their diffolute and fcanda-
lous manner of living, but alfo for their atheiftical im¬
piety, and contempt of all religion. To this odious
clafs belonged one Gruet, who denied the divinity of
the Chriftian religion, the immortality of the foul, and
difference between moral good and evil, and reje&ed
with difdain the doftrines that are held moft facred
among Chriftians j for wdiich impieties he was at laft
brought before the civil tribunal, in the year 15 ?o, and
condemned to death. The Genevan fpirit of reforma¬
tion, improperly diredled by the violence and zeal of
Calvin, did at this time operate to a degree which has
marked the chara&er of this great reformer with re¬
proach. For in 1544, Sebaftian Caftalio, mafter of
the public fchool at Geneva, who was a man of probity,
and diftinguifhed by his learning and tafte, was, never-
thelefs, depofed from his office and banifhed the city,
becaufe he difapproved fome of the meafures that were
purfued and fome of the opinions entertained by Calvin
and his colleagues, and particularly that of abfolute
and unconditional predeftination. Jerome Bolfec alfo,
a man of genius and learning, who became a convert
to the Proteftant religion and fled to Geneva for pro-
teftion, w'as caft into prifon, and fopn after fent into
banifhment, becaufe, in 1551, he imprudently and in¬
decently declaimed, in full congregation and at the
clofe of public worfhip, againfl the doftrine of abfolute
decrees.
LIBERTUS, or Libertinus, among the Romans,
a freedman, or a perfon fet free from a legal fervi-
tude.
Thefe {fill retained fome mark of their ancient ftate :
lie who made a Have free having a right of patronage
over the libertus: fo that if the latter failed of fhowing
due refpedl to his patron, he was reftored to his fervi-
tude ; and if the libertus died without children, his pa¬
tron was his heir. See Slave.
In the beginning of the republic, libertinus denoted
the fon of a libertus or freedman ; but afterwards, be¬
fore the time of Cicero, and under the emperors, the
terms lihertus and libertinus, as Suetonius has remarked,
were ufed as fynonymous.
LIBERTY, denotes a ftate of freedom, in contra-
diftinftion toJiavery ox rejlraint; and may be confider- Liberty,
ed as either natural or civil. v—y—«-,
The abfolute rights of man, confidered as a free
agent, endowed with difcernment to know good from
evil, and with power of choofing thofe meafures which
appear to him to be moft defirable, are ufually fum-
med up in one general appellation, and denominated
the natural liberty of mankind. This natural liberty
confifts properly in a power of acting as one thinks
fit, without any reftraint or controul, unlefs by the
law of nature j being a right inherent in us by birth,
and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation,
when he endued him with the faculty of free-will.
But every man, when he enters into fociety, gives up
a part of his natural liberty, as the price of fo va¬
luable a purchafe; and, in confideration of receiving
the advantages of mutual commerce, obliges himfelf
to conform to thofe laws which the community has
thought proper to eftablifti. And this fpecies of le¬
gal obedience and conformity is infinitely more defire-
able than that wild and favage liberty which is facri-
ficed to obtain it. For no man, that confiders a mo¬
ment, Would wifti to retain the abfolute and uncon-
trouled powder of'doing whatever he pleafes : the confe-
quence of which is, that every other man would alfo
have the fame power ; and then there would be no
fecurity to individuals in any of the enjoyments of
life.
Political, therefore, or civil liberty, which is that
of a member of fociety, is no other than natural li¬
berty, fo far reftrained by human law's (and no farther)
as is neceffary and expedient for the genera] advantage
of the public. Hence w'e may colleft, that the law,
which reftrains a man from doing mifchief to his fel¬
low-citizens, though it diminilhes the natural, in-
creafes the civil liberty of mankind : but every wan¬
ton and caufelefs reftraint of the will of the fubjedt,
whether praftifed by a monarch, a nobility, or a po¬
pular affembly, is a degree of tyranny. Nay, that
even laws themfelves, whether made with or without
our confent, if they regulate and conftrain our condudT
in matters of mere indifference, without any good end
in view, are.laws deftrudtive of liberty : whereas, if
any public advantage can arife from obferving fuch
precepts, the controul of our private inclinations, in
one or two particular points, will conduce to preferve
our general freedom in others of more importance, ,
by fupporting that ftate of fociety which alone can
fecure our independence. Thus the ftatute of King
Edward IV. which forbade the fine gentlemen of thofe
times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upon
their fhoes or boots of more than two inches in length,
was a law that favoured of oppreffion; becaufe, how¬
ever ridiculous the fa(hion then in ufe might appear, the
reftraining it by pecuniary penalties could ferve. no pur-
pofe of common utility. But the ftatute of King
Charles II. which prefcribes a thing feemingly as indif¬
ferent, viz. a drefs for the dead, who were all ordered
to be buried in woollen, is a law confiftent with public
liberty ; for it encourages the ftaple trade, on which in
great meafure depends the univerfal good of the nation,,
So that laws, when prudently framed, are by no means
fubverfive, but rather introdu&ive, of liberty 5 for (as
Mr Locke has well obferved) where there is no law
there
L I B
I 792 1
L I B
liberty, there is no freedom. But then, on the other hand, that
“—v conftitution or frame of government, that fyftem of laws,
is alone calculated to maintain civil liberty, which
leaves the fubjedl entire nlafter of his own condudl, ex¬
cept in thofe points wherein the public good requires
feme direction or reftraint.
The idea and pra&iee of this political or civil li¬
berty, flourilh in their higheft vigour in thefe king¬
doms, where it falls little fhort of perfection, and can
only be loft or deftroyed by the folly or demerits of
its owner; the legiflature, and of courfe the laws of
Britain, being peculiarly adapted to the prefervation
of this ineilknable bleffmg even in the meaneft fubjeCr.
X^ery different from the modern conffitutions of other
flates.on the continent of Europe, and from the genius
of the imperial lav j which in general are calculated
to veil an arbitrary and defpotic power,-of controuling
the aCtions of the fubjeCt, in the prince, or in a few
grandees. And this fpirit of liberty is fo deeply im¬
planted in our conftitution, and rooted even in our very
foil, that a Have or a negroe, the. moment he lands in
Britain, falls under the protection of the laws, and fo
far becomes a freeman •, though his mafter’s right to
his fervice may poftibly ftill continue.
The abfolute rights of every Briton (which, taken
in a political and extenfive fenfe, are ufually called
their liberties')^ as they are founded on nature and rea-
fon, fo they are coeval with our form of government $
though fubjeCt at times to fluctuate and change, their
eftablifhment (excellent as it is) being ftill human.
At fome times we have feen them deprefled by over¬
bearing and tyrannical princes ; at others, fo luxuriant
as even to tend to anarchy, a worfe ftate than tyranny
itfelf, as any government is better than none at all.
But the vigour of our free conftitution has always de¬
livered the nation from thefe embarraffments : and, as
foon as the convulfions confequent on the ftruggle have
been over, the balance of our rights and liberties has
fettled ,to its proper level j and their fundamental ar¬
ticles have been from time to time afferted in parlia¬
ment, as often as they were thought to be in dan-
ger
Firft, By the great charter of liberties, which was
obtained, fword in hand, from King John, and after¬
wards, with fome alterations, confirmed in parliament
by King Henry III. his fon. Which charter contain¬
ed very few new grants 5 but, as Sir Edward Coke ob-
ferves, was for the moft part declaratory of the prin¬
cipal. grounds of the fundamental laws of England.
Afterwards, by the flatute called conjirmatio cartarum,
whereby the great charter is direCted to be allowed as
the common law 5 all judgments contrary to it are de¬
clared void ; copies of it are ordered to be fent to all
cathedral churches, and read twice a-year to the peo¬
ple •, and fentence of excommunication is dire£led to
be as conftantly denounced againft all thofe that by
word, deed, or counfel, aft contrary thereto, or in any
degree infringe it. Next, By a multitude of fubfequent
corroborating flatutes (Sir Edward Coke reckons 32),
from the firft Edward to Henry IV. Then, after a
long interval, by the petition of right; viWek. was a par¬
liamentary declaration of the liberties of the people,
affented to by King Charles I in the beginning of his
reign. Which was clofely followed by the ffiil more
gpiple conceflions made by that unhappy prince to his
- - 2
Blackjl.
Comment.
parliament, before the fatal rupture between them •, Liberty,
and by the many falutary laws, particularly the habeas ~ v""-"
corpus aft, paffed under Charles II. To thefe fucceed-
ed the bill of rights, or declaration delivered by the
lords and commons to the prince and princefs of O-
range, 13th February 1688 j and afterwards enacted
in parliament, when they became king anci queen;
which declaration concludes in thefe remarkable words j
“ and they do claim, demand, and infill upon, all and
Angular the premifes, as their undoubted rights and li¬
berties.” And the aft of parliament itfelf recognifes
“ all and Angular the rights and liberties afferted and
claimed in the faid declaration to be the true, ancient,
and indubitable rights of the people of this kingdom.”
Laflly, Thefe liberties were again afferted at the com¬
mencement of the laft century, in the aci of fettle-
menty whereby the crown was limited to his prefent
majefty’s iiluflrious houfe : and fome new provifions
were added, at the fame fortunate era, for better fecur-
ing our religion, laws, and liberties \ which the fta-
tute declares to be “ the birthright of the people of
England,” according to the ancient doftrine of the
common law.
Thus much for the declaration of our rights and li¬
berties. The rights themfelves, thus defined by thefe
feveral ftatutes, confift in a number of private immu¬
nities ; which will appear, from what has been pre-
mifed, to be indeed no other, than either that >£/£-
duum of natural liberty, which is not required by the
laws of fociety to be facrificed to public convenience;
or elfe thofe civil privileges, which fociety hath enga¬
ged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties fo given
up by individuals. Thefe therefore were formerly, ei¬
ther by inheritance or purchafe, the rights of all man¬
kind j but, in mofl: other countries of the world, being
now more or lefs debafed and deftroyed, they at prefent
may be faid to remain, in a -peculiar and emphatical
manner, the rights of the people of Britain. And
thefe may be reduced to three principal or primary ar¬
ticles \ the right of perfonal fecurity, the right of per-
fonal liberty, and the right of private property : be-
caufe, as there is no other known method of compul-
fion, or of abridging man’s natural free-will, but by
an infringement or diminution of one or other of thefe
important rights, the prefervation of thefe inviolate may
juftly be faid to include the prefervation of our civil
immunities in their largeft and moft extenfive fenfe*
See the article Rights.
In vain, however, would thefe rights be declared,
afcertained, and protefted by the dead letter of the
laws, if the conftitution had provided no other method
to fecure their aftual enjoyment. It has therefore ef-
tabliftied certain other auxiliary fubordinate rights of
the fubjeft, which ferve principally as barriers to pro-
teft and maintain inviolate the three great and primary
rights, of perfonal fecurity, perlonal liberty, and pri¬
vate property. Thefe are,
1. The conftitution, powers, and privileges of par¬
liament y for which fee Parliament.
2. The limitation of the king’s prerogative, by
bounds fo certain and notorious, that it is impoftible
he ftiould exceed them without the confent of the peo¬
ple ; as to which, fee Prerogative. The former of
thefe keeps the legiflative power in due health and vi¬
gour, fo as to make it improbable that laws ihould
be
LIB
liberty, be enabled deflruftive of general liberty: the latter is
a guard upon the executive power, by reftraining it
from a&ing either beyond or in contradi&ion to the
laws that are framed and eftablillied by the other.
3. A third fubordinate right of every Briton is that
of applying to the courts of juflice for redrefs of in¬
juries. Since the law is, in this realm, the fupreme
arbiter of every man’s life, liberty, and property,
courts of jullice muft at all times be open to the fub-
jeft, and the law be duly adminiftered therein. The
emphatical words of magna charta, fpoken in the per-
fon of the king, who in judgment of law (fays Sir Ed¬
ward Coke) is ever prefent and repeating them in all
his courts, are thefe : Nulli vertdemus, nulli negabimus,
aut differemus re&um vel jujlitiam; “ and therefore
every fubjeft (continues the fame learned author), for
injury done to him in bonis, in terris, velperfona, by
any other fubjeft, be he ecclefiaftical. or temporal, with¬
out any exception, may take his remedy by the eourfe
of the law, and have juftice and right for the injury
done to him, freely v/ithout fale, fully without any de¬
nial, and fpeedily without delay.” It were endlefs to
enumerate all the affirmative a6ts of parliament, where¬
in juflice is directed to be done according to the law of
the land : and what the law is, every fubjedt knows,
or may know if he pleafes : for it depends not upon the
arbitrary will of any judge ; but is permanent, fixed,
and unchangeable, unlefs by authority of parliament.
We {hall however juft mention a few negative ftatutes,
whereby abufes, preverfions, or delays of juftice, efpe-
cially by the prerogative, are reftrained. It is ordain¬
ed by magna charta, that no freeman ftiall be outlawed,
that is, put out of the protection and benefit of the
laws, but according to the law of the land. By
1 Edw. III. c. 8. and 11 Ric. II. c. 10. it is enaCted,
that no commands or letters (hall be fent under the
great feal, or the little feal, the fignet or privy feal,
in difturbance of the law ; or to difturb or delay
common right: and, though fuch commandments
fhould come, the judges ftiall not ceafe to do right:
which is alfo made a part of their oath by ftatute
18 Edw. III. flat. 4. And by 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 2.
it is declared, that the pretended power ®f fufpending
«r difpenfing with laws, or the execution of laws, by
regal authority without confent of parliament, is il¬
legal.
Not only the fubftantial part, or judicial decifions,
of the law, but alfo the formal part, or method of
proceeding, cannot be altered but by parliament : for,
if once thofe outworks were demolifhed, there would
be an inlet to all manner of innovation in the body of
the law itfelf. The king, it is true, may ereCt new
courts of juftice: but then they muft proceed accord¬
ing to the old eftablifhed forms of the common law.
For which reafon it is declared in the ftatute 16 Car. I.
c. 10. upon the diflblution of the court of ftar-cham-
ber, that neither his majefty, nor his privy-council,
have any jurifdidtion, power, or authority, by Englifh
bill, petition, articles, libel, (which were the courfe of
proceeding in the ftar chamber, borrowed from the ci¬
vil law), or by any otlnr arbitrary way whatfoever, to
examine, or draw into queftion, determine, or difpofe
of the lands or goods of any fubje&s of this king¬
dom j but that the fame ought to be tried and deter-
Vol. XI. Part II.
L I B
mined in the ordinary courts of juftice, and by courfe of Liberf j\
law. ——y—
4. If there fhould happen any uncommon injury, or
infringement of the rights before mentioned, which
the ordinary courfe of law is too defective to reach,
there ftill remains a fourth fubordinate right, apper¬
taining to every individual, namely, the right of peti¬
tioning the king, or either houfe of parliament, for
the redrefs of grievances. In Ruffia we are told that
the czar Peter eftablifhed a law, that no fubjeft might
petition the throne till he had firft petitioned two
different minifters of ftate. In cafe he obtained juftice
from neither, he might then prefent a third petition
to the prince j but upon pain of death, if found to be
in the Wrong. The confequence of which was, that
no one dared to offer fuch third petition ; and griev¬
ances feldom falling under the notice of the fovereign,
he had little opportunity to redrefs them. The re-
ftridtions, for fome there are, which are laid upon pe¬
titioning in Britain, are of a nature extremely different;
and while they promote the fpirit of peace, they are
no check upon that of liberty. Care only muft be
taken, left, under the pretence of petitioning, the fub-
jedl be guilty of any riot or tumult; as happened in
the opening of the memorable parliament in 1640 ;
and, to prevent this, it is provided by the ftatute
13 Car. II. ft. t. c. 5. that no petition to the king, or
either houfe of parliament, for any alteration in church
or ftate, fhall be figned by above 20 perfons, unlefs
the matter thereof be approved by three juftices of the
peace, or the major part of the grand jury, in the
country ; and in London, by the lord mayor, aider-
men, and common-council: nor fhall any petition be
prefented by more than 10 perfons at a time. But,
under thefe regulations, it is declared by the ftatute
I W. and M. ft. 2. c. 2. that the fubjeift hath a right
to petition ; and that all commitments and profecutions
for fuch petitioning are illegal.
5. The fifth and laft auxiliary right of the fubjecff,
that we fhall at prefent mention, is that of having arms
for their defence, fuitable to their condition and de¬
gree, and fuch as are allowed by law. Which is alfo
declared by the fame ftatute 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 2.
and is indeed a public allowance, under due reftric-
tions, of the natural right of rtfiftance and felf-pre-
fervation, when the fan&ions of fociety and laws
are found infufficient to reftrain the violence of op-
preffion.
In thefe feveral articles confift the rights, or, as
they are frequently termed, the liberties of Britons: li¬
berties more generally talked of than thoroughly un-
derftood ; and yet highly neceflary to be perfedtly
known and confidered by every man of rank or pro¬
perty, left his ignorance of the points whereon they
are founded fhould hurry him into faflion and licen-
tioufnefs on the one hand, or a pufillanimous indifler-
ence and criminal fubmiftion on the other. And we
have feen that thefe rights confift, primarily, in the
free enjoyment of perfenal fecurity, of perfonal liber¬
ty, and of private property. So long as thefe remain
inviolate, the fubjeft is perfedfly free ; for every fpe-
cies of compulfive tyranny and oppreftion muft a6l in
oppofition to one or other of thefe rights, having no
other obje£t upon which it can poflibly be employed.
. J H Tq
t 793 1
LIB [ 794 ] LIB
Liberty. To preferve thefe from violation, it is necelTary that
    the conllitution of parliaments be fupported in its full
vigour and limits, certainly known, be fet to the royal
prerogative. And, laftly, To vindicate thefe rights,
whem aftually violated or attacked, the fubjefts of Bri¬
tain are entitled, in the firft place, to the regular ad-
miniltration and free courfe of juftice in the courts of
law ; next, to the right of petitioning the king and
parliament for redrefs of grievances 5 and, laftly, to the
right of having and tiling arms for felf-prefervation
and defence. And all thefe rights and liberties it is
our birthright to enjoy entire 5 unlefs where the laws
of our country have laid them under neceffary reftraints.
Reftraints in themfelves fo gentle and moderate, as
will appear upon farther inquiry, that no man of fenfe
or probity would wilh to fee them llackened. For all
of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a
good man, would defire to do j and are reftrained from
nothing, but what would be pernicious either to our-
felvts or our fellow-citizens. So that this review of
our fituation may fully juftify the obfervations of a
learned French author, who indeed generally both
thought and wrote in the fpirit of genuine freedom j
and who hath not fcrupled to profefs, even in the
very bofom of his native country, that the Britilh is
the only nation in the world where political or civil
liberty is the diredl end of its conftitution. Recom¬
mending, therefore, to the ftudent in our laws a far¬
ther and more accurate fearch into this extenfive and
» important title, we (hall clofe our remarks upon it with
the expiring wifti of the famous Father Paul to his
country, “ Esto perpetua !”
LlBERTT and NeceJJity. See METAPHYSICS.
LlBERTV of the Frefs. The art of printing, foon
after its introduftion, was looked upen in England,
as well as in other countries, as merely a matter of
ftate, and fubje£l to the coercion of the crown. It was
therefore regulated with us by the king’s proclama¬
tions, prohibitions, charters of privilege and licenfe,
and finally by the decrees of the court of ftar-chamber,
which limited the number of printers, and of prefles
which each fhould employ, and prohibited new publi¬
cations unlefs previoufiy approved by proper licenfers.
On the demolition of this odious jurildiSion in 1641,
the long parliament of Charles I. after their rupture
with that prince, alfumed the fame powers as the ftar-
ehamber had exercifed with refpedl to the licenfing of
books : and in 1643, 1647, I^49> an(^ *652 (Sco-
bell. i. 44, 134. ii. S8, 230.) iffued their ordinances
for that purpofe, founded principally on the ftar-cham¬
ber decree of 1637. In 1662 was palled the ftatute 13
and 14 Car. II. c. 33. which, with fome few altera¬
tions, was copied from the parliamentary ordinances.
This a£! expired in 1679 i but was revived by ftatute
1 jac. II. c. 17. and continued till 1692. It was then
continued for two years longer by ftatute 4 W. and M.
c. 24. but though frequent attempts were made by the
government to revive it in the fubfequent part of that
reign, (Com. Journ. 11 Feb. 1694, 26 Nov. 1695,
22 Ocl. 1696, 9 Feb. 1697, 31 Jan. 1698), yet the
parliament refilled it fo ftrongly, that it finally expired,
and the prefs became properly free in 1694, and has
continued fo ever finee.
The liberty of the prefs, however, fo effential to
x
the nature of a free flate, confifts not in freedom from Liberty
cenfure for any criminal matter that may be publilhed, II
but in laying no previous reftraints upon publications. Llbethllus-
Every freeman has undoubtedly a right to lay what v
fentiments he pleafes before the public j to forbid this,
is to deftroy the freedom of the prefs : but if he pub-*
lilhes what is improper, mifehievous, or illegal, he mull
take the confequence of his own temerity*. To fub-*See
jeft the prefs to the reftriftive power of a licenfer in
the manner above mentioned, is to fubjeft all freedom
of fentiment to the prejudices of one man, and make
him the arbitrary and infallible judge of all controverted
points in learning, religion, and government. But to
punilh (as the law does at prefent) any dangerous or
offenlive writings which, when publilhed, fhall, on a
fair and impartial trial, be adjudged of a pernicious
tendency, is necefl'ary for the prefervation of peace and
good order, of government and religion, the only folid
foundations of civil liberty. Thus the will of indivi¬
duals is ftill left free j the abufe only of that free will
is the object of legal punifliment. Neither is any re-
ftraint hereby laid upon freedom of thought or inquiry j
liberty of private fentiment is ftill left 3 the dilfeminat-
ing or making public of bad fentiments, deftru6Hve
of the ends of fociety, is the crime which fociety cor-
refts. A man (fays a fine writer on this fubjeft) may
be allowed to keep poifons in his clofet, but not pub¬
licly to vend them as cordials. And to this we may
add, that the only plaufible argument heretofore ufed
for reftraining the juft ’ freedom of the prefs, “ that it
was neceffary to prevent the daily abufe of it,” will
entirely lofe its force, when it is ftiown (by a feafonable
exertion of the laws) that the prefs cannot be abufed to
any bad purpofe without incurring a fuitable puniih-
ment : whereas it can never be ufed to any good one
when under the controul of an infpeftor. So true
will it be found, that to cenfure the licentioufnefs, is to
maintain the liberty of the prefs.
Liberty, in Mythology, was a goddefs both among
the Greeks and Romans. Among the former fhe was
invoked under the title Eleutheria ; and by the latter
(he was called Libertas, and held in lingular venera¬
tion. Temples, altars, and ftatues, were erefted in ho¬
nour of this deity. A very magnificent temple was
confecrated to her on Mount Aventine, by Tiberius
Gracchus, before which was a fpacious court, called
atrium libertatis. The Romans alfo ere&ed a new
temple in honour of Liberty, when Julius Caefar efta-
bliftied his empire over them, as if their liberty had
been fecured by an event which proved fatal to it. In
a medal of Brutus, Liberty is exhibited under the figure
of a woman, holding in one hand a cap, the fymbol of
liberty, and two poniards in the other, with the in-
feription idibvs martiis.
LIBETHRA, in Ancient Geography, the fountain
of fong, was fituated in Magnefia, a diftrift of Mace¬
donia, annexed to Theffaly ; diftin£t from the town of
Libethra, which flood on Mount Olympus, where it
verges towards Macedonia : hence the mufes are called
Libethrides, (Virgil). Strabo places on Helicon, not
only Hippocrene, and the temple of the Mufes, but alfo
the cave of the nymphs Libethrides.
LIBETHRIUS MONS, in Ancient Geography, a
mountain of Breotia, diftant from Coronea 40 ftadia 3
wber'S
t
L IB C 795 1 LIB
where flood the ftatues of the Mufts, and of tiie
nymphs furnamed Libethrides ; a mountain probably
conjoined with, or at leafl very near to, Helicon.
LIBITINA, in the Roman mythology, a goddefs
which prehded over funerals. This goddefs was the
fame with the Venus inf era or Epithymbia of the Greeks.
She had a temple at Rome, where was lodged a cer¬
tain piece of money for every perfon who died, whofe
name was recorded in a regifler called Libitince ratio.
This praflice was eftablifhed by Servius Tullius, in
order to obtain an account of the number of annual
deaths in the city of Rome, and confequently the rate
of increafe or decreafe of its inhabitants.
LIBITINARII, wmre undertakers whofe office it
was to take care of funerals, prepare aljl things necef-
ary upon this folemn occafion, and furnifh every ar¬
ticle required.—They got their livelihood by this
gloomy bufinefs, and kept a number of fervants to
perform the working part of the profeffion, fuch as
pollinBores^ vefpillones, &c. The name Libitinarii is
derived from Libitina„ the goddefs of funerals, in whofe
temple were fold all things relating to funerals. See
Funeral.
LIBNA, in Ancient Geography, a facerdotal city in
the tribe of Judah, a place of ftrength, as appears from
Sennacherib’s laying fiege to it, 2 Kings xix. Ifaiah
xxxvii. In Jerome’s time, a village, called Lobna, in
the territory of Eleutheropolis.
XJBOURNE, a town of France, in Guienne, and
in Bourdelois. It is a populous trading town, and is
feated on the river Dordogne. W. Long. o. io. N. Lat,
44- 45-
LIBRA, or Balance, one of the mechanical powers.
See Balance.
Libra, in AJlronomy, one of the 12 figns of the
zodiac, and exactly oppofite to Aries j fo called be-
caufe when the fun is in this fign at the autumnal
equinox, the days and nights are equal as if weighed
in a balance.—The liars in this conilellation according
to Ptolemy are 17, Tycho 10, Hevelius 20, and Flam-
Head 51.
Libra, alfo denotes the ancient Roman pound, bor¬
rowed from the Sicilians, who called it htra.
The libra was divided into 12 uncice or ounces, and
the ounce into 24 fcruples.
The divifions of the libra were, the uncia, one twelfth}
the fexians, one fixth ; the quadrans, one fourth ; the
triens, one third *, the quincunx, five ounces ; thefemis,
fix ; the feptunx, feven } the bes, eight •, the dodrans,
nine ; the dextrans, ten , the deunx, eleven j lalily, the
as weighed twelve ounces or one libra.
The Roman libra was ufed in France for the pro¬
portions of their coin till the time of Charlemagne,
or perhaps till that of Philip I. in 1093, their fols being
fo proportioned, as that 20 of them were equal to the
libra. By degrees it became a term of account : and
every thing of the value of twenty fols was called a
livre.
Libra penfa, in our law books, denotes a pound of
money in weight. It was ufual in former days not
only to tell the money but to weigh it : becaufe many
cities, lords, and bilhops, having their mints, coined
money, and often very bad too j for which reafon,
though the pound conlifted of 20 {hillings, they always
weighed it.
LIBRAR.1I, among the ancients, were a fort cf Libr
copyids who tranfcribed in beautiful or at lead legible , ^lbl
characters, what had been written by the notarii in ^
notes and abbreviatures.
LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deflined for
holding a canfiderable number of books placed regular¬
ly on {helves j or the books themfelves lodged in it.
Some authors refer the origin of libraries to the
Hebrews j and obferve, that the care thefe took for
the prefervation of their facred books, and the me¬
mory of what contained the aClions of their anceftors,
became an example to other nations, particularly to
the Egyptians. Olmanduas, king of Egypt, is faid
to have taken the hint firll 5 who, according to Dio¬
dorus, had a library built in his palace, with this in-
fcription over the door ^TXHE IATFEION. Nor were
the Ptolemies, who reigned in the fame country, lefs
curious and magnificent in books.
The Scripture alfo fpeaks of a library of the kings
of Perfia, Ezra v. 17. vi. 1. which feme imagine to
have confided of the hidorians of that nation, and of
memoirs of the affairs of date j but, in effeft, it ap¬
pears rather to have been a depofitory of laws, char¬
ters, and ordinances of the kings. The Hebrew text
calls it the houfe of treafures, and afterwards the houfe
of the rolls, where the treafures were laid up. We
may, with more judice, call that a library, mentioned
in the fecond of Efdras to have been built by Nehemiah,
and in which were preferved the books of the prophets,
and of David, and the letters of their kings.
The fird who erefted a library at Athens was the
tyrant Pifidratus ; and yet Strabo refers the honour
of it to Aridotle. That of Pifidratus was tranfport-
ed by Xerxes into Perfia, and was afterwards brought
back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. Long after,
it was plundered by Sylla, and re-edablidied by Ha¬
drian. Plutarch fays, that under Eumenes there was
a library at Pergamus, containing 200,000 books. Ty-
rannian, a celebrated grammarian, contemporary with
Pompey, had a library of 30,000 volumes. That of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to A. Gellius, contain¬
ed 700,000, all in rolls, burnt by Csefar’s foldiers.
Condantine, and his fuccelfors, erefted a magnificent
one at Condantinople j which in the eighth century con¬
tained 300,000 volumes, all burnt by order of Leo
Ifaurus 5 and, among the red, one wherein the Iliad
and Odyffey were written in letters of gold, on the guts
of a ferpent.
The mod celebrated libraries of ancient Rome, were
the Ulpian, and the Palatine. They alfo boad much
of the libraries of Paulus iEmilius, who conquered Per-
feus ; of Lucilius Lucullus, of Afinius Pollio, Atticus,
Julius Severus, Domitius Serenus, Pamphilius Martyr,
and the emperors Gordian and Trajan.
Anciently, every large church had its library; as
appears by the writings of St Jerome, Anadafius, and
others. Pope Nicholas laid the fird foundation of
that of the Vatjcan, in 1450. It was dedroyed by
the condable Bourbon, in the facking of Rome, and
redored by Pope Sixtus V. and has been confiderably
enriched with the ruins of that of lieidelberg, plun¬
dered by Count Tilly in 1622. • One of the moil com¬
plete libraries in Europe, was faid to be that ere&ed at
Florence by Cofmo de Medicis, over the gate where¬
of is written LABOR absque labore j though it is now
3 H 2 exceeded
Library,
L 1 E [ 796 ]
exceeded by that qf the French king, begun by Fran- hers, and others
eis I. augmented by Cardinal Richelieu, and completed
by M. Colbert.
The emperor’s library at Vienna, according to Lam-
becius, conliils of 80,000 volumes, and 1 f,Q40 curious
medals.
The Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foun¬
dation of that of Duke Humphrey, exceeds that of
any univerfity in Europe, and even thofe of all the
sovereigns of Europe, except the emperor’s and French
king’s, which are each of them older by 100 years.
It was firft opened in 1602, and has fince found a
great number of benefaftors ; particularly Sir Robert
Cotton, Sir H. Savil, Archbiftiop Laud, Sir Kenelm
Digby, Mr Allen, Dr Pococke, Mr Selden, and others.
The Vatican, the Medicean, that of Beffarion at Ve¬
nice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed the Bodleian in
Greek manufcripts: which yet outdoes them all in Ori¬
ental manufcripts.
As to printed books, the Ambrofian at Milan, and
•hat of Wolfenbuttle, are two of the moft famous, and
yet both inferior to the Bodleian.
King's LIBRARY, at St James’s, was founded by
Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and made up partly of
books, and partly of manufcripts, with many other
curiofities, for the advancement of learning. It has
received many additions from the libraries of Ifaac
Cafaubon and others.
Cottonian LIBRARY, originally confifted of 958 vo¬
lumes of original charters, grants, inftruments, letters
of fovereign princes, tranfa&ions between this and other
kingdoms and ftates, genealogies, hiftories, regifters of
monafteries, remains of Saxon laws, the book of Gene-
lis, thought to be the moft ancient Greek copy extant,
and faid to have been written by Origen in the fecond
century, and the curious Alexandrian copy or manu-
fcript in Greek capitals. This library is kept in the
Britifh Mufeum, with the large and valuable library
of Sir Hans Sloane, amounting to upwards of 42,000
volumes, &c. There are many public libraries be¬
longing to the feveral colleges at Oxford and Cam¬
bridge, and the univerfities in North Britain. The
principal public libraries in London, befide that of the
Mufeum, are thofe of the College of Heralds, of the
College of Phyficians, of Doftors Commons, to which
every bilhop, at the time of his confecration, gives at
leaft 20I. fometimes 50I. for the purchafe of books 5
thofe of Gray’s Inn, Lincoln’s Inn, Inner Temple,
and Middle Temple ; that of Lambeth, founded by
Archbiftiop Bancroft in 1610, for the ufe of fucceeding
archbiftiops of Canterbury, and increafed by the bene-
fadlions of Archbiftiops Abbot, Sheldon, and Tennifon,
and faid to confift of at leaft 15,000 printed books, and
617 volumes in manufcript *, that of Red-Crofs ftreet,
founded by Dr Daniel Williams, a Prefbyteiian divine,
and fince enriched by many private benefa&ions ; that
of the Royal Society, called the Arundelian or Norfolk
iibrary, becaufe the principal part of the colleftion
formerly belonged to the family of Arundel, and was
given to the Society by Henry Howard, afterwards
duke of Norfolk, in 1666, which library has been in¬
creafed by the valuable colle&ion of Francis Afton,
Efq. in 17and is continually increafing by the
numerous be^efadions of the works of its learned mem-
LIB
that of St Paul’s, of Sion college ;
the Queen’s library, eretted by Queen Caroline in
1737 ; and the Surgeons library, kept in their hall in
the Old Bailey, &c.
In Edinburgh there is a good library belonging to
the univerfity, well furniftied with books j but it is de¬
ficient in a catalogue. There is alfo a noble library of
books and manufcripts belonging to the faculty of ad¬
vocates. See Advocate. The library belonging to
the fociety of writers to the fignet, although of lefs ex¬
tent, yet in the judicious feledtion of the beft books,
and the beft editions, which by the attention of the fo¬
ciety are now kept in excellent order, is inferior to
none in the kingdom.
L1BRATION, in AJlronomy, an apparent irregula¬
rity of the moon’s motion, whereby ftie feems to librate
about her axis, fometimes from the eaft to the weft, and
now and then from the weft to the eaft. See Astro¬
nomy Index.
LIBURNIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftridl of II-
lyricum, extending towards the Adriatic between Iftria
on the weft, Dalmatia on the eaft, and Mount Albius
on the north. Liburm, the people. The apparitors,
who at the command of the magiftrate fummoned the
people from the country, w'ere called Liburni, becaufe
generally men of Liburnia.—Liburna, or Liburnica,
(Horace^, denoted a kind of light and fwift Ikiff, ufed
by the Liburnians in their fea-roving or piracies, for
which they were noted. Liburnum (Juvenal), was a
fpecies of litter made in form of Liburnian Ikiffs,
wherein the noblemen of Rome were carried, and where
they fat at their eafe, either reading or writing.
LIBURNUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Campania. Alfo a port of Tufeany. Now Livorna,
or Leghorn. E. Long. 11. N. Lat. 43, 30.
LIBYA, in general, according to the Greeks, de¬
noted Africa. An appellation derived from lub,
“ thirft,” being a dry and thirfty country. See Africa.
Libya, in a more reftrained fenfe, was the middle
part of Africa, extending north and weft, (Pliny) j
betw een the Mediterranean to the north, and Ethiopia
to the eaft : and was twofold, the Hither or Exterior
Libya ; and the Earthier or Interior. The former lay
between the Mediterranean on the north, and the Ear¬
thier Libya and Ethiopia beyond Egypt on the fouth,
(Ptolemy). The Earthier or Interior Libya was a vaft
country, lying between the Hither Libya on the north,
the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the Ethiopic on the
foutb, and Ethiopia beyond Egypt on the eaft, (Pto¬
lemy).
Libya, in a ftill more reftrained fenfe, called, for
diftindftion’s fake, Libya Propria, was a northern di-
ftridt of Africa, and a part of the Hither Libya ; fitu-
ated between Egypt to the eaft, the Mediterranean to
the north, the Syrtis Major and the Regio Tripoli-
tana to the weft, the Garamantes and Ethiopia be¬
yond Egypt to the fouth. Now the kingdom and defert
of Barca. This Libya was again fubdivided into Libya
taken in the ftrifteft fenfe of all, and into Marmarica
and Cyrenaica. Libya in the ftricfeft fenfe, otherwife
the Exterior, was the moft eaftern part of Libya Pro¬
pria, next to Egypt, with Marmarica on the weft, the
Mediterranean ©n the north, and the Nubi, now called
Nubia, to the fouth, (Ptolemy).
3
LICENSE,
L I G
JLicenfe
Licmius.
LICENSE, in Law, an authority given to a perfon
to do fome lawful a£t.
t LICENSER OF Books, has been an officer in almoft
every civilized country, till the clofe of the laft century,
when it was abolifhed in Great Britain. It has been,
proved by Beckmann, that fuch an office was eftablifhed,
not only in the Roman empire, but alfoin the republic
and the Rates of Greece. All the copies of the works of
Protagoras which could be procured, were burnt at A-
thens by the public crier, and the fatirical works of La-
bienus (hared the fame fate under the reign of the empe¬
ror Auguftus. Not long after the invention of printing,
laws were ena£ted for fubje&ing books to examination;
a regulation which was propofed even by Plato, and
which many have lince wifhed for. It appears that the
liberty of the prefs is only a modern privilege, and that
it has not been enjoyed in its utmoft latitude in any
country but Great Britain.
Licenser of the Prefs. See LlBERTTof the Prefs.
LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree
of a licenfe.—The greateft number of the officers of
juftice in Spain are diftinguifhed by no other title than
that of licentiate. In order to pafs licentiate in common
law, civil law, and phyfic, they muft have ftudied feven
years, and in divinity ten. Among us a licentiate ufual-
ly means a phyfician who has a licenfe to pradfife, grant¬
ed by the college of phylicians.
LICETUS, a celebrated phyfician of Italy, was
born at Rappollo, in the (fate of Genoa, 1577. He
came, it feems, into the world, before his mother had
completed the feventh month of her pregnancy ; but
his father, being an ingenious phyfician, wrapped him
up in cotton, and nurtured him fo, that he lived to be
77 years of age. He was trained with great care, and
became a very diftinguilhed man in his profeffion ; and
was the author of a great number of works : his book
De Monfir is every body muft have heard of. He was
profeffor of philofopby and phyfic at Padua, where he
died in 1655.
LICHEN, Liverwort, a genusofplantsbelonging
to the natural order of algae, in the cryptogamia clafs.
See BoTANY /WeW.
LICHFIELD, See Litchfield.
LICHTENBERG, a caftle of France, in Lower
Alface, and the chief place of a county of the fame
name ; feated on a rock, near the mountains Vofges,
and looked upon as impregnable. E. Long. 7. 35.
N. Lat. 48. 55.
LICHTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and margravate of Cullembach.
E. Long. 12. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.
LICHTENFELS, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and bifiiopric of Bamberg, feated
on the river Mayne, in S. Long, ii.io. N. Lat. 50.
20.
LICHTENSTEIN, a town of Swifferland, in
Tockerberg, feated on the river Thour. E. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 47. 25.
LICHTSTALL, a handfome town of Swiflferland,
in the county of Bafil ; feated on the river Ergetz, in
E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 47. 40.
LICINIUS Stolo, a famous Roman tribune,
ftyled Stole on account of a law he made, while tribune,
that no Roman citizen ftiould poffefs more than 500
acres of land ; alleging, that when they occupied more,
1 797 3
L 1 D
they could not cultivate it with care, nor pull up the
ufelefs (hoots {Jlolanes') that grow from the roots of trees.
He is memorable alfo for enacting, that one of the con-
fuls (hould always be of a plebeian family. He lived
about 362 B. C.
LICNON, in the Dionyfian folemnities, the myftieal
van of Bacchus ; a thing fo efiential to all the (olemni-
ties of this god, that they could not be^duly celebrated
without it. See DlONYSlA.
LICNOPHORI, in the Dionyfian folemnities, thofe
who carried the licnon.
LICOL A, or Lago Dl Licola, a lake in the king¬
dom of Naples, formerly famous for plenty of excellent
fi(h ; but in the year 1538 an explofion of a volcano
changed one part of it into a mountain of allies, and
the other into a morals. It was anciently known by
the name of the Lucrine lake. v
LICONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
LICTORS, among the Romans, were officers efta¬
blifhed by Romulus, who always attended the chief ma~
giftrates when they appeared in public.-
The duty of their office confifted in the three fol¬
lowing particulars : 1. Submotio, or clearing the way for
the magiftrate they attended : this they did by word
of mouth ; or, if there was occafion, by ufing the rods
they always carried along with them. 2. Anwiadverjio^
or caufing the people to pay the ufual refpeft to the
magiftrate, as to alight, if on horfeback, or in a chariot;
to rife up, uncover, make way, and the like. 3. Prce~
itio, or walking before the magiftrates: this they did not
confufedly, or altogether, nor by two or three abre-aft,
but fingly, following one another in a ftraight line.
They alio preceded the triumphal car in public triumphs^
and it was alfo part of their office to arreft criminals,
and to be public executioners in beheading, &c. Their
enfigns were the fasces and securis.
As to the number of Inftors allowed each magiftrate,
a dictator had twenty-four, a mafter of the horle fix, a
conful twelve, a praetor fix ; and eachveftalvirgin, when
ftie appeared abroad, had one.
LIDD. See Lydd.
' LIDDEL, Dr Duncan, profeffor of mathematics
and of medicine in the univerfity of Helmftadt, was
born in the year 1561 at Aberdeen, where he received
the firft part of his education in languages and philo-
fophy. About the age of eighteen he repaired to the
univerfity of Francfort, where he fpent three years in a
diligent application to mathematics and philofophy.
From Francfort he proceeded to Wratiflaw, or Breflaw.
in Silefia, where he is faid to have made uncommon pro-
grefs in his favourite ftudy of mathematics, under the di¬
rection of a very eminent profeffor, Paulus Wittichius.
Having ftudied at Breflaw for the fpace of one year, he
returned to Francfort and remained there three years,
paying the moft intenfe application to the ftudy of phyfic.
A contagious diftemper having broken out at that place,
the ftudents were difperfed; and Liddel retired to the uni¬
verfity of Roftock. Here he renewed his ftudies, rather-
as a companion than as a pupil of the celebrated Bru-
caeus, who, though an excellent mathematician, did not
fcruple to confefs that he was inftruftedby Liddel in- the
more perfeft knowledge of the Copernican fyftem, and
ether aftronomical queftions. In 1590 he returned once
more to Francfort. But having there heard, of the in-
creafing.
Licinius
II
Lkldef.
^ 1 D [ 798 ] LIE
Liddel, creafing reputation of the Academia Julia, eftablifhed at
. Luhord. fjelmfladt by Henry duke of Brunfwick, Mr Liddel re¬
moved thither ; and foon after his arrival was appointed
to the firft or lower profeflbrfliip of mathematics. From
thence he was promoted to the fecond and more digni¬
fied mathematical chair, which he occupied for nine
years, with much credit to himfelf and to the Julian
Academy. In 1596 he obtained the decree of M. D.
was admitted a member of that faculty, and began pub¬
licly to teach phyiic. By his teaching and his writings
he was the chief fupport of the medical fchool at Helm-
ftadt ; was employed as firft phyfician at the court of
Brunfwick, and had much practice among the principal
inhabitants of that country. Having been feveral times
eledted dean of the faculties both of philofophy and phy-
fic, he had in the year 1604 the honour of being chofen
proteftor of the univerfity. But neither academical ho¬
nours, nor the profits of an extenfive pradlice abroad,
could make Dr Liddel forget his native country. In
the year iboo he took a final leave of the Academia Ju¬
lia ; and after travelling for fome time through Germany
and Italy, he at length fettled in Scotland. He died in
the year 1613, in the 52d year of his age. By his laft
will he beftowed certain lands purchafed by him near
Aberdeen upon the univerfity there, in all time com¬
ing, for the education and fupport of fix poor fcho-
lars. Among a variety of regulations and injundlions
for the management of this charity, he appoints the
magiftrates of Aberdeen his truftees, and folemnly de¬
nounces the curfe of God on any perfon who ihall abufe
or mifapply it. His works are, 1. Difputationes Medi¬
cinal es, Helmftadt, 1603, 4to. 2. Ars Medic a JuccinBe
etperfpicue explicala, Hamburghi, 1607, Bvo. This per¬
formance is dedicated to King James VI. and is divided
into five books, viz. IntroduEiio in totam Medicinam ;
De Phi/siologia ; De Pathologia ; De Signorum doBrina ;
De Therapeulica. 3. De Febribus Libri tres, Harn-
i'urghi, 1610, i2mo. 4. TrnBatus de dente aurco,
Hamburghi, 1628, i2mo. This laft performance Dr
Liddel publifiied in order to refute a ridiculous ftory
then current of a poor boy in Silefia, who, at feven
years of age, having loft fome of his teeth, brought
forth, to the aftoniftiment of his parents, a new tooth
of pure gold. Jacobus Horftius, dodlor and profeffor
of medicine in the Academia Julia, at the fame time
» ■'.vith our author, had publiflied a book, w hich he dedicated
to the emperor Rudolphus II. to prove that this won¬
derful tooth was a prodigy fent from heaven to en¬
tourage the Germans then at war with the Turks, and
foretelling, from this golden tooth, the future victories
of the Chriftians, with the final deftrublion of the
Turkilh empire and Mahometan faith, and a return
of the golden age in 1700, preparatory to the end of
the world. The impofture was foon after difcovered
to be a thin plate of gold, Ikilfully drawn over the na¬
tural tooth by an artift of that country, with a view to
excite the public admiration and charity. 5. Artiscon-
jervandi Sanitatem, hbri duo, Aberdonia, 1651, l2tno$
a pofthumous work.
LIDFORD, a village of Devonlhire in England, fi-
tuated on the river Lid, two or three miles eaft of Brent
Tor, was formerly a famous town, with a caftle. It
was much deftroyed by the Danes in 997. The vil¬
lage is now fmall, but the lands in the pariftr are rich
and fertile, the whole foreft of Dartmore being in the
verge of it. The river here being pent up at the bridge
with rocks, has made itfelf fo deep a fall, that the noife
of the water only is heard without being feen. v
LIDKOPING, a town of Weft Gothland in Swe¬
den, feated on the lake Wenar, in E. Long. 13. 40.
N. Lat. 58. 25.
LIDNEY, a town of Gloucefterfliire in England,
71 miles from London, is feated on the weft bank of
the river Severn. In the neighbourhood are the re¬
mains of a large Roman encampment, with foundations
of many ancient buildings, among which are the ruins
of a Roman hypocauft of an oval form ; and Roman
antiquities and coins are often found. Mr Bathurfthas
a fine feat here called Sydney-Park, in the midft of ex¬
tenfive woods.
LIE, in morals, denotes a criminal breach of veraci¬
ty.—Archdeacon Paley, in treating of this fubjeft, ob-
ferves, that there are falfehoods w hich are not lies ; that
is, which are not criminal : and there are lies which are
not literally and direftly falfe.
I. Cafes of the firft clafs are thofe, 1. Where no one
is deceived : as, for inftance in parables, fables, novels,
jefts, tales to create mirth, or ludicrous embellilhments
of a ftory, in which the declared defign of the fpeaker
is not to inform, but to divert j compliments in the
fubfcription of a letter ; a prifoner’s pleading not guil¬
ty ; an advocate aiTerting the juftice, or his belief of
the juftice, of his client’s caufe. In fuch inftance no
confidence is deftroyed, becaufe none was repofed j no
promife to fpeak the truth is violated, becaufe none
was given or underftood to be given. 2. Where the
perfon you fpeak to has no right to know the truth,
or more properly where little or no inconveniency re-
fults from the want of confidence in fuch cafes j as
where you tell a falfehood to a madman for his own
advantage j to a robber, to conceal your property j to
an affaflin, to defeat or to divert him from his purpofe.
It is upon this principle, that, by the laws of war, it
is allowed to deceive an enemy by feints, falfe colours,
fpies, falfe intelligence, and the like •, but, by no means,
in treaties, truces, fignals of capitulation, or furrender:
and the difference is, that the former fuppofe hoftilities
to continue, the latter are calculated to terminate or fuf-
pend them.
Many people indulge in ferious difcourfe a habit of
fiftion and exaggeration, in the accounts they give of
themfelves, of their acquaintance, or of the extraordi¬
nary things which they have feen or heard ; and fo
long as the fafls they relate are indifferent, and their
narratives though falfe are inoffenfive, it may feem a
fuperftitious regard to truth to cenfure them merely
for truth’s fake. Yet the praftice ought to be check¬
ed *, for, in the firft place, it is almoft impoflible to
pronounce beforehand, with certainty, concerning any
lie that it is inoffenfive *, or to fay what ill confe-
quences may refult from a lie apparently inoffenfive :
And, in the next place, the habit, when once formed,
is eafily extended to ferve the defigns of malice or in-
tereft ; like all habits, it fpreads indeed of itfelf. Pious
frauds, as they are improperly enough called, pretend¬
ed infpirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are
impofitions of a more ferious nature. It is polilble
that they may fometimes, though feldom, have been
fet up and encouraged with a defign to do good : but
the good they aim at requires that the belief of them
fhould
Lklford
II
Lie.
 V—'
LIE t 799 ] LIE
Lie fliould be perpetual, which is hardly podible ; and the
li ^ deteftion of the fraud is fure to difparage the credit of
' , all pretenfions of tlie fame nature. Chriftianity has
fuffered more injury from this caufe than from all other
caufes put together.
II. As there may be falfehoods which are not lies,
fo there may be lies without literal or dire£t falfehood.
An opening is always left for this fpecies of prevarica¬
tion, when the literal and grammatical fignitication of
a fentence is different from the popular and cuftomary
meaning. It is the wilful deceit that makes the lie j
and we wilfully deceive, when our expreflions are not
true, in the fenfe in which we believe the hearer ap¬
prehends them. Belides, it is abfurd to contend for
any fenfe of words, in oppofition to ufage j for all
fenfes of all words are founded upon ufage, and upon
nothing elfe. Or a man may aft a.lie j as by pointing
his finger in a wrong direftion, when a traveller in¬
quires of him his road •, or when a tradefman (huts up
his windows, to induce his creditors to believe that he
is abroad : for to all moral purpofes, and therefore as
to veracity, fpeech and aftion are the fame j fpeech
being only a mode of aftion.
LIECHTENAU, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Franconia and margravate of Anfpach, fubjeft
to Nuremberg. E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 48. 43.
LIEGE (Lrgius), in Law, properly fignifies a vaf-
fal, who holds a kind of fee, that binds him in a clofer
obligation to his lord than ether people.
The term feems to be derived from the Trench /ter,
to bind on account of a ceremony ufed in render¬
ing faith or homage : which was by locking the vaffal’s
thumb or his hand in that of the lord, to (how that
he was faff bound by his oath of fidelity. Cujas,
Vigenere, and Bignon, choofe rather to derive the
word from the fame fource with leudts or leodi, “ loy¬
al, faithful.” But Du Cange falls in with the opi¬
nion of thofe who derive it from liti, a kind of vaffals,
fo firmly attached to their lord, on account of lands or
fees held of him, that they were obliged to do him all
manner of fervice, as if they were his domeftics. He
adds, this was formerly called litgium fervitium, and the
perfon litge. In this fenfe, the word is ufed, Leg.
Edw. cap. 29. Judeeifub tutela regis ligea debent ejje;
that is, wholly under his proteftion.
By liege homage, the vaffal was obliged to ferve his
lord towards all, and againlt all, excepting his father.
In which fenfe, the word was ufed in oppofition to
Ample homage 5 which laft only obliged the vaffal to pay
the rights and accuftomed dues to his lord $ and not to
bear arms againft the emperpr, prince, or other fupe-
rior lord : fo that a liege man was a perfon wholly de¬
voted to his lord, and entirely under his command.
Omnibus, fa’c. Regmaldus, rex Infularum, falutem.
Sciatis quod deveni homo ligeus domini regis Anglice Jo~
hanms, contra omnes mortales, quamdiu vixero ; et inde
ei Jidelitatem et facramentum prejliti, b’c. MS. penes
W. Dugdale.
But it muft be obferved, there were formerly two
kinds of liege homage : the one, by which the vafial
was obliged to ferve his lord, againft all, without ex¬
ception even of his fovereign ; the other, by which he
W'as to ferve him againft all, except fuch other lords as
he had formerly owed liege homage to.
In our old ftatutes lieges, and liege people, are
terms peculiarly appropriated to the king’s fubjefts j as
being liges, ligi, or ligati, obliged to pay allegiance to
him 3 8 Henry VI. 14 Hen. VIII. &c. though private
perfons had their lieges too. Reina/dus, Dei gratia,
abbas Ramefice, prapojito et hominibus de Brancejlre, et
omnibus vicinis Francis et Anglis falutem, Sciatts me
dedijfe terram Fife, in depedene {Jiodie depedate') huic
Bofehno, et uxon ejus Alfnice—ea conditionc quod effeSli
Jini homines legis. Lib. Ramef.
LlEGE-PouJlie, in Scots Law, is oppofed to death¬
bed j and fignifies a perfon’s enjoying that ftate of
health in which only he can difpofe of his property at
pleafure.
THE END OF THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES OF VoL. XL
Part I,
Plate CCLXXVL CCLXXVII. to face
CCLXXVIII.
CCLXXIX—CCLXXXHI.
CCLXXXIV. CCLXXXV.
CCLXXXVI.
CCLXXXVIL
page 10
J12
240
Part II.
CCLXXXVIII, 4n
CCLXXXIX. 4B8
CCXC. CCXCL 744
CCXCII—CCXCV. 782
r ‘ , . v
V